Instrumentation and Process Control PDF
Instrumentation and Process Control PDF
PROCESS CONTROL
Instrumentation and Process Control
Author
1.1 Introduction
Dairy processing unit operations mainly involve heating, cooling, separating, drying or freezing of the products.
These unit operations are carried out under varying conditions of temperatures, pressures, flows and physical
compositions. The measurement and control of these variable factors at the various stages of processing call for
the accurate and efficient instruments, in addition to the dependence upon human skills. With the advent of large
scale milk handling plants the automatic operation and control through efficient instrumentation and automation
has become even more necessary. Utilities such as steam, water, electricity air, fuel etc. have to be measured and
controlled at appropriate points in the plant. Automatic control instruments are employed to measure and control
the temperature, pressure, flow and level of these utilities. The overall aim of the instrumentation/ automation is
to improve the product quality and enhance the plant efficiency for better economic returns.
1.2 Variable
A characteristic number or quantity that increases or decreases over time, or takes different values in different
situations is known as Variable. It is a factor that can be assigned a measurable dimension of some kind that
varies, e.g., length, diameter, area, flow, weight, cost or life-span etc. A dependent variable is any measurable
factor whose behavior is controlled by another variable. An independent variable is any measurable factor that
produces change or reaction in another variable. A variable is something that is changed or altered in an
experiment. In processing of food products the variables involved could be temperature and pressure of steam,
processing time, flow rate of various streams etc. For example, to determine the effect of temperature and
humidity on storage of a food product will provide evidence on the shelf life of product in different storage
conditions. Variable is liable to change, may have a range of possible values and is liable to deviate from an
established extension type.
1.3 Measurement
When we decide to study a variable we need to devise some way to measure it. Some variables are easy to
measure and others are very difficult. The values of variables are made meaningful by quantifying them into
specific units. For example, instead of saying that a particular fluid is hot, we can specify a measurement and
specify that the fluid is having a temperature of 80°C. Measurement is collection of quantitative data. A
measurement is made by comparing a quantity with a standard unit. An example of measurement means the use
of a ruler to determine the length of a piece of paper.
Measurement is thus essentially an act or the result of comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude is
unknown) and a predefined standard. Since both the quantities are compared, the result is expressed in numerical
values. In the physical sciences, quality assurance, and engineering, measurement is the activity of obtaining and
comparing physical quantities of real-world objects and events. Established standard objects and events are used
as units, and the process of measurement gives a number relating the item under study and the referenced unit of
measurement.
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There are two essential requirements of the measurements, in order to make the results meaningful;
(i) The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and should be commonly accepted.
(ii) The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.
The International System of Units (abbreviated as SI from the French language name Système International
d'Unités) is the modern revision of the metric system. It is the world's most widely used system of units, both in
everyday commerce and in science. The SI was developed in 1960 from the metre-kilogram-second (MKS)
system, rather than the centimetre-gram-second (CGS) system, which, in turn, had many variants. During its
development the SI also introduced several newly named units that were previously not a part of the metric
system. The original SI units for the six basic physical quantities were:
There are two types of SI units, base units and derived units. Base units are the simple measurements for time,
length, mass, temperature, amount of substance, electric current and light intensity. Derived units are constructed
from the base units, for example, the watt, i.e. the unit for power, is defined from the base units as m2·kg·s−3.
Other physical properties may be measured in compound units, such as material density, measured in kg/m3.
In R&D applications the design of equipments and processes require the basic engineering design data on the
properties of the input raw materials and processed products. The operation and maintenance of equipments for
optimal processing variables to achieve best quality product and energy efficient equipment utilization require
the monitoring and control of several process variables. Both these functions require measurements. The
economical design, operation and maintenance require a feedback of information. This information is supplied
by appropriate measurement systems.
The measurement systems and the instruments may be classified based upon the functions they perform. There
are four main functions performed by them: indicating, signal processing, recording and control.
i). Indicating Function: This function includes supplying information concerning the variable quantity under
measurement. Several types of methods could be employed in the instruments and systems for this purpose.
Most of the time, this information is obtained as the deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument.
ii). Recording Function: In many cases the instrument makes a written record, usually on paper, of the value
of the quantity under measurement against time or against some other variable. This is a recording function
performed by the instrument. For example, a temperature indicator / recorder in the HTST pasteurizer gives
the instantaneous temperatures on a strip chart recorder.
iii). Signal Processing: This function is performed to process and modify the measured signal to facilitate
recording / control.
iv). Controlling Function: This is one of the most important functions, especially in the food processing
industries where the processing operations are required to be precisely controlled. In this case, the
information is used by the instrument or the systems to control the original measured variable or quantity.
Thus, based on the above functions, there are three main groups of instruments. The largest group has the
indicating function. Next in line is the group of instruments which have both indicating and or recording
functions. The last group falls into a special category and perform all the three functions, i.e., indicating,
recording and controlling.
In this lesson only those instruments would be discussed whose functions are mainly indicating and recording,
especially those instruments which are used for engineering analysis purposes. The process control functions and
the related instruments are discussed in Lesson 27.
1.7 Basic Requirements of a Measurement System / Instrument
The following are the basic requirements of a good quality measurement system / instrument:
a) Ruggedness
b) Linearity
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c) No hysteresis
d) Repeatability
e) High output signal quality
f) High reliability and stability
g) Good dynamic response
Another application of instruments is in automatic control systems. Measurement of a variable and its
control are closely associated.
To control a process variable, e.g., temperature, pressure or humidity etc., the prerequisite is that it is
accurately measured at any given instant and at the desired location. Same is true for all other process
parameters such as position, level, velocity and flow, etc. and the servo-systems for these parameters.
A block diagram of a simple process control system is shown in Fig. 1.1.
The corrective action goes on till the output is at the same level as the input which corresponds to the desired
output. At this stage, there is no error signal and hence there is no input to the actuator and the control action
stops.
Common examples of this application are the domestic appliances, such as, refrigerator, air conditioner or a hot
air oven. All of these employ a thermostatic control. A temperature measuring device (often a bimetallic
element) measures the temperature in the room, refrigerated chamber or in the oven and provides the
information necessary for appropriate functioning of the control system in these appliances.
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Module 1. Instruments and measurement system
Lesson 2
ELEMENTS OF GENERALIZED MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
2.1 Introduction
Scientists, engineers and other humans use a vast range of instruments to perform their measurements. These
instruments may range from simple objects such as ruler scales and stopwatches to electron microscopes and
particle accelerators used by scientists and engineers.
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directly converted into an electrical quantity by a detector transducer. The first stage of a measurement system is
known as a detector transducer stage.
Variable manipulation means a change in numerical value of the signal. The function of a variable manipulation
element is to manipulate the signal presented to this element while preserving the original nature of the signal.
For example, a voltage amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element. The amplifier accepts a small voltage
signal as input and produces an output signal which is also voltage but of greater magnitude. The variable
manipulation element could be either placed after the variable conversion element or it may precede the variable
conversion element.
The solution to these problems is to prevent or remove the signal contamination or distortion. The operations
performed on the signal, to remove the signal contamination or distortion, is called Signal Conditioning. The
term signal conditioning includes many other functions in addition to variable conversion and variable
manipulation. Many signal conditioning processes may be linear, such as, amplification, attenuation, integration,
differentiation, addition and subtraction. Some may be non-linear processes, such as, modulation, filtering,
clipping, etc. The signal conditioning processes are performed on the signal to bring it to the desired form for
further transmission to next stage in the system. The element that performs this function in any instrument or
instrumentation system is known as Signal Conditioning Element.
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2.2.5 Data transmission element
There are several situations where the elements of an instrument are actually physically separated. In such
situations it becomes necessary to transmit data from one element to another. The element that performs this
function is called a Data Transmission Element. For example satellites or the air planes are physically separated
from the control stations at earth. For guiding the movements of satellites or the air planes control stations send
the radio by a complicated telemetry systems. The signal conditioning and transmission stage is commonly
known as Intermediate Stage.
Figure 2.1 below presents the block diagram of functional elements of a generalized measuring system /
instrument. One must understand the difference between functional elements and the physical elements of
measuring system. Functional element indicates only the function to be performed. Physical elements are the
actual components or parts of the system. One physical element can perform more than one function. Similarly
one function could be performed by more than one physical element. This is more suitably illustrated in the
example of a measuring instrument described below.
As an example of a measurement system, consider the simple Bourdon tube pressure gauge as shown in Fig. 2.2.
This gauge offers a good example of a measurement system. In this case, the Bourdon tube acts as the primary
sensing element and a variable conversion element. It senses the input quantity (pressure in this case). On
account of the pressure the closed end of the Bourdon tube is displaced. Thus, the pressure is converted into a
small displacement. The closed end of the Bourdon tube is connected through mechanical linkage to a sector-
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Instrumentation and Process Control
pinion gearing arrangement. The gearing arrangement amplifies the small displacement and makes the pointer to
rotate through a large angle. The mechanical linkage thus acts as a data transmission element while the gearing
arrangement acts as a data manipulation element. The dial scale on the gauge body plays the function of data
presentation element and conveys the information about the quantity being measured. The information conveyed
by this device is in analogue form.
As another example of a measurement system, let us consider the simple clinical thermometer shown in Fig. 2.3.
In this case, the thermometer bulb containing mercury acts as the primary sensing element as well as a variable
conversion element. It senses the input quantity, the temperature. On account of the increase in temperature the
mercury in bulb expands and its volume is increased. The temperature signal is converted into volume
displacement. As the mercury expands it move through the capillary tube in the thermometer stem, integrated to
the bulb. The cross section area of the capillary being constant, the volume signal is thus converted into linear
distance signal. The capillary thus has the role of signal manipulation and data transportation elements. The final
data presentation stage consists of the scale on the thermometer stem, which is calibrated to give the indication
of the temperature signal applied to the thermometer bulb. A restriction bend is provided in the clinical
thermometers at the junction of the bulb and the capillary, which does not allow the back flow of mercury to the
bulb once it has expanded to the capillary. Thus the restriction in the capillary acts as the data storage function of
the instrument.
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Instrumentation and Process Control
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Module 2. Classification and selection of instruments
Lesson 3
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
3.1 Introduction
In the physical scssssssiences, process engineering and product quality assurance, measurement is the activity of
obtaining and comparing physical quantities of real-world objects and events. Established standard objects and
events are used as units, and the process of measurement gives a number relating the item under study and the
referenced unit of measurement. Measurement generally involves using an instrument as a physical means of
determining a quantity or variable. The instrument serves as an extension of human faculties and enables the
man to determine the value of an unknown quantity which unaided human faculties cannot measure. An
instrument may be defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
Measuring instruments, and formal test methods which define the instrument's use, are the means by which the
variables and the relations between variables are obtained
The instruments may be classified as follows:
i) Mechanical, electrical and electronic instruments
ii) Absolute and secondary instruments
iii) Manual and automatic instruments
iv) Analogue and digital instruments
v) Self operated and power operated instruments
vi) Self contained and remote indicating instruments
3.2 Mechanical, Electric and Electronic Instruments
The first instruments were mechanical in nature and the principles on which these instruments worked are even
in vogue today. The earliest scientific instruments used the same three essential elements as our modern
instruments do. These elements are a detector, an intermediate transfer device and an indicator, recorder or a
storage device.
These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions. There is a large number of possibilities of
mechanical instruments. It could be calipers, micrometers, scales, measuring tapes, lasers, etc. for measuring
distances, a pressure gauge for measuring pressure, strain gauges for measure how much a part is stretched or
compressed when a load is applied, tachometer for measuring the rotational speed, multimeter for measuring
electrical voltages and currents.
However, the mechanical instruments suffer from a disadvantage that they are unable to respond rapidly to
measurements of dynamic and transient conditions. These instruments have several moving parts that are rigid,
heavy and bulky and consequently have a large mass. The mass presents inertia problems and hence these
instruments cannot follow the rapid changes which are involved in dynamic measurements. Another
disadvantage of mechanical instruments is that most of them are a potential source of noise and cause pollution
of silence.
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Mechanical instruments are simple in design and application. They are more durable and relatively cheaper. No
external power source is required for the operation of mechanical instruments. They are quite reliable and
accurate for measurements under stable conditions.
Electronically controlled power supplies are used to provide stable voltages for studies in the field of chemical
reactions and nuclear instrumentation. Electronic instruments are steadily becoming more reliable on account of
improvements in design and manufacturing processes of semi-conductor devices. Another advantage of using
electronic devices is that very weak signals can be detected by using pre-amplifiers and amplifiers. The foremost
importance of the electronic instruments is the power amplification provided by the electronic amplifiers.
Additional power may be fed into the system to provide an increased power output beyond that of the input. This
has been only possible through the use of electronic amplifiers, which have no important mechanical
counterpart. This is particularly important where the data presentation devices use stylus type recorders,
galvanometers, cathode ray oscilloscopes and magnetic tape recorders.
It is a fact that hydraulic and pneumatic systems may be used for power amplification of signals. However, their
use is limited to slow acting control applications like servo-systems, chemical processes and power systems.
Electronic instruments find extensive use in detection of electro-magnetically produced signals such as radio,
video, and microwave. Electrical and electronic instruments are particularly useful in the intermediate signal
modifying stage. Electronic instruments are light compact and have a high degree of reliability. Their power
consumption is very low.
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Electronic instruments make it possible to build analogue and digital computers without which the modern
developments in science and technological are virtually impossible. Computers require a very fast time response
and it is only possible with use of electronic instruments. The mathematical processing of signal, such as,
summation, differentiating and integrating is possible with electronic measurements. With these instruments non
contact or remote measurements are also possible.
3.3 Absolute/primary and Secondary Instruments
Electrical measurements of different parameters like current, voltage, power, energy, etc. are most essential in
any industry. These are among the oldest of all measurements. The various electrical instruments may be broadly
divided into two categories:
1) Absolute instruments
2) Secondary instruments
Secondary instruments are those in which the values of electrical quantity to be measured can be determined
from the deflection of the instruments only when they have been pre-calibrated by comparison with an absolute
instrument. Without calibration, the deflection of such instruments is meaningless.
Working with absolute instruments for routine work is time consuming since every time a measurement is made,
it takes a lot of time to compute the magnitude of the quantity under measurement. It is the secondary
instruments which are most generally used in everyday work, the use of the absolute instruments being merely
confined within laboratories as standardizing instruments. A voltmeter, a glass thermometer and a pressure
gauge are typical examples of secondary instruments.
Secondary type of measuring instruments has been classified in the following categories:
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quantity in the time it is connected in the circuit. Normally these recordings will be for one day and the recorded
sheets are kept as a record of variation of the quantity with time.
Deflection is normally with in 90o, but circular scale instruments are also available which give about 250o
deflection. All the deflecting instruments are marked on scale to indicate its working principle by symbols.
3.4 Manual and Automatic Instruments
Manual require the services of an operator, where as in automatic instruments the operator is not required. For
example, measurement of rotational speed by a hand operated tachometer an operator is required to make the
contact of the instrument with the rotating shaft. For measurement of temperature by a resistance thermometer
by Wheat stone bridge in its circuit an operator is required to indicate the temperature being measured. Where
as, in measurement of temperature by mercury-in-glass thermometer, no operator is required.
3.5 Self Operated and Power Operated Instruments
A self operated instrument does not require any external power source for its operation. In such instruments the
output energy is supplied by the input signal e.g. a dial indicator or mercury-in-glass type thermometer.
In power operated instruments some auxiliary power source is required for its operation. This external power
source could be electricity, compressed air etc. In such cases the input signal supplies only the insignificant
portion of the output power e.g. an electro-mechanical measurement system.
3.6 Self Contained and Remote Indicating Instruments
A self contained instrument has all the physical elements in one assembly e.g. an analog ammeter or a mercury-
in-glass thermometer etc. Whereas, in a remote indicating instrument has primary sensory element and the
secondary indicating element are located at two different locations linked by transmitting element. These
locations could be long distance apart. In modern instrumentation technology such type of arrangement is quite
necessary and vogue.
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Module 2. Classification and selection of instruments
Lesson 4
ANALOG AND DIGITAL MODES OF OPERATION
4.1 Introduction
Working with absolute instruments for routine work is time consuming since every time a measurement is made,
it takes a lot of time to compute the magnitude of the quantity under measurement. It is the secondary
instruments which are most generally used in everyday work, the use of the absolute instruments being merely
confined within laboratories as standardizing instruments. Secondary instruments work in two modes, the
Analog mode and the Digital mode.
Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal. Often such a signal is a measured response to changes in
physical phenomena, such as temperature, pressure, sound or position and is achieved using a transducer. An
analog signal is one where at each point in time the value of the signal is significant. For example, in sound
recording, fluctuations in air pressure (that is to say, sound) strike the diaphragm of a microphone which induces
corresponding fluctuations in the current produced by a coil in an electromagnetic microphone, or the voltage
produced by a condenser microphone.
