Unit 7

Trade and Artistic Exchange

The role of trade, diplomacy, and cultural interconnections is crucial to

understanding works of art produced in the Islamic world. The fluid
movement of artists and luxury objects among eastern and western Asia and
Europe led to the cross-fertilization of motifs, designs, materials, and
production techniques. The existence of a network of trading posts and
routes throughout this vast geographic region facilitated long-distance
communication, the transmission of ideas, and the emergence of a global
culture. The chapters in this unit highlight artistic relationships between
China and the Near East and those between Venice and the Islamic world.

unit 7

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 unit 7

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30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E

60°N
ESTONIA Perm
LATVIA RUSSIA
Moscow Kazan
LITHUANIA Ufa Omsk Novosibirsk
BELARUS
RUSSIA
Astana
Kiev
E
UKRAINE Volgograd HORD
L DEN Ulaanbaatar
GO KAZAKHSTAN Karakorum
MOLDOVAOdessa
Rostov
Aral MONGOLIA
Bucharest EM
Sea PIR
Black Sea CAUCA Caspian Bishkek E
SUS

E
GEORGIA Tbilisi Sea UZBEKISTAN Tashkent (Y OF

T
Istanbul UA TH
KYRGYZSTAN N E

A
Ankara Yerevan AZERBAIJAN Bukhara Samarqand Dunhuang Beijing
Baku N DY G N. KOREA
ANATOLIA TURKMENISTAN TAJIKISTAN A NARE
Tabriz H A Pyongyang
TURKEY Ashgabat Merv Dushanbe Yarkand K ST T
Takht-i Sulaiman Nishapur I Y K Seoul
Tehran A ) H
Mosul D A S. KOREA
N

unit 7: chapter 1. ceramics in china and the near east

LEBANON SYRIA Varamin Kabul G H A
A

N T
Beirut Baghdad AFGHANISTAN CH
Damascus CHINA
PALESTINE Yazd Islamabad

V A
Jerusalem IRAQ IRAN Shanghai

E
Amman Kirman
30°N ISRAEL JORDAN

L
KUWAIT Shiraz
Cairo Kuwait E PAKISTAN
Pe I L K H A N AT Delhi NEPAL Thimphu
SAUDI ARABIA rs i Kathmandu BHUTAN
an
QATAR G ulf Taipei
EGYPT Medina Riyadh Doha INDIA BANGLADESH
Dhaka
MYANMAR VIETNAM
The Mongol Empire in the Early 1300s Naypyidaw LAOS
Hanoi
Vientiane
Modern country borders and names 0 1000 km
THAILAND
Manila
Baghdad Modern national capitals 0 500 mi Bangkok
Robinson Projection, 70°E PHILIPPINES
Phnom Penh
 unit 7: Chapter 1

Ceramics in China and the Near East

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

♦ identify how trade and cultural ties led to artistic exchange between

China and the Near East from the tenth to the seventeenth century; and
♦ recognize visual evidence of these exchanges in ceramic works of art.

Introduction

This chapter explores how trade connections between China and the Near
East informed Near Eastern ceramic production, beginning in the eighth
century. In China, certain ceramic technologies were far more advanced than
in the Near East. Potters living in the region of present-day Iraq and Iran
experimented with new materials and decorative techniques in an attempt to
imitate prized Chinese wares. The ceramic works featured in this chapter
reflect the ways in which Chinese materials, technical innovations, forms,
and motifs inspired specific styles of pottery in the Near East.

Trade and Travel

Contact between China and the Near East predates the advent of Islam in the
seventh century; sea and land routes connected the two regions as early as
the third century b.c. The main route was the Silk Road, named after the
most important commodity that was traded along it—Chinese silk (see map,
page 32). The ease of travel across Asia and the Middle East was facilitated in
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by the Pax Mongolica (literally,
Mongol peace)—the unification under the Mongol conquerors, who swept
through Asia establishing control over territories stretching from East Asia
to eastern Europe (see map opposite).

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 In addition to traveling by land routes, merchants also traded via sea
routes, carrying luxury commodities such as ceramics, carpets, rice wine,
musk, perfumes, paper, dyestuffs, pearls, ink, and ivory in great quantities.
During the reign of the Abbasids (750–1258) there was remarkable
expansion in international trade. Sea routes stretched all the way from Iraq
to Indonesia, and ships traveling back and forth would stop at many ports
along the way to buy and sell goods. Abbasid merchants returned home with
finished goods (such as ceramics, paper, silk, and ink from China) as well
as raw materials (like spices from India and teakwood from Southeast Asia).
This boom in trade transformed Iraq into an international marketplace in
which prized Chinese and Southeast Asian imports such as silk, paper, tea,
and ceramics were sold.

Artistic Interconnections

On their journeys, traveling merchants were exposed to different peoples,

places, and cultures. In addition to the commodities they traded in bulk, they
often acquired luxury items, such as textiles, rugs, and metalwork—goods
that were admired and subsequently copied in areas far from their source.
Islamic motifs, such as arabesques, were disseminated in this way and began
to appear on Chinese-made textiles, marble carvings, and ceramic vessels.
Likewise, Chinese styles and materials influenced objects made in the Islamic
world. Among these are ceramic vessels that were inspired by Chinese
porcelain. The study of these ceramics, excavated in large numbers in the
Near East and in China, traces the history of artistic exchange and helps us
understand how trade facilitated artistic interconnections between two
distant regions.

The Importance of Ceramics

In the pre-Islamic period, most luxury vessels were made of precious metals,
including gold and silver, while ceramic wares were largely used for
utilitarian purposes such as storing water and food, transporting goods,
and cooking. However, in the Islamic world, luxury ceramics became popular
and were appreciated for their aesthetic appeal and affordability. This
phenomenon may be due in part to Muslim prohibitions on men using gold
vessels. However, it is also likely that the creation of more ornate ceramics
was a response to the demands of new buyers, who desired reasonably priced
luxury goods. Chinese imitations account for only a segment of the luxury
ceramics made in the Near East, however; many techniques and styles, such

