Plan-Do-Check-Adjust (PDCA) Cycle: W. Edwards Deming Toyota Production System Lean Manufacturing
Plan-Do-Check-Adjust (PDCA) Cycle: W. Edwards Deming Toyota Production System Lean Manufacturing
Plan-Do-Check-Adjust (PDCA) Cycle: W. Edwards Deming Toyota Production System Lean Manufacturing
Shewhart-Deming PDCA Cycle
Though we will call it the Deming cycle as that is its most popular
name, Deming called the PDCA cycle the Shewhart cycle, because
he adopted it from statistician and quality pioneer Walter
Shewhart’s work in the 1920s. Shewhart in turn got it directly from
the scientific method, as he realized that a cyclic process of
hypothesis, experiment, results, and critique of results was the best
way to reduce variation and waste in manufacturing output. Other
scholars after Deming renamed the Act step to Adjust for more
clarity (and to distinguish it from the Do step), and
added Observe as a fifth step at the front of the cycle, giving us
the modern OPDCA cycle. The first step stresses the need to
Observe (learn the current condition) prior to creating any plan.
As Shewhart would say, careful Observation is always the first step
in the scientific method, which next involves forming hypotheses,
and then Plans for experiments to test each hypothesis (Observe-
Plan-Do-Check-Adjust). By understanding the scientific heritage of
the OPDCA cycle, we see that it is most fundamentally
a learning cycle. OPDCA is not just a “quality cycle,” as some
management scholars have mistakenly pigeonholed it to be, but a
much more fundamental and powerful process. Managers can use
the OPDCA learning cycle to advance almost any agenda, not only
quality but also goals like intelligence, performance, competitive
dominance, efficiency, sustainability and innovation. Let’s look now
at two more OPDCA variants to see how we can use the cycle to
pursue some of these latter agendas.
Corporate budgeting refers to the process by which a business estimates its finances
for a future period and plans its operations accordingly. In developing a corporate
budget, a business usually starts with a project plan, then determines the amount of
To achieve its goals, a business must express its strategy in a measurable way. The
business must determine whether a project is financially feasible, then link the
corporate goals with the available resources. Corporate budgeting allows higher
management develop a strategy that makes sense to those in the lower levels of the
$5,000 per month for the company to achieve its financial goals.
Efficiency
Corporate budgeting works best when the company keeps it simple, according to
CFO Magazine. With more factors to consider, more things can go wrong with
planning and operations. For example, a grocery store may change a budget that
separately accounts for powdered milk, fresh milk, long-life milk and evaporated milk
so they all fall under a "milk" budget account. This helps operations staff to focus
Tools
A business usually uses software to manage its corporate budgeting process. The
software shares the company's budget with all the different departments, divisions
and stores. This standardizes the assumptions that each budget holds and allows the
may use a simple spreadsheet to develop and monitor its corporate budgeting.
integrate better, possibly reducing the resources the business must spend on
corporate budgeting.
Criticism
Despite its widespread use, corporate budgeting has its problems. The Harvard
Business School even goes as far as to call corporate budgeting "a joke." A
seem better, to reduce the amount of work they must do, or to increase the bonuses
they receive. This behavior goes against the company's interests. These problems
may even affect the economy beyond individual companies. For example,
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BY SUSAN WARD
Without a budget, you may not know how your business is performing. A budget
provides an accurate picture of expenditures and revenues and should
drive important business decisions such as whether to:
Increase marketing
Cut expenses
Hire staff
Purchase equipment
Improve efficiencies in other ways
Budget Expenses
Most businesses have fixed costs that are independent of sales revenue, such as:
Operating Income
Non-Operating Income
Non-Operating Expenses
Many budgets also include actual figures going back several quarters or years as a
comparison for what is being projected for the upcoming quarter or year.
Most accounting software has options for budgeting/forecasting.
