The Viking Mission To Mars
The Viking Mission To Mars
The Viking Mission To Mars
VIKING
VIKING
missionto mars
William R. C o r k s
.
-
I
Scientific and Technical Information Office 1974
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS A N D SPACE ADMINISTRATION
I Washington, D.C.
Foreword
This monograph describes the National Aeronautics and Space Ad-
ministration’s program to explore the planet that most nearly resembles
the Earth. Americans have taken many giant steps for all mankind since
1776, but few as potentially momentous as the searoh for life on the
surface of Mars that the Vikings are scheduled to begin in 1976.
T h e recent Mariner flights by and around Mars have yielded photo-
graphic and other data packed with surprises for scientists. T h e Soviet
Union has also embarked on an extensive program to study Mars’ sur-
face. From the Viking instruments that are being readied now for use
on the surface and in orbit around Mars, much more will be learned
about the nature of the planet, possible origins of life, and the possible
fate of our own environment.
In rhis brief account of the Viking mission to Mars, Mr. Corliss has
endeavored to describe it in ways understandable to everyone.
EDCARM. CORTRIGHT
Director
Langley Research Center
V
Contents
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vii
Chapter 1
The Purpose of
Planetary Exploration
From the Great Pyramid to Palomar, man has always searched the
skies for clues to his destiny. Down the centuries the bright, wandering
orbs of the planets have captured his imagination. At first, he peopled
those spheres with his ancient gods and, later, with the exotic creatures
of science fiction. Although the Sun’s planets are devoid of those fanciful
beings, they boast something much more valuable: T h e keys to under-
standing our Earth, its geological past, and how its variegated cargo of
life originated and evolved.
T h e planets of the solar system probably had a common origin. The.
current view holds that all were formed by “accretion,” as gravity pulled
dust and rocky debris into the spherical conglomerations of matter we
now call planets. Despite their similar births, each planet is dilferent in
cliaracter. Earth teems with life; Jupiter is massive with a thick and
colorful atmosphere; Mercury is small with little atmosphere and baked
by the nearby Sun; while Mars, the most Earth-like of all the planets,
is a dry, windblown, cold desert. Their different chemistries, geologies,
and meteorologies derive from their diKerent masses and varying dis-
lances from the Sun. This diversity alone makes planetary exploration
worthwhile.
What the planets can tell us about life is possibly even more impor-
tant. Earth, LO be sure, harbors abundant life in a relatively thin bio-
sphere only a few miles thick but is unique among the denizens of the
solar system in this regard. Data gathered from outer space-the amino
acids detected in meteorites and the observed spectra of water, ammoilia,
and organic chemicals in interstellar space-suggest that the chemical
building I)locks of life are universal. Life may be an integral, perhaps
inevitable, part OC the unfolding evolution of the universe. Very likely
sonic of the prcc~irsorsof life exist somewhere on our eight sister planets
or their several dozen assorted moons. Somewhere in the solar system,
chemical evolution may have taken that one critical additional step into
the I e a h of Me, just as it did some 3.5 to 4 billion years ago on Earth.
By esploring tile other solar system planets and their satellites, we
should be able to study the various stages of chemical and, liopelully,
biological evolution. Thereby, scientists can gain insight into the proc-
1
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
2
Chapter 2
Viking’sTarget:
Mars
The Red Planet
Through the Telescope
Mars is the third smallest planet of our solar system. Its diameter is
scarcely half that of Earth and its mass is only one-tenth that of our
globe. Yet, of all the planets that circle the Sun, Mars seems most like
Earth. Its year is twice ours-687 days-but the Martian day is almost
exactly the same--24 hours, 37 minutes, and 23 seconds. Mars has a thin
atmosphere which supports a few clouds and fierce duststorms. Because
the axis of Mars is tilted at 25” to the plane ol its orbit, it has seasons
that superficially seem like those on Earth. When spring comes to the
northern hemisphere of Mars, its northern polar cap recedes while the
southern cap grows. As the white northern cap shrinks, a wave, of dark-
ening appears to sweep south toward the equator as if Sun-released
moisture were reviving dormant vegetation. Little wonder that some
early astionomers reckoned Mars a second Earth! Scores oE science fiction
stories portrayed their heroes striding across the red sands of Mars, while
Phobos and Deimos, the two tiny moons, raced overhead.
Many facts about Mars can be verified rhrough the telescope; but the
older visions of Earth-like springtimes, greening vegetation, and a
1,iosphere like our own are unwarranted extrapolations from them. Mars
is still a mysterious planet. Each new phase of scientific exploration has
changed our picture of it substantially. Telescope, spectroscope, flyby
spacecralt, and orbiting spacecraft have in their turns revolutionized our
concept of Mars.
When an astronomer trains his telescope on Mars, he sees a fuzzy
reddish sphere capped in white at both poles. There are pronounced
light and dai k areas and, when the Earth’s turbulent atmosphere holds
still for a moment, fine details seem to crystallize. (See frontispiece.)
It was during such moments of “good seeing” that Giovanni Schiaparelli
saw and drew his famous “canali,” or channels, when Earth and Mars
were separated by a distance of less than 35 million miles during the
opposition of 1877. Today we know there are n o canals on Mars, but
we still are not able to study details of the Martian surface through a
telescope.
3
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
4
VIKING'S TARGET: MARS
1
I
I
I
I
al
E
1
P
1 e
I
1
iI
I
i 5
1
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
TABLE
2.-Summary of Mariner Flights to Mars
Spacetraft
Launch $eight, Encounter
Spaacraft date kilograms date Remarks
(pounds)
Mariner 3 __ Nov. 5, 1964 262 (575) .------------
In solar orbit (shroud
failure precluded
Mars flyby).
Mariner 4 __ Nov. 28. 1964 262 (575) July 15, 1965 Closest approach: 9800
kilometers (6140
miles).
Mariner 6 __ Feb. 24, 1969 414 (910) July 31, 1969 Closest approach: 3400
kilometers (2131
miles).
Mariner 7 __ Mar. 27. 1969 414 (910) Aug. 5, 1969 Closest approach: 3400
kilometers (2131
miles).
Mariner 8 __ May 8, 1971 lo00 (2200) _------------ Launch vehicle failure.
Mariner 9 __ May 30, 1971 978 (2150) NO~. 13, 1971 In Martian orbit.
6
VIKING’S TARGET: MARS
bled ridges and valleys unlike anything found on the Earth or Moon
(fig. 3) and wide expanses of featureless terrain where craters had been
somehow eroded (fig. 4). Mars had obviously been geologically active
in the past and possessed its own evolutionary history.