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 as mina’i and lusterware, were developed independently, responding to local
tastes and influences.
Local potters in the Near East were impressed by the elegance and
durability of Chinese stoneware and porcelain ceramics and attempted to
re-create their prized qualities. Porcelain required white kaolin clay fired at
an extremely high temperature; neither the clay material nor the amount of
wood required for sustained firing at high temperatures were available in the
Near East. Iraqi potters invented ways to imitate the smooth white surface of
Chinese ceramics. Using locally available clay, they covered the earthenware
body of vessels with an opaque white coating called slip and decorated it with
designs in cobalt blue and other colors in emulation of Chinese porcelain.
Chinese ceramics had an indelible influence on the pottery of the
Islamic world, a trend that continued in Iran in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries and culminated during the Safavid period (1501–1722), when
ceramics were increasingly regarded as desirable luxury goods to present as
gifts. For instance, in 1609 the Safavid ruler Shah Abbas gave a gift of 835
Chinese porcelain vessels to the shrine of his dynasty’s spiritual founder,
Shaikh Safi in Ardabil, Iran. This act reflects the status of Chinese porcelain
as prized luxury objects in the Safavid court and demonstrates its role in
official gift giving.
During the early seventeenth century, Chinese potters emulated
Ottoman and Safavid ceramic designs. The likely patrons of these works
were Muslims in powerful positions in the Ming court, as well as Muslim
merchants in other parts of China. These patrons favored Islamic designs
and Arabic inscriptions on their luxury ceramic wares (fig. 48).

Fig. 48. Brush rest with Arabic

inscription, Ming dynasty (1368–
1644), early 16th century; China;
porcelain painted with cobalt
blue under transparent glaze
(Jingdezhen ware); L. 8¾ in.
(22.2 cm); Rogers Fund, 1918
(18.56.14)

A Muslim patron living in China

commissioned this brush rest.
The mountain form of the brush
rest is distinctly Chinese, while
the inscription is in Arabic,
reading “pen rest” (“pen” on one
side, and “rest” on the other). The
surface decoration in the form
of scrolling arabesques may also
be inspired by Islamic art.

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 41
Bowl with cobalt-blue inscriptions

9th century Description/Visual Analysis

Iraq, probably Basra The white ground of this shallow bowl creates a stark
Earthenware; painted in blue on opaque white glaze; contrast with the dark blue designs along the rim and
Diam. 8 in. (20.3 cm) in the center. The central calligraphic design consists of
Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1963 (63.159.4) a single word, ghibta (happiness), repeated twice in
kufic script.
Link to the Theme of This Chapter

This bowl, made in Iraq, is an example of the earliest Context

Chinese-inspired vessels produced in the Near East. When white wares from China arrived in the Abbasid
domains (present-day Iraq and Syria) in the eighth century,
Function
potters were impressed by their translucent white
In addition to being a functional object, a work like this surfaces. Although kaolin clay—the material used to
also conveyed the social and cultural status of its owner. create porcelain—was not available locally, Iraqi potters
The person who bought or commissioned this bowl could attempted to reproduce its visual effect and durability by
afford luxury ceramics and appreciated them for their covering the earthenware body of vessels with a layer of
aesthetic qualities. opaque white glaze. The white ground provided an ideal
surface for decoration in any color, but the combination
of blue and white was particularly popular.

Key Words and Ideas

Silk Road, cultural exchange and trade, China and Iraq, calligraphy (kufic script), Abbasid caliphate, ceramics

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 41. Bowl with cobalt-blue inscriptions

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 42
White bowl (tazza)

12th century perfect imitations of Chinese porcelain. Thus, while

Iran the appearance of this bowl is Chinese, the materials and
Stonepaste; incised under transparent glaze; H. 311⁄16 in. techniques are purely Persian. The introduction of
(9.4 cm), Diam. 7¾ in. (19.7 cm) stonepaste was a significant development in the history
Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1963 (63.159.2) of Islamic ceramics and remained the primary medium
until the materials and techniques required to produce
Link to the Theme of This Chapter
true porcelain were developed in the nineteenth and
This vessel reflects efforts by Near Eastern potters to
twentieth centuries.
emulate Chinese porcelain and motifs.

Function

In addition to being a functional bowl, a work like this

reflected the sophistication and refinement of its owner.

Description/Visual Analysis

At first glance, this footed bowl is almost indistinguishable

from Chinese examples (fig. 49). The entire body is
incised with delicate motifs and covered in a transparent
white glaze with a slightly greenish tint. In the center of
the interior, a rosette motif radiates upward to the vessel’s
walls and a vine scroll wraps around the exterior. The
incised lines are decorative, but are also used to make the
clay appear even thinner, in order to more closely
approximate the look of translucent porcelain. The light
shining through the incised lines creates a subtle play of
translucency and opacity.

Context

This tazza, or shallow bowl resting on a foot, reflects the

result of the artistic interconnections between Greater
Fig. 49. Small bowl, late Northern Song (960–1127)–Jin (1115–
Iran and China during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. 1234) dynasty, about 12th century; China; porcelain incised with
It is made of stonepaste, a material adapted by twelfth- decoration under ivory-white glaze (Ding ware); Diam. 3½ in.
century Persian (Iranian) potters in Kashan in the twelfth (8.9 cm); Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Roger G. Gerry, 1980 (1980.532)
century as a more translucent, durable, and sophisticated
This twelfth-century bowl is an example of Chinese porcelain,
alternative to earthenware. Stonepaste (also known as frit)
the material Iranian potters tried to imitate. The inside of the
is made of ground quartz mixed with clay and glaze, and bowl displays an incised flower motif. The body is covered with
turns white when fired. Visually, these wares were near an ivory-white glaze.

Key Words and Ideas

Silk Road, cultural exchange and trade, China and Iran, Abbasid caliphate, ceramics, porcelain, stonepaste

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 42. White bowl (tazza)

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 43
Tile with image of a phoenix

Late 13th century Context

Iran, probably Takht-i Sulaiman This tile indicates the close economic, political, and
Stonepaste; underglaze-painted in blue and turquoise, artistic relationship between the Ilkhanid Mongols and
luster-painted on opaque white ground, molded; their Chinese Yuan cousins within the vast area controlled
14¾ x 14¼ in. (37.5 x 36.2 cm) by descendants of the Mongol conqueror, Genghis Khan.
Rogers Fund, 1912 (12.49.4) As east-west trade flourished throughout the Mongol
domains, so did the transmission of artistic techniques,
Link to the Theme of This Chapter
aesthetic tastes, and decorative motifs. The Ilkhanids,
The phoenix (featured here) and dragon (found on many whose name means “subordinates to the Great Khan [of
other tiles found at the same site) are important symbols China],” ruled Iran and its surrounding territories.
in Chinese art and culture, in which they are regarded as Nomads and traders transported luxury items, such as
benevolent and auspicious beasts (fig. 50). Both subjects textiles and works of art on paper and silk, throughout
made their way from China into Iran. The phoenix was the vast empire, introducing dragons, lotus flowers,
transformed into a mythical Persian bird, the simurgh. In phoenixes, and other creatures from Chinese mythology
its Persian context, the simurgh retained its benevolent and into the Ilkhanid decorative repertoire, where they took
magical associations. It is legendary for saving the life of on new meanings and forms.
prince Zal in the Shahnama. (See “The Making of a Persian
Royal Manuscript: The Shahnama (Book of Kings) of Shah
Tahmasp”.) This is just one of many Chinese motifs—
such as scroll-like clouds and vegetal spirals of flowers,
leaves, and vines—that began to appear in Persian art
during the thirteenth century.

