METAL

UEBE1213-BUILDING MATERIALS
Definition:

Metals can be defined as being elements which readily form positive ions
and which are characterised by their opacity and high thermal and electrical
conductivities.
Pure Metals
A pure metal only consists of a single element. This
means that it only has one type of atom in it.

The common pure metals are:- aluminum, copper, iron,

lead, zinc, tin, silver and gold.
Metals and Alloys Summary of Common Properties

▪Shiny 'metallic' appearance

▪Solids at room temperature (except mercury)
▪High melting points
▪High densities
▪Large atomic radii
▪Low ionization energies
▪Low electro negativities
▪Usually, high deformation
▪Malleable
▪Ductile
▪Thermal conductors
Electrical conductors
 TERMS

Malleability - can be hammered and pressed into shape

Ductility - can be drawn into fine wire

Elasticity - regains its shape after being deformed

Hardness - resists being scratched or cut

Brittleness - extremely hard and therefore breaks easily

Conductivity - ability to conduct heat or electricity

Selection
Metals must be selected to provide the
required properties such as :
• To have high strength
• Toughness at low temperatures
• Corrosion resistance
• Heat resistance
• Ductility to suit intended method of forming
and joining
Other consideration
•Appearance
•Initial cost of products and cost of
in-use
Classification of metals
Ferrous metals
Non-ferrous metals
Ferrous metals
Ferrous metals
These are metals which contain iron. They may have small amounts of
other metals or other elements added, to give the required properties.

All ferrous metals are magnetic and give little resistance to corrosion
Non-ferrous metals
These are metals which do not contain any iron. They are not magnetic
and are usually more resistant to corrosion than ferrous metals.

Examples are aluminium, copper, lead. zinc and tin

An alloy is a metal composed of more than
one element. Engineering alloys include the
cast-irons and steels, aluminum alloys,
magnesium alloys, titanium alloys, nickel
alloys, zinc alloys and copper alloys. For
example, brass is an alloy of copper and
zinc.
 Ferrous Metals Chooser Chart
Name Composition Properties Uses

Mild Steel 0.15 to0.30% Tough, high tensile strength, ductile. girders, Plates, nuts and bolts, general
carbon Because of low carbon content it can not be purpose.
hardened and tempered. It must be case
hardened.
High Speed medium carbon, Can be hardened and tempered. Can be Cutting tools for lathes.
Steel tungsten, brittle. Retains hardness at high
chromium and temperatures.
vanadium.
Stainless 18% chromium, Corrosion resistant Kitchen draining boards. Pipes, cutlery, aircraft.
Steel and 8% nickel
added.

Low carbon Very strong and very tough. Gears, shafts, engine parts.
High
steel,,
Tensile
nickel,and
Steel
chromium.

High 0.70% to 1.40% The hardest of the carbon steels. Less Chisels, hammers, drills, files, lathe tools, taps
Carbon carbon. ductile, tough and malleable. and dies.
Steel

0.30% to 0.70% Stronger and harder than mild steels. Less Metal ropes, wire, garden tools, springs.
Medium carbon. ductile, tough and malleable.
Carbon
Steels

Remelted pig Hard, brittle, strong, cheap, self-lubricating. Heavy crushing machinery. Car cylinder blocks,
iron with small Whitecast iron, grey cast iron, malleable vices, machine tool parts, brake drums,
Cast Iron
amounts of cast iron. machine handle and gear wheels, plumbing
scrap steel. fitments.
 Non-Ferrous Metals Chooser Chart

Name Composition Properties Uses

Aluminium Pure Metal Greyish-White, soft, malleable, conductive to heat and Aircraft, boats, window frames,
electricity, It is corrosion resistant. It can be welded but saucepans, packaging and insulation,
this is difficult. Needs special processes. pistons and cranks.
Aluminium Ductile, Malleable, Work Hardens. Aircraft and vehicle parts.
+4%
Copper+1%
Aluminium Manganese
alloys-
Duralumin)

Copper Pure metal Red, tough, ductile, High electrical conductor, corrosion Electrical wire, cables and conductors,
resistant, Can work hard or cold. Needs frequent water and central heating pipes and
annealing. cylinders. Printed circuit boards, roofs.
Brass 65% copper Very corrosive, yellow in colour, tarnishes very easily. Castings, ornaments, valves, forgings.
+35%zinc. Harder than copper. Good electrical conductor.

