Name : Ahmad Shafie B.

Basari
Class :
No. Matrix : 09104
Teacher : Azizah Yahya
 CONTENT
 SEXUAL & ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION

 THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEM

 THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEM

 THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

 FERTILIZATION AND PREGANCY

 THE IMPORTANCE OF
PRENATAL CARE

 THE IMPORTANCE OF
RESEARCH IN HUMAN REPRODUCTION
THE SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE

 SYSTEM OF FLOWERING PLANTS

 POLLINATION

 FORMATION OF SEEDS
AND FRUITS IN PLANTS

 CONCEPT OF GERMINATION OF SEEDS

 VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
IN FLOWERING PLANTS

SEXUAL & ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

asexual.
 Sexual reproduction

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 All living thing will produce new individuals to
maintain the continuity of successive generation.
 Reproduction is a production of a new with
general characteristics similar with the parents.
 There are two types of reproduction, sexual and

 Involves the fusion of two reproductive cells

each originating from a male parent and the
other from female parent.

 The reproductive cells is known as the

gamete.
 The fusion of the male gamete with the
female gamete will produce new cell called the
zygote.
  Higher forms of living organism like human,
mammals, amphibians, insect, and some
flowering plant reproduce sexually.
 Sexual reproduction produces genetic
variation among the offspring as there is the
fusion of genetic materials from different
sources.
 Asexual reproduction
 Involves one parent which do not have
specialised structures of reproduction.

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The new individuals produces genetically

identical to each other and to the parent.
Lower forms of organism usually produces
asexually.
A single parent produces new individuals in
large number without the need of another
parent.
 The fusion between the male gamete (sperm) with
the female gamete (ovum) known as fertilization.
There are two types of fertilization.
 Internal fertilization
  During mating, the male introduces the
sperm into the reproductive system of
female.
 Fertilization of the egg (ovum) take places in
the reproductive track of the female and a
zygote is produces.
 Examples of animals with internal
fertilization are reptiles, birds, mammals,
and human.
 Advantages:
o The female produces fewer eggs
preventing wastage.
o Eggs have a better chance being
fertilized.
o Before birth, the developing young
receives food and protection.
 External fertilization
 The female produces a large number of
eggs in the water.
 A few eggs being fertilized by the male
gametes (sperms) in the water. The fertilized
eggs develop into zygotes.
 Example of animals with external
fertilization amphibians. Some aquatic plant
have plans have fertilization.
  Disadvantages:
o Many eggs are carried away by the
river or sea currents leaving the eggs
unfertilized.
o Some of the eggs are eaten by the
other animals.
 Types of asexual reproduction
 Binary fusion
 Organisms that reproduces by binary
fusion are amoeba paramecium and
bacteria.
 Matured parent that have reached
maximum size undergo cell division
producing two individual organisms.
 Spore formation
 Spore formation takes place in non-
flowering plant like fungi mosses and fern.
 Multiple cell divisions in spore-bearing
structure produces spore. The spore are
dispersed when the sporangia mature.
Wind and water help to disperse the small
and light spores. Each spore will develop
into a new individual under favourable
condition.
 Budding
 Budding take places in hydra and yeast.
 The mature parent produces an out-
growth and bud that develops and growth.
When the buds mature, they detach them
themselves from the parent to develop into
new independent individuals.
 Vegetative reproduction take place in plants
like tapioca, ginger and Bryophyllum.
 Regeneration
 Regeneration takes places in flatworms
and star fish.
 A new individuals will develop from any
of the parts detached from the parent.
 THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 The function of the male reproductive system are to

produce and store sperm and to send the sperm out
of the body.
 The structures and function are shown in Table
21.1.
Structure Function
Testis Produces sperm and sex hormone
testosterone
Sperm Duct Channels sperms from the testis into
urethra
Scrotum Hold the testis outside the body and
protect testis
Urethra Carries sperm out of the body

Seminal Vesicle Produces fluid of semen as

nourishment to the sperm
Penis Organ of entry into vagina for sperm
ejaculation
Prostate Gland Produces fluid which activates sperm

 Structure and function of sperm

 Smallest cell in the human body and is
divided into head, midpiece, and tail.
  Head – has a big nucleus carrying all the
genetic information of the male parent.
 Midpiece – produces energy for the tail.
 Tail – helps in the movement of the
sperm.