Analog and Digital signals are presented in Fig. 4.1 (a) and (b). In an analog system, the function varies
continuously. On the other hand, the digital values are discrete and vary in equal steps. The figure below
illustrates how both an analog voltage and a digital voltage vary with time.
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Another advantage with analog signals is that their processing may be achieved more simply than with the
digital equivalent. An analog signal may be processed directly by analog components, though some processes
aren't available except in digital form. The analog instruments are less costly and simple in design as compared
to their digital counter parts.
The primary disadvantage of analog signaling is that any system may have noise, that is, random unwanted
variation. As the signal is copied and re-copied, or transmitted over long distances, these apparently random
variations become dominant. Electrically, these losses can be diminished by shielding, good connections, and
several cable types such as coaxial or twisted pair. The effects of noise create signal loss and distortion. This is
impossible to recover, since amplifying the signal to recover attenuated parts of the signal amplifies the noise
(distortion/interference) as well. Even if the resolution of an analog signal is higher than a comparable digital
signal, the difference can be overshadowed by the noise in the signal.
The digital devices have high speed and they also eliminate the human error. With increasing use of digital
computers for data handling and automatic process control, the importance of digital instrumentation is
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increasing. It has become necessary to have both analog to digital converter at input to the computers and digital
to analog converters at the output of the computers.
In order to convert an analog quantity into a digital number, the vertical displacements in Fig.4.2 are divided into
equal parts. If we divide the vertical quantities into 10 equal parts with each part having a length of 1 unit. While
dealing with digital numbers, a quantity between 0 to 0.5 are considered as 0, while a quantity between 0.5 to 1.5
is 1 and similarly a quantity between 1.5 to 2.5 is 2. It is apparent that if we adopt digital system, the errors will
be involved. But if we further divide each of the steps into 2 equal parts, we get 20 steps instead of 10. And if
these 20 steps are further divided into 2 parts each, we will have 40 steps. By doing this we can get much better
accuracy in converting analogue quantities into digital numbers. We can go on subdividing each step further and
further, till the desired accuracy is achieved. However, it should be remembered that a digital number is still a
sum of equal units. And in a digital system, magnitudes lying within one of these steps lose their identity and are
all defined by the same number. For example, if we have ten steps, all the numbers lying between 2.5 to 3.5, that
is, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, would all be read as 3.
An analog device is one in which the output or display is a continuous function of time and bears a constant
relation to its input. The analog instruments find extensive use in present day applications although digital
instruments are increasing in number and applications. The areas of application which are common to both
analog and digital instruments are fairly limited at present. Hence, it can safely be predicted that the analog
instruments will remain in extensive use for a number of years and are not likely to be completely replaced by
digital instruments for certain applications.
4.5.1 Classification of analog instruments
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Broadly, the analog instruments (and for that matter digital instruments) may be classified according to the
quantity they measure. For example, an instrument meant for measurement of current is classified as an
Ammeter while an instrument that measures voltage is classified as a Voltmeter. Thus we have wattmeters,
power factor meters, frequency meters, etc. Electrical instruments may also be categorized as per the kind of
current that can be measured by them, such as, direct current (d.c.), alternating current (a.c.), and direct and
alternating current (d.c. / a.c.). As discussed earlier, there are three categories of instruments; on the same pattern
analog instruments could also be classified as indicating, recording, integrating type.
Indicating instruments are those instruments which indicate the magnitude of a quantity being measured. They
generally make use of a dial and a pointer for this purpose. Ordinary voltmeters, ammeters and wattmeters
belong to this category. The analog indicating instruments may be further divided into two groups, the
electromechanical instruments, and the electronic instruments. Electronic instruments are constructed by
addition of electronic circuits to electromagnetic indicators in order to increase the sensitivity and input
impedance.
Recording instruments give a continuous record of the quantity being measured over a specified period. The
variations of the quantity being measured are recorded by a pen (attached to the moving system of the
instrument; the moving system is operated by the quantity being measured) on a sheet of paper carried by a
rotating drum. For example, we may have a recording voltmeter in a sub-station which keeps record of the
variations of supply voltage during the day.
Integrating instruments totalise events over a specified period of time. The summation, which they give, is the
product of time and an electrical quantity. Ampere hour and watt hour (energy) meters are examples of this
category. The integration (summation value) is generally given by a register consisting of a set of pointers and
dials.
On the basis of method used for comparing the unknown quantity (measured) with the unit of measurement the
analog instruments may also be grouped into two categories of instruments:
i) Direct Measuring Instruments: These instruments convert the energy of the measurand directly into
energy that actuates the instruments and the value of the unknown quantity is measured or displayed or
recorded directly. The examples of this class of instruments are ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters and
energy meters.
ii) Comparison Instruments: These instruments measure the unknown quantity by comparison with a
standard. The examples of comparison type instruments are d.c. and a.c. bridges.
Direct measuring instruments are the most commonly used in engineering practice because they are the most
simple and inexpensive. Also their use makes the measurement possible in the shortest time.
However, most of our present day measurement and control apparatus produces signals which are of analogue
nature, it is thus necessary to have both Analogue to Digital (A/D) Converters at the input to the computer and
Digital to Analogue (D/A) Converters at the output of the computer.An analog-to-digital converter is a device
that converts a continuous quantity to a discrete time digital representation. The reverse operation is performed
by a digital-to-analog converter. Typically, an A/D is an electronic device that converts an input analog voltage
or current to a digital number proportional to the magnitude of the voltage or current. However, some non-
electronic or only partially electronic devices, such as rotary encoders, can also be considered ADCs. The digital
output may use different coding schemes. Typically, the digital output will be a binary number that is
proportional to the input, but there are other possibilities.
An analog to digital converter (Fig. 4.3) inputs an analog electrical signal such as voltage or current and outputs
a binary number. In block diagram form, it can be represented as below:
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Module 2. Classification and selection of instruments
Lesson 5
INSTRUMENT SELECTION CRITERIA AND INSTALLATION PROCEDURES
5.1 Introduction
The availability of several types of sophisticated instruments and automatic process control techniques has
greatly helped in improving not only the product quality in the food processing industries but also in achieving
the reduction in cost of processing. Automation has become the essential component of technological and
industrial development. A large number of specialized instruments have been developed to measure the variety
of process variables. They generally give a range of measurement accuracy and sensitivity and vary vastly in
cost factor. Choice between the various types of instruments is available and several alternatives are there with
the entrepreneur.
5.2 Instrument Selection Criteria
The selection of an instrument for a specific application is an iterative process, carried out as a joint effort of a
process technologist and an instrument engineer. Following are the points that should be considered while
choosing the instrument for particular application
1. Identify all operating cases, such as normal operation at minimum, normal and maximum flow, alternative
operating modes, start-up, commissioning and emergency operation.
2. Collect all relevant process data for each operating case. Data pertaining to processing fluids, such as, fluid
name and phase, physical properties, corrosiveness and toxicity , presence of solids or contaminants, special
risks such as fouling, plugging and deposition need to be delineated. Quantify the process operating data,
such as, flow rate, pressure, temperature, density and viscosity etc. Specify the application aspects, such as,
continuous/batch operation, pulsating flow, unidirectional or bi-directional flow, backflow risk, vibration
and hydraulic noise.
3. Specify the environmental conditions that the instrument will be subjected to. As some conditions will
immediately either eliminate the possibility of using certain types of instrument or else will create a
requirement for expensive protection of instrument. One point to be remembered is that the protection of
instruments reduces the performance of some instruments, especially in terms of their dynamic
characteristics. For example sheaths protecting thermocouples and resistance thermometers reduce their
speed of response. Instrument should be chosen that are as insensitive as possible to operating environment.
4. The extent to which the measuring system will be disturbed during the measuring process is another
important factor in instrument choice. For example significant pressure loss can be caused to measured
system in some techniques of flow measurement.
5. Consideration of durability, maintainability and consistency of performance are also very important during
selecting the appropriate instrument.
6. Published literature is of considerable help in the choice of suitable instrument for a particular measurement
situation. It is important to keep abreast of latest developments through appropriate technical publications.
7. Select suitable instrument makes and types for each measurement option from the ‘List of Selected
Instrument Vendors’ as prepared for each project. The types of instruments already installed at the
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Principal's site should be taken into consideration, for the sake of variety control.
Instrument choice is a compromise between it’s performance characteristics, ruggedness, durability, maintenance
requirements and purchase cost. To carry out such an evaluation properly, the instrument engineer must have a
wide knowledge of range of instruments available for measuring particular physical quantities, and he/she must
also have deep understanding of how instrument characteristics are affected by particular measurement
situations and operating conditions.
Cost is very strongly correlated with the performance characteristics of an instrument. Increasing the accuracy or
resolution of an instrument, for example, can only be done at the penalty of increasing its manufacturing cost.
Instruments choice therefore proceeds by specifying the minimum characteristics required by a measurement
situation and finding an instrument whose characteristics match those required. To select an instrument with
characteristics superior to those required would only mean paying more than necessary for a level of
performance greater than that needed.
5.3 Choice Between Different Types of Instruments
Choice between the various types of temperature measuring instruments for a given situation depends mainly on
the type of medium to be measured. A good contact is essential between the medium and the sensor transducer.
If the medium is solid this choice is restricted to thermocouples, thermopiles, resistance thermometers,
thermisters, semiconductor devices and color indicators. For the fluid temperatures can be measured by any of
the instruments with the exception of radiation thermometers.
The most commonly used devices in the industry for the temperature measurement is the base-metal
thermocouple. Typical inaccuracy is ±0.5% of the full scale over the temperature range -250°C to +1200°C.
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Noble metal thermocouples are much more expensive, but are chemically inert and can measure temperature up
to 2300°C with an accuracy of ±0.2% of full scale.
Resistance thermometers are also in common use within the temperature range -270°C to +650°C, with a
measurement inaccuracy of ±0.5%. They have a smaller temperature range than thermocouples. Thermisters are
other commonly used sensors. They are small and cheap. They give a fast outputs response to temperature
changes with good measurement sensitivity, but their measurement range is quite limited. Dual diverse devices
are new development that includes a thermocouple and a resistance thermometer inside the same sheath.
Semiconductor devices have better linearity than thermocouples and resistance thermometers and similar level
of accuracy. Thus they are viable alternative to these in many applications. For non contact, non invasive mode
of measurement radiation thermometers or optical pyrometers could be used. They are used to monitor
temperature above 600°C in industrial furnaces etc. The instruments working on the thermal expansion
principle, such as bimetallic thermometers, are used as temperature indicating devices as well as components
within automatic control system.
Where only a visual indication of flow rate is needed, variable-area meter is popular. Where a flow measurement
in the form of an electrical signal is required, the choice of available instrument is very large. It ranges from an
orifice plate, various forms of differential pressures meter and electromagnetic flow meters. The currently trend
in flow measurement is limiting the use of rotating devices such as turbine meters and positive displacement
meters and at the same time increased use of ultrasonic and vortex meters.
5.4 Installation Requirements of Instruments
Every instruments manufacture provides a set of instrument manufacturer’s instructions for installation of that
equipment. It is mandatory to comply with such instructions. It is to be ensured that the instruments that are flow
direction sensitive e.g. Control Valves, Regulators, Vortex meters, Magnetic Flow meters, Orifice Plates,
Corrosion Coupons, Pitot Tubes, Venturi Tubes etc. are checked with marking on instruments before installation.
Ensure that dummy holes on instruments supplied with temporary protection for transportation etc (e.g. extra
taps on venture tube supplied with plastic plugs etc.) are blocked with properly rated valves, plugs or blinds
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offs installations should have a double block and bleed arrangement between the process piping and the
instrument. The bleed valve shall be so located that it may act as the vent valve if the instrument impulse line
must be flushed or filled with a sealing fluid like glycol or a purging fluid. The block valve immediately
upstream of the instrument should be part of a manifold assembly to facilitate mounting the instrument. When a
sealing fluid is required, a drain valve downstream of the instrument is needed to be installed to allow flushing
the tubing or filling the tubing with the isolating fluid.
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Module 3. Characteristics of instruments and measurement systems
Lesson 6
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS - I
6.1 Introduction
When considering a measurement instrument, it is important to have a clear understanding of all the parameters
involved in defining the characteristics of the measurement device. By knowing the accuracy and resolution
requirements for your application, you can compute the total error in the measurement device you are
considering and verify that it satisfies your needs. There are number of important performance parameters
discussed in the following text, but they should not be considered the ultimate or only parameters to take into
account. It is worthwhile to ask the instruments supplier to clarify the meaning of the specifications in the
instrument data sheet. Not knowing the true performance of your instrument could lead you to incorrect
readings, and the cost of this error could be very high.
The performance characteristics of instruments and measurement systems can be divided into two distinct
categories, viz., the Static characteristics, and the Dynamic characteristics. Some applications involve the
measurement of quantities that are either constant or vary very slowly with time. Under these circumstances, it is
possible to define a set of criteria that gives a meaningful description of quality of measurement without
interfering with dynamic descriptions that involve the use of differential equations. The characteristics in this set
of criteria are called Static Characteristics. Thus the static characteristics of a measurement system are those
which must be considered when the system or instrument is used under a condition not varying with time.
However, many measurements are concerned with rapidly varying quantities. In such cases we must examine the
dynamic relations which exist between the output and the input. This is normally done with the help of
differential equations or other methods. Performance criteria based upon dynamic relations constitute the
Dynamic Characteristics.
All the static performance characteristics are obtained in one form or another by a process called static
calibration. The calibration procedures involve a comparison of the particular characteristic with either a primary
standard, a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be calibrated, or an instrument of
known accuracy. It checks the instrument against a known standard and subsequently to errors in accuracy.
Actually all measuring instruments must be calibrated against some reference instruments which have a higher
accuracy. Thus reference instruments in turn must be calibrated against instrument of still higher grade of
accuracy, or against primary standard, or against other standards of known accuracy. It is essential that any
measurement made must ultimately be traceable to the relevant primary standards.
6.3 Static Characteristics
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The qualities (i), (ii) and (iii) are desirable, while qualities (iv), (v) and (vi) are undesirable. The above
characteristics have been defined in several different ways and the generally accepted definitions are presented
here. Some more quantities have to be defined here which are essential in understanding the above
characteristics.
For example for a thermometer calibrated between 100°C to 400°C, the range is 100°C to 400°C (or 400°C) but
the span is 400 – 100 = 300°C.
The same is true of digital instruments. There is another factor that must be considered while determining the
range of the instrument. This is the Frequency Range, which is defined as frequencies over which measurements
can be performed with a specified degree of accuracy. For example a moving iron instrument may have a 0-250
V range and 0-135 Hz frequency range.
6.3.3 Accuracy
Accuracy is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the quantity being
measured. Thus accuracy of a measurement means conformity to truth. The accuracy of an instrument may be
expressed in many ways. The accuracy may be expressed as point accuracy, percent of true value or percent of
scale range. Point accuracy is stated for one or more points in the range, for example, the scale of length may be
read with in ± 0.2 mm. Another common way is to specify that the instrument is ‘accurate to within ±x percent
of instrument span’ at all points on the scale. Another way of expressing accuracy is based upon instrument
range.
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Accuracy is many a time confused with Precision. There is difference in these two terms. The term ‘Precise’
means clearly or sharply defined. For example an ammeter will possesses high degree of precision by virtue of
its clearly legible, finely divided, distinct scale and a knife edge pointer with mirror arrangements to remove
parallax. As an example of the difference in meaning of the two terms, suppose above ammeter can read up to
1/100 of an ampere. Now if its zero adjustment is wrong, every time we take a reading, the readings taken with
this ammeter are not accurate, since they do not confirm to truth on account of its faulty zero adjustment.
Though the ammeter is as precise as ever and readings are consistent and clearly defined and can be down to
1/100 of an ampere. The instrument can be calibrated remove the zero error. Thus the accuracy of the instrument
can be improved upon by calibration but not the precision.
6.3.4 Static error
Measurements done with an instrument always involve errors. No measurement is free from errors. If the
precision of the equipment is adequate, no matter what its accuracy is, a discrepancy will always be observed
between two measured results. Since the accuracy of an instrument is measured in terms of its error, an
understanding and evaluation of the errors is thus essential.
Static error is defined as the difference between the best measured value and the true value of the quantity. Then:
Es = Am – At
Where, Es = error,
Am = measured value of quantity, and
At = true value of quantity.
Es is also called the absolute static error of quantity A. The absolute value of error does not indicate precisely the
accuracy of measurement. For example, an error of ±2 A is negligible when the current being-measured is of the
order of 1000 A while the same error highly significant if the current under measurement is 10 A. Thus another
term relative static error is introduced. The relative static error is the ratio of absolute static error to the true
value of the quantity under measurement. Thus the relative static error Er is given by:
Static Correction
It is the difference between the true value and the measured value of the quantity, or
δC = At - Am
6.4 Numericals
1. A meter reads 115.50 V and the true value of the voltage is 115.44 V. Determine the static error, and the static
correction for this instrument.