Lead Pure metal The heaviest common metal. Soft, malleable, bright Protection against X-Ray machines.
and shiny when new but quickly oxidizes to a dull grey. Paints, roof coverings, flashings.
Resistant to corrosion.
Zinc Pure metal A layer of oxide protects it from corrosion, bluish-white, Makes brass. Coating for steel
easily worked. galvanized corrugated iron roofing, tanks,
buckets, rust-proof paints
Tin Pure metal White and soft, corrosion resistant. Tinplate, making bronze.

85% Corrosion resistant, golden colour, enamels well. Beaten metalwork, jewellery.
Gilding
metal
copper+15%
zinc.
1. Resistant Materials Family Tree
HOW A BLAST FURNACE WORKS

The purpose of a blast furnace is to chemically reduce and

physically convert iron oxides into liquid iron called "hot metal". The
blast furnace is a huge, steel stack lined with refractory brick, where
iron ore, coke and limestone are dumped into the top, and preheated
air is blown into the bottom. The raw materials require 6 to 8 hours to
descend to the bottom of the furnace where they become the final
product of liquid slag and liquid iron. These liquid products are
drained from the furnace at regular intervals. The hot air that was
blown into the bottom of the furnace ascends to the top in 6 to 8
seconds after going through numerous chemical reactions. Once a
blast furnace is started it will continuously run for four to ten years
with only short stops to perform planned maintenance.
HOW A BLAST FURNACE
WORKS
Hot-rolled steel
Sheet steel is produced by passing 25-tonne hot slabs at approximately 1250oC
through a series of computer-controlled rollers which reduce the thickness to
typically between 1.5 and 20mm prior to water cooling and coiling; a 25-tonne slab
would produce 1km coil of 2mm sheet
Steel sections such as universal beams and columns, channels and angle are rolled
from hot billets through a series of ‘stands’ to the appropriate section
Hot-rolled steel …slabs are 210 mm thick when entering the mill, after hot rolling, the hot
rolled steel is between 2 and 15 mm thick…
Figure 5.7 Standard hot-rolled section (Lyons)

Universal beam
Figure 5.7 Standard hot-rolled section (Lyons)

Universal column
Figure 5.7 Standard hot-rolled section (Lyons)

Structural Tee
Figure 5.7 Standard hot-rolled section (Lyons)

Equal angle

Unequal angle
Figure 5.7 Standard hot-rolled section (Lyons)

Joist
Figure 5.7 Standard hot-rolled section (Lyons)

Channel – parallel
flange
Figure 5.7 Standard structural hollow section (Lyons)

Oval hollow section

Figure 5.7 Standard structural hollow section (Lyons)

Circular hollow section

Figure 5.7 Standard structural hollow section (Lyons)

Square hollow section

Figure 5.7 Standard structural hollow section (Lyons)

Rectangular hollow section

Hollow sections…
Cold-rolled steel
Sheet steel may be further reduced by cold rolling, which gives a good surface
finish and increases its tensile strength
Light round sections may be processed into steel for concrete reinforcement
Coiled sheet may be converted into profiled sheet or light steel sections
Figure 5.7 Cold-rolled section (Lyons)

Plain C section
Figure 5.7 Cold-rolled section (Lyons)

Lipped C section
Figure 5.7 Cold-rolled section (Lyons)

Zed section
Figure 5.7 Cold-rolled section (Lyons)

Swagebeam
Figure 5.7 Cold-rolled section (Lyons)

Multibeam
Figure 5.7 Cold-rolled section (Lyons)

Zeta section
CARBON CONTENT
Fig 5.8 Effect of carbon content on the properties of iron