Making Budget Estimates
As the budget year progresses the estimates should be updated monthly with actual
figures, enabling you to check the accuracy of your forecasts. Note that there often
are radical differences between actual and projected revenues and expenses due to
unforeseen business circumstances and/or changing business and economic cycles,
such as:
Kratak opis
Generalni direktor i menadžer je osoba koja se bavi upravljačkim i izvršnim poslovima u privatnim
ili državnim proizvodnim i uslužnim organizacijama i tvrtkama i odgovorna je za poslovanje,
ispunjenje ciljeva organizacije, upravljanje ljudima, organizacijskim procesima i financijama.
Potrebno obrazovanje
Iako postoji nekoliko vrsta specijalističkih poslijediplomskih studija, poput MBA (Master of Business
Administration) specijalističkog studija, koji su usmjereni na obrazovanje za upravljačke funkcije,
posebno obrazovanje za direktore i menadžere ne postoji. Potrebno je imati visokoškolsku
naobrazbu i višegodišnje radno iskustvo za napredovanje prema upravljačkim položajima u
organizaciji. Radno iskustvo i poznavanje organizacijskih procesa su ključni elementi, koje veće
organizacije koriste, kako bi kroz sustav napredovanja izabrale direktore i menadžere.
Posao generalnog direktora i menadžera zahtijeva stalno usavršavanje i cjeloživotno učenje, tako
da osobe na tim pozicijama posvećuju posebnu pozornost stručnom usavršavanju, seminarima i
studiranju na poslovnim školama.
Opis poslova
Generalni direktor i menadžer je osoba koja planira i nadzire osnovne funkcije u organizaciji poput
proizvodnje, razvoja, prodaje i nabave, računovodstva i financija te upravljanja ljudskim
potencijalima. U većim se organizacijama generalni direktor i menadžer ne bavi detaljima
svakodnevnog poslovanja, već ima tim suradnika koji su voditelji pojedinih segmenata organizacije
(voditelj financija, voditelj ljudskih potencijala, voditelj marketinga i sl.) i pomoću kojih upravlja
poslovanjem, delegira zadatke i kontrolira ispunjenje postavljenih ciljeva.
Upravljanje poslovnim procesima danas postaje sve složenije, nepredvidljivo i u stalnoj promjeni,
tako da generalni direktor i menadžer sve više pažnje poklanja strateškom upravljanju i
integrativnom upravljanju u organizaciji.
Osim sveobuhvatnog poznavanja samog područja rada organizacije, važne su vještine analitičkog
mišljenja, brzog zaključivanja i donošenja odluka, koje su često potrebne u situacijama kada nisu
poznate sve informacije, sposobnost intuitivnog i kreativnog mišljenja te razvijene sposobnosti
jasnog i uvjerljivog izražavanja ideja, planova i prijedloga u pisanom i govornom obliku.
Organiziranost, sistematičnost i sposobnost organizacije vremena, upravljanje nizom različitih
aktivnosti istovremeno ili u kratkim rokovima, taktičnost i umijeće pregovaranja te sklonost
suradnji i timskom radu važne su vještine u obavljanju ovog posla. Široka opća naobrazba,
poznavanje stranih jezika i informatička pismenost je preduvjet za posao direktora i menadžera.
Direktor i menadžer mora postavljati visoke ciljeve samom sebi, ali i suradnicima i samoj
organizaciji. Uspješni direktori i menadžeri su uporni, samopouzdani, ali svjesni vlastitih
mogućnosti i ograničenja.
Uvjeti rada
Direktor i menadžer radi u uredu, u uobičajenom radnom vremenu, ali često i prema potrebi
prekovremeno i vikendima. S ciljem dogovaranja poslova ili suradnje s drugim organizacijama
često je potrebno ići na poslovna putovanja ili održavati sastanke izvan ureda. Zbog rizičnosti
strateških poslovnih odluka, odgovornosti za poslovanje u skladu sa zakonom, čestih putovanja te
zbog vremenskih rokova koje mora poštovati, posao direktora i menadžera je stresan. Međutim, iz
istih je razloga posao direktora i menadžera uglavnom najbolje plaćen posao u pojedinoj
organizaciji.