T h e camera eyes of Mariners 6 and 7 saw no canals, but where canals
were thought to be, the closeup photos revealed alinements of dark-
~ P Z K ~ C S .SOEC of the ~ ! ~ I X Z X E ~ S J be
flooi-ei:ci-aiers arid z i f f u ~dark
random but others probably have geological significance. Pictures taken
over the southern polar cap indicated a thin layer of snow which in-
frared spectra suggest is mostly frozen carbon dioxide (fig. 5 ) . T h e bulk
of the thin atmosphere also seems to be carbon dioxide, with some water
but little or no nitrogen. Atmospheric pressures were confirmed to be
very low, about 6 millibars, compared to about 1000 millibars on Earth.
Mars was thus lound to be a unique member of the solar system.
The Orbiter Phase
Collectively, Mariners 4, 6, and 7 photographed only about 10 per-
cent of the surface of Mars as they cruised past and went into orbits
about the Sun. Only a long-lived picture-taking Martian satellite could
provide a complete photographic map of Mars. This was the task of
Mariner 9, which was inserted into Martian orbit on Novembe; 13, 1971.
A planetwide duststorm concealed most of the surface when Mariner
9 arrived at its destination. It was still possible, however, to make meas-
urements of the upper atmosphere: and a spacecraft camera caught the
two moons, Phobos and Deimos, in its field of view, revealing them
as irregular, cratered chunks of rock (fig. 6 ) . In addition, infrared
spectrograms of the dust itself showed it to be similar in composition to
surface rocks on Earth. T o geologists this indicated that the lighter
materials had risen to the surface while Mars was still molten, as
probably happened when Earth was evolving.
As the duststorm slowly subsided in early 1972, Mariner 9 began
sending back thousands of high-quality pictures of the surface. This
detailed, comprehensive look a t Mars revealed several things that
telescopes could not show us and that had been missed by previous
Mariners,
One of the most exciting discoveries was clear-cut evidence of fluid
erosion. A meandering “riverbed” (fig. 7) and braided channels were
photographed. Except for the nearby craters, such scenes might have
been shot by satellites over the American Southwest. Equally extraor-
dinary were pits and slumps (fig. 8) resembling ice-formed features in
Earth’s poIar regions. Furthermore, the region around the southern
polar cap proved to be extensively eroded as if by glacial action. Mars
might have had an appreciable hydrosphere within the past 100 million
years with accompanying glaciation and river erosion.
To heighten the resemblance to Earth, Mars has many volcanoes.
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
Nix Olympica (fig. 9 ) , the largest observed in the solar system, is 500
kilometers (310 miles) wide at its base. T h e sea-covered foundation
of Mauna Loa, Earth’s largest volcanic formation, is only about half
this brcadth. Mars also has vast canyon lands (fig. 10). One great “rift
valley” is 121 kilometers (75 miles) wide and almost 6% kilometers (4
miles) deep, far greater than our Grand Canyon. Geologists see this as
‘1 great crack in the Martian surface where crustal plates are pulling
apart, much as they are along the deep fault that bisects Iceland. Like
Earth, Mars seeems to have two kinds of surface: recent, relatively fea-
tureless terrain like Earth’s sea bottoms and old, well-cratered regions
similar to terrestrial continents.
Will the similarities end with geology? Perhaps somewhere on Mars
m a r the warmth of a volcano or a similar favorable niche, life may have
survived from warmer, wetter days, Or Martian life may be prospering
in its present environment. For it is now believed, based on the Mariner
9 results, that the polar caps do contain a frozen-water deposit below
an overlay of frozen carbon dioxide, and that at the fringes of the
southernmost extremes of the northern cap temperature and pressure
conditions exist for a short period of the Martian year which would
allow even certain forms of terrestrial life to assimilate liquid water-
or Mars may truly be lifeless. We do not know.
~
FIGUREI.-In 1965 Mariner 4 sent back puzzling views of Mars.
FIGURE
4.-Featureless terrain was photographed by Mariner 7 in
1969.
10
VIKING’S TARGET: MARS
11
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
7.-In
FIGURE 1972 Mariner 9 revealed this Martian “river bed.”
13
FIGURE%-Martian pits and slumps resemble some of the Earth.
14
VIKING’S TARGET: MARS
15
Chapter 3
TheViking
Mission
The Scientific Objectives
T h e goal of the NASA Viking program is to learn more about the
planet Mars by direct measurements in its atmosphere and on its sur-
face. Additional scientific data will be acquired from the Orbiter which
will circle Mars in a synchronous orbit above the Lander after the
latter has descended to the surface. On both the Orbiter and the Lander
the primary cmphasis will be on biological, chemical, and environmental
aspects of Mars which are relevant to the existence of life.
T h e Viking sciedfic experiments are divided into four groups: Or-
biter, entry, Lander, and radio (table 3). T h e Lander carries by far the
most instruments. It is, in fact, a miniature automated laboratory. T h e
entry experiments involve instruments mounted on a protective shell sur-
rounding the Lander during its high-velocity entry into the Martian
atmosphere. The entry experiments will obviously be brief but will give
us ;i unique opportunity to analyze rhe characteristics of the Martian
atmosphere from top to bottom. After the Lander is detached, the
Orbiter plays mainly a supporting role, although it may, for selected
periods of time, break its radio ties with the Lander and commence
indcpendent scientific experiments. T h e specific instruments associated
with the four groups of experiments are listed in table 3. They will
be described in more detail in chapter 5 .
TABLE
3.-Viking Scientific Goals and Instruments
Experiment Investigations
category Scientific goals (instruments)
Cruise Phase
Duiing the ciuise to Mars the Orbiter rocket engines will be used to
make midcouisc trajectory corrections based on radio-tracking data.
17icqucrit :tssessnients 01 the spacecraft’s “health” will be obtained via
the Oibitei’s radio. Oibiter science instruments are to be calibrated and
used to obsei ve the planet as the spacecraft approaches Mars.
Orbital Phase
Upon insertion of the spacecraft into orbit around Mars with the
Oibitcr rocket crigincs, preparations bcgin for the separation of the
Laiider caps~ilc.D uiing this time, the Orbiter surveys piospectivc land-
THE VIKING MISSION
ing sites chosen with the aid of Mariner 9 science data. After Lander
capsule scpiration, the Orbiter functions as a radio relay and scientific
instrunicnt p1;itlorni in support of tihe Lander capsule (fig. 13).
Entry Phase
Retrorocket engines on the aeroshell decelerate the Lander capsule
out ol‘ orbit (fig. 14). It descends to the surface sequentially braked by
the aeroshcll’s aerodynamic drag, by a parachute, and finally by retro-
rocket engines on the Lander.
Landed Phase
Scientific explorations of the Martian surface can begin when the
science instruments are activated and data can be transmitted back to
Earth directly via the Lander radio or through a radio relay link with
the Orbiter (fig. 15).