 Change in the male during puberty are:

 Take places when he is 14 years old;
 Production of sperm begin
 Testis, penis and prostate glands grow to a
bigger size;
 Larynx enlarges and voice changes;
 Growth of moustache and beard on face;
 Hair grow in the pubic and under armpits.
 THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM

 The function of the female reproductive system

are to produce ovum and prepare a place for the
foetus to develop.
 The structure and function . shows in the Table 21.1.
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Ovary Produces ovum, hormones estrogens and the
progesterone
Fallopian tube Carried the matured ovum from the ovary to the
uterus
Vagina Receives sperm from the urethra of the penis to
be carried to the uterus
Cervix Receives sperm from the male reproductive
organ
Uterus Space for the embryo to develop

 Ovum
 The female gamete s the biggest cell in the
human body.
 It is spherical in shape and made up of a
nucleus, membrane of ovum and a large part of
it being the cytoplasm.
 The nucleus of the ovum carries the
genetic information of the female parent.
  The outer layer of the ovum is
surrounded by a thick jelly-like membrane
known as vitelline membrane.
 The ovum stores food to nourish the
developing embryo.
 An ovum is active for 1 1/4 days and if
not fertilized it dies and is discharged from
the body.
 Change in the female during puberty are:
 Take place around 11 years old;
 Menstruation and ovulation starts;
 Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus and
vagina increase in size;
 Pelvis increase in size;
 Growth and developing of breast.
 Difference between sperm and ovum:
SPERM OVUM
Smallest human cell with a Largest human cell with a diameter
diameter of 2.5 µm 250 µm
Tadpole shape Spherical shape
Moves using tails Cannot move on its own
Millions are produces during an One produce in a month
ejaculation

THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

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 The menstrual cycle is the cyclic development
and break down of the uterine wall to provide
for development of the zygote in the uterus.
 A complete menstrual cycle takes an average 28
days to complete.

FERTILIZATION AND PREGANCY

 Fertilization is the fusion of the male gamete
with the female gamete to produce a fertilized
cell known as the zygote.
 During sexual intercourse, the sperms in the
semen of male are transferred into the female
sex organ through the penis. The sperm will
swim to the Fallopian tube.
 If at that time, an ovum is present in the
Fallopian tube, fertilization will take place that
is the fusion of the ovum with one sperm to
produce a zygote. The zygote undergoes cell
division as it travel to the uterus when it
becomes a ball of cell known as the embryo.
 Implantation
 Implantation is the embedding of the
embryo in the tissues of the uterine wall.
 The surfaces of the embryo and the
uterus lining join to form a structure known
as placenta.
 The placenta is connected with the
embryo by the umbilical cord with the blood
vessel in the umbilical cord. Function of the
placenta are:
 Transport of the food nutrient to the
foetus;
 Transport of excretory products of the
foetus such as carbon dioxide and urea to
the mother’s blood.
 Attach the embryo to the uterus wall.
 At the placenta, the capillaries of the
foetus are very close to the blood capillaries
of mother. This helps in the exchange of
material between the foetal blood and the
mother blood.
 Development of the embryo and foetus.
 A thin membrane begins to form and
surround the embryo floating in amniotic
fluid. The amniotic fluid protect the embryo
and foetus from physical force. It also
regulates the temperature of the embryo
besides acting as a store for nutrients and
wastes.
 The embryo develops further for 8 weeks
and grows to become a foetus having all main
physical structures of the body.
 The foetus will develop into a baby which
will be delivered.
 The period from the time of fertilization
to the time of birth as known as pregnancy.
The period of pregnancy is about 40 weeks.
 Births
  When developing of the foetus is
complete, the baby will be delivered.
 Usually the head of the baby faces
downwards.
 The births of the baby begins with the
slow rhythmic contraction of uterus muscle.
This will cause pain to the pregnant mother.
 The contraction of the muscle become
stronger and faster will cause the amniotic
sack to break and release amniotic fluid. The
contraction also widen the vagina, cervix, and
uterus.
 With stronger contraction of the uterus
muscle aided by contraction of the abdominal
muscle and diaphragm, the baby is pushed out
from the uterus through the vagina and cervix.
 After delivery, the placenta and the
umbilical cord are pushed out by the
contraction of the uterus muscle.
THE IMPOTRTANCE OF PRENATAL
CARE
 The foetus depends on the mother for food.
Hence the mother diet must be balanced and
nutritious enough for healthy and complete
development by the foetus.
 Pregnant mother require food rich in proteins,
carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, fibres, and mineral
salt wit high iron and calcium content.
 Pregnant mother have to avoid:
 Consumption of alcohol
 Damages the brain cell of the foetus.
 Smoking of cigarettes
 Affect the size of the body weight of
the foetus.
 Taking medicine or drug without
doctor’s prescription especially at the first
eight weeks.
 Cause deformity in the foetus.
THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
 Sterility means inability to produce and give
birth to children. The problem could be a male
or female dysfunction.
 Sterility in males maybe due to:
  A low sperm count;
 Weak sperm;
 Dysfunctional penis to produces an
erection for ejaculation;
 Premature ejaculation.
 Sterility in females maybe due to:
 Failure for ovary to produce ova;
 Fallopian tubes being blocked;
 Failure of the zygote to implant the
uterine wall;
 Abnormal menstrual cycle.