Solution:
2. A thermometer reads 71.5 °C and the static correction given is +0.5°C. Determine the true value of the
temperature.
Solution:
3. A thermometer is calibrated for the range of 100°C to 150°C. The accuracy is specified within ±0.25 percent.
What is the maximum static error?
Solution:
Span of thermometer = 150 – 100 = 50°C
Relative error
=
5. A pressure indicator showed a reading as 22 bar on a scale range of 0-25 bar. If the true value was 21.4 bar,
determine:
i) Static error
ii) Static correction
iii) Relative static error
Solution:
i) Static error = 22 – 21.4 = + 0.6 bar
ii) Static correction = - (+0.6) = - 0.6 bar
iii) Relative error = 0.6 / 21.4 = 0.028 or 2.8 %
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Module 3. Characteristics of instruments and measurement systems
Lesson 7
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS - II
This indicates the closeness to with which the scale of an analog type of instrument can be read. The readability
of an instrument depends upon following factors:
i) Number of graduations
ii) Spacing between the graduations
iii) Size of the pointer
iv) Discriminating power of the observer
The readability is actually the number of significant figures in the instrument scale. The higher the number of
significant figures, the better would be the readability.
Repeatability is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It is the closeness
of output readings when the same input is applied repetitively over a short period of time. The measurement is
made on the same instrument, at the same location, by the same observer and under the same measurement
conditions. It may be specified in terms of units for a given period of time. Reproducibility relates to the
closeness of output readings for the same input when there are changes in the method of measurement, observer,
measuring instrument location, conditions of use and time of measurement. Perfect reproducibility means that
the instrument has no drift. Drift means that with a given input the measured values vary with time.
Reproducibility and Repeatability are a measure of closeness with which a given input may be measured over
and over again. The two terms cause confusion. Therefore, a distinction is made between the two terms.
Reproducibility is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time. On the other hand,
Repeatability is defined as the variation of scale reading and is random in nature.
7.3 Drift
Drift is a departure in the output of the instrument over the period of time. An instrument is said to have no drift
if it produces same reading at different times for the same variation in the measured variable. Drift is unrelated
to the operating conditions or load. The following factors could contribute towards the drift in the instruments:
i) Wear and tear
ii) Mechanical vibrations
iii) Stresses developed in the parts of the instrument
iv) Temperature variations
v) Stray electric and magnetic fields
vi) Thermal emf
Drift can occur in the flow meters due to wear of nozzle or venturi. It may occur in the resistance thermometer
due to metal contamination etc.
Drift may be of any of the following types;
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a) Zero drift: Drift is called zero drift if the whole of instrument calibration shifts over by the same amount. It
may be due to shifting of pointer or permanent set.
b) Span drift: If the calibration from zero upwards changes proportionately it is called span drift. It may be
due to the change in spring gradient.
c) Zonal drift: When the drift occurs only over a portion of the span of the instrument it is called zonal drift.
Drift is an undesirable quality in industrial instruments because it is rarely apparent and cannot be easily
compensated for. Thus, it must be carefully guarded against by continuous fields can be prevented from affecting
the measurements for proper shielding. Effect of mechanical vibrations can be minimized by having proper
mountings. Temperature changes during the measurement process should be preferably avoided or otherwise be
properly compensated for.
7.4 Static Sensitivity
The static sensitivity of an instrument or an instrumentation system is the ratio of the magnitude of the output
signal or response to the magnitude of input signal of the quantity bring measured. Its units depend upon the
type of input and output. If the output is in mm and the input is in micro ampere then the units would be mm per
micro-ampere.
Sometimes the static sensitivity is also expressed as the ratio of the magnitude of the measured quantity to the
magnitude of the response. Thus the sensitivity expressed this way has the units of micro-ampere per mm. It is
reciprocal of the sensitivity as defined above. This ratio is defined as the inverse sensitivity or defection factor.
Many manufacturers define the sensitivity of their instruments in terms of inverse sensitivity and still call it
sensitivity.
The sensitivity is expressed as the slope of the calibration curve if the ordinates are expressed in actual units.
When a calibration curve is linear the slope of the calibration curve is constant. For this case the sensitivity is
constant over the entire range of the instrument. However, if the curve is not a straight line, the sensitivity varies
with the input.
In general, the static sensitivity at the operating point is defined as:
Similarly,
The sensitivity of an instrument should be high and therefore the instrument should not have a range greatly
exceeding the value to be measured. However, some margin should be kept for any accidental overloads.
7.5 Numericals
1. A pressure gauge which has a linear calibration curve has a radius of scale line as 120 mm and pressure of 0
to 50 Pascal is displayed over an arc of 300o. Determine the sensitivity of the gauge as a ratio of scale length to
pressure.
Solution:
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2. A Wheatstone bridge requires a change of 7.000 Ω is the unknown arm of the bridge to produce a change in
deflection of 3.000 mm of the galvanometer. Determine the sensitivity. Also determine the deflection factor.
Solution:
7.6 Linearity
When the input-output points of the instrument are plotted on the calibration curve and resulting curve may not
be linear. This would be only if the output is proportional to input. Linearity is the measure of maximum
deviation of these points from the straight line (Fig. 7.1). The departure from the straight line relationship is non-
linearity, but it is expressed as linearity of the instrument. This departure from the straight line could be due to
non-linear elements in the measuring system or the elastic after effects of the mechanical system.
Linearity is expressed in many different ways:
i) Independent Linearity: It is the maximum deviation from the straight line so placed as to minimize the
maximum deviation (Fig. 7.1).
ii) Zero based linearity: It is the maximum deviation from the straight line joining the origin and so placed
as to minimize the maximum deviation.
iii) Terminal based linearity: It is the maximum deviation from the straight line joining both the end points
of the curve.
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Fig. 7.1 Independent linearity
Linearity of out-input relation is considered to be one of the best characteristics of the measurement system,
because of the convenience of scale reading. The non linear relation does not lead to any inaccuracy, but it is
better to keep the linearity as small as possible, by choosing the operating range instrument in such a way that
the input-output relation is linear. Lack of linearity thus does not necessarily degrade sensor performance. If the
nonlinearity can be modelled and an appropriate correction applied to the measurement before it is used for
monitoring and control, the effect of the non-linearity can be eliminated.
7.7 Dead Band and Dead Time
Dead band, sometimes called a neutral zone, is an area of a signal range or band where no action occurs, that is,
the system is dead e.g. 10 g weight on a 10 kg balance. It is the largest change in the physical variable to which
the measuring instrument does not respond. In other words it is defined as the range of input values over which
there is no change in output value. It has also been referred to as Dead space or Dead zone. In the analog
instruments, it may occur due to friction in the instrument which does not allow pointer to move till sufficient
force is developed to overcome the frictional loss. It is shown in the figure 7.2.
Dead zone is specified by indicating it as the percent of span range. For example, if the calibration range of a
thermometer is 100 to 300°C and the dead zone is specified as 0.1% of the span, then the change in temperature
that must occur before it is detected by the instrument would be:
Dead time is the time required by measuring instrument to begin to respond to a change in the measured
variable. It represents the time before the instrument begins to respond after the measured variable has changed.
The units of dead zone are the units of the variable, whereas, the units of the Dead time are the units of time.
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Module 3. Characteristics of instruments and measurement systems
Lesson 8
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS - III
8.1 Hysteresis
Hysteresis is a phenomenon under which the measuring instrument shows different output effects during loading
and unloading. Hysteresis results from the inelastic quality of an element or device. It is the maximum difference
between corresponding upscale and downscale outputs for any single test cycle, that is, the maximum difference
in output at any given value of the measured variable within the specified range when approaching that point
first with increasing the input and then decreasing the input. Figure 8.1 illustrates the hysteresis phenomenon.
The numerical value of hysteresis is specified in terms of output or input values. The sum of the two effects of
dead band and the hysteresis is determined directly from the deviation values of a number of test cycles.
Hysteresis is determined by subtracting the value of dead band from the corresponding value of hysteresis plus
dead band for a given input. The maximum difference in the readings is reported as hysteresis. The difference
may be expressed as a percent of ideal output span. For example, the hysteresis is reported as 0.2% of output
span. Hysteresis results due to the presence of several factors, such as, mechanical friction, motion in bearings,
magnetic and thermal effects. This could also be due to a free play or looseness in the mechanisms.
8.2 Threshold and Resolution
8.2.1 Threshold
Threshold of a measuring instrument is the minimum value of input signal that is required to make a change or
start from zero. This is the minimum value below which no output change can be detected when the input is
gradually increased from zero. In digital system, the out put is displayed in incremental digits. Thus, in digital
instruments the threshold is the minimum input signal which is necessary to produce at least one significant digit
of output to indicate on the display.
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8.2.2 Resolution
When an instrument is showing a particular output reading, there is a lower limit on the magnitude of the change
in the input measured quantity that produces an observable change in the instrument output. That means, when
the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, which is non-zero, the output does not change at
all until certain increment is exceeded. This increment is called resolution or discrimination of the instrument.
Thus, the resolution refers to the smallest change of input for which there will be a change output.
In the analog instruments, the resolution is also determined by the observer’s ability to judge the position of
pointer on the scale. One of the major factors influencing the resolution of an instrument is how finely its output
scale is divided into subdivisions. Using a car speedometer as an example again, this has subdivisions of
typically 20 km/h. This means that when the needle is between the scale markings, we cannot estimate speed
more accurately than to the nearest 5 km/h.
The difference between threshold and the resolution of the measuring instrument could be understood this way.
Threshold defines the smallest measureable input, while the resolution defines the smallest measureable input
change. Both of these values may be expressed in terms of an actual value or as a fraction / percentage of the full
scale value.
8.2.2.1 Numericals
1. Determine the resolution of a voltmeter which has a range readout scale with 100 divisions and a full-scale
reading of 100 V. If one tenth of a scale division can be read certainty, determine the resolution of the voltmeter.
Solution:
2. A transducer measures a range of 0-200 N force with a resolution of 0.20 percent of full scale. What is the
smallest change in the force which can be measured by this transducer?
Solution:
8.3 Noise
Noise is a random fluctuation in an electrical signal, a characteristic of all electronic circuits. Noise generated by
electronic devices varies greatly, as it can be produced by several different effects. In general noise is an error or
undesired random disturbance of a useful information signal, introduced before or after the detector and decoder.
The noise is a summation of unwanted or disturbing energy from natural and sometimes man-made sources. The
quality of a signal is often expressed quantitatively as the signal-to-noise ratio.
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Noise may be defined as any signal that does not convey any useful information. Extraneous disturbances
generated in the measuring system itself or coming from outside, frequently constitute a background against
which a signal may be read.
There are many sources of noise. Noise may originate at the primary sensing device, in a communication
channel or other intermediate links. The noise may also be produced by indicating elements of the system.
The loading effects may occur due to both electrical and mechanical elements. The loading effects of an
Instrument are the alternations that are caused in the circuit conditions such as voltage, current etc. when the
instrument is introduced in the circuit for the purpose of measurement. In simple terms, loading effects of an
instrument ends up distorting the signal they are supposed to measure in the form of attenuation or phase shift.
The instrument therefore reads the altered value of the quantity and thus an erroneous measurement is resulted.
These loading effects can be better explained by the following examples.
Let a voltage has to be measured across a resistance R in the circuit. For this purpose, a voltmeter V is connected
across the resistor R in parallel. We know that a voltmeter has a very high resistance value. But since this value
is finite, a fraction of the total current passing through R will pass through the Voltmeter V. This will lead to
power dissipation in the Voltmeter. The voltmeter extracts this power out of the circuit and thus end up varying
the values of the circuit parameters on being introduced. Another example of loading effects is found in the
measurement of current by an Ammeter. An ammeter is a very low resistance device that is connected in series
in a circuit for the measurement of current. When current passes through it, because of the low finite resistance
of the ammeter, there is a small voltage drop across the ammeter which results in power dissipation. This power
is again borrowed from the circuit and therefore affects the circuit parameters.
So to minimize this ‘loading effect’, the best you can do is to use a measuring instrument that has very high
impedance so that the current it draws is minimal.
But practically an infinite or zero impedance in an instrument is not possible. So a condition of minimum
loading effects is tried to be reached by making the values of the impedances of instruments very high or very
low according to their use. That is why Voltmeters always have very high while Ammeters always have very low
impedance values.
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Module 3. Characteristics of instruments and measurement systems
Lesson 9
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
When an input is applied to an instrument or a measurement system, the instrument or the system cannot take up
immediately its final steady state position. It goes through a transient state before it finally settles to its final
‘steady state’ position. Some of the measurements are made under such conditions as to allow the sufficient time
for the instrument or the measurement system to settle to its final steady state conditions. Under such conditions
the study of behaviour of the system under transient state, known as ‘transient response’ is not of much of
importance. However, in many areas of measurement systems applications it becomes necessary to study the
response of the system under both transient as well as steady state conditions. In many applications, the transient
response of the system, i.e., the way system settles down to its final steady state conditions is more important
than the steady state response.
The transient response in the instruments is on account of the presence of energy storage elements in the system,
such as, electrical inductance and capacitance, mass, fluid and thermal capacitances etc. The systems exhibit a
characteristic of sluggishness on account of presence of these elements. However many a times in several
applications the measurement systems are subjected to inputs which are not static but dynamic in nature, which
means the inputs vary with time. Since the input varies from instant to instant, so does the output. The behaviour
of the system under such conditions is described by the dynamic response of the system and the characteristics
of the measuring system under such conditions are known as dynamic characteristics.
Dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument refer to the case where the measured variable changes
rapidly. As has been discussed earlier the sensors in control system cannot react to a sudden change in measured
variable immediately. A certain amount of time is required before the measuring instrument in control system
technology can indicate any output based on the input received by the measuring instrument. The amount of
time depends on resistance, capacitance, mass and dead time of the measuring instrument. Step response, ramp
response, frequency response of the measuring instrument determines the dynamic characteristics of the
measuring instrument in control system technology.
Speed of Response is defined as the rapidity with which an instrument or measurement system responds to
changes in measured quantity.
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Response Time is the time required by instrument or system to settle to its final steady position after the
application of the input. For a step input function, the response time may be defined as the time taken by the
instrument to settle to a specified percentage of the quantity being measured, after the application of the input.
This percentage may be 90 to 99 percent depending upon the instrument. For portable instruments it is the time
taken by the pointer to come to rest within ±0.3 percent of final scale length and for switch board (panel) type of
instruments it is the time taken by the pointer to come to rest within ±1 percent of its final scale length.
9.4 Fidelity
Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of the system to reproduce the output in the same form as the input.
It is the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the measured quantity without any dynamic
error. Supposing if a linearly varying quantity is applied to a system and if the output is also a linearly varying
quantity the system is said to have 100 percent fidelity. Ideally a system should have 100 percent fidelity and the
output should appear in the same form as that of input and there is no distortion produced in the signal by the
system. In the definition of fidelity any time lag or phase difference between output and input is not included.
However, the total dynamic error of the instrument is the combination of its fidelity and the time lag or phase
difference between input and output of the system.
9.6 Overshoot
Moving parts of instruments have mass and thus possess inertia. When an input is applied to instruments, the
pointer does not immediately come to rest at its steady state (or final deflected) position but goes beyond it or in
other words ‘overshoots’ its steady position.
The overshoot is evaluated as the maximum amount by which moving system moves beyond the steady state
position. In many instruments, especially galvanometers it is desirable to have a little overshoot but an excessive
overshoot is undesirable.
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9.6.1 Overshoot response graph
A typical overshoot response graph can be shown as the response time stated in terms of rise time, peak
percentage overshoot and settling time. Such an under damped graph in control system technology of a
measuring instrument is shown in Fig. 9.1.
9.6.2 Numerical
1. A step input of 5 A is applied to an ammeter. The pointer swings to a voltage of 5.18 A and finally comes to
rest at 5.02 A. (a) Determine the overshoot of the reading in ampere and in percentage of final reading. (b)
Determine the percentage error in the instrument.
Solution:
(a) Overshoot = 5.18 – 5.02 = 0.16 A
(b)
(b)
The measurement systems may be subjected to any type of input. Since in majority of the applications the
signals are random in nature and the type of input signals cannot be known ahead of time, it becomes difficult to
express the actual input signals mathematically by simple equations. To study the dynamic behaviour of
measurement systems, certain standard signals are employed for which the mathematical equations have been
developed. These standard signals are:
(i) Step input, (ii) Ramp input, (iii) Parabolic input, and (iv) Impulse input.
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The above signals are used for studying dynamic behaviour in the time domain and the dynamic behaviour of
the system to any kind of inputs can be predicted by studying its response to one of the standard signals. The
standard input chosen for this purpose is a step input.
