Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)

Vol-2, Issue-6, 2016

ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

Nanolithography: Processing Methods

for Nanofabrication Development
Ruchita, Richa Srivastava* & B.C.Yadav
Department of Applied Physics, M.Tech. Nano-Optoelectronics Programme, Babasaheb
Bhimrao Ambedkar University (A Central University), Lucknow-226025
Abstract: The present review article deals with the Nanolithography includes the various mask or
detailedintroduction and classification of mask less, top-down or bottom-up, beam or tip-
lithography techniques. Nanolithography is the based, resist-based or resist-less and serial or
branch of nanotechnology through which parallel methods. So based on these particular
nanofabrication of the patterns or structures can be methods, nanolithography techniques may
done very easily. Nanolithography can be include [2] -photolithography, electron-beam
considered as a revolutionizing advancement in lithography, nano-imprint lithography, micro-
nanotechnology. Nanolithography has various contact lithography, scanning probe
techniques and each technique has its own lithography, X-ray lithography etc.
advantages and applications in different fields.
These nanolithography techniques have
This review also summarizes different types of
been widely used in the semiconductor and IC
direct and indirect techniques of fabrications using
industries and play a vital role in manufacturing
various substrates, photo resists and photo masks.
nanoelectro-mechanical systems (NEMS) and
The present article helps to know about the
micro electro-mechanical system (MEMS)
different methods or ways of fabricating nano
devices.Besides this, nanolithography is useful
patterns with ease or difficulty depending upon the
in fabricating nanoscale photo detectors and
technique. Also in this review, the advantages,
ring transistors. It also includes various
disadvantages and applications of each lithography
applicationsin cell biology, microelectronics,
techniques are discussed.
surface chemistry, micromachining, patterning
Keywords: Nanolithography, photolithography, cells, patterning DNA and patterning protein.
electron beam lithography, micro-contact 2. Types, Advantages, Disadvantages
printing, nano-imprint lithography, X-ray
lithography, fabrication.
and Applications of Lithography
2.1 Photolithography
1. Introduction
Photolithography, as the name depicts is
Nanolithography, as the name depicts is
again derived from the Greek words in which
basically derived from the Greek words in
the words 'photo', 'litho', and 'graphy' all have
which “nanos”, means dwarf; “lithos”, means
the Greek meanings as 'light', 'stone' and
rock or stone; and “graphy” means to write.
'writing'. Photolithography is basically a
Thus, the literal translation can be illustrated as
conventional and classical technique and it is
"tiny writing on stone". Nanolithography is the
also termed as optical lithography or UV
branch of nanotechnology, which is concerned
lithography.In the 1820s, NicephoreNiepce
with the study and application of the structures
invented a photographic process that used
or the patterns which are fabricated at
Bitumen of Judea, a natural asphalt as the first
nanometer scale [1]. Therefore, it means the
photo resist. In 1940, Oskar Suß created a
nano patterning with at least one lateral
positive photo resist by using
dimension between the size of an individual
diazonaphthoquinone. Later in 1954, Louis
atom and approximately 100 nm.
Plambeck Jr. developed the Dycryl polymeric
Nanolithography is considered to be the letterpress plate, which made the plate making
most advanced technique in patterning the process faster.
ultra-high-resolution patterns of arbitrary
A photolithography system generally
shapes to a minimum feature size of a few
consists of a light source, a mask, and an optical
nanometers. Thus, nanolithography is basically
projection system. This technique basically
concerned with the fabrication of different
utilizes the exposure of photo-resist to
patterns and on different substrates as required.
ultraviolet light to obtain the desired pattern.