Srodna zanimanja
Mogućnosti zapošljavanja
Direktor i menadžer je potreban u svakoj organizaciji, bilo da se radi o državnoj službi, javnim
poduzećima i ustanovama ili privatnim tvrtkama. Međutim, kako se radi o razmjerno malom broju
pojedinaca koji obavljaju taj posao u odnosu na ostale zaposlene, a i zbog činjenice da direktor i
menadžer često na tu poziciju dolazi napredovanjem u samoj organizaciji, mogućnosti
zapošljavanja su ograničene.
„Ne veruj sopstvenoj genijalnosti“, kaže Arne Sorenson, izvršni direktor Meriot
Hotela. „Moraš da budeš radoznao i da više slušaš nego da pričaš. Moguće je
veličati poziciju izvršnog direktora, ali je i važno da oni nisu jedini koji donose
odluke. Niko nije toliko genijalan“.
Autentičnost
Tim Moris, profesor studija menadžmenta na Oksford Univerzitetu, bio je deo tima
koji je sproveo istraživanje o očekivanjima od današnjih izvršnih direktora.
Intervjuisali su više od 150 izvršnih direktora o njihovom poslu i, iako su namerno
izostavljali reč autentičnost jer su mislili da je suviše izlizana, sami šefovi su je
neprestano pominjali.
Međutim, nije li autentično donositi profit? Nije li to ono što je posao izvršnog
direktora? Očigledno više nije. Prema istraživanju Univerziteta Oksford, izvršni
direktori danas osećaju da moraju da budu dostupni, uključeni i brižni. Ili, kako je to
jedan opisao, izvršni emocionalni direktor.
Samosvesnost
I profesor Moris veruje da neće biti povratka starom stilu izvršnog direktora. Lea
Buskve je realativno nova u poslu direktora. Godine 2008. nakom obavljanja posla
softverskog inženjera u IBM-u, postala je osnivač i upravitelj kompanije Taskrebit
(TaskRabbit). To je američki veb sajt koji pomaže ljudima da pronađu nekoga u
njihovoj blizini da obavi posao za njih, i trenutno ima oko 50 zaposlenih.
Ona kaže da nije imala, niti joj je bila potrebna obuka u liderstvu, ali misli da je
ključno to što je dovoljno samosvesna da zna da pozove druge ljude da joj pomognu
kada primeti neke rupe u svom znanju. Ovo zvuči kao da oseća pritisak da više
pokaže svoju ljudsku stranu.
„Pokazivanje slabosti kao izvršni direktor ponekad nije loše, ali nije uvek lako. Izvršni
direktori ne vole da budu ranjivi i da pokazuju svoje slabosti. Zapravo, za mene je to
nešto o čemu moram zaista da razmislim i da prisilim sebe da uradim“.
„Morate da budete dosledni svojim vrednostima, svrsi, u tome šta želite da radite i
zašto“, kaže profesor Moris.
„Zatvorite vrata“
Ove odlike postaju globani standard ovoga posla. Odgovori i očekivanja u Japanu i
Koreji nisu značajno drugačiji od onih u SAD-u ili Evropi. I zaista, najjasniji odgovor
na pitanje šta čini dobrog izvršnog direktora dao je direktor jedne od najvećih afričkih
banaka.
„Reč je o poznavanju vaše oblasti rada, ali i sposobnosti da vodite ljude koji
znaju više od vas“, kaže on.
Društvene mreže, onlajn video, mobilne aplikacije, mikro blogovi i dijeljenje fotografija ocijenjeno
je kao pet najboljih kanala u komuniciranju. Međutim, postoje značajne razlike u njihovom
korištenju. Veb blogovi su tako najviše cijenjeni u Rumuniji, Španiji, Velikoj Britaniji, Finskoj i
Njemačkoj. Dijeljenje fotografija kao jedan od alata u komuniciranju najviše se koristi u istočnoj i
jugoistočnoj Evropi.