Function

Archaeological evidence indicates that this tile was once

one of hundreds that decorated the interior walls of the
Ilkhanid imperial palace Takht-i Sulaiman (near Tabriz, in
present-day northwestern Iran). Together with other
decoration such as carved stucco, the tiles created a richly
colored and textured surface in the interior of the palace.

Description/Visual Analysis

A phoenix, or simurgh, adorns the center of this tile, the

body pointing upward toward the sky and the blue and
turquoise plumage spreading out behind it. The entire
surface is molded in relief and painted in blue, turquoise,
white, and luster—a gold-colored metallic sheen achieved Fig. 50. Canopy with phoenixes and flowers, Yuan dynasty
(1271–1368), China; silk and metallic thread embroidery on silk
by firing at a specific temperature. One can imagine
gauze; overall: 56⅜ x 53 in. (143.2 x 134.6 cm); Purchase, Amalia
the stunning visual effect created by hundreds of such Lacroze de Fortabat Gift, Louis V. Bell and Rogers Funds, and
intricate and colorful tiles adorning the inside of a Lita Annenberg Hazen Charitable Trust Gift, in honor of
palatial room. Ambassador Walter H. Annenberg, 1988 (1988.82)

Key Words and Ideas

Cultural exchange, Genghis Khan, Ilkhanid Mongols, Chinese Yuan, phoenix, simurgh, relief, stonepaste

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 43. Tile with image of a phoenix

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 44
Elephant-shaped drinking vessel (kendi  )

Second quarter of the 17th century Chinese porcelain and were often painted in cobalt-blue
Iran, probably Kirman pigment, which was mined in Iran and was both used
Stonepaste; painted in shades of blue under transparent glaze; locally and exported to China. The blue-and-white wares
H. 9⅛ in. (23.2 cm), W. 7⅛ in. (18.1 cm), Diam. 4⅝ in. (11.7 cm) produced in China were avidly collected in Iran and later
The Friends of the Department of Islamic Art Fund, 1968 in Europe. The demand for blue-and-white wares
(68.180) stimulated the production of domestic imitations in many
regions. Eventually, Persian potters achieved a level of
Link to the Theme of This Chapter
mastery that enabled them to sell blue-and-white
This object illustrates a late phase in the artistic
stonepaste pieces to the Dutch, who appreciated them
interconnections between China and Iran, when
as replicas of Chinese porcelain.
domestically produced wares in Iran were strikingly
similar to Chinese models.

Function

This jar most likely served as a drinking vessel or a base

for a water pipe, but was above all appreciated for
its decorative qualities. Persian potters adopted the form
from similar Chinese wares (fig. 51).

Description/Visual Analysis

This vessel takes the form of a seated elephant with a

cylinder on its back. The decoration, in underglaze-blue
paint, extends along the entire body. The cylinder, into
which the liquid would be poured, sits upon a flowerlike
collar embellished with painted birds and flowers.
Garlands and hanging tassels adorn the neck and rear
of the elephant. A blanket, thrown across the elephant’s
back, is divided into four decorative quadrants on each
side and features a stylized lotus flower (another
Chinese import).

Context

An important difference between Persian and Chinese

Fig. 51. Elephant-shaped drinking vessel (kendi), Ming dynasty
examples is the smooth white porcelain body that was (1368–1644), late 16th century; China; porcelain painted in
unique to China. Craftsmen in Persia were unfamiliar underglaze blue; H. to top of spout 7 in. (17.8 cm), L. 6½ in.
with the main raw ingredient, white kaolin clay. They also (16.5 cm); Purchase, Seymour Fund, funds from various funds
had no knowledge of the complex firing technique, which and Stanley Herzman Gift, 2003 (2003.232)
involved specially constructed, high-temperature kilns. This kendi is a Chinese original—the white translucent surface
Works made of stonepaste, such as this example, reflect readily distinguishes the material as porcelain. The strength
an attempt to re-create the smooth white surface of and malleability of this material enabled the artist to shape
the trunk and contour of the head with greater precision than
in the Persian example.

Key Words and Ideas

Cultural exchange and trade, China and Iran, Ming dynasty, Safavid empire, elephant, lotus, geometric ornament, stonepaste

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 44. Elephant-shaped drinking vessel (kendi  )

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 Lesson Plan: Unit 7, Chapter 1  Ceramics in China and the Near East

Featured Work of Art Activity Setting: Classroom or Museum

Tile with image of a phoenix (image 43) Materials: Pencil, paper, “The Mongol Empire, about
Late 13th century 1300” map (see page 206), and computer with Internet
Iran, probably Takht-i Sulaiman access (or relevant printouts from the Museum’s
Stonepaste; underglaze-painted in shades of blue and website). For the alternative activity, you will also need
turquoise, luster-painted on opaque white ground, clay and paint or glaze.
molded; 14¾ x 14¼ in. (37.5 x 36.2 cm)
Questions for Viewing
Rogers Fund, 1912 (12.49.4)
♦♦ Look closely at the tile. What type of lines, shapes,
Subject Areas: Visual Arts and World History and colors do you notice?
Grades: Middle School and High School ♦♦ Describe the features of the animal. What do they
Topic/Theme: Art as a Primary Resource remind you of? Why?
♦♦ The phoenix (featured here) and dragon (found on
Goals
many other tiles from the same site) are important
Students will be able to:
symbols in Chinese art and culture, in which they
♦♦ identify ways works of art reflect exchange between
are seen as benevolent and auspicious beasts.
Chinese and Near Eastern civilizations;
When the phoenix motif was imported into Iran,
♦♦ recognize ways animals act as symbols in various
it was transformed into a mythical Persian bird, the
cultures; and
simurgh. What words might you use to describe
♦♦ create a tile that highlights the qualities and traits
the simurgh featured on this tile from Iran? Why?
commonly associated with an animal. ♦♦ Where do you see tilework in your community?