V i k i n g space vehicle b
48.5 meters
V i k i n g launch vehicle
Centaur +
I I
I Launch Cruise Orbital Entry I Landed a
I I
I I
I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I
I
I I I
I
I
I I I
I I
I I
I
I I
I I
Spacecraft I
I
I I
I I
I
I
----- after M a r s I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I
I I
I I I
1 I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I
I I I capsule I
I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I
I I
I
I I
- ------ I
1
I I
FIGURE11.-The space vehicle system requires the functional parts indicated here fol
the mission’s five phases.
19
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
Spacecraft trajectory
Mars position
at arrival.
JuneSept 197 Aug.-Sept. 1975
June-Sept. 1976
4
Conjunction. Nov. 1976
Lander separation
,(minimum coast period, 2.25 hours)
Orbitei
Lander e
Orbiter at
\/
Lander I
\
'
Periapsis:
ters
Touchdown may occur
1 t o 6 hours from sunset
-32.600
Cilnrnntnrc
20
~~ ~
Deorbit
Coast
---. Relay
Separate Atmospheric
entry,
250 kilometers
(800.000feet)
Deploy Jettison
Peak deceleration, parachute, aeroshell
24,000 t o 30.000 meters -6400 meters
(80,OOOto 100.000 feet) (21,000 feet)
Engine ignition,
1200 meters
(4000 feet) \ Jettison
parachute
Terminal
propulsion
landing
6 t o 13 minutes
FIGURE15.-Two-way radio links will transmit information between the Earth and
both the Orbiter and the Lander.
21
4 Chapter
The Spacecraft
and Launchvehicle
T h e launch vehicle and spacecraft are the most novel parts of Viking.
I n contrast, the tracking stations, computers, and other equipment left
behind on Earth get little fanfare. Yet a complete understanding of
Viking demands knowledge of all pieces of interacting hardware. Viking
actually comprises the six “systems” portrayed in figure 16, three of
which never leave the ground. I n this section, each of these systems will
be described in more detail. None is independent of any other system;
parts have to fit together mechanically, common radiofrequencies must
be used, and a host of other “interfaces” have to be mutually compatible.
The Orbiter
During the long flight to Mars, the Orbiter is the dominant part of
the spacecraft. T h e Lander is maintained in a quiescent state during
these 10 to 12 months. At this time the Orbiter provides spacecraft
stabilization and maintains the only telemetry and command links with
the Deep Space Network (DSN) back o n Earth. T h e dormant Lander
also receives life-sustaining electrical power from the Orbiter. Period-
ically, the Orbiter relays “housekeeping” data from the Lander to DSN
antennas so that engineers can assess the Lander’s mechanical well-being.
T h e Orbiter is much more than a nursemaid to the Lander. As the
spacecraft approaches Mars, it is the Orbiter’s engine which slows it
down to make gravitational capture possible. After a satisfactory orbit
has been attained, the Orbiter scans several preselected landing sites
with its television cameras and other instruments to provide data to the
flight operations team for a final choice. With this decision, the Lander
is commanded to operational status and checked out for landing on the
planet.
During the separation and entry of the Lander capsule, the Orbiter
serves as the vital communication relay link with Earth. Even after a
successful landing, the Orbiter communication relay link is the primary
method of transmitting Lander data back to Earth. The Orbiter-Lander
cooperation continues through the remainder of the mission, with the
Orbiter storing data received from the Lander for retransmission to
Earth when the planet’s rotation carries the Lander to the side of Mars
away from Earth. While in orbit administering to the Lander, the Or-
23
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
Titan Ill
FIGUREl&-Viking systems.
Mariner-Mars 1971
biter scientific instruments also scan Mars for data for it to telemeter
back to Earth.
The design of the Viking Orbiter is derived from the Mariner series
of spacecraft. Originally, it had been hoped that a slightly scaled-up
Mariner 9 spacecraft would suffice. The Orbiter resembles a Mariner
24
TEE SPACECRAFT AND LAUNCE VEHICLE
25
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
Propulsion
S-band low-gain antenna
-Attirudecontro
capsule h~~~~nx~r?~ndna gas jets
i
i
I
Science scan platform I
meras and spectrometers I
in stowed position)
I
Relay antenna ’ S-and X-band
Viking Lander
/
,-
high-gain antenna
capsule \/
FlCURE 18.-Orbiter (with Lander capsule attached). (a) Top view. (b) Bottom view.
owqain antenna
rage subsystem)
High-gain antenna
Scientific data telemetered to Earth will also come from the Orbiter's
own scientific experiments. These instruments will scan the surface of
Mars looking for warm, wet areas and checking out the preselected
landing spots prior to the descent of the Lander. T h e cameras and spec-
trometers are mounted on a scan platform similar to that used on
Mariner 9.
T h e Orbiter-Lander combination must also be pointed precisely,
while the Orbiter propulsion unit injects the spacecraft into Martian
orbit. How does the spacecraft find its actual orientation and then
change it to the desired orientation? T h e two celestial references used
are the Sun and the star Canopus. Viking's photoelectric sensors lock
onto these known objects, enabling the spacecraft to maintain a fixed
attitude in space. When either the Sun or Canopus cannot be seen be-
cause of occultation by Mars, an inertial reference unit provides the
guidance information.
Attitude-control jets are located at the tips of each of the four solar
panels, giving them lever arms (fig. 18) of 463 centimeters (190 inches).
Nitrogen gas for the jets is stored in two 30-centimeter (12-inch) bot-
tles. T h e Orbiter's attitude-control subsystem automatically commands
the opening and closing of the jet valves to release bursts of cold nitrogen
gas which are used to nudge the spacecraft into the desired orientation.
T h e Orbiter as a whole weighs 2324 kilograms (5125 pounds) at
launch, compared with Mariner 9 which weighed in at 978 kilograms
per second
,
data: 2 . 1 1 2 megabltr
Landed {T 1. 2 . 4. 8 . 16
A -
fi
16 kilobits Storage kiloblfl per
per second
~
subsystem LOW gal" S and X-band
antenna ;high gain antenna
and relay
telemetry Descent
I
subsystem 4 kilobits per second
Earth
Orbiter B
//
\
‘,
/’
Lander to Orbiter link:
science and engineering telemetry I
’
Orbiter A /
DSN/Orbiter link: /
science and engineering /
/
telemetry, range, 0
/’
range rate, and
command
/
------ I
DSN station 0
range rate, and
command
Earth
FIGURE21.--Communication links.
from Earth. All these functions require more equipment, more power,
and, naturally, more weight.
The Lander
T h e focus of activity changes from the Orbiter to the Lander as retro-
rockets slow the Lander down and it begins to fall toward the surface of
Mars.
T h e first major task oE the recently awakened Lander is its safe de-
scent through the thin Martian atmosphere to the .selected landing site.
‘I’he Martian atmosphere, though only a hundredth as dense as Earth’s,
requires that the Lander be thermally protected during the initial entry
phase when it is still traveling sixteen thousand kilometers per hour.