9.8 Step Response
When the measured variable of a measuring instrument in control system technology encounters changes from
one steady state value to a second steady state value it is a step signal and the response shown by the output of a
measuring instrument is called the step response. For example, when you change the temperature of the probe of
a measuring instrument by shifting it from ice water to boiling water, a sudden temperature change could be
observed in the output of the measuring instrument. The step response of such a measuring instrument is stated
in terms of response time and rise time for over damped or critically damped situation. Where as for under
damped situation the terms used for the measuring instrument are rise time, peak percentage overshoot and
setting time. Typical step response curve for an over damped or critically damped measuring instrument is
shown in Fig 9.2.
In the ramp signal the value of signal changes slowly with time. The typical ramp response curve of a
temperature measuring instrument is shown in the figure 9.3 below. The measured temperature lagged behind
the input temperature, then caught up the input after a certain period of time. This figure allows us to view two
response curves, the dynamic error and dynamic lag.
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Dynamic error of a measuring instrument is the difference between input temperature and output temperature at
a given time. It is the vertical line at a time t2 on the ramp response graph that intersects the output curve at
temperature T1 and the input curve at temperature T2. The difference between these two temperatures is the
dynamic error at time t2.
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Module 4: Induction type indicating instruments
Lesson 10
ESSENTIALS OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS
10.1 Introduction
The main purpose of any measuring system is to provide information concerning the physical variable being
measured. The last stage of a measuring system is the data presentation stage,. The results of the measurement
are displayed for the instant by a display device or for storage for observation at a later stage by a recorder. The
data presentation devices are also known as output devices. The choice between the display devices and the
recorders depend upon the information content of the output and the expected use of the output. In this section
we will discuss certain features which are common to all electrical measuring instruments.
10.2 Electrical Indicating Instruments
The electrical instruments are widely used for measurement of current, voltage, resistance and power. These
instruments are classified as Analog and Digital type of instruments. These principles of operation of such
instruments have already been discussed in Lesson 4. The output of measuring instruments could be categorized
The single number output devices indicate the value of the variable quantity when such values are not to be
taken as a function of time, thus a single number will represent the measurement. Indicating instruments and
digital display units belong to this category. A good display is one which permits the best combination of speed,
sensitivity and accuracy when transferring the necessary information from the instrument to the operator. When
the values of the quantity are to be taken as a function of time, the indicating instruments or digital display units
do not serve this purpose. For keeping the permanent record of the variation of output with time, direct writing
recorders, strip chart recorders, magnetic recorders etc. are used.
10.3 Pointer-Scale Indicating Instruments
As discussed above the analog instruments indicate the value of the measured parameter by positioning an
indicator pointer on a calibrated scale. For this purpose several following arrangements can be made and the
option can be exercised depending upon the requirement, feasibility and the convenience.
10.3.1 Single point indicators
This involves fixed scale and the movable pointer indicator. There are several such arrangements are available,
such as, circular scale, circular scale with part circle, straight horizontal or vertical scale, arc or segmental scale
etc. There could also be fixed pointer and movable scale indicators. The readability of graduated dials is
influenced by shape and length of pointer, number, spacing and thickness of scale markings and size & design of
numerals.
Such instruments have different scales for different ranges. The choice of a particular scale is made by selector
switch e.g. electrical multimeter.
10.4 Essentials of Indicating Instruments
Indicating instruments consist essentially of a pointer which moves over a calibrated scale and which is attached
to a moving system pivoted in jewelled bearings. We will first consider various torques acting on its moving
system. In an indicating instrument, it is essential that the moving system is acted upon by three distinct torque
(or forces) for satisfactory working. The moving system is subjected to the following 3 torques:
It is the torque which controls the movement of the pointer on a particular scale according to the quantity of the
electricity, passing through it. The controlling forces are required to control the deflection or rotation and bring
the pointer to zero position when there is no force, or stop the rotation of the disc when there is no power.
Without such a torque, the pointer would swing over to the maximum deflected position irrespective of the
magnitude of current or voltage being measured. In indicating instruments, the controlling torque, also called
restoring or balancing torque, is obtained by two methods which are discussed below:
i) Spring Control
In the spring control method, a hair spring usually of phosphor bronze, attached to the moving system is
used. With the deflection of the pointer, the spring is twisted in the opposite direction. This twist in the
spring produces restoring torque which is directly proportional to the angle of deflection of the moving
system. The pointer comes to a position of rest (or equilibrium) when the deflecting torque (Td) and the
controlling torque (Tc) are equal. For example in permanent magnet moving coil type of instruments, the
deflection torque is proportional to the current passing through them.
Td a I
And for spring control Tc a q
As Tc = Td
qaI
Since deflection q is directly proportional to current I, the spring-controlled instrument have a uniform or
equally-spaced scales over the whole of their range.
ii) Gravity Control
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Gravity control is obtained by attaching a small adjustable weight to some part of the moving system such
that the two exert torques in the opposite directions.
As shown in the figure, the controlling or restoring torque is proportional to the sine of the angle of
deflection, i.e., Tc a Sin q.
The degree of control is adjusted by screwing the weight up or down the carrying system.
If Td a I
Then for position of rest
Td = Tc
Or I a Sin q
Hence in gravity control instruments, the scales are not uniform but are cramped or crowded at their lower
ends.
10.4.3 Damping torque
Damping torque is one which acts on the moving system of the instrument only when it is moving and always
opposes its motion. Such damping force is necessary to bring the pointer to rest quickly, otherwise due to inertia
of the moving system, the pointer will oscillate about its final deflected position for quite some time before
coming to rest in the steady position. The degree of damping should be adjusted to a value which is sufficient to
enable the pointer to rise quickly to its deflected position without over-shooting.
The damping force can be produced by i) air friction, ii) eddy currents, and iii) fluid friction. The method of air-
friction damping is shown in the figure 10.1
The light aluminium piston attached to the moving system of the instrument is arranged to travel with a very
small clearance in a fixed chamber closed at one end. The cross-section of the chamber is either circular or
rectangular. Damping of the system is affected by the compression and suction actions of the piston on the air
enclosed in the chamber. In another method, light aluminium vane is mounted on the spindle of the moving
system which moves in air or in a closed sector-shaped box. Fluid-friction is similar is action to the air-friction.
Due to greater viscosity of the oil, the damping is more effective. However, oil damping is not much used
because of several disadvantages such as objectionable creeping of oil, the necessity of using the instrument
always in vertical position and its obvious unsuitability for use in portable instruments.
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Eddy current damping is the most efficient type of damping and shown in figure 10.2
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Module 4: Induction type indicating instruments
Lesson 11
PRINCIPLE OF INDUCTION TYPE INSTRUMENTS
Consider an aluminum disc placed the between the pole of an electromagnet, as shown in fig. 11.1. Let the flux
produced by flow of current of I Amperes through the coil be F and this flux will lag behind I, by a small angle
β as shown in vector diagram.
Since the aluminum disc act as a short circuited secondary of the transformer, therefore, an e.m.f., (say e volts)
lagging behind the flux F by
radians will be induced in it. As a result of this induced e.m.f., the eddy current
(I’) starts flowing in the disc. Since the disk is purely resistive therefore the eddy current will be in phase with
induced e.m.f. (e) will lag behind the main flux F by
radians. As the component of eddy current (I’) along
flux F is zero, therefore torque produced is zero. It can be proved as follows.
Let the instantaneous values of flux and eddy current be given by F = Fmax Sin θ and i = Imax Sin (θ – α).
Where α is the phase angle between the induced eddy current and flux (F).
Instantaneous torque α F i
Mean torque, α
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α
α
α Fi Cos α
* π Cos α
Where F and i are r.m.s. values.
Since in single phase induction type instruments the angle α between main flux F and eddy current I’ is
and
Cos
is zero, therefore torque produced is zero. Hence to obtain the resultant torque it is necessary to produce
an eddy current which is either appreciable less than or appreciable more than
radians, out of phase with the
flux which it reacts. Several arrangements are possible but here we will discuss about the descriptions of the
two of these.
11.2 Pole Shaded Method
As shown in Fig. 11.3, in this method, the working current is passed through the coil of an electromagnet which
has an air gap in one limb. Permanent magnet is used for providing damping torque. The aluminum disc is
mounted on pivots and jewel bearings.
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turn short circuited secondary winding of the transformer. The spiral springs, pointer and scale etc. have been
omitted for simplicity.
11.2.1 Theory
Let the total flux produced in the magnetic core be F Weber. Due to shading of pole, this flux will split up into
two fluxes i.e. flux through un-shaded portion and other through the shaded portion. Suppose the flux F1 be the
flux of the shaded portion of the pole. This flux F1 will induce an e.m.f. in the copper ring, which will lag the
flux F1 by 90°, as shown in Fig. 11.4. The induced e.m.f. will force a current say i to flow in the copper ring
which will be lagging behind the flux F1 by 900. The current flowing in the copper ring will produce its own
magnetic field say F’2 in phase with current i. The flux given by the shaded portion of the pole will be the
vector sum of F1 and F’2 which is equal to F2 lagging behind flux F1 by an angle θ and its value should be
Let the flux F1 and F2 are the fluxes passing through the shaded and un-shaded portions of the pole respectively
induce e.m.fs. e1 and e2 in the disc, each of which is 900 in phase behind the fluxes responsible for inducing it.
These induced e.m.fs; will induce eddy currents (say i1 and i2) in the disc lagging by a small angle (say α)
behind its voltage due to the inductance of the path in the disc.
From Fig. 11.5, it is obvious that each of the current i1 and i2 has a component in phase with the other flux such
i1′ and i2′. Hence two torques are acting in a directions having angle θ are produced in the instrument. Resultant
of these two torques, provides an operating or deflecting torque.
11.3 Two Pole Method
This method is also known as split phase method. In this method, two laminated magnets A and B are placed
near to each other with aluminum (Al) disc in between and a non inductive resistance R is connected in series
with the magnetizing coil of magnet A and an inductive coil L is connected in series with the magnetizing coil of
magnet B, as shown in Fig. 11.6.
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Let the flux produced by the magnet A and B is F1 and F2 respectively. F2 is lagging F1 by an angle θ as
shown in Fig. 11.5. Hence an operating or deflecting torque will be produced as explained above in case of
shaded pole method.
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Module 4: Induction type indicating instruments
Lesson 12
INDUCTION TYPE VOLTMETER AND AMMETER
A volt meter is an instrument used to measure the potential difference between the two points in an electric
circuit. In analog voltmeters, the pointer moves over a calibrated scale in proportion to potential difference
across the points where as in case of digital voltmeters, it displays numerical values with the help of analog to
digital converter. The induction type voltmeter operates on the either shaded pole method or on two pole
method’s working principle as explained in Lesson 11.
A non inductive high resistance is also inserted in series with the shunt coil and is connected across the supply,
whose potential difference has to be measured. Since the voltmeters are connected across the supply, so the
current flowing through coil is very small of the order of 5 to 10 mA. The spindle of aluminium disc is provided
with a pointer moving over a calibrated scale in terms of voltage. Spiral springs are provided on both the ends of
spindle for providing controlling torque. Permanent magnet (C- magnet) is used to provide damping torque on
the spindle. As the instrument is provided with spiral springs, to provide controlling torque, the scale of the
instrument is uniform because in such instrument this torque is directly proportional to angle of deflection of the
pointer. Spiral springs, pointer and damping magnets are omitted for clear understanding of the figure. For detail
working of the instrument, please refer to working principle of induction type instruments described in Lesson
11.
12.2 Split Phase Ammeter
An ammeter is always connected in series with load current directly or through CT (Current Transformer). As
shown in Fig. 12.2, both the windings on the two laminated electromagnets A and B are connected in series but
winding is shunted by a resistance R with the result of which, the current in this winding lags with respect to the
total current (I). Hence the necessary phase angle (α) required between two fluxes is produced by the laminated
electromagnets A and B.
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Disadvantes
(a) Power consumption is large and hence not recommended where continuous monitoring of ac quantities
is required.
(b) Variation in temperature and frequency may cause serious errors if necessary compensations are not
provided.
(c) As these instruments are based on principle of induction, they can be used on AC supply only.
12.4 Compensation for Frequency and Temperature Errors
Variation in frequency causes serious errors because deflecting torque is directly proportional to frequency and
also the value of impedance (Z) and Cos α depends upon the supply frequency. The error is compensated by use
of non inductive shunt in case of an Ammeter, when the frequency increases, the increase in impedance of the
winding cause a greater proportion of the total current to flow in the non inductive shunt (whose impedance
remains constant for all frequency) and lesser proportion of the total current in flow in the winding and to an
extent thus compensate the increase in torque (since T α. f).
In case of voltmeter, the impedance of the winding increases with the increase in frequency, hence smaller
current is drawn by the winding, which tends to compensate the increase in torque due to increase in frequency.
Variation in temperature changes the resistance of the eddy current paths, therefore, may result in serious errors.
The error is compensated in case of an ammeter, employing a shunt of material having a high temperature
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coefficient of resistance than the material of the disc. This shunt may be the same one as used for frequency
compensation. When the temperature increases, the resistance of the shunt increases, hence the greater portion of
the current flows through the coil and decreases in torque due to smaller eddy current in the disc owing to
increase in resistance at high temperature is compensated. The combination of shunt and swapping resistance in
series with the instrument is often employed to compensate the temperature error in case of voltmeters. Since the
frequency errors in induction type instruments are so serious that cannot be compensated satisfactorily. Hence
these instruments are used for only constant frequency supplies or where the fluctuation in frequency is very
small.
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Module 4: Induction type indicating instruments
Lesson 13
INDUCTION TYPE WATTMETER, WATT-HOUR METER, AND DYNAMOMETER TYPE POWER
FACTOR METER
These types of watt-meters operate on the same working principle on which the induction type ammeter and
voltmeter operates. These instruments can only be used on ac supply while dynamo-meter type watt meters can
be used on either ac or dc supply system. Induction type watt-meters are useful only when the supply and
frequency remains constant. Since both the coils i.e. current coil and pressure coils are necessary in such
instrument, it is not essential to use shaded pole principle. Because for producing a deflecting torque, two fluxes
are essential with suitable phase angle and it would be available from these two coils.
13.1.1 Construction
A watt-meter has two laminated electromagnet, one of which is excited by load current or definite fraction of it,
and is connected in series with the circuit, known as series magnet and the other is excited by the current
proportional to the applied voltage or fraction of it and is always connected across the supply, known as shunt
magnet. An aluminum disc is so mounted so that it cuts the fluxes produced by both the magnets. As a result of
which, two e.m.f’s are produced which induces two eddy currents in the disc. C - Magnet is used to provide
necessary damping torque to the pointer, to damp out the oscillations. Deflecting torque is produced due to
interaction of these eddy currents and the inducing flux. Copper shading bands are provided either on central
limb or on the outer limb of the shunt magnet, and can be so adjusted as to make the resultant flux in the shunt
magnet lag behind the applied voltage by 90°. Both the watt-meters are provided with spiral springs A and B, for
producing controlling torque to counter balance the deflecting torque. In Fig. 13.2 the spiral spring and damping
magnet is omitted for simplicity. The scale of such type instruments is quite uniform and extends over an angle
of 300°. Currents up to 100 A can be handled by these watt-meters directly where as beyond this current
transformers are used. Two types of induction type watt meters are available. Line diagrams of both of the types
are detailed in Fig. 13.1 and 13.2.
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In the form of the instrument shown in Fig. 13.1, two pressure coils are connected in series in such a way that
both of them send flux through the central limb. The series magnet also carries two small current coils connected
in series and wound so that they magnetized their respective cores in the same direction. Correct phase
displacement between the fluxes produced by series and shunt magnet is obtained by the adjustment of copper
shading band on the central limb.
In Fig. 13.2, there is only one pressure and one current coil. Two projecting poles of shunt magnet are
surrounded by a copper shading band whose position can be adjusted for correcting the phase of the flux of this
magnet with the applied voltage. The pressure coil circuit of induction type instrument is made as inductive as
possible so that the flux of the shunt magnet may lag nearly by 90° behind the applied voltage.
13.1.2 Advantages
The advantages of induction watt meters are the same as those of induction ammeters – long scale, freedom from
effects of stray field, and have effective damping torque.
13.1.3 Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantage of the induction type instruments:
a) Change in temperature causes variation in the resistance of the moving element, affects the eddy currents
therein, and so the operating torque. The error due to this is in part offset by a balancing effect due to
change in temperature of the windings.
b) Change in frequency from that of the calibration value causes variations in both the reactance of the voltage
coil circuit, which is highly inductive, and also in the amount of compensation from the phase –
compensating circuit. Within the limits of frequency variation met within practice on the mains, this last
error in not important.
13.2 Induction Type Single Phase Watt Hour Meter
A watt hour meter is used to sum up the total energy consumed by a consumer during a period so that it can be
charged for the actual energy consumed. The working principle, theory and advantage / disadvantages are almost
similar to single phase watt meter. The construction of single phase watt hour meter is also almost similar to
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single phase induction type watt meter as discussed above. The pointer and spiral springs are replaced by wheel-
train mechanism for summing up of total energy consumed where as the damping magnet is replaced by
braking magnet. The construction of this type of watt hour meter is shown in Fig. 13.3.