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Vol-2, Issue-6, 2016
ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

For the procedure to start, it is required to project UV pattern from an excimer laser
prepare a wafer or substrate with an oxide layer (wavelength of 193 or 248 nm) on the
on it. The process further continues with the photo-resist. This enables pattern-size
spin coating of photo resist on the substrate. reduction by 2-10 times. This system is
Generally, the commonly used photo resist is capable in fabricating high-resolution
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). The PMMA patterns as small as a few tens of
is a polymer of methyl methacrylate with a nanometers (37 nm) and at a high
chemical formula (C5H8O2)n. It is basically a throughput of (60-80 wafers/hr). This
linear thermoplastic polymer with a melting system has a very expensive set up as it
point of 130oC and glass temperature of 100- requires precision control systems of
105oC.Now, the UV light with wavelengths temperature and position and also requires
generally ranging from 193-436 nm is a typical optical lens system. Thus, it is
illuminated through the photo mask.This photo helpful in manufacturing advance IC and
mask usually consists of the opaque features on CPU chips.
a transparent substrate (e.g., quartz, glass) to
make an exposure on a photo-resist. The
exposed area of photo-resist break down which
results in more soluble in a chemical solution
called developer. Subsequently, the exposed
photo-resist is removed to form the desired
photo-resist pattern [3-8]. The technique of
photolithography can be further explained with
the help of a diagram as shown in Fig.1.

Figure 2.The three forms of Photolithography (a)

Contact printing, (b) Proximity printing, (c)
Projection printing
Advantages of Photolithography
The advantages of Photolithography are given
as under:
i. The process of photolithography is less
expensive and highly efficient in
fabricating extremely small incisions on a
substrate.

Figure 1.Various steps involved in ii. This technique does not require any
Photolithography technique. additional tool or material for etching
patterns to form an integrated circuit
The system of Photolithographycan exist in andonly a single beam of UV light is
three forms [9] - sufficient for this task.
 Contact Printing: In the contact printing iii. The determination of exact shape and size
the photo mask is placed in direct contact of any substrate can be monitored by using
with the photo resist. Photolithography the process of photolithography.
uses these printings in most of research
works. Disadvantages of Photolithography

 Proximity Printing: Proximityprinting is Along with the advantages, Photolithography

almost similar to the method of contact has various disadvantages given as follows:
printing. In this, photo mask is not in direct i. The process of photolithography requires a
contact but with a closed proximity with clean room environment free from all
the photo resist. liquids, contaminants and environmental
 Projection Printing: A projection printing hazards.
system uses an optical lens system to

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ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

ii. In order to fabricate effective patterns, this

technique requires a completely flat
substrate.
iii. This technique is inefficient in producing
flat objects.
Applications of Photolithography
Photolithography has numerous applications
which include the following:
i. Photolithography can fabricate integrated
circuits and other internal computer parts.
ii. This technique can be used for the
fabrication of microcircuits [10], NEMS, Figure3.Steps involved in the process of Electron
MEMS etc. Beam Lithography.
iii. Photolithography can also be used to
fabricate organic memory devices [11] for Advantages of Electron Beam Lithography
an array structure. Electron Beam Lithography has several
advantages mentioned as under:
2.2 Electron Beam Lithography
i. This technique uses electron beam instead
Electron beam lithography is a form of of photons.
mask less lithography [12], used for fabricating ii. Pattern can be drawn directly on the
nanoscale patterns. The evolution of this substrate with high resolution.
technique started in 1960’s where the patterns iii. This technique is helpful in developing
were directly written on the wafer with a SEM specialized and prototype devices.
type Gaussian beam system with one pixel at a
time [13]. Now, during 1970’s IBM introduced
the concept of shaped electron beams with Disadvantages of Electron Beam Lithography
multiple pixels leading to high throughput and Electron Beam Lithography have also certain
manufacturing of large scale semiconductor disadvantages including-
chips [14].
i. Machines available for this technique are
This technique uses an accelerated beam of costly.
electrons to focus on an electron sensitive resist ii. The system is too much complicated.
to make an exposure.Now, this electron beam is iii. The process is time taking and inefficient.
scanned on the surface of the resist with the
diameter as small as a couple of nanometers in
a layer by layer fashion to generate the required Applications of Electron Beam Lithography
patterns in sequence. Some of the applications of Electron Beam
For the process to be performed, it is Lithography are as below:
required to prepare a resist i.e. polymethyl i. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) can
methacrylate (PMMA) by spin coating on the be converted and used as electron beam
sample and is baked to remove any solvents and lithography (EBL) machine.
harden the film as discussed earlier in
theprocess of photolithography [15-17]. After ii. This technology has potential applications
the resist coating, the area selected is exposed in telecommunication, sensors, optical
to high energy beam of electrons. This will lead computing, photo-biology and photo
to the development by sample immersion in the medicines.
developer solvent to remove resist from the iii. 1D and 2D photonic crystals and photonic
exposed area and generates the required pattern wires based upon the silicon insulator and
with anultra-high resolution down to 10 nm III-IV semiconductor waveguide materials
feature size [18].The process can be conducted can be achieved using the process of
in the following steps as shown in Fig. 3. electron beam lithography [19, 20].