A second complicating factor is the necessity for “canning” or biologi-
cally isolating the Lander from the time it is sterilized on Earth until
it is outside Earth‘s biosphere. Scientists want to make sure that no
terrestrial life forms are carried along to confound their search for
native life forms on Mars or to contaminate the planet.
T h e Lander is actually in a double “can” until separation of the bio-
29
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
shield cap outside Earth's biosphere. Thus sealed and pressurized, the
Lander capsule is protected against biological invasion from the un-
sterilized Orbiter (fig. 22). T h e lens-shaped bioshield is 365.7 centi-
meters (144 inches) in diameter and 193.8 centimeters (76.3 inches)
from top to bottom. It is constructed Irom coated woven Fiberglas
0.00 13 centimeter (0.005 inch) thick. T h e material is intentionally thin
to reduce weight. T h e bioshield is pressurized and hermetically sealed
to prevent biological invasions during the launch. T h e aeroshell and base
cover nest inside tlie bioshield, as shown in figure 22. T h e aeroshell's
basic structure is 0.008-centimeter (0.034-inch) aluminum alloy lormed
into ;i 140" cone stifl'ened with concentric rings. It takes the full brunt
ol aerodynamic l'orces during entry. Bonded to its outside is a corklike
material which protects the contained Lander from the searing tempera-
tures ( 1 500" C (2'700" I;)) created by aerodynamic heating. Attached to
the aeroshell are a base cover and parachute system. The parachute slows
the Lander descent further after atmospheric drag lias reduced the
Lander's velocity to about 375 meters per second (1230 feet per second)
at 6400-meter (21,000-foot) altitude. At about 1200 meters (4000 feet)
the paracliute is jettisoned and the Lander descends slowly to the surface
using tliree terminal descent engines to retard its fall.
T h e well-protected Lander rests inside its shells like ;I butterfly in the
chrysalis stage. Its appendagcs are all retracted. When the aeroshell is
jettisoned, the Lander legs are extended, and after landing the other
;ippendages (high-gain antenna, meteorology boom, and sample arm)
are extended.
During tlie long flight from Earth, an umbilical connection through
the base cover provides power to the Lander. Housekeeping data also
flow through this connectio,n. Once small explosive charges brcak the
connections, the Lander plus aeroshell are separated from the Orbiter.
'The aeroshell is not merely a passive aerodynamic shield. Tlic two
spheres shown in figure 22 contain hydrazine monopropellant to leed
four small rocket engines located around the edge of the aeroshell. These
rockets slow down the Lander and allow it to be pulled toward Mars
by gravity. 'l'hey also provide pitch-and-yaw control to orient the aero-
shell in the proper attitude for entering the atmosphere. Aeroshell roll
control is provided by eight similar rockets colocated with the pitcli-
and-yaw engines. As the Lander capsule descends (fig. 14), a solid-state
pulsc radar transmitting at 1000 megahertz performs as an altimeter.
At about 6400 meters (21,000 feet) above the surface, tlie radar signals
a mortar housed in the base cover to fire and deploy a lightweight poly-
ester paracliute. Its diameter is 16.2 meters (53 feet), and extralorig SIIS-
pension lines separate it from the Lander by almost 30 meters (100 feet).
At about 1200 meters (4000 feet) the parachute is also jettisoned and
the terminal descent engines are fired. A continuous-wave Doppler
30
THE SPACECRAFT AND LAUNCH VEHICLE
0 Bioshield cap
Descent
capsule \
Aeroshell
Bioshield base
31
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
Radar altimeter
electronics number 1
Radioisotope thermoelectri
generator power source
(under cover) (2)
Ultrahigh frequency
Biology processor
Furlable boom
23.-Lander.
FIGURE
32
1 THE SPACECRAFT AND LAUNCH VEHICLE
automatically goes into standby mode and waits for the reserve com-
puter to take over and begin to reactivate the Lander.
With all its appendages deployed (fig. 23), the Lander structure is
hard to discern. Basically, it is a hexagonal box 1.494 meters (58.8
inches) wide and 0.457 meter (18 inches) thick. T h e major structural
materials of the box are aluminum and titanium alloys. Landing legs,
antennas, and instrument sensors project from it.
Once safely on the surface, two vital functions of the Lander are the
supply of electrical power and the maintenance of communication with
the Earth-directly or by Orbiter relay. Let us look at the power problem
first.
Sunlight is one-half as strong at the orbit of Mars as in Earth’s orbit,
and it is nonexistent during the frigid Martian night. The radioisotope
thermoelectric generator (RTG) was the logical choice for the Viking
Lander because it is a long-lived source of both electricity and heat.
T h e two Viking R T G s (fig. 24) convert the heat from decaying plu-
tonium-238 into 70 watts of electric power with thermoelectric elements.
The “waste” or unconverted heat is conveyed via a thermal switch to a
Thermoelectric
elements
RTG power output
to sp
\ * r
Thermal
insulati01
ioisotope
fuel
Heat
shield
34
THE SPACECRAFT AND LAUNCE VEHICLE
Kilograms Pounds
2325 5125
-
61 -
135
35
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
Titan core,
/ stage II
Titan core,
/ stage I
utes; the second stage for about minutes. Then the Centaur upper I
stage takes over. I
I
36
THE SPACECRAFT AND LAUNCH VEHICLE
37
VIXING MISSION TO MARS
(4
L
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
0
-4
0
40
THE SPACECRAFT A N D LAUNCH VEHICLE
41
Chapter 5
Viking
Scientific Explorations
The View From Orbit
Three types of optical instruments view the surface of Mars from
the Orbiter’s scan platform (fig. 31). These are a pair of high-resolution
television cameras, an infrared atmospheric water detector, and an infra-
red radiometer for atmospheric and surface thermal mapping. Together
the instruments scan strips of the surface below as the Orbiter swings
around Mars. T h e infrared instruments will pinpoint warm, wet places.
These sites can then be checked visuaIly for geoIogica1 interest and suit-
ability for landing, using the photographs taken at the same time.
Once the Lander is on the surface, large-scale observations from the
Orbiter-say, the delection of an oncoming duststorm or other regional
changes detectable from orbit-may be correlated with fine-scale meas-
urements obtained by the Lander as the phenomenon sweeps over it.
43
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
FIGURE
31.-Orbiter science scan platform.
44
VIKING SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATIONS
45
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
46
VIKING SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATIONS
Thermal strap
Head electronics \
Raster assembl
Incoming radiatio
/Radiator
1
Calibration
assembly
1 ,using
Order\
isolation
filter
I
Foreoptics
housing /
Telexope m
Neon re1
sour
Wa
sen
Telescope mount
F I G K J34.-Orbiter
I~ IRTM layout. (a) Exploded view.
ror has nothing to do with scanning the terrain; rather, it is the mo-
tion of the scan platforin which brings each segment of terrain in the
swath bclow into view of the staggered detectors, one channel after
another.