 Sterility can be overcome trough:

 Drug treatment
 Various sex hormones are used to
encourage the production of healthy
sperms and ova.
 Surgery
 The blocked Fallopian tube can be
overcome by surgical method.
In vitro fertilization
 The ovum and sperm are collected
and transferred into a culture
medium fertilization.
 Birth control or family planning may be a
method to prevent pregnancies by couples who
are either not ready to have children or who
have too many children.
 The principle of birth control is to prevent:
 The fertilization of the ovum by the
sperm;
 The production of eggs;
 The implantation of the embryo on the
uterus wall.
 Births control method used are:
Rhythm method
 Having sex during the infertile period
of the menstrual cycle.
Condom
 Condom is used on the penis to
prevent the sperms from entering the
vagina during sexual intercourse.
Intrauterine contraceptive device
(IUCD)
 IUCD is a plastic or copper wire
device inserted in the uterus (by a
doctor) to prevent fertilization and
implantation.

Contraceptive pills
 Prevent ovulation or implantation of
the zygote on the uterus wall.
 Surgery
 Vasectomy of the sperm ducts
prevents sperm from leaving the
testes. Ligation of the Fallopian tube
prevent the ovum from leaving the
tubes.
Spermicides
 Cream, jelly or foam placed in the
vagina before intercourse to kill the
sperms.
 birth control method are abused by youth
and causes many social problems.
Youths indulge freely in prematiral sex.
This practice undermines their
character and morals.
Knowledge of birth control is being used
by young couples who lives together
without getting married to prevent the
female partner from getting pregnant.
THE SEXUAL REPPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
OF FLOWERING PLANTS
 The reproductive organs of the plants are the
flowers.
 The structures and function of different parts
of the flower are listed below.

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Petals Attract attention of insect

Sepals Protects the flower when it is in the bud

Nectary Produces nectar

Anthers Produces pollens grain

Pollens grain Contains male gametes

Filament Hold up the anthers

Style Connect the stigma to the ovary

Ovary Produces ovules which contain of female

gametes

Ovule The female gametes to be fertilized to

produce seeds.

Stamens are the male reproductive parts of the

flower. Each consists of the filament and anther
which produces the pollens gains
The pistil is the female reproductive parts of
the flower. It consists of the stigma, style, ovary,
and ovules.
 There are generally two main types of flower.
 Unisexual flowers- the male and female
reproductive organs are found on separated
flowers. Example are the maize flower and the
papaya flowers.
 Bisexual flowers – have both the male and the
female reproductive organs found on the same
flowers. Examples are the hibiscus flower and
flame of the forest flower.
 POLLINATION
 Pollination is the transfer of mature pollens
grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower.
 The transfer of the pollens grains from the
anther to the stigma by the following agents of
pollination.
 The difference insect (or bird) pollinated
flowers and wind pollinated flower are shown in
Table below.
Characteristic Insect-pollinated Wind-pollinated
Flower size Big Small
Petal colour Bright White or dull colour
Nectary Produces nectar Do not produce
nectar
Smell Fragrant No smell
Stamen Short filament and small Long filament and
anther big anther
Pollen grain Few in numbers but Numerous but small
big in sticky and light
Stigma Short and sticky Long, feathery and exposed
outside the flower
Style Short Long
Receptacle Short long
 Self pollination
 The transfer of the pollen from the anther to
the stigma on the same flower or another flower
on the same plant.
 Cross pollination
 The transfer of the pollen from the anther to
the stigma of another plant but of the same
species.
 The advantages of cross pollination are:
 Provided more genetic variation in the
offspring.
 Produce offspring with better characteristic
such as…
 High yield
 Better quality flowers, seed and fruit
 More resistant to diseases,
 Shorter maturing time growth and
 Higher survival rate.
 Application of cross pollination in agriculture:
 Paddy MR103 and MR106 are the example
of cross-pollination which produce more fruit.
 Masmadu corn is the product of cross-
pollination that is sweeter and the cobs are
bigger.
 Teenera is a variety of oil palm Dura and
Pisifera that produces more oil of high quality.
FORMATION OF SEEDS AND FRUITS IN
PLANTS
 The male gamete of the flower is found in the
pollen grain while the female gamete is in the
ovule.
 When the pollen grain falls on the stigma, it
produces a pollen tube along the style and grows
until it reaches the ovary.
 At the ovary, the male gamete at the end of the
pollen tube enters the ovule and fuses with the
female gamete to produce zygote.
 After fertilization, the ovule will grow into a seed
while the ovary develops into a fruits. The petals,
sepals and stamen wither and fall off.
CONCEPT OF GERMONATION OF SEED
 The zygote divided and becomes an embryo of
the seed. The other parts of the ovule develop to
form the cotyledon and testa of the seed.
 The structure and function of the parts of the
seeds are listed below.
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
 Outer layer
 Testa  Outer layer of the seed for
 Micropyle protection
 Small holes that allows air and
 Hilum water to enter the seed
 Mark on the seed to show the
attachment of the seed to the
develop ovary (fruit wall)
 embryo
 Plumule  Grows to be the stem and apical
 Radical bud
 Grows to be the root of the plant
 Cotyledon or endosperm  Stores food which is being used
by embryo during germination