The brake magnet and recording wheel-train being omitted for clear understanding of the diagram. The
description of registering mechanism and braking system is detailed below.
13.2.1 Registering or counting system
The registering or counting system essentially consists of gear train, driven either by worm or pinion gear on the
disc shaft, which turns pointers that indicate on dials the number of times the disc has turned. The energy meter
thus determines and adds together or integrates all the instantaneous power values so that total energy used over
a period is thus known. Therefore, this type of meter is also called an ‘integrating meter’.
Braking of the disk is provided by a small permanent magnet, located diametrically opposite to the alternating
current magnets. The disk moves between the magnet’s gaps. The movement of rotating disc through the
magnetic field crossing the air gap sets up eddy currents in the disc that reacts with the magnetic field and exerts
a braking torque. By changing the position of the brake magnet or diverting some of the flux therefore, the speed
of the rotating disc can be controlled. Creep error can be rectified by drilling a small hole in the aluminum disc
passing through the magnetic flux of braking magnet.
It is necessary that the energy meter should give correct reading on all power factors, which is only possible
when the field set up by shunt magnet flux lags behind the applied voltage by 90°. Ordinarily the flux set up by
shunt magnet does not lag behind the applied voltage exactly by 90° because of winding resistance and iron
losses. The flux due to shunt magnet is made to lag behind applied voltage by 90° with the help of copper
shading band provided on the central limb. An error due to incorrect adjustment of shading band will be evident
when the meter is tested on a load of power factor less than unity.
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An error on the fast side under these conditions can be eliminated by bringing the shading band nearer to the
disc and vice versa. An error in the speed of the meter when tested on non inductive load can be eliminated by
adjustment of the position of the brake magnet. Movement of the brake magnet in the direction of the spindle
will reduce the braking torque and vice versa. Speed of disc is directly proportional to the distance between the
disc and brake magnet.
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The pressure coil P1 is connected across the supply through a non inductive resistance R and pressure P2 is
connected across the supply through a highly inductive choke coil of inductance L. The value of non inductive
resistance R and inductance L are so chosen that for the normal frequency, the current in the two pressure coil P1
and P2 is same. Thus these coils P1 and P2 produce equally strong magnetic field displaced by 900 in space as
well as in the phase. For measurement of power factor on high voltage system, the current and pressure coils of
the instrument may be connected to the main circuit through current and potential transformer respectively.
13.4.1 Theory
While measuring power factor of an installation, there may be three possibilities of installation’s power factor,
which are described here:
(a) Power Factor is Unity: When the circuit is switched on, the current in the potential coil P1 will be in
phase with current in coils CC, where as the current in pressure coil P2 will lag 900 behind the voltage or
behind the current in the circuit coli CC. Thus pressure coil P1 will experience a turning moment so its
plane will come in a position parallel to a plane of a current coil CC. The average torque on coil P2 will be
zero but being mechanically coupled to coil P1, it will follow the rotation of coil P1. Hence the pointer will
in the centre of the calibrated scale and it will show the power factor as unity. The position of coil P1 is
shown in Fig. 13.4 and it will maintain the reading till the load current is in phase with the voltage.
(b) When Power Factor is Zero (lagging): In this situation, the current flowing in the pressure coil P2 will be
in phase with load current flowing in the fixed current coil CC, both lagging behind the applied circuit
voltage by 900 and current in pressure coil P1 will lead the load current in current coil CC by 900. Thus only
pressure coil P2 will experience a turning moment so its plane will come in a position parallel to the plane
of current coils CC. At this instant, the pointer will indicate zero power factor lagging.
(c) When Power Factor Zero (leading): When the current flowing in fixed coils CC leads the applied
voltage by 90° and, therefore, the field of pressure coils P1 by 90° and that of coil P2 by 180°. Hence the
polarity of field in current coils is the reverse of that considered above. At this instant, the pointer will
indicates the power factor as zero leading on the other half of the scale.
For an intermediate power factor, the moving system takes up intermediate position and the pointer makes an
angle of (90°- F) with the axis of the fixed coils where F the phase angle between load current is and applied voltage of
the load circuit.
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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 14
INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
14.1 Introduction
In a measurement system all the quantities being measured, could not be displayed as such. In such situation, the
accurate measurement of a quantity is usually done by converting the related information or signal to another
form which is more conveniently or accurately displayed. This is achieved with the help of a device which is
known as transducer.
A sensor senses the condition, state and value of the process variable which reflects the output of the instrument.
The transducer is a device which provides a usable output in response of corresponding input, which may be
physical or mechanical quantity, property or condition. More precisely, ‘A TRANSDUCER is a device, which
transforms energy from one form to another’. The transducer may be mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical,
chemical, thermal nuclear, acoustic, or a combination of among of two or more.
All forms of transducers have some merits and demerits but most of the shortcomings have been overcome with
the introduction of electrical transducers. The most instrumentation systems having ‘Non-Electrical’ input
quantity and this non-electrical quantity is generally converted into an electrical form by a transducer.
The transducers could be classified in several ways. This classification could be on the basis of their application,
method of energy conversion, the nature of signal output and according to whether they are self generating or the
externally powered units. The transducers can be broadly classified as:
1) Primary transducers and Secondary transducers.
2) Analog transducers and Digital transducers.
3) Active transducers and Passive transducers.
4) Transducers and Inverse transducers
14.3.1 Primary transducers and secondary transducers
The transducer that directly senses the input signal and converts the physical property into the electrical signal is
called primary transducer or a sensor. ‘Thermistor’ is an example of primary transducer. It senses the
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temperature directly and causes the changes in its resistance with respect to temperature.
On the other hand, if the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and its output, which may be of
some other form than the input signal, is given as input to another transducer for conversion into electrical form,
then such a transducer is called as secondary transducer.
14.3.2 Analog transducers and digital transducers
The output from the transducer may be a continuous function of time or it may be in discrete function of time.
On this basis the transducers may be classified into two categories.
A transducer, which converts input signal into output signal in a continuous function of time is known as Analog
transducer. Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), thermo-couple are the examples of Analog
Transducer.
On the other hand, a transducer, which converts input signal into output signal in the form of pulses i.e., it gives
discrete output is called a digital transducer. The digital transducers are becoming very popular and useful
because the digital signals can be transmitted over a long distance, with minimum distortion due to amplitude
variation and phase shift.
On the basis of methods of energy conversion used the transducers are classified in to following two categories:
A transducer, which develops its output in the form of electrical current or voltage without any auxiliary source,
is called active transducer or the self generating transducers. The energy required for this is absorbed from the
physical phenomenon which is being measured. This type of transducer draws energy from the system under
measurement. Examples are thermocouples, piezo-electric transducers, photovoltaic cell etc. Such transducers
normally give very small output and so amplification of the signal becomes essential.
Externally powered transducers are those which derive the power required for energy conversion from an
external power source. An electrical transducer, in which electrical parameter like resistance, inductance or
capacitance changes with change in the input signal, is called as a passive transducer. They may also absorb a
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little power from the process variable being measured. Resistive, inductive and capacitive transducers viz.,
potentiometric devices, differential transformer etc. are known as passive transducers.
A transducer is generally defined as a device which converts a non electrical quantity into an electrical quantity.
An inverse transducer is a device which converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical quantity.
A current carrying coil moving in a magnetic field is an inverse transducer, because current by it is converted
into a force, which causes translational or rotational displacement. A most useful application of inverse
transducers is in feedback measuring systems.
An actuator is an inverse transducer as it is having an electrical input and a low-power non-electrical output. A
piezo-electric crystal also acts as an inverse transducer because when a voltage is applied across its surfaces, it
changes its dimensions causing a mechanical displacement.
Performance criteria of the transducers are based upon certain set of characteristics that gives a meaningful
description of quality of measurement. Normally these characteristics of a measurement system are those that
must be considered when the system or instrument is used. All these characteristics have to be taken into
account, when choosing a transducer for any application.
i). Type and operating range of Input quantity: The first consideration for the selection of a transducer is
the input quantity which is to be measured and its range of operation. The type of input quantities is
generally known in advance. The useful operating range of transducer is an important factor in the choice of
a transducer for a particular application. The maximum value or the maximum limit is decided by the
transducer capabilities, whereas, the minimum value of range or the lowest limit is normally determined by
the unavoidable noise which may originate in the transducer during measurement.
A good resolution is required throughout its operating range of a transducer.
ii). Loading Effects: In an ideal transducer, there is no loading effect on the input quantity being measured by
the transducer. However, practically it may not be possible. The magnitude of the loading effects is
expressed in terms of force, power or energy obtained from the input quantity. Hence the transducer which is
selected for a particular application should ideally extract no force, power from the input quantity.
14.4.2 Transfer characteristics
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iii). Error.
i) Transfer Function: It is defined as relationship between the input quantity and output and describes the input
and output behaviour of the system.
ii) Sensitivity: The sensitivity of a transducer is the ratio of change in output for a given change in input
In general, the sensitivity of transducers is not constant and is dependent upon the input quantity (Qi). In some
cases the relation between output and input becomes linear.
If the sensitivity is constant over the entire range of the transducer it shall be defined as :
iii) Error: Many a times the input-output relationship given by Q0 = GQi is not followed by transducer. In such
cases, error is obtained in transducers.
Let at a particular input Qi, ideally the output will be Q0 but practically an output is obtained, then the error
of the instrument is:
i). Type of Electrical Output: The output of transducer may be a voltage, current impedance or a time
function of these amplitudes. The above quantities may or may not be acceptable to the latter stages of the
instrumentation system. There is possibility to change their magnitudes or change in their format by signal
conditioning equipment for making them drive the different stages of instrumentation system.
ii). Output Impedance: In ideal transducer the value of the output impedance should be zero, but practically it
is not possible and, therefore, its value should be kept as low as possible to minimize the loading effects.
The output impedance gives the information of amount of power than can be transferred to the further
stages of the instrumentation system for a given output signal level. The value of output impedance is low
compared to the forward impedance of the system, the transducer behaves as a constant voltage source
(provided a voltage is the output of transducer), when the forward impedance is high as compared to the
output impedance of transducer, it behaves as constant current source.
iii). Useful Output Range: The output range of a transducer is limited by noise signal at the lower end which
may shroud the required input signal. The output range can be increased by adding of amplifier in the
transducer in some cases. The addition of amplifier also increases the noise level and therefore in such
situation the amplifier should be avoided.
14.5 Factors Affecting the Choice of Transducers
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The following is the summary of the factors influencing the choice of a transducer for measurement of a
physical quantity:
1. Operating Principle. The transducers are so many times selected on the basis of operating principle used
by them. The operating principles used in transducer may be resistive, inductive, capacitive, opto-electronic,
piezoelectric and so on.
2. Sensitivity. The transducer should give a sufficient output signal per unit of measured input in order to
yield meaningful data.
3. Operating Range. The transducer should maintain the range requirements and have a better resolution over
its entire range.
4. Accuracy. High degree of accuracy is necessary for measurement.
5. Error. The errors inherent in the operation of the transducer itself, but it should maintain the expected
input-output relationship as described with its transfer function so as to avoid errors.
6. Transient and Frequency Response. The transducer should meet the desired time domain specifications
as well as it should ideally have a flat frequency response curve.
7. Loading Effects. To avoid loading effect, it is necessary that a transducer has a high input impedance and a
low output impedance.
8. Physical Environment. The transducer selected should be able to work under specified environmental
conditions and maintain its output-input relationship
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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 15
MECHANICAL INPUT TRANSDUCERS
15.1 Introduction
A generalized mechanical system consists of a sensing element which responds directly by reacting to the
measurand and a transducing element which is responsible for conversion of measurand into analogous driving
signal. The sensing element may also serve to transducer the measurand and put it into more convenient form.
The unit is then called as detector-transducer. Most of the detector transducer devices employ the devices such as
a diaphragm, a Bourdon tube or a bellow. All of these are the elastic elements. The action of these elements is
based on elastic deformation brought about by the force resulting from pressure.
15.2 Mechanical Elastic Elements
Mechanical detector-transducer elements are generally elastic elements. These units are frequently employed to
furnish an indication of the magnitude of applied pressure/force through a displacement measurement. Operation
of the elastic elements is based on one or the combination of following acts:
i) Compression that tends to force the molecules of the solid close together.
ii) Tension that tends to force the molecules further apart.
iii) Torsion that tends to twist the solids.
The measurement of force or pressure can be done by converting the applied force or pressure into a
displacement by elastic elements which act as primary transducer. This displacement, which is a function of
pressure, is then measured by other transducers which act as secondary transducers. The output of the secondary
transducer becomes a function of displacement, which in turn is a function of pressure. Mechanical methods are
thus used to convert the applied force or pressure into displacement. These devices are also known as Force
Summing Devices.
The mechanical elastic elements possess elasticity. When deformed, the stresses developed in the summing
device establish equilibrium with the pressure applied on it. As the pressure is removed the elastic element
regains its original position. The choice and design of the type of force summing elements depends on the
magnitude of the force or pressure to be measured.
The movement of diaphragm is a convenient way of sensing pressure differential. The diaphragm is a flexible
disc made up of sheet metal with precise dimensions. It could be either flat or with concentric corrugations on it.
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The edge of the diaphragm is rigidly fixed. When the unknown pressure is applied to one side of the diaphragm,
the centre of the diaphragm is displaced. This displacement which is proportional to the applied pressure is
measured. Some instruments use the diaphragm as the pressure sensor, while others use it as a basic component
of capsular element. The capsules consist of two diaphragms welded together at their peripheries. Evacuated
capsules are used for detection of absolute pressure and single element diaphragm for highly sensitive
measurement.
The sensitivity of a capsule increases in proportion to its diameter and inversely proportional to the thickness of
sheet used. Multiple capsule elements can be built from the capsules. These elements are useful in increasing the
output motion resulting from a pressure change.
The diaphragm pressure element, shown in Fig. 15.1 B, employs a thin flexible diaphragm of such material as
brass or bronze. The non-metallic-diaphragm pressure element employs a flexible diaphragm of high quality
leather or a thin neoprene-like material. ‘PEXT’ is the external pressure, ‘P REF’ is the reference pressure and ‘w’
is the deflection at the centre point of the diaphragm. The extent of this deflection depends upon the pressure
applied on the diaphragm. This deflection of the diaphragm operates an indicating or recording type instrument.
The resulting displacement of a diaphragm can be multiplied by a suitable linkage and a pointer is made to
operate over a scale. Diaphragm gauges are normally employed for low pressure or vacuums up to about 5 psi.
Differential pressure can be measured by applying the second pressure to the other side of the diaphragm and
using a sealed means of detecting the motion of diaphragm as shown in Fig.15.1 A.
The bellows pressure sensor is made of a sealed chamber that has multiple ridges like the pleats of an accordion
that are compressed slightly when the sensor is manufactured. It is a thin walled tube having a corrugated shape.
When pressure is applied to the chamber, the chamber will try to expand and open the pleats. Essentially it is a
pressure activated spring. The stiffness or in other words the displacement for a particular pressure depends upon
the type and thickness of the material used. The most commonly used material for bellows pressure sensing
elements are steel, phosphor bronze and beryllium copper.
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The Fig. 15.2 shows an example of a bellows sensor, which uses a spring to oppose the movement of the bellows
and provides a means to adjust the amount of travel the chamber which it will have when pressure is applied. In
low-pressure bellows sensors, the spring is not required. The travel of the bellows can be converted to linear
motion so that a switch can be activated, or it can be connected to a potentiometer. This type of sensor is used in
low-pressure applications usually less than 30 psi. The bellows sensor is also used to make a differential pressure
sensor. In this application two bellows are mounted in one housing, so that the movement of each bellows
opposes the other. This will cause the overall travel of the pair to be equal to the difference of pressure that is
applied to them.
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A ‘Ì or C Bourdon tube’ as used in direct indicating gauge usually has an arc of 250°. The process pressure is
connected to the fixed socket end of the tube while the tip end is sealed. As the fluid pressure enters the Bourdon
tube, because of the difference between inside and outside radii, the Bourdon tube presents different areas to
pressure, which causes the tube to be reformed, and because of a free tip available, this action causes the tip to
travel in free space and the tube unwinds. The resulting tip-motion is non-linear because less motion results from
each increment of additional pressure. This non-linear motion has to be converted to linear rotational pointer
response. This travel of tip is suitably guided and amplified for the measurement of the internal pressure. But the
main requirement of the device is that whenever the same pressure is applied, the movement of the tip should be
the same and on withdrawal of the pressure the tip should return to the initial point.