Wrought iron 0.02% C

Low-carbon steel 0.07-0.15% C
Mild steel 0.15-0.25% C

Medium-carbon steel 0.25-0.5% C

High-carbon steel 0.5-0.9% C

Carbon tool steels 0.9-1.7% C

Increasing ductility

Increasing ease of welding

Increasing tensile strength

Increasing quench hardness

Increasing ease of casting

0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Carbon content by weight (%)
Carbon content of ferrous metals (2)

Carbon contents of steels range typically between 0.07% and 1.7% and this alone is
reflected in a wide spectrum of physical properties
The low-carbon and mild steels are relatively soft and can be subjected to extensive
cold working
Medium-carbon steels which are often heat treated, are hard wearing
High-carbon steels and carbon tool steels exhibit increasing strength and wear
resistance with increasing carbon content
 Specification of steels

Hot-rolled structural steels:

BS EN 10025-2:2004 – Non-alloy structural steels √
BS EN 10025-3:2004 – Weldable* fine-grained structural steels
√
BS EN 10025-4:2004 – Rolled weldable* fine-grained structural steels
BS EN 10025-5:2004 – Steels with improved atmospheric corrosion resistance
BS EN 10025-6:2004 – High yield strength structural steels
Table 5.1 Steel designations for standard grades to BS EN 10025-2:2004 (Hot-rolled products
of non-alloy structural steel) [Extract]
Designation Properties

Grade Ultimate tensile strength Minimum yield strength (MPa)

(MPa)

S235JR 360 – 510 235

S235J0 360 – 510 235
S275JR 410 – 560 275
S275J0 410 – 560 275
S355JR 470 – 630 355
S355J0 470 – 630 355
S355K2 470 – 630 355

-Sub-grades JR & J0 and K2 etc indicate increasing impact resistance as measured by

the Charpy V-notch test
-K has a higher impact energy than J
-The symbols R, 0 and 2 refer to the impact test at room temperature, 0oC and -20oC
respectively
-Data is for thickness of 16mm or less
Table 5.2 Steel designations for higher grades structural steel to BS EN 10025-3:2004 (Hot-
rolled products in weldable fine grain structural steel) [Extract]
Designation Properties

Grade Ultimate tensile strength Minimum yield strength

(MPa) (MPa)

S275N 370 – 510 275

S275NL 370 – 510 275
S355N 470 – 630 355
S355NL 470 – 630 355
S460N 550 – 720 460
S460NL 550 – 720 460

-Sub-grade N (normalised or normalised rolled) relates to the physical state of the

steel and L to high impact resistance
-Data is for thickness of 16mm or less
Structural steels

Grade S275 is used for most small beam, flats and angles
Grade S355 is increasingly being used for larger beams, columns and hollow section
Figure 5.9 Structural steelwork – Wembley Stadium London (Lyons)
Architectural detail in train station – Structural steelwork
Figure 5.10 Curved steel sections – Merchants Bridge, Manchester
Steelworkers at a bridge construction site
Bi-steel (1)

Refer to Figure 5.11 (Lyons)

Bi-steel panels consist of two steel plates held apart by an array of welded steel bar
connectors
The panels are usually assembled into larger modules for delivery to site where
they are erected and the void space filled with concrete
The combination of permanent steel formwork and concrete fill acts as reinforced
concrete, with the steel providing resistance to in-plane and bending forces and the
concrete offering resistance to compression and shear
Figure 5.11 Bi-steel unit
Bi-steel (2)

Units are manufactured up to 2m wide & 18m long in S275 or S355 steel to
thickness between 200mm and 700mm and may be flat or curved
Adjacent panels may be bolted or fixed with proprietary connectors, giving fast
erection times on site
Figure 5.16 Stainless steel construction -
The Lloyds Of London Insurance Building
Aluminium
Introduction
Aluminium has only been available as a construction material for about a hundred
years
Because of its durability, it is widely used in construction, particularly for secondary
components, as illustrated in the permanent shading devices on the Faculty of
Divinity building of the University of Cambridge
Refer to Figure 5.17 (Lyons)
Figure 5.17 Aluminium shading devices – Fac. of Divinity, U. of Cambridge
Figure 5.18 Aluminium discs - Selfridges store, Birmingham, England
Figure 5.18 Selfridges store Birmingham
at sunset
Figure 5.19 Aluminium semi-
monocoque construction – Lord’s
Media Centre London (Lyons)
Properties
Aluminium is one of the lightest metals with a density of 2,700kg/m3 compared to
steel 7,900kg/m3
Standard-grade aluminium (99% pure) has a tensile strength between 70 and 140
MPa
Certain structural aluminium alloys achieve 345MPa comparable to 410-560MPa
for S275 steel
Modulus of elasticity for aluminium is only 1/3 that of steel, so deflections will be
greater unless deeper sections are used
Durability