National Learning Standards How, if at all, do the types of tiles used at each
Visual Arts site differ?
♦♦ NA-VA.K-12.3 Choosing and Evaluating a Range of ♦♦ Where might a tile like this be found? What do you

Subject Matter, Symbols, and Ideas see that makes you say that? Tiles bearing this
♦♦ NA-VA.K-12.4 Understanding the Visual Arts in motif and possibly produced from the same molds
Relation to History and Cultures were excavated at Takht-i Sulaiman, the royal
♦♦ NA-VA.K-12.6 Making Connections Between Visual summer palace of the Ilkhanid Mongol ruler Abaqa
Arts and Other Disciplines (reigned 1265–82) in northwestern Iran.
World History
Activity
♦♦ NSS-WH.5-12.5 Era 5: Intensified Hemispheric
Subject Areas: Visual Arts and World History
Interactions, 1000–1500 c.e.
Duration: Approximately 45 minutes
Common Core State Standards
The Ilkhanid Mongols of Iran (1206–1353) and their
Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and
Chinese Yuan (1271–1368) cousins both lived within the
Technical Subjects
vast area controlled by descendants of Genghis Khan
♦♦ W.CCR.2 Write informative/explanatory texts to
(see map, page 206). Compare and contrast the art of
examine and convey complex ideas and information
the Ilkhanid Mongols and the Yuan dynasty (see
clearly and accurately through the effective
resources). Note similarities and differences between
selection, organization, and analysis of content
the materials, motifs, and techniques employed, and
♦♦ W.CCR.7 Conduct short as well as more sustained
identify details that suggest ties between these two
research projects based on focused questions,
cultures (see fig. 52). (For young children, focus each
demonstrating understanding of the subject under
student or small group on one comparison image.)
investigation

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 Alternative Activity Resources
Subject Area: Visual Arts
Carboni, Stefano, and Qamar Adamjee. “The Legacy of Genghis
Duration: Approximately 90 minutes
Khan.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The
Cultures throughout history have frequently associated Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.
org/toah/hd/khan1/hd_khan1.htm (October 2003).
animals with specific qualities or traits; for example,
many have revered lions for their bravery and strength, —. “A New Visual Language Transmitted across Asia.” In
and owls for their wisdom. Select one animal and Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan
research the various qualities and traits that communities Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/
around the world have associated with it. Create a tile hd/khan4/hd_khan4.htm (October 2003).
design featuring this animal using line, shape, and color
—. “Takht-i Sulaiman and Tile Work in the Ilkhanid
to emphasize key details and reinforce those qualities or
Period.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The
traits. Present the tile along with your research findings, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.
a statement about your use of elements (such as line, org/toah/hd/khan7/hd_khan7.htm (October 2003).
shape, and color) in the work, and a photograph or
description of where you would place the tile and why. Department of Asian Art. “Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368).” In
Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/
hd/yuan/hd_yuan.htm (October 2001).

Yalman, Suzan. Based on original work by Linda Komaroff.

“The Art of the Ilkhanid Period (1256–1353).” In Heilbrunn
Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ilkh/
hd_ilkh.htm (October 2001).

Objects in the Museum’s Collection

related to this lesson

Fig. 52. Canopy with phoenixes and flowers, Yuan dynasty

(1271–1368); China; silk and metallic thread embroidery on
silk gauze; overall: 56⅜ x 53 in. (143.2 x 134.6 cm); Purchase,
Amalia Lacroze de Fortabat Gift, Louis V. Bell and Rogers
Funds, and Lita Annenberg Hazen Charitable Trust Gift, in
honor of Ambassador Walter H. Annenberg, 1988 (1988.82)

Plate, Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), mid-14th century; China;

porcelain painted with cobalt blue under transparent glaze;
Diam. 18 in. (45.7 cm); Purchase, Mrs. Richard E. Linburn Gift,
1987 (1987.10)

Dish with two intertwined dragons, about 1640; Iran, Kirman;

Fig. 52. Canopy with phoenixes and flowers, Yuan dynasty stonepaste; painted in blue under transparent glaze;
(1271–1368); China; silk and metallic thread embroidery on H. 2¾ in. (7 cm), Diam. 17¼ in. (43.8 cm); Harris Brisbane Dick
silk gauze; overall: 56⅜ x 53 in. (143.2 x 134.6 cm); Purchase, Fund, 1965 (65.109.2)
Amalia Lacroze de Fortabat Gift, Louis V. Bell and Rogers
Funds, and Lita Annenberg Hazen Charitable Trust Gift, in
honor of Ambassador Walter H. Annenberg, 1988 (1988.82) Author: Adapted from lessons by classroom teachers Jesse Johnson and
Katherine Huala
Date: 2012

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Unit 7: Chapter 1 Suggested Readings and Resources

Carboni, Stefano, and Qamar Adamjee. “The Legacy of Herber, Janis. Marco Polo for Kids: His Marvelous Journey to
Genghis Khan.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New China, 21 Activities. Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2001.
York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www. Elementary school; middle school; high school
metmuseum.org/toah/hd/khan1/hd_khan1.htm (October 2003). An accessible publication that focuses mainly on China and
High school offers many engaging activities for students.

—. “A New Visual Language Transmitted across Asia.” Major, John S., Joan Barnatt, and John Bertles. Silk Road
In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Encounters Education Kit. Providence, R.I.: Asia Society
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www. and The Silk Road Project, Inc., 2001. Online version:
metmuseum.org/toah/hd/khan4/hd_khan4.htm http://www.silkroadproject.org/Education/Resources/
(October 2003). emSilkRoadEncountersem/tabid/339/Default.aspx.
High school See especially chapter 3 of the Teacher’s Guide,
“Trading in the Silk Road Cities.”
—. “Takht-i Sulaiman and Tile Work in the Ilkhanid
Period.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: Silk Road Project, Inc., The. “The Silk Road Project.” Website.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www. Boston: The Silk Road Project, Inc., 2012. http://www.
metmuseum.org/toah/hd/khan7/hd_khan7.htm (October silkroadproject.org/.
2003). High school
High school
Sultan’s Lost Treasure. Video. 55 min. Boston: WGBH/Nova,
Department of Asian Art. “Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368).” 2001.
In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: Discusses the underwater discovery of Ming-dynasty porcelain
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www. from a ship that was bound for the Sultanate of Brunei and
metmuseum.org/toah/hd/yuan/hd_yuan.htm (October 2001). sank 500 years ago.
High school
Yalman, Suzan. Based on original work by Linda Komaroff.
Gordon, Stewart. When Asia Was the World: Traveling “The Art of the Ilkhanid Period (1256–1353).” In Heilbrunn
Merchants, Scholars, Warriors, and Monks Who Created the Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum
“Riches of the East.” Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2008. of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ilkh/
Middle school; high school hd_ilkh.htm (October 2003).
High school