Other than C-type, Bourdon gauges can also be constructed in the form of a helix or a spiral. The types are
varied for specific uses and space accommodations, for better linearity and larger sensitivity. For thorough
repeatability, the bourdon tubes materials must have good elastic or spring characteristics. The surrounding in
which the process is carried out is also important as corrosive atmosphere or fluid would require a material
which is corrosion proof. The commonly used materials are phosphor-bronze, silicon-bronze, beryllium-copper,
and other C-Cr-Ni-Mo alloys. Like all elastic elements a bourdon tube also has some hysteresis in a given
pressure cycle. By proper choice of material and its heat treatment, this may be kept to within 0.1 and 0.5
percent of the maximum pressure cycle.
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Fig. 15.4 Helical bourdon element
Figure 15.4 shows the construction of a helical Bourdon element. This sensor produces a greater motion of the
free end eliminating the need for amplification. Other advantages of this design include the high over range
protection available, for example, a 0 to 1000 psig element man safely be exposed to 10,000 psig pressure and it
suitable for pressure measurement on continuously fluctuating services. Helical elements can also be used as the
element in differential pressure sensors if one of the pressures is acting on the outside surface and the other on
the inside of the coil.
The displacement created by the action of the elastic deformation element may also be converted into a change
of some electric parameter. The force summing member actuates a transducer which converts the displacement
into an output of electrical format. The resistive and inductive transducers have been successfully used as
secondary transducers along with a diaphragm for measurement of pressure. Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT) is used as a secondary transducer for measurement of pressure with bellows or Bourdon
tube acting as a primary transducer. The pressure is converted into displacement which is sensed by LVDT and
transduced into a voltage.
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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 16
ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS: RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS
16.1 Introduction
The electrical measurements are used for measurement of electrical quantities but its use in measurement of non
electrical quantities is growing. In the measurement of non electrical quantities a detector is used which usually
converts the physical quantity in displacement. The displacement actuates an electric transducer, gives an output
which is electrical in nature. The electrical quantity so produced is measured by standard methods used for
electrical measurements. The resultant electrical output gives the magnitude of the physical quantity being
measured. The advantages and limitations of electric measurements have been presented in Lesson 3.
The electrical signal could be a voltage, current or frequency. The production of these signals is based upon the
resistive, inductive or capacitive effects. These phenomena may be combined with appropriate primary sensing
elements / detectors to produce different types of transducers.
The resistive transducers or resistive sensors are also called as variable resistance transducers. The variable
resistance transducers are one of the most commonly used types of transducers. They can be used for measuring
various physical quantities, such as, temperature, pressure, displacement, force, vibrations etc. These transducers
are usually used as the secondary transducers, where the output from the primary mechanical transducer acts as
the input for the variable resistance transducer. The output obtained from it is calibrated against the input
quantity and it directly gives the value of the input.
The variable resistance transducer elements work on the principle that the resistance of the conductor is directly
proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the conductor.
Thus, if ‘L’ is the length of the conductor (m) and ‘A’ is its area (m2) as shown in Fig.16.1, then its resistance
‘R’ (ohms) is given by:
R = ρL/A
Where ‘ρ’ is called as resistivity of the material measured in ‘ohm-m’ and it is constant for the given material.
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Some of the popular variable resistance transducers that are being used for various applications are as below:
The strain gauge is a fine wire which changes its electric resistance, when mechanically strained. When an
electrical conductor is stretched within the limits of its elasticity such that it does not break or permanently
deform, it will become narrower and longer, changes that increase its electrical resistance end-to-end.
Conversely, when a conductor is compressed such that it does not buckle, it will broaden and shorten in size, the
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changes that decrease its electrical resistance end-to-end. A typical strain gauge arranges a long, thin conductive
strip, as shown in Fig. 16.3 (a), made in a zigzag pattern of parallel lines such that a small amount of stress in the
direction of the orientation of the parallel lines results in a multiplicatively larger strain over the effective length
of the conductor Fig. 16.3 (b). The change in resistance of a strain gauge can be measured using a Wheatstone
bridge.
Where:
ΔR = change in resistance caused by strain
RG = resistance of the undeformed gauge
ε = strain
The majority of strain gauges are foil types, available in a wide choice of shapes and sizes to suit a variety of
applications. They consist of a pattern of resistive foil which is mounted on a backing material. They operate on
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the principle that as the foil is subjected to stress, the resistance of the foil changes in a defined way. Foil gauges
typically have active areas of about 2–10 mm2 in size. With careful installation, the correct gauge, and the
correct adhesive, strains up to at least 10% can be measured. The strain gauge has been in use for many years
and is the fundamental sensing element for many types of sensors, including pressure sensors, load cells, torque
sensors, position sensors, etc.
16.2.3 Thermistor
Thermistor works on the principle that resistance of some materials changes with the change in their
temperature. When the temperature of the material changes, its resistance changes and it can be measured easily
and calibrated against the input quantity. Thermistor has high negative temperature correlation. The commonly
used thermistors are made up of the ceramic like semiconducting materials such as oxides of manganese, nickel
and cobalt. Thermistor can be used for the measurement of temperature, as electric power sensing devices and
also as the controls for various processes. Thermistors are discussed in detail in Lesson 21.
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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 17
ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS: CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
Z = 1/2πfC
Where: Z = Impedance
f = frequency, 50 Hz.
C = capacitance
In general, the output impedance of a capacitive transducer is high. This fact calls for a careful design of the
output circuitry. The capacitive transducers work on the principle of change in capacitance of the capacitor. This
change in capacitance could be caused by change in overlapping area ‘A’ of the plates, change in the distance ‘d’
between the plates and change in dielectric constant ‘ e’.
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In most of the cases the above changes are caused by the physical variables, such as, displacement, force or
pressure. Variation in capacitance is also there when the dielectric medium between the plates changes, as in the
case of measurement of liquid or gas levels. Therefore, the capacitive transducers are commonly used for
measurement of linear displacement, by employing the following effects as shown in Fig. 17.2 and 17.3.
Fig. 17.2 Variable capacitive transducer varies; (a) area of overlap, (b) distance between plates, (c)
amount of dielectric between plates
Fig. 17.3 Differential capacitive transducer varies capacitance ratio by changing: (a) area of overlap, (b)
distance between plates, (c) dielectric between plates
As may be seen in Fig.17.3, all of the differential devices have three wire connections rather than two: one wire
for each of the ‘end’ plates and one for the ‘common’ plate. As the capacitance between one of the ‘end’ plates
and the ‘common’ plate changes, the capacitance between the other ‘end’ plate and the ‘common’ plate also
changes in the opposite direction.
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The sensitivity is constant and therefore there is linear relationship between capacitance and displacement.
This type of a capacitive transducer is suitable for measurement of linear displacement ranging from 1 to 10 cm.
The accuracy is as high as 0.005%.
Thus the sensitivity of this type of transducer is not constant but varies over the range of the transducer. The
relationship between variations of capacitance with variation of distance between plates is hyperbolic and is only
approximately linear over a small range of displacement. The linearity can be closely approximated by use of a
piece of dielectric material like mica having a high dielectric constant, such as, a thin piece of mica.
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The major advantages of capacitive transducers are that they require extremely small forces to operate them and
hence are very useful for use in small systems. They are extremely sensitive and require small power to operate
them. Owing to their good frequency response they are very useful for dynamic studies.
The disadvantages of capacitive transducers include their non-linear behaviour on account of edge effects and
the effects of stray capacitances especially when the transducers have a low value of capacitance. Therefore
guard rings must be used to eliminate this effect. The metallic parts of the capacitive transducers must be
insulated from each other. In order to reduce the effects of stray capacitances, the frames must be earthed.
Capacitive transducers can be used for measurement of both linear and angular displacements. The capacitive
transducers are highly sensitive and can be used for measurement of extremely small displacements down to the
order of molecular dimensions, i.e., 0.1x10-6 mm. On the other hand, they can be used for measurement of large
displacements up to about 30 m as in aeroplane altimeters. The change in area method is used for measurement
of displacements ranging from 10 to 100 mm. Capacitive transducers can be used for the measurement of force
and pressure. The force and pressure to be measured are first converted to displacement which causes a change
of capacitance. Capacitive transducers can also be used directly as pressure transducers in all those cases where
the dielectric constant of a medium changes with pressure. They can be used for measurement of humidity in
gases and moisture content in soil / food products etc.
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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 18
ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS: INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCRES
18.1 Inductance
Inductance is the ability of an inductor to store energy in a magnetic field. Inductors generate an opposing
voltage proportional to the rate of change in current in a circuit. Inductance is caused by the magnetic field
generated by electric currents. It is typified by the behavior of a coil of wire in resisting any change of electric
current through the coil. Arising from Faraday’s law, the inductance L may be defined in terms of the emf
generated to oppose a given change in current. The quantitative definition of the self inductance L of an
electrical circuit in SI units (Webbers per ampere, known as henries) is:
Where:
v = voltage in volts
i = current in amperes.
This property can be of two types, the self inductance and the mutual inductance. Self-inductance, or simply
inductance, is the property of a circuit whereby a change in current causes a change in voltage in the same
circuit. When one circuit induces current flow in a second nearby circuit, it is known as mutual-inductance. The
self-inductance, L, of a circuit component determines the magnitude of the electromagnetic force (emf) induced
in it as a result of a given rate of change of the current through the component. Similarly, the mutual inductance,
M, of two components, one in each of two separate but closely located circuits, determines the emf that each
may induce in the other for a given current change. The phenomenon of mutual induction is used as the
mechanism by which transformer work.
The schematic symbol of inductance and the air-coiled solenoid producing self inductance is shown in Fig. 18.1.
Solenoid is a long straight coil of wire and can be used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field similar to
that of a bar magnet. The magnetic field can be greatly strengthened by the addition of an iron core. Such cores
are typical in electromagnets. Solenoids have enormous number of practical applications.
Where;
M21 = -N1N2P21
Where:
The circuit diagram representation of mutually coupled inductors is shown in Fig. 18.2. The two vertical lines
between the inductors indicate a solid core that the wires of the inductor are wrapped around. "n:m" shows the
ratio between the number of windings of the left inductor to windings of the right inductor.
The inductive transducers work on the principle of the electromagnetic induction. Just as the resistance of the
electric conductor depends on number of factors, the induction of the magnetic material depends on a number of
variables like the number of turns of the coil on the material, the size of the magnetic material, and the
permeability of the flux path. In the inductive transducers the magnetic materials are used in the flux path and
there are one or more air gaps. The change in the air gap also results in change in the inductance of the circuit
and in most of the inductive transducers it is used for the working of the instrument.
There are two common type inductive transducers: simple inductance type and two-coil mutual inductance type.
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18.2.1 Simple inductance type inductive transducers
In the simple inductance type of the inductive transducers simple single coil is used as the transducer. When the
mechanical element whose displacement is to be measured is moved, it changes the permeance of the flux path
generated by the circuit, which changes the inductance of the circuit and the corresponding output. The output
from the circuit is calibrated directly against the value of the input, thus it directly gives the valve of the
parameter to be measured. Fig. 18.3 shows the single coil inductive circuit. Here the magnetic material is
connected to the electric circuit and it is excited by the alternating current. At the bottom there is another
magnetic material that acts as the armature. As the armature is moved, the air gap between the two magnetic
material changes and the permeance of the flux generated by the circuit changes that changes the inductance of
the circuit and its output. The output meter directly gives the valve of the input mechanical quantity. This type of
transducer can be used in a filpack machine to count the number of packets filled with milk.
In the Fig. 18.4, coil is wound around the round hollow magnetic material and there is magnetic core that moves
inside hollow magnetic material. In the above circuits the change in the air gap or the change in the amount of
the magnetic material in the circuit can be used to produce the output proportional to the input. In the above
arrangements the supply of the current and the output is obtained from the same coil or circuit.
18.2.2 Two-coil mutual inductance type inductive transducer
In the two coil arrangement there are two different coils. In the first coil the excitation is generated by external
source of the power and in the second coil the output is obtained. The output is proportional to the mechanical
input. As shown in the figure 18.5 below, A is the excitation coil and B is the output coil. The inductance of the
output coil changes due to change in position of the armature which is connected to the mechanical element
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whose motion is to be measured. As the armature position changes, the air gap between the fixed magnetic
material and the armature changes.
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is the most widely used inductive transducer to translate
linear motion into electrical signal.
18.3.1 Construction
A differential transformer consists of a primary winding and two secondary windings. The windings are
arranged concentrically and next to each other. They are wound over a hollow bobbin which is usually of a non-
magnetic and insulating material. A ferro-magnetic core (armature) in the shape of a rod of cylinder is attached
to the transducer’s sensing shaft. The core slides freely within the hollow portion of the bobbin. In the simplex
winding configuration, the linear variable displacement transformer LVDT is shown in Fig.18.6. There is one
primary and two secondary windings. The secondaries are connected so their outputs are opposite. If an AC
excitation is applied across the primary winding then voltages are induced in the secondaries. A movable core
varies the coupling between it and the two secondary windings. When the core is in the centre position, the
coupling to the secondary coils is equal. As the core moves away from the centre position, the coupling to one
secondary becomes more and hence its output voltage increases, while the coupling and the output voltage of the
other secondary decreases.
The output voltage of these transducers is practically linear for displacement up to 5 mm. The transducer has
infinite resolution and a high sensitivity. It is simple, light in weight, and easy to align and maintain. These
transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of shock and vibration without any adverse effects. In addition to
this they have low hysteresis and hence repeatability is excellent under all conditions.
The disadvantages of LVDT include their relatively large displacements are requirement for appreciable
differential output. They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields but this can be overcome by providing appropriate
shielding. Temperature affects the performance of the transducer.
18.3.3 Numerical
1. The output of an LVDT is connected to a 10 V voltmeter through an amplifier with a gain of 250. The
voltmeter scale has 100 divisions and the scale can be read up to 1/5th of a division. An output of 2 mV appears
across the terminals of the LVDT, when core is displaced through a 0.5 mm. Determine the following:
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i) Sensitivity of the measuring system
ii) Resolution of instrument
Solution
Given that
The output voltage of LVDT: V0 = 2 mV
Displacement = 0.5 mm
Full-scale of voltmeter = 0 – 10 V
No. of divisions on voltmeter scale = 100
1 Scale division = 10 / 100 = 0.10 V or 100 mV
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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 19
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE – I
19.1 Introduction
Pressure measurement is one of the most common of all measurements made on systems. Pressure along with
flow measurements is extensively used in industry, laboratories and many other fields for a wide variety of
reasons. Pressure measurements are concerned not only with determination of force per unit area but are also
involved in many liquid level, density, flow and temperature measurements.
19.2 Pressure
Pressure is the force per unit area exerted by a fluid on the surface of the container. Pressure measurements, are
usually made relative to some reference. Everyday pressure measurements, such as, the pressure in a car tire, are
usually made relative to ambient air pressure. In other cases measurements are made relative to a vacuum or to
some other ad hoc reference. When distinguishing between these zero references, the following terms are used:
i) Atmospheric pressure
The pressure due to air surrounding the earth’s surface is called as atmospheric pressure.
ii) Absolute pressure
It is known that pressure is force per unit area when the interaction of fluid particles among themselves is zero, a
zero pressure intensity will occur. This is possible only when the population of molecules is negligibly small
which means perfect vacuum. Hence the pressure intensity measured from a state of prefect vacuum is called as
absolute pressure. So it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure
A Pressure measuring instrument generally measures the difference between the unknown pressure (P) and the
atmospheric pressure (Patm). When the atmospheric pressure (Patm) is greater than the unknown pressure (P), the
pressure measured by the instrument is called as the vacuum pressure
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Atmospheric pressure is typically about 100 kPa at sea level, but is variable with altitude and weather. If the
absolute pressure of a fluid stays constant, the gauge pressure of the same fluid will vary as atmospheric pressure
changes. Use of the atmosphere as reference is usually signified by a (g) after the pressure unit e.g. 30 psi g,
which means that the pressure measured is the total pressure minus atmospheric pressure.
Following table presents various units of pressure measurement and their equivalents to each other:
Table 19.1
Static pressure is uniform in all directions, so pressure measurements are independent of direction in an
immovable (static) fluid. Flow, however, applies additional pressure on surfaces perpendicular to the flow
direction, while having little impact on surfaces parallel to the flow direction. This directional component of
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pressure in a moving (dynamic) fluid is called dynamic pressure. An instrument facing the flow direction
measures the sum of the static and dynamic pressures; this measurement is called the total pressure or stagnation
pressure. Since dynamic pressure is referenced to static pressure, it is neither gauge nor absolute; it is a
differential pressure. While static gauge pressure is of primary importance to determining net loads on pipe
walls, dynamic pressure is used to measure flow rates and airspeed. Dynamic pressure can be measured by
taking the differential pressure between instruments parallel and perpendicular to the flow. Pitot-static tubes, for
example perform this measurement on airplanes to determine airspeed. The presence of the measuring
instrument inevitably acts to divert flow and create turbulence, so its shape is critical to accuracy and the
calibration curves are often non-linear.