2.3 Micro-Contact Printing

Micro-Contact printing is a form of soft
lithography [21, 22]. This method was first

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Vol-2, Issue-6, 2016
ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

introduced by George M. Whitesides and Amit organosulphur compound which consists of a

Kumar at Harvard University. It basically uses sulfhydryl group and basically a sulfur
patterns on a master i.e. polydimethylsiloxane analogue of alcohol. Now for inking, the stamp
(PDMS) stamp to form patterns of self- is either immersed into the thiol solution or the
assembled monolayers (SAMs) of ink on the thiol solution coating is done on the stamp
surface of asubstrate. The principles of this using a Q-tip. During this process the solution
technique are followed by fabrication of is evenly diffused into the bulk of the stamp due
templates, PDMS and molding, printing and to the hydrophobic nature of the PDMS which
patterning self-assembledmonolayer [23]. means that the solution is not only present on
the surface but also to the bulk of the stamp
Fabrication of templates as we know is
material. An ink reservoir is created due to the
accomplished using the process of
diffusion into the bulk for multiple prints. The
photolithography as discussed earlier using the
stamp filled with the thiol solution is then
photo resist (PMMA) and photo mask.Now,
allowed to dry until no visible liquid is
PDMS stamps are fabricated with relief
completely dried and an ink reservoir is
features. PDMS stamps [24] are basically the
created.After creating an ink reservoir, the
silicon elastomers that can be very easily
stamp is placed in direct contact with the gold
molded to a patterned template. At room
substrate due to which the thiol solution is
temperature PDMS is a liquid prepolymer as it
immediately transferred to the substrate. Based
has a low melting point about -50oC and glass
on the features or the patterns of the stamp the
transition temperature about -120oC. Since
thiol is selectively transferred to the surface of
PDMS is elastomeric in nature, and is cast on
substrate. The carbon chains of the thiol during
the substrate it deforms macroscopically and
the process of transfer align with each other and
the deformable stamp is then allowed to be
thus, create a self-assembled monolayer (SAM).
lifted off the substrate. Because of the low
After printing the stamp is released and the
surface energy of the PDMS stamp it allows to
process of etching is done after the creation of
be easily separated from the substrate during
SAM [25] to obtain the required pattern.
fabrication process, to reversibly bind to the
substrate to be transferred during printing and The technique of printing can be shown by
provides the easy peeling of the stamp from the Fig.5.
substrate after printing. The fabrication of the
PDMS stamp is described in the Fig.4.

Figure 4.Step-wise fabrication of the PDMS stamp

Now for the process of printing, the Figure 5.Diagram illustrating the method of Micro-
peeled PDMS stamp is cut into size and is then Contact Printing.
inked with the material to be printed. Inking of
the PDMS stamp is done using a thiol solution,
i.e. the ink used is thiol. Thiol is basically an Advantages of Micro-Contact Printing