Prilagodba okolnostima
Da bi došli do vrha, budući lideri moraju se naučiti kretati u
neistraženom području. Analiza je pokazala da se uspješni lideri koji
se izvrsno prilagođavaju promjenama osjećaju ugodno u nelagodnim
okolnostima jer znaju da nelagoda dolazi s promjenama i učenjem.
Pet poželjnih osobina direktora koji provode promjene
Ako želite da jednog dana stanete na čelo neke kompanije (ili svoje),
ovaj tekst će vam pomoći da prepoznate da li imate sve što je
potrebno da postanete direktor.
2. Odlučnost
Efikasni lideri ovu lekciju uglavnom uče na teži način. Jednom kada
je nauče, spoznaju vrednost brzog i odlučnog delovanja, čak iako nisu
sasvmim sigurni u ispravnost svoje odluke, jer znaju da je bilo koja
odluka bolja od neodlučnosti.
3. Pravičnost
4. Entuzijazam
5. Integritet
6. Znanje
Brbljivci su bezvredni.
Ako želite ostati lider, kako vašeg tržišta, tako i vašeg preduzeća, od
presudnog je značaja da pratite šta se događa i da uvek raspolažete
relevantnim činjenicama i brojkama.
7. Kreativnost i maštovitost
Sposobnost pronalaska novih i inovativnih ideja koje vaše preduzeće
vode napred je ono što poslovnim liderima omogućava da svoje
mesto zadrže na duže staze.
8. Izdržljivost
This guide outlines the advantages of business planning and budgeting and explains how to go about
it. It suggests action points to help you manage your business' financial position more effectively and
ensure your plans are practical.
Structured planning can make all the difference to the growth of your business. It will enable you to
concentrate resources on improving profits, reducing costs and increasing returns on investment.
In fact, even without a formal process, many businesses carry out the majority of the activities
associated with business planning, such as thinking about growth areas, competitors, cashflow and
profit.
Converting this into a cohesive process to manage your business' development doesn't have to be
difficult or time-consuming. The most important thing is that plans are made, they are dynamic and
are communicated to everyone involved. See the page in this guide on what to include in your annual
plan.
The benefits
The key benefit of business planning is that it allows you to create a focus for the direction of your
business and provides targets that will help your business grow. It will also give you the opportunity to
stand back and review your performance and the factors affecting your business. Business planning
can give you:
If your business is growing, you may not always be able to be hands-on with every part of it. You may
have to split your budget up between different areas such as sales, production, marketing etc. You'll
find that money starts to move in many different directions through your organisation - budgets are a
vital tool in ensuring that you stay in control of expenditure.
What are the projected sales for the budget period? Be realistic - if you overestimate, it
will cause you problems in the future.
What are the direct costs of sales – i.e. costs of materials, components or subcontractors
to make the product or supply the service?
What are the fixed costs or overheads?
You should break down the fixed costs and overheads by type, e.g.:
cost of premises, including rent, municipal taxes and service charges
staff costs –e.g. wages, benefits, Québec Parental Insurance Plan (QPIP) premiums,
contributions to the Québec Pension Plan (QPP) and to the financing of the Commission des normes
du travail (CNT)
utilities – e.g. heating, lighting, telephone
printing, postage and stationery
vehicle expenses
equipment costs
advertising and promotion
travel and subsistence expenses
legal and professional costs, including insurance
Your business may have different types of expenses, and you may need to divide up the budget by
department. Don't forget to add in how much you need to pay yourself, and include an allowance for
tax.
Your business plan should help in establishing projected sales, cost of sales, fixed costs and
overheads, so it would be worthwhile preparing this first. See the page in this guide on planning for
business success.
Once you've got figures for income and expenditure, you can work out how much money you're
making. You can look at costs and work out ways to reduce them. You can see if you are likely to
have cash flow problems, giving yourself time to do something about them.
When you've made a budget, you should stick to it as far as possible, but review and revise it as
needed. Successful businesses often have a rolling budget, so that they are continually budgeting,
e.g. for a year in advance.