unit 7: chapter 1  Sources

Canby, Sheila R. Shah ‘Abbas: The Remaking of Iran. Exhibition catalogue. Rogers, J. M. “Chinese-Iranian Relations iv. The Safavid Period,
London: British Museum Press, 2009. 1501–1732.” In Encyclopaedia Iranica. Online Edition, 2012. http://
Carboni, Stefano, and Qamar Adamjee. “A New Visual Language www.iranicaonline.org/articles/chinese-iranian-iv (originally
Transmitted across Asia.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New published December 15, 1991, last updated October 14, 2011).
York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www. Soucek, Priscilla. “Ceramic Production as Exemplar of Yuan-Ilkhanid
metmuseum.org/toah/hd/khan4/hd_khan4.htm (October 2003). Relations.” RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics no. 35 (Spring 1999),
Carswell, John. Blue & White: Chinese Porcelain around the World. London: pp. 125–41.
British Museum Press, 2000. Watson, Oliver. “Chinese-Iranian Relations xi. Mutual Influence of
Crowe, Yolande. Persia and China: Safavid Blue and White Ceramics in the Chinese and Persian Ceramics.” In Encyclopaedia Iranica. Online
Victoria & Albert Museum, 1501–1738. London: La Borie, 2002. Edition, 2012. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/chinese-
Ekhtiar, Maryam D., Priscilla P. Soucek, Sheila R. Canby, and Navina Najat iranian-xi (originally published December 15, 1991, last updated
Haidar, eds. Masterpieces from the Department of Islamic Art in The October 17, 2011).
Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum —. Ceramics from Islamic Lands. New York: New York University,
of Art, 2011 (cat. nos. 10, 78, 156). Thames & Hudson in association with The al-Sabah Collection, Dar
Golombek, Lisa, Robert B. Mason, and Gauvin A. Bailey. Tamerlane’s al-Athar al-Islamiyyah, Kuwait National Museum, 2004.
Tableware: A New Approach to Chinoiserie Ceramics of Fifteenth- and Yingsheng, Liu, and Peter Jackson. “Chinese-Iranian Relations iii. In the
Sixteenth-Century Iran. Costa Mesa, Calif.: Mazda, 1996. Mongol Period.” In Encyclopaedia Iranica. Online Edition, 2012.
Lane, Arthur. Early Islamic Pottery: Mesopotamia, Egypt and Persia. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/chinese-iranian-iii (originally
London: Faber & Faber, 1947. published December 15, 1991, last updated October 14, 2011).

220 unit 7: chapter 1. ceramics in china and the near east

 unit 7: Chapter 2

Venice and
the Islamic World

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

♦ identify how factors such as trade and diplomacy led to artistic exchange

between Venice and the Islamic world during the thirteenth through the
sixteenth centuries; and
♦ recognize visual evidence of exchanges in works of art.

Introduction

The city of Venice, in northeastern Italy, was founded in the seventh century.
The city is comprised of 117 small islands situated in a lagoon with easy
access to both the Adriatic and Mediterranean Seas. The Venetians took full
advantage of their city’s strategic location to conduct both local and long-
distance trade, and eventually became one of the world’s most powerful
maritime empires. Venice’s economy focused on trade and merchants held
important positions of power in Venetian culture. Venice began trading with
the Islamic world as early as the eighth century. For centuries, Venice was the
link between Europe and the Muslim powers in North Africa and the eastern
Mediterranean; most luxury goods making their way over sea routes from
Islamic lands to Europe passed through Venetian ports (see map, page 222).
Because of the importance of trade with Arab lands and Ottoman Turkey,
many Venetians learned Arabic and spent considerable time in these regions,
buying goods such as spices and raw silk that could be sold for a profit upon
their return. This trade had an enormous economic as well as cultural
advantage for both parties. Artistic techniques, ideas, and motifs flowed
from East to West, and vice versa, through the movement of both merchants
and goods. Venice’s main trading partners were the Mamluks, whose capital
was in Egypt, and the Ottomans, whose capital was in Turkey. Despite the
mutual benefit of trade, Venice’s relationship with both of these empires was
complex, encompassing intermittent periods of peace interrupted by trade
embargos and territorial wars.

221
 222
15°W 0 15°E 30°E 45°E

unit

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Ru n nin
RUSSIA
BELARUS
IRELAND
UNITED NETHERLANDS
POLAND

7: chapter
KINGDOM
GERMANY
BELGIUM
CZECH REP.
UKRAINE
A t la nt i c SLOVAKIA
O c ea n AUSTRIA Budapest
HUNGARY MOLDOVA
SWITZERLAND
FRANCE SLOVENIA
45°N Venice CROATIA
Genoa ROMANIA
BOSNIA & SERBIA
ITALY HERZ.

MONTENEGRO KOSOVO BULGARIA Black Sea CAUCASUS Caspian

MACEDONIA
Sea
Rome Istanbul GEORGIA
PORTUGAL Madrid ALBANIA Iznik ARMENIA
Bursa AZERBAIJAN
ANATOLIA

g foot 2. venice and the islamic world

SPAIN
GREECE TURKEY
ALUSIA Ushak
AND Tunis Athens

I B CYPRUS
R Tell Minis
Rabat H Medite SYRIA
G rranean Sea LEBANON
A TUNISIA Baghdad
Damascus
M
Tig

Tripoli PALESTINE
ris

MOROCCO ISRAEL JORDAN IRAQ

IRAN
LEVANT

Alexandria
30°N
Mamluk, Ottoman, and Venetian Cairo
A
R

Territories in the Early 1500s

ALGERIA
A

B
IA
Modern country Venetian Republic, N
EGYPT
borders and names ca. 1530 LIBYA P
EN QATAR