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Micro-contact printing is a soft lithography and imprint lithography has two fundamental
it has various advantages gives as [26]: process namely-
i. Using this technique multiple stamps can a. Hot-embossing lithography (HEL) or
be created using only a single master. thermal nano-imprint lithography (T-NIL)
ii. This technique does not require a clean b. UV based nano-imprint lithography (UV-
room facility and can be performed in NIL)
traditional laboratory environment.
Both these processes have a resolution to
iii. It is a cheaper technique of fabrication.
sub-10 nm. In the standard T-NIL process, a
layer of resist is spin coated on to the substrate.
Disadvantages of Micro-Contact Printing This resist is basically a thermoplastic polymer.
Now, the mold is brought in direct contact with
Besides several advantages, micro-contact
the substrate and under certain pressure they are
printing has also certain disadvantages which
pressed together. This mould talked about has
include [26]:
topological patterns whichare predefined and
i. One of the major problems of this generally used materials for the mold are quartz
technique is shrinkage of stamp which and silicon that are considered to be as hard
leads to difference in patterning the desired materials. When polymer is heated above the
dimensions of the substrate. glass transition temperature (Tg), the patterns
ii. This technique causes the contamination of featured on the mold are pressed on the melt
substrate. polymer film. After being cooled, the mold is
iii. Stamp deformation is one of the major separated from the substrate and a pattern
problems. present on the mold is left on the substrate.
Now, reactive ion etching (RIE) which is a
pattern transfer process is used to transfer a
Applications of Micro-Contact Printing pattern on the resist to the underneath substrate.
Micro-contact printing has numerous The process for T-NIL has been shown in Fig.6.
applications in various fields and these are as:
i. This technique has a wide range of
applications in patterning cells, patterning
DNA and patterning proteins.
ii. This technique is useful in fabricating
microQRCode and also in MEMS [27-29].
iii. Cell biology [30], micromachining and
surface chemistry are also the application
fields for micro-contact printing.
2.4 Nano-Imprint Lithography
Nano scale patterns can be fabricated using
the process of Nano-Imprint Lithography. It is a
bit similar process to soft lithography. The
process of nano-imprint lithography was first
introduced in scientific literature in 1996 by
Prof. Stephen Chou and his students, who
published a report on it [31, 32]. Nano-imprint
lithography is a simple process that can make
required patterns by using a mould to emboss
the photo resist. It is an emerging process that
can produce features up to 10nm in size [33,
34]. In Nano-Imprint Lithography the
resolution mainly depends upon the minimum Figure 6.Schematic diagram illustrating the T-
feature size of the template that can be NIL process.
fabricated. The principle of nano-imprint Now, in the second process of UV-NIL a
lithography is based on thin polymer film UV curable monomer as a resist is used instead
modification i.e. mechanical stamp deformation of an elastomeric polymer. This mentioned
using a template (mould or stamp) that contains resist is applied to the substrate via spin
nanopatterns, in a thermo-mechanical or UV coating. Now the mold made up of the
curing process [35, 36]. So based on this,nano- transparent material like fused silica or quartz is

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kept in contact with the substrate, then after for multiple layers results in low
pressing the mold and substrate together the fabrication cost and offers high throughput.
trenches are filled with the resist. After this the
resist is cured with a UV light to make it a solid
and further, a reactive ion etching (RIE) process
can be done to transfer the pattern on the resist Disadvantages of Nano-Imprint Lithography
to the underneath substrate after the process of
demolding.The process for UV-NIL has been Nano-imprint lithography has also certain
shown in Fig.7. disadvantages which include:
i. High resolution template patterning is
difficult for this technique as it can be used
for patterns down to 20nm and below.
ii. Template wear is one of the problems
which results due to the pressure applied to
the contacts and also enters the layer during
the imprint accelerates the wear of
templates.
iii. Overlay is also a major problem as the
alignment between the template and the
resist on the substrate is quiet difficult
during the process of imprinting.

Applications of Nano-Imprint Lithography

Various applications of nano-imprint
lithography are as follows:
i. This technique has a huge application in
fabricating low cost LED devices,
polarizers, plasmonic devices and photonic
crystals for high efficiency [40].
Figure 7.Schematic diagram illustrating the UV- ii. This technology is also efficient in
NIL process. fabricating electronic devices like-
MOSFET, O-TFT, single electron memory
The major difference between UV-NIL and T- etc.
NIL lithography is that at room temperature, the iii. It has also a key application in patterning
resin which is in form of liquid is shaped or magnetic media for hard disc drives and
structured by a moderate pressure which is
also used in optical storage (EBR) etc.
further cross-linked and hardened by curing.
Both the process have their own advantages, in 2.5 X-Ray Lithography
which the process of UV-NIL can be conducted The technique of X-ray lithography is an
at low pressure and at room temperature while extension to photolithography. The only
on the other hand T-NIL utilizes non- difference is that the X-ray lithography utilizes
transparent molds and therefore, they are of low X-rays to irradiate the resist instead of the UV
cost [37-39]. light in case of photolithography. In X-ray
Advantages of Nano-Imprint Lithography lithography direct writing or patterning is not
possible so it requires a mask. X-ray
The various advantages of Nano-Imprint lithography is usually done using the process of
Lithography are as follows: proximity printing. It means that the mask is
brought in close proximity to the
i. It is a simple process and does not require
substrate.International business machines
any complex optics or high energy
(IBM) was the first to combine electrode
radiation sources.
position and X-ray lithography together in
ii. This technology does not require any well
1969. Also in 1972, D.L. Spears and H.I. Smith
designed or tuned tools for sensitivity or
developed a high resolution pattern replication
higher resolution and thus it results in low
using soft X-rays.
cost.
iii. Nano-imprint lithography offers three- X-ray lithography is a technique that can
dimensional patterns and also the chips pattern transistors with very small features[41,
manufactured using a single imprint step