In processing industries the measurement of pressure is required to maintain safe operating conditions, to help
control a process and to provide test data. In industrial applications the pressure is usually measured by means of
indicating gauges or recorders. These instruments could be mechanical, electro-mechanical or electronic in
operation. The mechanical instruments include those instruments in which pressure measurement is made by
balancing unknown force with a known force and those instruments which employ quantitative deformation of
air elastic member for pressure measurement. The electro-mechanical instruments usually employ a mechanical
means for detecting the pressure and the electrical means for indicating or recording the detected pressure. The
electronic pressure measuring instruments normally depend upon some physical change that can be detected and
indicated or recorded electronically. In this text, the description will be limited only to the elastic deformation
elements and transducers employed in mechanical or electro-mechanical measurement of pressure.
Table 19.2
Although any fluid can be used in the manometer, mercury is preferred for its high density (13.534 g/cm3) and
low vapour pressure. For low pressure differences well above the vapour pressure of water, water is commonly
used and “mm or inches of water" is a common pressure unit. Liquid-column pressure gauges are independent of
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the type of gas being measured and have a highly linear calibration. However, they have poor dynamic response.
When measuring vacuum, the working liquid may evaporate and contaminate the vacuum if its vapor pressure is
too high. When measuring liquid pressure, a loop filled with gas or a light fluid can isolate the liquids to prevent
them from mixing. This may not be required when mercury is used as the manometer fluid to measure
differential pressure of a fluid such as water. Simple hydrostatic gauges can measure pressures ranging from a
few Torr (a few 100 Pa) to a few atmospheres. (Approximately 1,000,000 Pa)
A single-limb liquid-column manometer has a larger reservoir instead of one side of the U-tube and has a scale
beside the narrower column. The column may be inclined to further amplify the liquid movement.
Based on the use and structure following type of manometers are used
1. Simple Manometer
2. Micro manometer
3. Differential manometer
4. Inverted differential manometer
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Fig. 19.2 Bourdon pressure gauge
Frequently used bourdon tube materials include bronze, alloy and stainless steel. These elements are not ideally
suited for low pressure, vacuum or compound measurements because the spring gradient of bourdon tube is too
low.
The advantages of Bourdon tube pressure gauges are that they give accurate results. Bourdon tubes are simple in
construction and their cost is low. They can be modified to give electrical outputs. They are safe even for high
pressure measurement and the accuracy is high especially at high pressures. The Bourdon gauge coupled with a
S.S, capsule type sensing bulb is used in milk homogenizer.
The Bourdon tube pressure gauges have some limitations also. They respond slowly to changes in pressure.
They are subjected to hysteresis and are sensitive to shocks and vibrations. As the displacement of the free end
of the bourdon tube is low, it requires amplification. More over, they cannot be used for precision measurement.
19.6 Elastic Diaphragm Gauges
As already discussed that when an elastic transducer, such as diaphragm, is subjected to a pressure, it deflects.
This deflection is proportional to the applied pressure when calibrated. Elastic diaphragm gauges are built on
this principle. The main part of the diaphragm gauge is a thin circular plate which is firmly fixed around its
edges. The diaphragm may either be flat, dish, corrugated or corrugated as shown in Fig 19.3.
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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 20
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE – II
The dead weight tester is basically a pressure producing and pressure measuring device. It is used to calibrate
pressure gauges. The dead weight tester apparatus consists of a piston – cylinder combination fitted above the
chamber as shown in Fig. 20.1.The chamber below the cylinder is filled with oil. The top portion of the piston is
attached with a platform to carry weights. A plunger with a handle is provided to vary the pressure of oil in the
chamber. The pressure gauge to be tested is fitted at an appropriate place as shown in the Fig. 20.1.
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The McLeod Gauge is used to measure vacuum pressure. It also serves as a reference standard to calibrate other
low pressure gauges. The components of McLeod gauge include a reference column with reference capillary
tube. The reference capillary tube has a point called zero reference point. This reference column is connected to
a bulb and measuring capillary and the place of connection of the bulb with reference column is called as cut off
point. It is called so because if the mercury level is raised above this point, it will cut off the entry of the applied
pressure to the bulb and measuring capillary. Below the reference column and the bulb, there is a mercury
reservoir operated by a piston.
The pressure to be measured (P1) is applied to the top of the reference column of the McLeod Gauge as shown
in Fig. 20.2. The mercury level in the gauge is raised by operating the piston to fill the volume as shown by the
dark shade in the diagram. When the applied pressure fills the bulb and the capillary, again the piston is operated
so that the mercury level in the gauge increases. When the mercury level reaches the cut-off point, a known
volume of gas (V1) is trapped in the bulb and measuring capillary tube. The mercury level is further raised by
operating the piston so the trapped gas in the bulb and measuring capillary tube is compressed. This is done until
the mercury level reaches the “Zero reference Point” marked on the reference capillary. In this condition, the
volume of the gas in the measuring capillary tube is read directly by a scale besides it. That is, the difference in
height ‘H’ of the measuring capillary and the reference capillary becomes a measure of the volume (V2) and
pressure (P2) of the trapped gas. Now as V1, V2, and P2 are known, the applied pressure P1 can be calculated
using Boyle’s Law given by:
P1V1 = P2 V2
The working of McLeod Gauge is independent of the gas composition. A linear relationship exists between the
applied pressure and height and there is no need to apply corrections to the readings. The limitations are that the
gas whose pressure is to be measured should obey the Boyle’s law and the presence of vapours in the gauge
affects the performance.
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The Pirani gauge consists of a metal wire open to the pressure being measured. The wire is heated by a current
flowing through it and cooled by the gas surrounding it. If the gas pressure is reduced, the cooling effect will
decrease; hence the equilibrium temperature of the wire will increase. The resistance of the wire is a function of
its temperature and by measuring the voltage across the wire and the current flowing through it, the resistance
can be determined and so the gas pressure is evaluated.
These gauges are the most sensitive gauges for measuring very low pressures or high vacuum. The principle of
operation of these gauges sensing pressure of gas by measuring the electrical ions produced when the gas is
bombarded with electrons. Fewer ions will be produced by lower density gases. The electrons are generated by
thermo ionic emission. These electrons collide with gas atoms and generate positive ions. The ions are attracted
to a suitably biased electrode known as the collector. The current in the collector is proportional to the rate of
ionization, which is a function of the pressure in the system. Hence, measuring the collector current gives the gas
pressure.
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Fig. 20.4 Hot filament ionization gauge
The ionization gauges are of two types, the hot cathode ionization gauges and the cold cathode ionization
gauges. In hot cathode (Fig. 20.4) version an electrically heated filament produces an electron beam. The
electrons travel through the gauge and ionize gas molecules around them. The resulting ions are collected at a
negative electrode. The current depends on the number of ions, which depends on the pressure in the gauge. The
working of cold cathode gauge is also same with the only difference in the production of electrons which are
produced in the discharge of a high voltage.
20.5 Thermal Conductivity Vacuum Gauge
The thermal conductivity vacuum gauge works on the principle that at low pressure the thermal conductivity of a
gas is a function of pressure. The Fig. 20.5 shows the basic elements of a thermocouple vacuum gauge. It
consists of a linear element which is heated by a known current source and is contact with a thermocouple
attached to its centre. The heater element together with the thermocouple is enclosed in a glass enclosure. The
vacuum system to be evaluated is connected to this enclosure. The heater element is supplied with a constant
electrical energy. The temperature of the heating element is a function of heat loss to the surrounding gas, which
in turn is a function of thermal conductivity of gas that is dependent on the pressure of the gas. The temperature
is measured by the thermocouple and is calibrated to read the pressure of the gas.
This gauge is inexpensive and rugged in construction. It provides a convenient and continuous reading with a
possibility of remote display. It however needs an individual and frequent calibration for different gases.
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Module 5: Transducers
Lesson 21
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE – III
The strain gauge, as explained in Lesson 16, is a fine wire which changes its resistance when mechanically
strained. A strain gauge may be attached to the diaphragm so that when the diaphragm flexes due to process
pressure applied on it, the strain gauge stretches or compresses. This deformation of the strain gauge causes the
variation in its length and cross sectional area due to which its resistance changes.
The small change in resistance that occurs in stain gauge is measured using a Wheatstone bridge. Fig. 21.1
shows the null type bridge circuit.
The strain gauge represents the resistance R4 whose value depends upon the physical variable being measured.
Under balanced conditions;
R4 = R2 (R3 / R1)
The ratio of resistors R3 and R1 is fixed for a particular measurement. The bridge is balanced by varying the
value of resistor R2. Thus if three resistances are known the fourth may be determined.
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The potentiometric pressure sensor provides a simple method for obtaining an electrical output from a
mechanical pressure gauge. The device consists of a precision potentiometer, whose wiper arm is mechanically
linked to a Bourdon or bellows element (Fig. 21.3). The movement of the wiper arm across the potentiometer
converts the mechanically detected sensor deflection into a resistance measurement, using a Wheatstone bridge
circuit.
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For reliable operation the wiper must bear on the element with some force, which leads to repeatability and
hysteresis errors. They have finite resolution, as the wiper moves from one turn to the next the resistance jumps
from one value to the other. Errors also will develop due to mechanical wear of the components and of the
contacts. Each time the wiper makes and breaks contact with a turn of wire, it causes an extra electrical signal,
which is called noise. The addition of noise to the standard electrical signal makes the signal some what
confusing. The amount of noise becomes greater as the potentiometer wears out. To reduce the noise some
potentiometer are made by depositing a resistance material on a non-conducting ceramic surface. The wiper
moves over this surface just as in a wire wound potentiometer, but the resistance can change continuously rather
than in increments and is less electrical noise.
21.4 Inductive Pressure Transducer
Reluctance in a magnetic circuit is equivalent to resistance in the electric circuit. Whenever the spacing or
coupling between two magnetic devices or coils changes, the reluctance between them also changes. Thus a
pressure sensor can be used to change the spacing or coupling between two coils by moving one part of the
magnetic circuit. This changes the reluctance between the coils, which in turn changes the voltage induced by
one coil in the other. This phenomenon has been explained in the construction and working of LVDT in Lesson
17.
LVDTs and other inductive devices are used to convert the displacement motion of bellows or Bourdon tube into
proportional electrical signals. Fig. 21.4 shows how an LVDT can be connected to the bellows so that the
pressure measurement is converted directly from displacement to voltage. In addition, the displacement and
pressure are nearly linearly related, and because the LVDT voltage is linear with displacement, the voltage and
pressure are also linearly related.
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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 22
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE – I
22.1 Introduction
Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the hotness or coldness of an object or
a process. The objects of low temperature are cold, while various degrees of higher temperatures are referred to
as warm or hot. For most temperature measurements the Celsius scale (°C) is used. The freezing point of water
in the Celsius scale is 0°C and boiling point is 100°C. The Celsius scale has the same incremental scaling as the
Kelvin scale, however, the 0°C on Celsius scale is equal to 273.15K. A few countries, most notably The United
States, use the Fahrenheit scale for common purposes. On this scale the freezing point of water is 32 °F and the
boiling point is 212°F.
Several methods have been developed for measuring temperature. Most of these methods depend upon
measuring some physical property of a working material that varies with temperature. One of the most common
devices for measuring temperature is the glass thermometer. Other important temperatures measuring
transducers are the bimetallic strips, resistance temperature detector, thermocouples, thermistor, pyrometers etc.
22.2 Thermometers
This type of thermometer consists of a liquid-filled glass bulb and connecting micro-fine size of capillary tube.
The bulb is filled with mercury or some other liquid, which acts as the working fluid. The increase in
temperature causes the fluid in the bulb to expand and to contract as the temperature falls. Thus, the temperature
can be determined by measuring the volume of the fluid. The differential expansion between the glass and the
liquid causes the liquid to rise in the capillary. Such thermometers are usually calibrated so that one can read the
temperature simply by observing the level of the fluid in the thermometer.
A variety of liquids, such as mercury, alcohol, toluene and pentene are used in thermometer construction to
cover diverse ranges of temperature. These thermometers are available in many configurations, such as, the read
out thermometers, the digital readout thermometers and the recording thermometers which uses a pen on a
rotating drum to continuously record temperature readings.
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The construction of such thermometer is same as that of the gas filled thermometer. Only difference is instead of
gas pressure they utilize the vapor pressure of certain stable liquids to measure temperature. Since a nonlinear
relationship exists between the temperature and the vapor pressure, the motion of the bourdon tube is greater at
the upper end of the vapor-pressure curve.
The electrical resistance of some metals change with change in temperature. Resistance thermometer utilizes this
characteristic. With the increase of temperature, the electrical resistance of some metals increases in direct
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proportion to the rise of temperature, so if the electrical resistance of a wire of known and calibrated material is
measured, the temperature of the wire can be determined.
In this type of thermometer, a temperature sensitive resistance element is fabricated in a suitable probe form to
insert in a medium whose temperature is to be measured. Resistance elements are generally long, spring like
wires enclosed in a metal sheath as shown in Fig. 22.2. The conductors used for resistance thermometer are
platinum, nickel of various purities. Platinum is the most commonly used metal for RTD elements due to its
chemical inertness, nearly linear and large enough temperature versus resistance relationship and stability. The
resistance element is surrounded by a porcelain insulator which prevents short circuit between wire and the
metal sheath. Two leads are attached to each side of the platinum wire. When this instrument is placed in a liquid
or a gas medium whose temperature is to be measured, the sheath quickly reaches the temperature of the
medium. This change in temperature causes the platinum wire inside the sheath to heat or cool, resulting in a
proportional change in the wires resistance. This change in resistance can be directly calibrated to indicate the
temperature.
Resistance of metal at temperature ‘t’ is given by:
Rt = R0 (1 + α0t)
Where:
Rt = Resistance at t°C
R0 = Resistance at 0°C
α0 = Temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C
The common configuration of RTD has the platinum resistance element range in length from 1/8" to 3". There
are many options. The standard resistance is 100 Ω at 0° C. The most common outside diameter is 1.5 to 12.5
mm. The 316 Stainless steel is commonly used tubing material. RTDs are available in 2, 3 and 4 wire
configuration and 3 wire configurations are the most common for industrial applications. Teflon and fiberglass
are the standard wire insulation materials. Three wire RTDs normally use a Wheatstone bridge measurement
circuit to measure the resistance. Now when sensing element resistance changes, the wheat-stone bridge
becomes unbalanced and thus galvanometer will give deflection which can be calibrated to give suitable
temperature scale.
Resistance thermometers possess high accuracy of measurement. They have a wide temperature range from –
200 to 650°C. They are fast in response and have good reproducibility. The limitations include their high cost,
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requirement of a bridge circuit and power supply.
Instrument based on the above principle is known as thermocouple. Fig. 22.3 shows a thermocouple made from
two different kinds of metals. The wires are joined at the ends which form two junctions – a measuring junction
and a reference junction. Heating the measuring junction produces a voltage greater than the voltages across the
reference junction the difference between two voltages is measured and voltmeter reading is converted to its
corresponding temperatures. The conversion table is generally supplied by the thermocouple manufacturers.
There are various types of thermocouples which are used in industries, viz. Copper constantan, iron constantan,
chromel alumel, platinum rhodium and chromels-constantan.
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1. T Copper-Constantan -180 to 400 20-60
2. J Iron-Constantan -180 to 850 50-55
3. K Chromel-Alumel -200 to 1300 40-55
4. E Chromel-Constantan -180 to 850 50-80
5. R Platinum-Platinum/13%Rhodium 0 to 1600 5-12
6. S Platinum-Platinum/10%Rhodium 0 to 1400 5-12
When high sensitivity is required, thermocouples are attached in series. This is known as thermopile.
The thermocouples used in industries consist of a protective well and head across the measuring junction to
protect thermocouples from harmful atmospheres, corrosive fluids, mechanical damage and to support the
thermocouples to avoid damages in pressurized systems. Thermocouples can be connected in parallel to provide
the average temperature in a system. They can also be used to measure the difference between two temperatures.
A single thermocouple can be utilized by two separate measuring instruments, with proper precautions. The
e.m.f. charts and tables for various thermocouples are available. The thermocouple tables are based upon the
reference junction temperature of 0°C, therefore, a direct conversion from the tables can be made only when an
ice bath is used at the reference junction. If it is not possible to maintain the reference junction temperature at
0°C a correction factor must be applied to the milli volt values shown in the thermocouple tables.
Thermocouples are cheaper than RTD. They are rugged in construction and can be used for wide temperature
range. No external power is required. They are simpler to use than resistance thermometers. There is no need of
a bridge circuit. They have extremely wide temperature range from – 270°C to 2800°C. Their electrical output is
adaptable to a variety of readout and / or control devices. They can process long transmission distances.