Extent of Ottoman IN
Baghdad Modern national SU UNITED ARAB
Empire, ca. 1520 EMIRATES
capitals SAUDI
LA
ARABIA
Mamluk Sultanate,
Sea trade routes
ca. 1517 (just prior
to Ottoman conquest)
0 1000 km
OMAN
NIGER CHAD
0 Robinson Projection, 45°E 1000 mi SUDAN
YEMEN
15°N

8/24/12 10:25 AM
 Venice and the Mamluks

The Mamluk empire (1250–1517) was a military-controlled sultanate that

ruled lands in present-day Egypt and Syria. Trade between the Venetians and
Mamluks began as early as the thirteenth century and profited both empires,
strengthening their diplomatic ties. Trade led to the exchange of materials
and goods as well as artistic styles and techniques. Artists in Syria and Egypt
produced works of exquisite craftsmanship in glass, metal, silk, and wood
to be traded with Europe, most often through the Venetians. The Venetians
particularly valued the opulence and sophistication of Mamluk enameled
glassware and began producing local imitations. Some of the buildings
erected in Venice during the height of this trade relationship also reflected
Mamluk style, which the Venetians saw as luxurious and exotic
(see figs. 53, 54). The Mamluks and Venetians remained advantageous
trading partners until Ottoman forces conquered the Mamluks in 1516–17.
Trade between the former Mamluk lands and Venice continued, but under
the auspices of Ottoman rule.

Fig. 53. Facade of the Doge’s

Palace, Venice, Italy, 1340–1510

Fig. 54. Mosque of Altinbugha

al-Maridani, Cairo, Egypt,
1339–40

Note similarities in the style of

the arcades and crenellations to
those in the Doge’s Palace above.

unit 7: chapter 2. venice and the islamic world 223

 Venice and the Ottomans

The Ottoman empire (1299–1923) was, at its peak, one of the most important
economic and cultural powers in the world and ruled a vast area stretching
from the Middle East and North Africa all the way to Budapest (in present-
day Hungary) in the north. Throughout the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,
the Venetian and Ottoman empires were trading partners—a mutually
beneficial relationship providing each with access to key ports and valuable
goods (fig. 55). Though territorial wars intermittently interrupted their
relationship, both empires relied on trade for their economic well-being. As
a Venetian ambassador expressed, “being merchants, we cannot live without
them.” The Ottomans sold wheat, spices, raw silk, cotton, and ash (for glass
making) to the Venetians, while Venice provided the Ottomans with finished
goods such as soap, paper, and textiles. The same ships that transported
these everyday goods and raw materials also carried luxury objects such as
carpets, inlaid metalwork, illustrated manuscripts, and glass. Wealthy
Ottomans and Venetians alike collected the exotic goods of their trading
partner and the art of their empires came to influence one another. (For more
about the Ottoman empire, see “Art and Empire: The Ottoman Court,” page
123, and “Domestic Life in Eighteenth-Century Damascus,” page 183.)

Fig. 55. Venice as rendered

by Ottoman admiral and
cartographer Piri Reis in
the early 16th century.
Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin,
Bildarchiv Preussischer
Kulturbesitz

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 The Islamic Impact on Venice

The latest Islamic tastes were often reflected in the homes of the richest
Venetians, for whom luxury objects from the East became desired
collectibles. Islamic art and architecture also influenced Venetian painting.
Artists who traveled to Islamic lands were fascinated by the people,
garments, and architecture they saw there and sketched them in meticulous
detail. Many brought their drawings back to Europe, where they circulated
widely in artistic circles. Such sketches influenced a whole generation of
painters and led to the popularity of Eastern scenes and costumes in Venice
(fig. 56). Venetian paintings, particularly of biblical subjects, incorporated
settings inspired by Mamluk Egypt and Ottoman Turkey. In addition to
artistic influence, the Islamic world also contributed to the scientific growth
of Venetian culture. Many of the classical astronomical and mathematical
treatises known in Venice were originally introduced through Arabic
translations. (See “Science and the Art of the Islamic World,” page 91.) These
various connections left a very tangible legacy in Venice; by the nineteenth
century, some of the most important and largest collections of Islamic art
were in Venetian hands.

Fig. 56. Reception of the Venetian Ambassadors in Damascus, 1511; Venice; oil on canvas, 46½ x 80 in. (118 x 203 cm);
Musée du Louvre, Paris

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 45
Lamp for the Mausoleum of Amir Aidakin al-‘Ala’i al-Bunduqdar

Shortly after 1285 The Venetians admired and imitated floral decorative
Egypt, probably Cairo elements popular in Egypt during the thirteenth through
Glass, brownish; blown, folded foot, applied handles; sixteenth centuries (fig. 57). Luxury items from the
enameled and gilded; 10⅜ x 8¼ in. (26.4 x 21 cm) Islamic world were readily available as models, having
Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917 (17.190.985) come into Venetian collections through trade and as
diplomatic gifts.
Link to the Theme of This Chapter

Venetians prized enameled glass objects produced in

Egypt and Syria. They collected and emulated Mamluk
glass, inspiring the local production of enamel-painted
glass vessels in Venice.

Function

This enameled glass lamp was made for the mausoleum

of a high-ranking Mamluk officer. It would have been
suspended from an arch, lintel, vault, or dome by chains
attached to the glass loops on the body, and filled with oil
and a floating wick, which when lit would illuminate the
lamp from within. In the days before electricity, these lamps
were essential in providing light to the interiors of mosques
and other buildings. One can imagine the visual effect of
hundreds of such lamps hanging from chains, illuminating
the interior of a mosque or tomb. (The Museum has
re-created this effect in gallery 454 with modern hanging
lamps commissioned specifically for this space.)

Description/Visual Analysis

This lamp features a semi-spherical body with a low foot

and a wide opening. The enameled and gilded surface is
decorated with three bands of calligraphy—one on the
flare, one on the body, and a third on the underside of the
vessel. The inscription on the body, which has been left
Fig. 57. Pilgrim flask, about 1500–1525; Italy, Venice; glass,
unpainted, would have glowed when the lamp was lit. In
colorless, nonlead; blown, enameled, gilt; H. 12⅜ in. (31.4 cm);
addition to the calligraphic text, a pair of confronted bows Robert Lehman Collection, 1975 (1975.1.1167)
set against a red circular ground appears nine times.
This flat-sided bottle, called a pilgrim flask, is an example of a
Context vessel produced in Venice after Islamic models, and reflects
This lamp provides insight into the court life of the transmission of artistic forms and techniques through
thirteenth-century Egypt. An inscription indicates the trade. The scrolling floral elements, which form a medallion
surrounded by a double pearl border, are evocative of motifs
lamp was commissioned for the tomb of a high-ranking
seen on gilded and painted glass from Syria and Egypt. The
Mamluk officer who held the title “Keeper of the [Sultan’s] technique of enameled glass was highly prized by Venetian
Bow”; the blazon, or coat of arms, on this lamp features a collectors. Responding to local demand, Venetian craftsmen
crossbow, the symbol of his office. imitated the forms and motifs of the foreign works of art.