Experiments During Atmospheric Entry
Previous hlariners made indirect measurenients of the thin layer of
gases surrounding Mars, with unexpected results. Mars has a very cold
lower atmosphere consisting almost entirely of carbon dioxidc rather
than nitrogen as was earlier supposed. I n addition, radio-propagation
experiments have indicated that a thin but fairly dense ionosphere exists
at approximately 130 kilometers. None of the Mariners came closer
than 1300 kilometers to tlie surface. Direct confirmation by in si/ii meas-
urements would be highly desirable. The Viking Lander will plunge
tliroiigh tlie ionosphere and atmosphere, giving scientists a lew precious
minutes to sample the ions, atoms, and molecules directly.
A retarding potential analyzer and a mass spectrometer will be
mounted on the aeroshcll lorward surface. Three other instruments will
providc addic.iona1 atmospheric data less directly. They are ;I pressure
cell, a sensor to measure the temperature, and the accelerometers i n the
inertial relcrence unit (fig. 3 5 ) . These instruments aIe ronccrncd pri-
marily with the aerodynamic properties of the Martian atmosphere, but
will indireclly tell LIS much about atmospheric density and pressurc whcn
the atmosphere begins to slow the Lander.
VIKING SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATIONS
FIGURE
34.-&ntinued- (b) Cutaway view.
49
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
ranges of ions and electrons are sampled during the penetration of the
ionosphere and lower atmosphere. T h e analyzer will be effective for
particle concentrations between 10 and 106 particles per cubic centimeter.
Mass Spectrometer
Most of the particles in the Martian atmosphere are electrically neu-
tral. Scientists need to know their identities and concentrations as a
function of altitude to understand the chemistry and thermal structure
of the atmosphere. T h e mass spectrometer is the appropriate instru-
ment here, and once again considerable pioneering work has already
been done on scientific satellites, but there are important differences
between the Viking and typical satellite missions. Viking’s measure-
ments must be made quickly during the short entry phase; the Martian
atmosphere is very thin and measurements will be made at high space-
craft speeds.
A schematic diagram of the Viking mass spectrometer is shown in
figure 37. As the aeroshell pushes into the sensible atmosphere, gas flows
into the instrument. A beam of electrons created by the instrument
bombards the incoming neutral atoms and molecules and ionizes them.
These ions are first accelerated by grids and then pass through a slit
into a region bounded by two parallel plates. One is at a negative
voltage, the other at a positive voltage. Emerging from between the
50
VII(1NG SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATIONS
plates, the ions enter a fixed magnetic field which makes them curve
toward two ion collectors. T h e electrostatic and magnetic fields work
together to focus ions with certain electrostatic charges and momentum.
For this reason, this type of instrument is called a double-focusing mass
spectrometer. For a given combination of accelerating voltage and poten-
tial difference across the plates, two groups of ions, each with certain
masses, will be focused into the two collectors. By sweeping the accelerat-
ing voltage and the potenriai
*
~ I I ~ ~-I- C
- -I- I ~C Cc I +Cl.L
----m-
~
h e~ n Jl q t ~ c tho ;nr+rllmpnt
yAuLb.., _._l________._
will measure ions from 1 through 50 atomic mass units. One collector
handles ohe atomic mass unit range from 1 to 7, the other covers
the range from 7 to 49 atomic mass units. T h e spectrum will be swept
every 5 seconds during entry.
The range of the mass spectrometer is broad enough to measure car-
bon (12 atomic mass units), oxygen (16 atomic mass units), carbon
monoxide (28 atomic mass units), and carbon dioxide (44 atomic mass
units). All of these should be present in a predominantly carbon dioxide
circuit boards
Front face
I
I
Surface Science
Strategy for a Martian Laboratory
Once Viking lands on the Martian surface after years of work by
thousands of scientists and engineers, it would be tempting to turn on
51
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
Ion collectors
(high and
low mass)
-e--
Magnetic analyzer /
I
FIGURE37.-Double-focusing mass spectrometer.
at once all the instruments to learn as much as we could about this
intriguing planet. This impulsive approach would be self-defeating be-
cause the instruments are interdependent and experiments must be done
carefully and, above all, in the right order. Clearly an experimental
strategy is essential.
The Viking science strategy is not fully worked out yet, but some
preliminary thoughts can be presented. For example, no matter how
well conceived the engine design, the rocket descent is bound to stir up
the surface to some degree. Some of the experimentation must wait for
the dust to settle. A second delaying factor involves the engine gases
liberated during descent. No atmospheric samples should be taken for
several days to avoid detecting “the breath of the spacecraft.”
Would just a look around with the camera hurt? It might if high-
velocity winds flung sand against camera lenses, sandblasting them to
the point of uselessness. Consequently, present strategy calls for one of
the two cameras to be used approximately 10 minutes after landing to
obtain visual imaging data, while the second camera will not be used
until the meteorology instruments check and report the weather. Ex-
periments with the m a s spectrometer and biology instrument must also
be carefully planned.
Imaging data of the sample area must be obtained to assure that the
sample acquisition boom can safely acquire the sample. Soil samples
cannot be analyzed while waiting for the air to clear of spacecraft
effluents because the soil would contaminate the instrument for later
atmospheric analysis.
T h e final science strategy will manifest itself in a long series of pre-
programed instructions stored in the computer’s memory. This pre-
determined strategy may be altered upon command from Earth if
adequate communications have been established. T h e high degree of
automation insures that experiments will progress even in the face of
initial communication problems.
52
VIKING SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATIONS
Gas chromatograph-mass
Biology surface sample spectrometer
and atmospheric inlet atmospheric inlet
Gas chromatograph-
mass spectrometer
I surface sample inlet
~ ~
53
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
-Azimuth scan
1
.
I cl, Radio
54
VIKING SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATIONS
tional to the amount of light falling on it. At any instant, any one of
the pinhole-sensor combinations can create a pixel of the scene being
surveyed. By using filters, colored pictures can be achieved. By adjust-
ing the distance between the lens and the sensors, objects at various
distances can be focused. Resolution near the footpad is a few milli-
meters and decreases with increasing distance to the object.
The ramm-w ran scan at two rates, one matched to the ultrahigh
frequency link to the Orbiter, 16,000 bits per second, and the other
to the direct link to the Earth, 250 bits per second. The Lander cameras,
like those on the Orbiter, generate data at a tremendous rate: 10 mil-
lion bits for a single complete panorama around the spacecraft with a
60" scan in elevation. A similar picture in color would take three times
as many bits; high resolution photography, even more.
Automated Chemical Analyse3
Three kinds of scientific investigations call for chemical analysis.
We want to know the chemical composition of fihe atmosphere and we
want to analyze the soil around the Lander for organic and inorganic
chemicals. These experiments can tell us much about the likelihood
of life on Mars-past, present, or future-and about the geological dif-
ferentiating that has occurred on the planet. This is because chemical
evolution precedes biological evolution. Even if the Lander's biological
experiments fail to detect life in the immediate vicinity, the composition
of tlhe atmosphere and soil may preserve echoes of past life or the pre-
cursors of future life.