 Germination is the process whereby the seed

develop to a seedling.
 Germination requires water, oxygen from the air
and suitable warmth.
 Water – water is absorbed into the send to
active enzyme action especially using the store
food in the cotyledon to produce energy. Water is
important to soften the testa and expand the
cotyledon to rupture the testa.
  Oxygen – oxygen from the air necessary for
cell respiration. Energy is required for the
germination of seeds.
 Temperature – for optimum enzymatic action
a temperature of 29celcius to 35celcius is
required.
 Germination
 Water absorbed through to the micropyle
will soften the testa and active the enzymes for
growth.
 The cotyledon having absorbed water will
expand the rupture the testa having been
softened by the water.
 The radical will grow downwards to
become the root while the plumule will grow
upwards and develop the apical bud.
 The root will continue to grow and the
apical bud will produce the first foliage leaves.
 The seedling will produce food by itself
through the process of photosynthesis.
 The cotyledon that supplied food to the
embryo will gradually shrink and eventually
drop off.
 There are two types of germination:
 Epigeal germination takes place when the
cotyledon come out above the ground because of
the lengthening of the hypocotyls. Examples of
 seeds having epigeal germination are the
sunflower seed and the sword bean seed.
(hypocotyl : stem of the seedling below the
cotyledon)
 Hypogeal germination take place when the
cotyledons remain in the ground when the
epicotyls lengthens. Examples of seed having
hypogeal germination are the maize grain and
the rubber seeds. (epicotyls: stem of the seedling
above the cotyledon)
 VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION IN
FLOWERING PLANTS
 Vegetative reproduction is a method where
flowering plants reproduce asexually that is a
new generation of plants can be produced from
the certain part of the single parent plant without
the need of the germination of seeds.
 This method of reproduction does not take a long
time and depends on the vegetative organs
adapted to act as asexual reproductive organs.
 Vegetative reproduction take places through:
 Stem of the ground like runners;
 Undergrounds stem like rhizomes, and
suckers;
 Leaves

 Example of plant organs that are organs of

vegetative reproduction are listed in the Table
below.

Type of reproduction Example Method of reproduction

Runner Grass, strawberry At the nodes, arise buds and
roots which will grow into new
plants
Stem cutting Tapioca Buds will develops at the nodes
of the stem cutting when planted
into the ground
Rhizome Ginger, lallang Underground stem have buds
which will grow stem, root and
leaves
Bulbs Onion A bud grow to become a new
plant
Corm Yam A swollen stem with buds that
grow upright under the ground
Tuber Potato Tuber produces buds on its
surfaces
Sucker Banana, pineapple The young plant develop from a
bud at the ground level of the
parent
Fleshy leaves Bryophyllum Adventitious buds develop the
leaves
When the buds are detached
from the leaves, they become
independent plant

 Advantages of vegative reproduction

 Do not required external agents of
pollination like insect or wind pollination
are dispersal of seeds and fruit.
 The young plant has a better chance of
survival as it can depend on the food
reserves of its parent.
 The special characteristic will be
completely inherited by the young plant and
will be like the parent from all aspects.
 In vegative reproduction, the young plant
grow faster than plants developing from
seeds.
 Disadvantages of vegative reproduction:
 It will produce an over population in the
area making the plants compete for the
 basics necessities like light, water and
mineral salts.
 There will be no variation in the new
plants. The young plants will not be able to
adapt to changes of the environment.
 The negative weak characteristic of the
parent will be transmitted to be new plants.

The End!