Durability as a construction material is due to the protection afforded by natural

oxide film which is always present on the surface of the metal
The oxide film which is immediately formed when metal is cut or scratched, is only
0.01 micron thick but may be thickened by the process of anodisation
 Fire

The strength of aluminium is halved from its ambient value at a temperature of

200oC and for many of its alloys is minimal by 300oC
Contact with other building materials
The alkalinity of wet cement, concrete and mortar causes rapid corrosion to
exposed aluminium
Thus, where these materials make contact during the construction process, the
metal should be protected by a coating of bitumen paint
Further, anodised and coloured sections can be permanently damaged by droplets
of wet cement products and should be protected on site by a removable lacquer or
plastic film
Aluminium can be seriously affected by corrosion when in contact with other
metal, i.e. by galvanic action
Copper
Introduction

Copper was probably one of the first metals used by man, as early as 7,000BC
Addition of tin to copper (to form bronze) improves the strength of the material
Addition of zinc to copper forms brass
The traditional visual effect of copper is illustrated in a modern context by the
millennium project, Swan Bells Tower in Perth, Australia
Refer to Figure 5.20 (Lyons)
Figure 5.20 Copper cladding - Swan
Bells Tower, Perth, Western Australia
This is the State Capitol building with
an angel at the top of the copper
dome (USA).
Figure 5.21 Patinised copper roof construction – Urbis Centre Manchester
Copper alloys
Brass
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc with zinc content between 10 and 45%
Used as architectural ironmongery, door and window furniture, handrails and
balustrades (row of post built along the edge of a balcony)
Bronze
Bronze is an alloy of copper & tin, used for high-quality door furniture
Bronzes are usually harder and more durable than the equivalent brasses and
exhibit a greater resistance to corrosion
Other metals
Lead and Zinc

Lead sheets are for roofing, cladding, gutter lining, etc (Refer to Figures 5.25, 5.27
(Lyons))
Two standard products are the pure metal (99.995% zinc) and its alloy with small
additions of titanium and copper (e.g. 0.07% and 0.08% minima respectively)
Rolling process modifies the grain structure but does not affect the working of the
sheets
The alloy may be folded or curved to produce interlocking cladding panels for
vertical, horizontal or diagonal installation (Refer to Figure 5.28, Lyons)
Figure 5.25 Traditional lead roof
Lead roof - Centre for Sight, East Grimstead, United Kingdom
Figure 5.27 Lead tile roofing – Haberdashers’ Hall London
Lead tile roofing
Figure 5.28 Zinc alloy roofing – Centre for Mathematical Sciences U. of Cambridge
Curved zinc roof - Marseille, France
 Titanium (1)
Originally isolated in 1887, titanium was developed for use in the aerospace
industry and more recently has been used as building cladding material
Refer to Figure 5.30 (Lyons)
Titanium is an appropriate material for construction due to its corrosion resistance
It is resistant to acids, alkalis, industrial and marine environments
It has a density of 4,510kg/m3, intermediate between Al (2,700) & Steel (7,900)
Figure 5.30 Titanium cladding – The Glasgow Science Centre
Titanium cladding - Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain
Building material : METAL

Steel cladding – Frank Gehry’s Walt Disney Concert Hall Los Angeles, California1996
Facades

Because of the weaving

procedure extra long
panels can be taut from
grand floor to the roof.
Unusual facade designs
can be realized.

ROMA Office Building Rostock - AT 32

Architect: Ott Architects