The mass spectrometer is the best choice for atmospheric analysis
once on the surface, As in the mass spectrometer employed during the
entry phase, atmospheric molecules admitted to the instrument are
ionized and then separated according to their masses by electromagnetic
means. However, solid samples picked up from the surface must first
be volatilized. Solids will, therefore, first be transferred to an oven
and heated to volatilize and ultimately pyrolyze contained organic com-
pounds. Then the resultant gases will enter a chromatographic column
that separates various compounds by using the fact that different or-
ganic gases travel at different speeds through the materials packed in
the column. As the separated gases emerge from the chromatograph,
they are fed into the mass spectrometer for identification. It is obvious
now why atmospheric analysis must precede the study of solid samples
-the organic gases may contaminate the mass spectrometer. T h e sche-
matic for the Viking gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GCMS)
is shown in figure 40.
T h e operating principle of the Lander's mass spectrometer is similar
to that used for entry experiments. Both are of the double-focusing
type. T h e mass range, though, must be much larger for the Lander in
which the goal is to detect the heavier molecules resulting from the
55
i
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
56
VIKING SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATIONS
Atmosphere
inlet
Excess
Surface
samde
A
IPI
.a^__
1.10**
Spectrometer
ovens chromatograph
column H2 output
signal
Intensity
LLLLMass number
57
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
FIGURE
41.-Pyrolytic release ex-
periment.
cell assemblies
Trapping column
and heater
Vent
tank
Nutrient
,"lector
cell assemblies
Thermal
FIGURE
43.-Gas exchange experi-
ment.
Two m o v a b l e
cell assemblies
Drain t o
v e n t system
58
I
VIKING SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATIONS
59
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
FIGURE
44.-Biology experiment prototype model.
60
VIKING SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATIONS
61
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
sensor
Wind sensor
-ontrol
Error signal
amplifier
(b)
62
VIKING SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATIONS
Active wind
Low-level electronics
Hinge mechanism
46.-Continued-
FIGURE (c) Boom with sensors.
63
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
Marsquakes
From the vantage point of Mariner 9's cameras, Mars appears tec-
tonically active. Motion of crustal plates should generate quakes and
and microseisms. Monitoring these phenomena alone is sufficient reason
for mounting a simple seismometer on the Lander frame. (The Apollo
seismometers left on the Moon may completely change our view of the
internal structure of the Moon.) A Martian seismometer could also
register meteor impacts and perhaps determine whether Mars has a
crust/mantle/core structure like the Earth.
T h e Viking seismometer is a small, three-axis instrument mounted
on the Lander. Seismic vibrations will travel up through the Lander
legs to the frame and thence to the seismometer. Three perpendicular
components ol ground motiori are measured with the following sensi-
tivities: 50X10-6 millimeter or less at 1 hertz and 1x10- millimeter
or less at 4. hertz. During seismic quiet the seismometer will operate
at a low data rate; however, a major quake will trigger a higher data
mode, giving geologists a better look at the details of the vibrations
as they propagate around and through the planet.
Does the Martian Soil Contain klagietic Particles?
We know thxt the soils of Earth and the Moon contain several types
of magnetic particles, some from eons of meteorite bombardment and
others the result of geological processes. T h e presence of native iron,
magnetite, limonite, and other iron-bearing materials can tell us some-
thing about the separation of minerals (differentiation) during the
evolution ol Mars and the oxidization of the surface in the distant past
when the atniospliere of Mars presumably possessed oxygen.
Experience with the lunar Surveyors proved that small permanent
magnets c;ui detect magnetic particles in the soil. Simple visual inspec-
tion with a camera can lead to surprisingly accurate estimates of particle
abundance. A logical place to mount magnets on Viking is directly on
the head of the surlace sampler (fig. 47). Every time a soil sample
is collected, some ol the magnetic particles will adhere to the magnet
array. l ' h e sampler arm can be maneuvered around so that the magnet
array can be photographed directly or via a magnifying mirror. Color
pictures will help identify specific minerals. Magnets of different
strengths and shapes in the array will add versatility. Additional mag-
nets will be mounted on one of the Lander's camera calibration targets
for the detection ol windblown magnetic particles.
Physical Properties of the Martian Surface
Mars very likely has a surface layer of particles or soil much like
Earth and the Moon. By observing the activities of the surface sampler
with the cameras and the depth of the Viking Lander's footprint, engi-
neers can deduce bearing strength, porosity, grain size, adhesion prop-
erties, and similar soil properties. In addition, Viking Lander telemetry
64
VIKING SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATIONS
Motor current
65
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
will report on surface sampler motor currents and hcnce the resistance
oE the soil to the motion of the sampler head. T h e thermocouples lo-
cated at various positions in the Lander to help assess the “health” of
the spacecraft also can help determine the temperature and thermal
inertia of the surrounding terrain.
Radio Experiments
Even if the Viking spacecraft carried only its radio transmitter and
radars, with no scientific instruments whatever, the scientific return
would be impressive. On Viking, as with most other deep-space and
satellite flights, one will be able to extract considerable information from
radio-tracking measurements and the properties of electromagnetic waves
received from the spacecraft transmitters as they are modified by matter
in space and Mars itself. Some of the planned investigations are-
(1) Tracking data will refine the orbit and mass of Mars.
(2) T h e Lander radars will measure the surface reflectivity in the
microwave range.
(3) As the Viking Orbiter swings behind Mars, its radio signals
will be distorted by the Martian atmosphere and ionosphere,
leading to estimates of electron density in the ionosphere, etc.
(4) Lander-to-Orbiter transmissions will indirectly measure atmos-
pheric turbulence.
( 5 ) Precision tracking of the Orbiter (even from Earth) will yield
estimates of atmospheric drag.
(6) T h e differences in propagation velocities of Viking radio sig-
nals at different frequencies (S-band and X-band dispersion)
will provide a measure of electron concentration between Earth
and Mars.
(7) Radio signal time delay caused by the Sun during superior
conjunction will add greatly to our verification of Einstein’s ,
Relativity Theory. I
66
Chapter 6
Touchdown
on Mars
Viking at the Cape
Before the Orbiter, Lander, and launch vehicle meet at Cape Ken-
nedy, they will already have passed a multitude of tests. These systems
and the parts from which they are constructed will have been shaken,
baked, and operated under simulated space conditions. Only acceptable
parts survive the testing and screening procedures. Final checkout and
assembly occur at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center but these procedures
will be far from routine. T h e Viking launch will be unique in that
there will be two extremely complex systems making u p the spacecraft
rather than the usual one and the Lander will have to be “canned”
and sterilized a t the Cape.