If you invest some time in creating a comprehensive and realistic budget, it will be easier to manage
and ultimately more effective.
Collect historical information on sales and costs if they are available - these could give you a good
indication of likely sales and costs. But it's also essential to consider what your sales plans are, how
your sales resources will be used and any changes in the competitive environment.
Use historical information, your business plan and any changes in operations or priorities to budget for
overheads and other fixed costs.
It's useful to work out the relationship between variable costs and sales and then use your sales
forecast to project variable costs. For example, if your unit costs reduce by 10 per cent for each
additional 20 per cent of sales, how much will your unit costs decrease if you have a 33 per cent rise
in sales?
Make sure your budgets contain enough information for you to easily monitor the key drivers of your
business such as sales, costs and working capital. Accounting software can help you manage your
accounts.
It's best to ask staff with financial responsibilities to provide you with estimates of figures for your
budget - for example, sales targets, production costs or specific project control. If you balance their
estimates against your own, you will achieve a more realistic budget. This involvement will also give
them greater commitment to meeting the budget.
Revenues - sales or revenue forecasts are typically based on a combination of your sales history
and how effective you expect your future efforts to be.
Using your sales and expenditure forecasts, you can prepare projected profits for the next 12 months.
This will enable you to analyse your margins and other key ratios such as your return on investment.
Comparing your budget year on year can be an excellent way of benchmarking your business'
performance - you can compare your projected figures, for example, with previous years to measure
your performance.
You can also compare your figures for projected margins and growth with those of other companies in
the same sector, or across different parts of your business.
To boost your business' performance you need to understand and monitor the key "drivers" of your
business - a driver is something that has a major impact on your business. There are many factors
affecting every business' performance, so it is vital to focus on a handful of these and monitor them
carefully.
sales
costs
working capital
Any trends towards cash flow problems or falling profitability will show up in these figures when
measured against your budgets and forecasts. They can help you spot problems early on if they are
calculated on a consistent basis.
Using up to date budgets enables you to be flexible and also lets you manage your cash flow and
identify what needs to be achieved in the next budgeting period.
Your actual income - each month compare your actual income with your sales budget, by:
analysing the reasons for any shortfall - for example lower sales volumes, flat markets,
underperforming products
considering the reasons for a particularly high turnover - for example whether your targets
were too low
comparing the timing of your income with your projections and checking that they fit
Analysing these variations will help you to set future budgets more accurately and also allow you to
take action where needed.
Your actual expenditure - regularly review your actual expenditure against your budget. This
will help you to predict future costs with better reliability. You should:
look at how your fixed costs differed from your budget
check that your variable costs were in line with your budget - normally variable costs adjust in
line with your sales volume
analyse any reasons for changes in the relationship between costs and turnover
analyse any differences in the timing of your expenditure, for example by checking suppliers'
payment terms
Related Articles
No matter the size of your business, creating a budget is a key element for business
success. A budget is more than a list of income and expenses. It’s a road map to
running your business, because without a budget it can be difficult to evaluate how
effectively you are meeting your goals. Either an operating budget or an activities-
This is the traditional style of budget in which last year’s targets for revenues,
expenses and other categories are analyzed and increased based on growth
forecasts, taking into account economic factors as well as past growth trends for the
company and industry. For example, the operating budget includes expected
Activities-Based Budget
new line of business, then allocate spending by prioritizing activities. This process
may work from previous company history or proceed from scratch. Starting fresh
every year, often called zero-based budgeting, requires each unit to justify its place
Most companies use a combination of these two methods. They will forecast future
growth in some areas by using past performance data and use activities-based
budgeting for new products, expansion, or to introduce new company goals and
targets. A new business without substantial performance data will rely more heavily
Realignment
A budget is a guideline, but unless you monitor the progress on a regular basis it’s
difficult to know how well your company is doing and make corrections. Some
quarterly. If performance is off track or company goals change, you can adjust the
budget for the rest of the year as well as analyze how to improve company
performance in the deficient areas. Regular check-ups allow for more rapid