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42]. The process basically uses X-rays to Figure 8.Procedure for X-Ray Lithography.
transfer a geometric pattern from a mask to the
resist spin coated on a substrate. By using a
small wavelength of 1nm for illumination, X- Advantages of X-Ray Lithography
ray lithography can be extended to a resolution The advantages of using the X-ray lithography
of 15nm. Optical lithography’s diffraction limit are:
is overcome by the X-ray lithography because
of its shorter wavelength (below 1nm) and is i. For this technique, shorter wavelengths
able to produce small feature size objects. (0.1-10nm) can be utilized.
ii. Diffraction issues can be resolved using
X-ray lithography uses a resist that is spin this technique for such a small wavelength
coated on a substrate, a mask and X-rays [43- used.
46]. The first step starts with the high energy iii. The principle used for this technique is
beam of X-rays from a synchrotron to fall on a simple and does not require any complex
thin layer of resist through a mask. If the X-ray optics but only an X-ray mask and a
source do not collimate with the synchrotron source.
radiation, diffractive lenses or elementary
collimating mirrors are used instead of the Disadvantages of X-Ray Lithography
refractive lenses for optics. Here, the X-ray The disadvantages of using this technique are:
mask is in the form of thin membrane so that
the beam of X-rays could easily pass through it i. The resist (PMMA) is typically insensitive
with a gold coating on the top surface. Gold is and need a long time to expose.
normally used as absorber material for X-ray. ii. This technique requires a mask which is
The membrane material can either be a difficult to fabricate due to the following
polyamide, silicon, aluminum oxide or silicon reasons- defects, bending due to heating,
nitride. fragile and aspect ratio.
iii. This technique results in the scattering of
Now, the region with gold coating does not secondary electrons on the resist and its
allow the X-ray to pass through it while the resolution is limited due to Fresnel
region with no coating permits the rays to pass diffraction.
through. In this way, by the use of X-rays the
pattern is etched into the substrate. The
damaged material is dissolved using a chemical Applications of X-Ray Lithography
solvent, which results in a negative relief
The various applications of X-ray lithography
replica of the mask pattern. A freestanding
are:
metal structure is produced after the removal of
photo resist. The schematic for this technique is i. X-ray lithography can be used for building
shown in Fig.8. block integrated micro fluidic structures
[47].
ii. This technique has potential application for
genetic and potential analysis with the
fabrication of miniaturized devices like
microchips and also in micro
electrophoresis devices [48].
iii. X-ray lithography can be used for
producing blazed diffractive optical
elements with the help of a single X-ray
mask [49].

3. Comparison
The entire review report has been
summarized and depicted in following
Table 1.

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Table 1.Comparison between the different

Lithography techniques.
Nanolithography Feature Size Throughput Applications
S.No.
Technique

Photolithography (Contact, 2-3 µm Very high Fabrication of MEMS

1.
Proximity Printing) devices and patterning in
laboratories.

Photolithography (Projection 37 nm High-Very high Production of IC’s and

2.
Printing) CPU chips.
Electron Beam Lithography < 5 nm Very low IC’s fabrication and
3.
production in R&D
including photonic
crystals.

Micro-contact Printing 30 nm High Patterning devices and

4.
fabrication of MEMS
and microQRcode.
Nano-imprint lithography 6-40 nm High Fabrication of bio-
5.
sensors, MOSFET, nano-
wires.
X-ray lithography 15 nm Low Fabrication of
6.
microchips and micro
fluidic structures.

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