Key Words and Ideas

Trade, Venice and Egypt, Mamluks, calligraphy (thuluth script), lamp, blown glass

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 45. Lamp for the Mausoleum of Amir Aidakin al-‘Ala’i al-Bunduqdar

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 46
Velvet fragment

Second half of the 16th century The motif, a symmetrical design of repeating
Turkey, Bursa artichoke-shaped forms surrounded by a palmette with
Silk, metal-wrapped thread; cut and voided velvet, brocaded; saz leaves, is enhanced by the floral forms that appear
66 x 52 in. (167.6 x 132.1 cm), Wt. 89 lbs. (40.4 kg) within the leaves, as well as by the meandering scrolls of
Rogers Fund, 1917 (17.29.10) carnations, tulips, and hyacinths. The silver metallic thread,
now slightly tarnished, would once have shimmered
Link to the Theme of This Chapter
against the rich red background.
This velvet fragment contains motifs typical of Ottoman
textiles, which were transmitted to Venice via trade and Context
inspired a new direction in Italian weaving. Motifs Italian weavers, admiring Ottoman designs, readily
traveled back and forth between Ottoman and Venetian incorporated and adapted them into their own textiles.
workshops and many of the textiles of both centers Likewise, Turkish weavers often wove carpets inspired by
feature strikingly similar characteristics (fig. 58). designs in Venetian velvets. Preferring the expensive and
exotic Venetian velvets to those locally produced in Bursa,
Function
the Ottoman court ordered a large number of kaftans
While the exact function of this textile is unknown,
made of Venetian silk. Despite vibrant textile industries
Ottoman textiles woven from fine silk were often used
of their own, the Ottomans and Venetians remained
to make expensive garments or furnishings such as
important clients of one another’s textile production.
cushions, wall hangings, upholstery, and curtains. Textiles
Works like this reflect the cultural and economic ties
like this were also frequently sewn into ecclesiastical or
between the two powers.
other ceremonial garments in the West.

Description/Visual Analysis

This panel consists of two almost identical, loom-width

pieces of silk velvet. In the first row of each piece, the
featured motif is intact; in the second row, it is split in half
along the outer edges. When the two panels are placed
side by side, the motif in the second row is completed.

Fig. 58. Length of velvet, late 15th century; Italy, Venice; silk,
metal thread; 23 x 12 ft. 4 in. (58.4 x 375.9 cm); Rogers Fund, 1912
(12.49.8)

This velvet fragment woven in Italy features an artichoke motif

that closely resembles those found in contemporary Ottoman
examples. Such velvets were in high demand throughout
Europe and the Ottoman empire, where they were used to
make luxurious clothing and home furnishings. Similar textiles
appear frequently in paintings of the Madonna and Child and
other religious scenes, where their preciousness pays tribute
to the exalted status of the subjects. (See, for example,
Crivelli’s Madonna and Child Enthroned [1982.60.5].)

Key Words and Ideas

Trade and diplomacy, Venice and Turkey, Ottoman empire, cultural exchange, textile, silk

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 46. Velvet fragment

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 Lesson Plan: Unit 7, Chapter 2  Venice and the Islamic World

Featured Work of Art Materials: Pencils, 8½ x 11–inch paper for sketching,

Velvet fragment (image 46) large paper (8½ x 11 inches or larger, if possible),
Second half of the 16th century tracing paper
Turkey, Bursa
Questions for Viewing (designed to follow the
Silk, metal-wrapped thread; cut and voided velvet,
suggested activity)
brocaded; 66 x 52 in. (167.6 x 132.1 cm); weight,
♦♦ Describe the shapes you see. Of what do they
89 lbs. (40.4 kg)
remind you? Why?
Rogers Fund, 1917 (17.29.10)
♦♦ What do you notice about the way the shapes are
Subject Area: English Language Arts, Visual Arts, and organized?
World History ♦♦ What steps might be involved in creating this work?
Grade: Middle School What do you see that makes you say that?
Activity Setting: Classroom or Museum ♦♦ How might fabric like this be used in your
Topic/Theme: Artistic Exchange community? In the Ottoman empire works such
as this were used in furnishings (i.e. cushions,
Goals curtains, and wall hangings) or clothing; Europeans
Students will be able to: frequently imported textiles in this style for
♦♦ recognize evidence of artistic exchange and mutual
ceremonial costumes like this robe (fig. 59).
influence between Venice and the Islamic world
in works of art; and Fig. 59. Vestment (chasuble),
♦♦ use informational texts as a resource to late 16th century; Italy; silk,
substantiate inferences. metal, linen; L. 50 in. (127 cm);
Brooklyn Museum Costume
National Learning Standards Collection at The Metropolitan
English Language Arts Museum of Art, Gift of the
Brooklyn Museum, 2009; Gift
♦♦ NL-ENG.K-12.8 Developing Research Skills
of the Rembrandt Club, 1911
Visual Arts (2009.300.2953)
♦♦ NA-VA.K-12.3 Choosing and Evaluating a Range of
Subject Matter, Symbols, and Ideas
♦♦ NA-VA.K-12.4 Understanding the Visual Arts in
Relation to History and Cultures
♦♦ NA-VA.K-12.6 Making Connections Between Visual
Arts and Other Disciplines ♦♦ Ottoman weavers and other
World History artists frequently used the
♦♦ NSS-WH.5-12.6 Era 6: The Emergence of the First artichoke-and-leaf motif in the
Global Age, 1450–1770 sixteenth century. During this
period the artichoke motif was
Common Core State Standards
also employed by Venetian
English Language Arts
artists. A comparison between
♦♦ SL.CCR.2 Integrate and evaluate information
the featured work of art and a
presented in diverse media and formats, including
length of velvet reveals subtle
visually, quantitatively, and orally
variations in the forms (fig. 60).
♦♦ SL.CCR.4 Present information, findings, and
supporting evidence such that listeners can follow
the line of reasoning and the organization,
Fig. 60. Length of velvet, late 15th
development, and style are appropriate to task, century; Italy, Venice; silk, metal
purpose, and audience thread; 12 ft. 4 in. x 23 in. (375.9 x
58.4 cm); Rogers Fund, 1912 (12.49.8)