T h e all-important sterilization of the Lander occurs in the Viking
spacecraft assembly and encapsulation building. Sterilization is pre-
ceded by intensive cleaning and frequent bioassays to check the effec-
tiveness of the cleaning steps. Immediately following encapsulation, the
already well-cleaned Lander is then steriliLed by baking lor no more
than 3 days at about 112” C. T h e next living matter it contacts may be
of extraterrestrial origin.
All of these events have to be synchronized with the so-called “launch
period” for Mars, which occurs about every 26 months. During this
period, the Earth is just catching up with Mars as the two planets fly
their elliptical courses around the Sun (fig. 12). Within this period
there are daily launch “windows” when the propulsive requirements
are low and well within the capabilities of the Titan III/Centaur. T h e
daily window closes when the Titan III/Centaur can no longer propel
the spacecraft into an interception course with Mars. During August
and September 1975, a period of at least 41 days exists for Titan III/
Centaur and the Viking spacecraft.
T h e Titan I11 solids alone (stage 0) lift the launch vehicle off the
pad; the first Titan 111 liquid stage does not fire for approximately 2
minutes. After the Titan I11 second liquid stage cuts off, the Centaur
upper stage injects the spacecraft into a parking orbit about 165
kilometers (90 nautical miles) above Earth. At precisely the right mo-
67
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
68
TOUCHDOWN ON MARS
precisely, the Orbiter’s engine can “trim” the orbit, that is, adjust it
to the desired shape (fig. 13). \\’it11 this milestone, the real work of
the Orbiter begins.
In Orbit About Mars
Orbiter’s first task is to aid in final site selection. Prelaunch primary
and backup landing sites have already been selected on the basis of
i”iariner 9 pilocos* It’ikilig ~ l b i & s -.--*-- -.---.- - * --.--
w U L C L - v u p 1 dCLLLLUI,
and thermal mapping instrument will examine the sites in detail with
an eye to scientific payoff and safe descent of the Lander. If the primary
site looks risky, the Orbiter will begin examination of the backup site.
Once the final selection has been made, the Orbiter’s trim maneuvers
will fix the orbit’s periapsis right over the primary site.
Scientists would like a relatively warm, wet landing site with a thick
soil layer. There should be formations of high geological interest nearby
and no obstructions that would interfere with meteorological measure-
ments. These objectives are in some degree incompatible. Warm, wet
niches are likely to be at low elevations, perhaps at canyon bottoms.
Unobstructed areas are likely to be featureless geologically and unin-
teresting biologically.
The engineers designing the Lander have an entirely different set
of landing criteria:
(1) Thespacecraft orbit fixes the site within the latitude band of
25” S to 75” N.
(2) T h e surface cannot be too rough or have too great a slope
(more than 19”) or the landing will be endangered.
(3) T h e site must be at a low enough elevation to give the para-
chute enough dense atmosphere to slow the descent.
(4) T h e radars on the Lander require a surface with high micro-
wave reflectivity for good, clear echoes.
After weighing the scientific and engineering factors, the Mission
Director will make the final choice and give the go-ahead for landing.
This decision should be made between 10 and 50 days after the space-
craft arrives at Mars.
Given a go-ahead for landing, the Orbiter attends to the task of
reviving the dormant Lander. Preseparation checkout begins about 30
hours before the command is sent from Earth to sever the year-old
mechanical and electrical ties between Orbiter and Lander. At separa-
tion, the Lander, which is already partially “uncanned,” is separated
Crom the Orbiter and the aft bioshield is discarded. T h e aeroshell’s four
small hydrazinc engines are then ready to deorbit the Lander.
In scheduling orbital operations, it must be remembered that Viking
A will be followed by Viking E, launched 10 to 41 days later. T h e
goal here is to separate the spacecraft arrivals a t Mars sufficiently to
allow Lander .A to get down to the surfdce and send back some engi-
69
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
neering and scientific data about the descent phase and the landing
site itself. If Viking B is 10 or more days away from encounter when
these data are received, its trajectory can still be modified enough to
choose from a wide range of possible landing sites. Once in orbit, only
small latitude changes but large longitude changes arc possible due to
the differences in energy required.
Descent to the Surface
Lander separation from the Orbiter is initiated by a command sig-
nal which energizes explosive nuts and allows compressed springs to
selmxtc the two vehicles. About 10 minutes later t!ic ;ieroslwll’s foul-
hydrazine engines fire and begin the deorbit maneuver. These engines
in addition to four others for roll control are used to hold the Lander
capsule in the proper attitude so that the cork-honeycomb ablative sur-
face protects the c;ipsule from Iicat m t l pressure and gives it :I small
amount of lift during entry. Between 2 and 5 hours after separation, the
Lander encounters the sensible atmosphere at about 250 kilometers
(800,000 feet). Peak deceleration occurs between 24,000 and 30,000 meters
(80,000 to 100,000 feet; these figures are approximate became our knowl-
edge of the Martian atmosphere is still limited) (fig. 14). By the time
the spacecraft has penetrated to 6400 meters (21,000 feet) altitude, its
velocity has decreased to about 375 meters per second (1230 feet per
second). T h e parachute can be opened safely at this point. A few sec-
onds later the aeroshell is separated via explosive bolt-compressed spring
devices. (These and all other descent activities are carried out automati-
cally by the Lander because it takes too long to transmit the pertinent
atmospheric data to Earth and to return the appropriate command sig-
nal.) I n about :I minute the I ) ; ~ r ; l c l l u t e - s ~ ~ s ~ ~ eLander
I l ~ l ( ~ (drifts
l down t o
1200 nieters (4000 feet) where it is falling at a rate of about 60 meters
per second. I-Iere, the Lander terminal-phase engiiies are ignited and the
paracliute is cut loose upon signal from the radar altimeter. Touchdown
should occur at a vertical velocity of 2.44 meters per second (5.5 miles per
hour) . T h e entire sequence from atmospheric entry to touchdown takes
between 6 and 13 minutes. In this short and very crucial span of time,
all of man’s knowledge of aerodynamics and the Martian atmosphere
must be brought to bear. If successful, we will have soft landed our first
cargo of scientific instruments on another planet of tlie solar system.
Lander Operations Begin
Once safely on the surface, the Lander’s first order of business is the
estal)lisliment of communication links with the Orbiter and with the
DSN antennas on Earth. Neither link is continuous because Alars rotates
on its axis and the Orbiter’s position relative to the Lander precesses
slightly (fig. 45) . Once again, we have time windows. ’ l h c ultrahigh
frequency Orbiter relay link window is open when the Lander sees the
70
TOUCHDOWN ON MARS
Orbiter 25" or more above ehe horizon and within 5000 kilometers. This
window will be open for between 10 and 40 minutes once a day. T h e
window governing the direct radio link to Earth is open for about 12
hours a day, but can be used only when the Lander's high-gain an-
tenna can contact a DSN 64-meter dish, Lander electrical power limita-
tions restrict radio communication to 2 hours a day.