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 How might motifs travel from one region to the Resources
next? Read one or more of the suggested essays
Carboni, Stefano, Trinita Kennedy, and Elizabeth Marwell.
(see resources) to learn more about ties between
“Commercial Exchange, Diplomacy, and Religious Difference
Venice and the Ottoman empire; compare your
between Venice and the Islamic World.” In Heilbrunn Timeline
findings with the inferences you developed based of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
on close observation of the two works. 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cedr/hd_cedr.
♦♦ If someone asked you to create a work of art htm (March 2007).
incorporating the motifs in this design, would you
—. “Islamic Art and Culture: The Venetian Perspective.”
feel stifled or inspired? Why?
In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.
Activity metmuseum.org/toah/hd/isac/hd_isac.htm (March 2007).
Subject Area: Visual Arts Watt, Melinda. “Renaissance Velvet Textiles.” In Heilbrunn
Duration: Approximately 60 minutes Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/velv/
Trade and exchange between Venice and the Islamic
hd_velv.htm (August 2011).
world prompted artists in both regions to use and adapt
designs from one another; a comparison of the featured Objects in the Museum’s Collection
work of art and the length of velvet (fig. 60) reflects related to this lesson
this trend. Create a motif inspired by a work from
Fig. 59. Vestment (chasuble), late 16th century; Italy; silk,
Venice or the Islamic world:
metal, linen; L. 50 in. (127 cm); Brooklyn Museum Costume
1. Fold an 8½ x 11–inch sheet of paper into quarters. Collection at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of the
Brooklyn Museum, 2009; Gift of the Rembrandt Club, 1911
2. Select a work of art and sketch one small detail in (2009.300.2953)
each rectangle on your page.
Fig. 60. Length of velvet, late 15th century; Italy, Venice; silk,
3. Trade sketches with a partner. metal thread; 12 ft. 4 in. x 23 in. (375.9 x 58.4 cm); Rogers
Fund, 1912 (12.49.8)
4. Look closely at the sketches you received and select
Carlo Crivelli (Italian, active by 1457–died 1493), Madonna
one to develop further. Place tracing paper over the
and Child Enthroned, 1472; tempera on wood, gold ground;
drawing you selected. Copy the parts of the design
38¾ x 17¼ in. (98.4 x 43.8 cm); The Jack and Belle Linsky
you like best and modify the remaining areas to suit Collection, 1982 (1982.60.5)
your taste; repeat this process several times using
the same base drawing. Author: Adapted from a lesson by classroom teacher Katherine Huala
Date: 2012
5. After exploring several possibilities, identify the
motif you feel is the strongest and share your work
with your peers. Use one or more of the motifs
developed by you and your classmates to create a
pattern on a large sheet of paper; you can
reproduce the shapes by placing each drawing face
down on the fresh sheet of paper and rubbing the
back with the tip of your pencil.

6. Share your finished work and two or more process

sketches with a classmate. Discuss the development
of the design and your thoughts on where you
might best apply it (for example, on a shirt,
wallpaper, or rug) and why.

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 Unit 7: Chapter 2 Related Readings and Resources

Carboni, Stefano, ed. Venice and the Islamic World, 828–1797. —. “Venice’s Principal Muslim Trading Partners: The
Exhibition catalogue. New York: The Metropolitan Museum Mamluks, the Ottomans, and the Safavids.” In Heilbrunn
of Art, 2007. Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/vmos/
Carboni, Stefano, Trinita Kennedy, and Elizabeth Marwell. hd_vmos.htm (March 2007).
“Commercial Exchange, Diplomacy, and Religious Difference High school
between Venice and the Islamic World.” In Heilbrunn Timeline
of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Church and Mosque: Religious Architecture in Venice and
2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cedr/ Istanbul. DVD. 30 min. New York: Films for the Humanities
hd_cedr.htm (March 2007). and Sciences, 1996.
High school Discusses how the political and economic relationship
between these two cities influenced architectural design in the
—. “Islamic Art and Culture: The Venetian Perspective.” sixteenth century.
In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www. Covington, Richard. “East Meets West in Venice.” Saudi
metmuseum.org/toah/hd/isac/hd_isac.htm (March 2007). Aramco World (March–April 2008), pp. 2–13. http://www.
High school saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200802/east.meets.west.in.
venice.htm.
—. “Venice and the Islamic World, 828–1797.” In Heilbrunn Middle school; high school
Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/vnis/ Sardar, Marika. “Europe and the Islamic World, 1600–1800.”
hd_vnis.htm (March 2007). In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The
High school Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.
metmuseum.org/toah/hd/erpr/hd_erpr.htm (October 2004).
High school

unit 7: chapter 2  Sources

Carboni, Stefano, ed. Venice and the Islamic World, 828–1797. Exhibition Covington, Richard. “East Meets West in Venice.” Saudi Aramco World
catalogue. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2007. (March–April 2008), pp. 2–13.
Carboni, Stefano, Trinita Kennedy, and Elizabeth Marwell. “Commercial Ekhtiar, Maryam D., Priscilla P. Soucek, Sheila R. Canby, and Navina Najat
Exchange, Diplomacy, and Religious Difference between Venice and Haidar, eds. Masterpieces from the Department of Islamic Art in The
the Islamic World.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum. of Art, 2011 (cat. no. 109).
org/toah/hd/cedr/hd_cedr.htm (March 2007). Hess, Catherine, ed. The Arts of Fire: Islamic Influences on Glass and
—. “Islamic Art and Culture: The Venetian Perspective.” In Heilbrunn Ceramics of the Italian Renaissance. Exhibition catalogue. Los
Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2004.
Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/isac/hd_isac. Howard, Deborah. Venice & the East: The Impact of the Islamic World on
htm (March 2007). Venetian Architecture 1100–1500. New Haven: Yale University
—. “Venice and the Islamic World, 828–1797.” In Heilbrunn Timeline Press, 2000.
of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. Mack, Rosamond E. Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art,
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/vnis/hd_vnis.htm 1300–1600. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
(March 2007).
—. “Venice’s Principal Muslim Trading Partners: The Mamluks, the
Ottomans, and the Safavids.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.
New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.
metmuseum.org/toah/hd/vmos/hd_vmos.htm (March 2007).

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