Early in the mission, the direct link to Earth can transmit about 3.6
million bits of information during the daily 2-hour window. As the
M ars/Earth distance increases, the rate decreases to 1.8 million bits
daily. T h e ultrahigh frequency link to the Orbiter can carry up to 16,000
bits per second, compared to a maximum of 500 bits per second direct
to Earth. T h e relay link window, however, is not open as long, and the
maximum number oE bits per day will be about 38 million. Although
Periapsis
communication
time
Orbiter
rise
Lander horizon
Orbiter rise
Mars
FIGURE
48.-Lander-to-Orbiter communication geometry.
these numbers sound very large, the Lander cameras can consume as
nimy as I O inillion bits per picture. Other instruments are less voracious
in terms of bits. Obviously, priorities have to be established for the
instruments.
Operating plans, too, must be carefully formulated. T h e present plan
is to keep Orbiter A with its periapsis over the site of Lander '4 for a
complete scientific cycle-about 22 days. While relaying Lander A's data
to Earth, Orbiter A will survey potential landing sites for Lander B,
some 7 weeks behind the Viking A schedule. If the promising Viking B
71
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
sites are too far away from Orbiter A's orbit, it may be commanded to
hreak off its support of Lander A and begin reconnoitering sites for
Lander B. When Viking B arrives and its Lander is successfully soft
landed, many options become possible. Orbiter A may act as a relay
for Lander Is, and Orbiter I3 may act as a relay for Lander A. Or, one
Orbiter may be delegated to serve both Landers while the other begins
scientific missions on its own. (Orbiter design life is 140 days after attain-
ing orbit. The Lander design life after landing is 90 days.) This flexibility
will be invaluable should trouble develop with any of the spacecraft.
This pairing of spacecraft and communication links and the large-scale
redundancy of spacecraft components yield a high probability of success
for the Viking mission as a whole, even if one of the spacecraft should
fail completely. A scientific bonus also results from joint Orbiter-Lander
operations in that the Orbiter can prepare the Lander for oncoming at-
mospheric disturbances and then observe the phenomena from orbit
while the Lander takes in situ measurements.
72
Chapter 7
TheVikinQ U
Team
The Viking project involves thousands of people building a n d oper-
ating complex machines to achieve specific objectives within a certain
timespan for a given number of dollars. Viking differs froq other large
technological enterprises mainly in the hundreds of millions of miles
between its radio-connected systems and in its scientific objcctives-the
exploration of another planet of the solar system.
T h e human organization of the Viking project parallels the organiza-
tion of the machine; that is, eauh major Viking system has a “people
counterpart.” As illustrated in figure 49, the six Viking systems are
split neatly in two: three systems of flight hardware and three ground-
based systems which are manned by human controllers who communi-
cate with and command the flight hardware. Here we get into the realm
of management, with its organization charts, contractors, schedules, etc.
Overall program management begins at NASA Headquarters, Wash-
ington, D.C., in the Office of Space Science. T h e major portion of the
management task is delegated to NASA’s Langley Research Center, lo-
cated at Hampton, Va. Langley’s Viking Project Office, consisting
of about 250 engineers and scientists, directs the day-to-day progress of
the program. NASA Headquarters has assigned responsibility for the six
Viking systems in the following way:
(1) Lander system.-Langley’s Viking Project Office oversees Mar-
tin Marietta Aerospace’s Denver Division, the contractor respon-
sible for designing and building the Lander.
(2) Orbiter system.-The Jet Propulsion Laboratory has the re-
sponsibility for designing and building the Orbiter.
(3) Launch uehicle system.-Responsibility for this system has been
assigned to NASA’s Lewis Research Center. Martin Marietta
Aerospace builds the Titan 111 booster while the Centaur stage
is a product of General Dynamics Corp.
(4) Launch and flight operations.-Langley’s Viking Project Office
manages this operational system with design and implementa-
tion by Martin Marietta Aerospace, the Jet Propulsion Labora-
tory, and the Kennedy Space Center. Kennedy Space Center
is responsible for conducting the actual launches at the Cape.
VIKING MISSION TO MARS
project
Langley Research Center
Viking Project Offlce
Launch and
Lander system flight operations Mission control and
Langley Research Orbiter system Launch veh'c'e system Tracking and computing center
Center system data system
Jet Propulsion Lewis Research Langley Research system
Jet Propulsion
Viking Project Laboratory Center Jet Propulsion
Center Laboratory
Office Vlklng ProJect Laboratory
Office
NASA space science to date has been organized around principal investi-
gators, individual scientists who propose a specific study, de\ elop an in-
strument Cor flight, analyic d'ita received, and publish results. Viking in-
btead inakes use of individual scientific teams. Each team has ;I leader
tvho represents the team to the Viking project, but the scientists in each
team participate on an equal basis.
74
THE VIKING TEAM
75
References
1. Michaux, C. M.: Handbook of the Physical Properties of Mars. NASA SP-3030,
1967.
2. Mars Engineering Model. NASA, Apr. 14, 1972.
Suggested Reading
Applied Optics. (Special issue), July 1969.
Astronautics and Aeronautics. (Special issue), Nov. 1969.
Glasstone, Samuel: T h e Book of Mars. NASA SP-179, 1968.
Hammond, Allen L.: Mars as a n Active Planet: T h e View From ..--riner 9. Science,
vol. 175, Jan. 21, 1972, pp. 286-287.
Icarus. (Entire issue), Feb. 1972.
Kraemer, Robert S.: Solar SJstem Exploration Strategy for the 1970’s. Papcr prescnlcd
a t the 17th Annual Meeting of the American Astronautical Socicty, Seattle, Wash.,
June 28-30, 1971. (AAS71-100) (See also IAA Abstract ,471-37930)
Martin, James S., Jr.: Project Viking. Paper presented at the Int. Astronaut. Fed.
Meeting (Vienna), 1972.
Martin, James S., Jr.: Mars Exploration With Viking. Paper presented a t the 10th
Space Congress, Cocoa Beach, Fla., April 11 through 13, 1973.
Martin, James S., Jr.; and Soffen, Gerald A.: T h e Viking Mission. Paper presented
a t the AAS 11th Goddard Memorial Symposium, Washington, D.C., March 8 and
9, 1973.
Murray, Bruce C.: Mars From Mariner 9. Scientific American, vol. 228, Jan. 1973,
p. 48.
l’onnamperuma, Cyril; and Klein, Harold P.: T h e Coming Search for Life on Mars.
T h e Quarterly Review of Biology, vol. 45, no. 3, Scpt. 1970.
Radmer, Richard; and Kok, Bessel: A Unified Procedure for the Detection of Life
o n Mars. Science, vol. 174, Oct. 15, 1971, pp. 233-239.
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