However they have some disadvantages, such as, their instability, low and non-linear output signal. They need to
hold reference junction temperatures constant or compensation for any deviations. They require signal
amplification for many applications and need expensive accessories for control applications
Example: A T type thermocouple has linear calibration between 0 and 500 oC with emf at maximum
temperature (reference temperature oC) equal to 21.5 mV. Determine the correction to be made to the indicated
emf, if the cold junction temperature is 25 oC. If the indicated emf is 9.0 mV, determine the temperature of the
hot junction.
Solution:
Sensitivity = 2.15 / 500 = 0.043 mV/ oC
E correction = 0.043 x 25 = 1.075 mV
Difference of temperature between hot and cold junction = 9.0/0.043 = 209.30 oC
The reference junction temperature = 25 oC
The hot junction temperature = 209.30+25 = 234.3 oC
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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 23
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE – II
23.1 Thermistor
Thermistor or thermal resistor is thermal sensitive resistor. Its resistance changes with temperature. Depending
upon the way it responds to temperature, the change in resistance character divides the thermistor into two types.
The positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor is that in which resistance of the thermistor increases with
the increase in temperature. These thermistors are usually made from Barium, Titanate. The negative
temperature coefficient thermistor (NTC) in which, resistance of thermistor decreases with increase in
temperature. In broad term a thermistor is semiconductor component that behave as a resistor with usually,
negative temperature coefficient of resistance. In some cases, resistance of a thermistor at room temperature may
decrease to 5 percent for each one degree Celsius rise in temperature.
Fig. 23.1 gives the comparison between the changes in resistance due to change in temperature for both the
thermistors and the RTD. Positive resistance-temperature correlation in RTD and high negative correlation for
thermistors is clearly illustrated. Thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as
manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium. They are available in a number of configurations, as shown
in Fig. 23.2. Most familiar is the bead type, usually glass coated. They can also be made into washers, discs or
rods. Different types of thermistors configurations are shown in the figure below. Thermistors can also be
encapsulated in plastic, cemented, and soldered in bolts, encased in glass tubes, needles or a variety of other
forms. These assemblies serve to support the sensors, protect against damage to the wires, direct flow across the
unit uniformly, permit sealing of conduits or flow lines, and provide for easier handling.
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To measure temperature with a thermistor, it is placed in the environment whose temperature is to be measured.
As the temperature of the substance or environment increases, the resistance of the thermistor decreases, and
vice-versa. This change in thermistor resistance can be detected which will be the measure of the temperature of
the substance. Generally, the thermistor is placed as one leg of a wheat-stone bridge circuit. At balanced
condition, when there is no change in temperature the galvanometer indicates zero. As the temperature increases
or decreases, the resistance of the thermistor also decreases or increases due to which the wheat-stone bridge
circuit becomes unbalanced. Thus an electric current flows through the galvanometer which indicates on the
calibrated scale. The deflection of the galvanometer can be calibrated as a temperature scale.
All types of thermistors are of small sizes and have fast response. These are most sensitive and are suitable for
narrow spans. The thermistor is at least 10 times more sensitive than the platinum resistance element. Since the
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resistance is a function of absolute temperature, cold junction compensation is not necessary. Due to the large
resistance, the contact or lead-wire resistance is considered as negligible as compared to the resistance of
thermistors. The cost of thermistors is very low. The major limitations of using thermistors are that they have a
highly non-linear resistance-temperature characteristic and the problems of self-heating effects necessitate the
use of much lower current levels than those with metallic sensors. The temperature-resistance characteristic of a
thermistor is of exponential type and is given by:
The values of b usually lie between 3000 and 4000 K depending on the formulation or grade.
Example: A thermistor used for temperature measurement has b=3140 K and the resistance at 27°C is 1050 W.
If the resistance of the thermistor is measured as 2330 W, find the temperature.
Solution. The resistance-temperature characteristic of the thermistor is given by:
= 3.587 x 10-3
= 278.78 K
23.2 Pyrometers
When temperature to be measured is high and physical contact with the hot body or medium is not possible,
pyrometers are used to measure the temperature. Pyrometers are used under conditions where corrosive vapours
or liquid could damage the thermocouples, resistance thermometer and Thermistor. The pyrometers also find
applications where the temperatures are above the range of thermocouple. There are two types of pyrometers
which are commonly used, viz. radiation pyrometers and optical pyrometers.
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The radiation pyrometer measures the heat emitted by a hot object. The radiation pyrometers operate on the
principle that the energy radiated from a hot body is a function of its temperature. Basically, thermal radiations
are electromagnetic radiation lies in the wavelength region from about 0.1 to 100 micrometer. The energy
radiated by the hot body whose temperature is measured is focused by the lens to the detector. The detector is
usually a thermocouple and the detector output is given to a PMMC instrument, digital display or recorder.
There are two principles used for the construction of radiation temperature measuring devices. The Total
radiation pyrometer is one in which the total radiant energy from a heated body is measured, and the Selective
radiation pyrometer in which the radiated energy from the heated body is measured at a given wavelength.
A total radiation pyrometer is shown in Fig. 23.3. Radiations from hot object is collected and focussed on a
thermocouple with the help of a mirror. This increases the thermocouple temperature and generates an emf. The
rise in temperature is the function of amount of radiation emitted by the hot object. This instrument has a high
speed of response and is primarily used to measure the temperature in the range of 700 to 2000°C. Direct contact
is not necessary with the object whose temperature is to be measured.
23.2.2 Optical pyrometer
The principle of temperature measurement by brightness comparison is used in optical pyrometer. A colour
variation with the growth in temperature is taken as an index of temperature. The optical pyrometer compares
the brightness of image produced by temperature source with that of reference temperature lamp. The current in
the lamp is adjusted until the brightness of the lamp is equal to the brightness of the image produced by the
temperature source. Since the intensity of light of any wave length depends on the temperature of the radiating
object, the current passing through the lamp becomes a measure of the temperature of the temperature source
when calibrated. The current in the lamp is adjusted until the brightness of the lamp is equal to the brightness of
the image produced by the temperature source. The main parts of an optical pyrometer are shown in the Fig.
23.4.
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When a temperature of the source is to be measured, the radiations from the source are focused onto the filament
of the reference temperature lamp using the objective lens. The eye piece is adjusted in such a way that the
filament of the reference temperature lamp is in sharp focus and the filament is seen super imposed on the image
of the temperature source. The lamp current is then controlled. The filament will appear dark as in first image
(A) of the Fig. 23.5, if the filament is cooler than the temperature source. The filament will appear bright as in
second image (B) of the figure if the filament is hotter than the temperature source. If the filament and
temperature source are in the same temperature the filament will disappear (C).
Hence the lamp current is controlled until the filament and the temperature source have the same brightness
which will be noticed when the filament disappears on the superimposed image of the temperature source. At
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this instance, the current flowing through the lamp which is indicated by the multimeter connected to the lamp
becomes a measure of the temperature of the temperature source when calibrated.
Optical pyrometers are used to measure temperature of furnace and hot bodies. Physical contact of the
instrument is not required to measure temperature of the temperature source.
Accuracy is high (± 5°C) and is easy to operate.
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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 24
MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID LEVEL
24.1 Introduction
The measurement of liquid level in tanks and vessels is essential requirement of processing industries. This can
be achieved through mechanical means by employing float and measuring the displacement. In another method
provides the direct conversion to liquid level position to electrical signal. In this case the liquid level is
determined indirectly. The measurement is generally done by two conversions; the first conversion usually is
liquid level to a displacement through a float in a liquid or a spring loaded plate in contact with the surface in the
case of granular solids. This displacement is then converted into an electrical signal by a secondary transducer
connected to float or plate. There are, however, many applications other methods like optical or economic means
or gamma rays are used.
24.2 Sight Glass or Gauge Glass
Sight glass is used for continuous indication of liquid level in a tank. As shown in Fig. 24.1, it consists of a
graduated tube made up of toughened glass which is connected to the interior of the tank in which level is to be
measured at the bottom. The level of liquid in the sight glass is at the same level of that of liquid in the tank. As
the liquid in the tank rises or falls, the level in the sight glass also rise or falls accordingly. Thus the level of
liquid in the sight glass gives the level of the liquid in the tank. It is not necessary that the liquid in the sight
glass be same as the liquid in the tank. Any other liquid in the sight glass can also be used. The standard practice
is not to use the glass tube of length more than 90 cm. The use of sight glass is common in boilers to indicate the
liquid level. The only drawback is that the reading of the level is only available at the tank, which is sometimes
not convenient. The viscous liquid may sometime clog the sight glass tube. Since sight glasses are located
outside the tanks, the liquid in the sight glass may freeze in clod weather even though the liquid inside the tank
does not, and thus, it may cause error in the reading. Accuracy and readability depends on cleanliness of glass
and fluid.
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It consists of a float which rests on the surface of the liquid. The movement of the float is transmitted to a
pointer through suitable mechanism. The pointer indicates the liquid level on a calibrated scale. Various types of
floats are used which include hollow metal spheres, cylindrical or disc shaped floats. The float type level
indicators are low in cost, reliable and operate over a large temperature range. A float type level indicator for
indicating level in a tank is shown in Fig. 24.2a.
The indication of liquid level can be transmitted to a distant place by using hydraulic transmission system also.
A float can be used to operate a voltage potential divider (Fig. 24.2 b).
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The electric transducers used for level measurements include the resistive, inductive, and capacitive transducers.
Change in capacitance with change in area of plates, distance between plates and the dielectric constant has
already been explained in Lesson 16. All these principles are employed in detecting the level of liquids and
solids in a container.
The container should be earthed to avoid any danger of electric shock to the personnel and to prevent any errors
due to external metallic objects.
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Capacitance C2 is inversely proportional to the distance between the liquid surface and P2. Thus the output
voltage decreases with rise of liquid level and therefore the relationship between them is non-linear.
Gamma rays are being increasingly used for detection of liquid levels. A source of gamma rays is placed at the
bottom of the tank. At the top of the tank there is a sensor of gamma rays like a Geiger Müller tube. If the tank is
empty the intensity of gamma radiation reaching the sensor will be more. But if there is some liquid in it, some
of the rays will be absorbed by the liquid and the radiations reaching the tube will be small, and hence its output
is small. The higher the level of the liquid, the greater is the absorption and hence lesser will be the output of the
Geiger Müller tube. Thus the output of Geiger Müller tube is inversely proportional to the liquid level. The
output of the Geiger Müller tube is in the form of pulses which may be counted by a counter. Thus the counter
may be directly calibrated in terms of the liquid level.
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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 25
MEASUREMENT OF FLOW
25.1 Introduction
Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement. Flow rate and the quantity is one of the
important process variable requiring frequent measurements. Flow rate measurement plays an important role in
plant material balancing, quality control and the operation of any continuous process. In engineering contexts,
the volumetric flow rate is usually given the symbol ‘Q’, and the mass flow rate, the symbol ‘ ’. Flow
measurements find applications in transportation of fluids and slurries, gas and water supply systems, irrigation
system and industrial process control. Many accurate and reliable methods are available for the flow
measurements.
The venturi tube are made up of cast iron or steel and are built in several forms, such as long form, short form
and eccentric form etc. they are available in sizes from 100 mm to 800 mm.
25.3 Rotameter
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The term rotameter derives from early versions of the floats, which had slots to help stabilize and center them
and which caused them to rotate. The operating principle of rotameter is based on a float of given density's
establishing an equilibrium position where, with a given flow rate, the upward force of the flowing fluid equals
the downward force of gravity. It is achieved by rising in the tapered tube with an increase in flow until the
increased annular area around it creates a new equilibrium position. By design, the rotameter operates in
accordance with formula for all variable-area meters, directly relating flow rate to area for flow. Rotameters are
the most widely used type of variable-area flow meter. When the flow is constant, the float stays in one position
that can be related to the volumetric flow rate. That position is indicated on a graduated scale. Note that to keep
the full force of gravity in effect, this dynamic balancing act requires a vertical measuring tube.
The gradually increasing diameter of the tapered tube provides an increase in the annular area around the float.
The volumetric flow rate is given by the following equation:
Q = kA (gh)1/2
where:
Q = volumetric flow rate, litres per hr.
K = constant
A = annular area between the float and the tube wall
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = pressure drop (head) across the float
With ‘h’ being constant in a variable area meter, we have area ‘A’ as a direct function of flow rate ‘Q’. Thus, the
taper of the rotameter tube can be designed so that the height of the float in the tube is a measure of flow rate.
The two basic components of every rotameter as shown in Fig. 25.2 are the tapered metering tube and the float.
Tube sizes vary from 1/16 to 4 inch. Arbitrary linear scale graduations can be put for display of 0%–100%. The
scale calibration can be made in terms of direct reading of a specific gas or liquid for flow rates of the fluid
being measured. The metal body of the rotameter is rigidly constructed to maintain tube alignment. The end
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fittings provide process pipe connections, either threaded female or flanged with O-rings or packing glands for
sealing at both ends of the tube. Provisions are also made for easy removal of the glass tube for cleaning.
In Glass Tube rotameters, the tapered metering tube made of borosilicate glass. The Metal Tube rotameters are
designed for applications where the temperature or pressure exceeds the limits of glass tubes. Flow rate is
indicated by a pointer on an indicating scale by means of a magnet inside the float, magnetically linked to the
pointer. Metal tube meters are generally made of corrosion-resistant type 316 stainless steel. They are well suited
to measuring steam flow where conditions or regulations prevent the use of glass, and useful as well where the
nature of the fluid would preclude reading a float position. Plastic tube rotameters are the cost-effective
alternative to glass or metal meters for a wide variety of fluid measurements. In this tube is made up of a single
piece of clear acrylic that is practically unbreakable in most industrial process applications. Floats are available
in a variety of shapes and materials, with varying densities that can be used to change the meter's range and to
resist corrosion from the measured fluid. The float materials include Type 316 stainless steel, tantalum, Monel,
Teflon, and PVC.
To select the correct rotameter for a given application, it is important to have the data with regard to the nature
of the fluid, the fluid density and viscosity at the specified operating temperature, operating and maximum
temperature and pressure and the minimum and maximum flow rates.
25.4 Ultrasonic Flow Meters
The ultrasonic flow meters use transducers to transmit and/or receive ultrasonic waves in the process of pipe
flow measurement. The ultrasonic waves have the frequency > 20 kHz. Two types of ultrasonic flow meter are
in common use to measure pipe flow rate. They are the doppler ultrasonic flow meter and the transit time
ultrasonic flow meter.
i) Doppler ultrasonic flow meter
In a doppler ultrasonic flow meter, as shown in Fig. 25.3 (a), one transducer transmits ultrasonic waves and the
other transducer receives ultrasonic waves. The fluid for which pipe flow rate is being measured must have
material like particles or entrained air that will reflect ultrasonic waves. The frequency of the transmitted beam
of ultrasonic waves will be altered, or shifted, due to being reflected by the air bubbles or particles. The
frequency shift, which is proportional to the fluid flow rate through the meter, is measured by the receiving
transducer. The receiving transducer can thus generate a signal that is proportional to flow rate.
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The doppler and transit time ultrasonic flow meter both cause negligible pressure drop when in use for pipe
flow measurement. The effect of fluid viscosity on pipe flow rate measurement is negligible for both types.
The doppler ultrasonic flow meter can be used to measure the pipe flow rate of dirty liquids and slurries. A
transit time ultrasonic flow meter can be used for pipe flow measurement of both liquids and gases. Both the
doppler and transit time ultrasonic flow meter have a cost that is relatively high in comparison with other types
of pipe flow meter.
25.5 Turbine Flow Meter
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The turbine flow meter (Fig. 25.4) translates the mechanical action of the turbine rotating in the liquid flow
around an axis into a user-readable rate of flow in litres per min. The turbine tends to have all the flow traveling
around it. The turbine wheel is set in the path of a fluid stream. The flowing fluid impinges on the turbine
blades, imparting a force to the blade surface and setting the rotor in motion. When a steady rotation speed has
been reached, the speed is proportional to fluid velocity.
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25.7 Rotary Vane Flow Meter
26.1 Introduction
Speed is a rate variable defined as a time-rate of motion. Common form and units of speed measurement
include: linear speed expressed as m/s or km/h and angular speed of a rotating component usually expressed as
revolution per minute or rad/s. Measurement of rotational speed has acquired prominence over the linear speed.
Continuous measurement of linear speed is usually made in terms of angular speed and then converted in to
linear speed of a reciprocating part. RPM measurement is important when controlling or monitoring the speed of
motors, conveyors, turbines, etc.
Several methods for the measurement of rotational speed are available. Angular measurements are made with a
device called tachometer. The word "tachometer" is derived from the Greek words tachos, meaning "speed," and
metron, meaning "to measure." Tachometer may be broadly classified in to two categories: mechanical
tachometer and electrical tachometer.
Mechanical tachometer employs only mechanical parts and mechanical movements for the measurement of
speed. Most common type of mechanical tachometers are hand tachometer and the revolution counter.
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In another arrangement an automatic timer is used to indicate the speed directly in rpm on the calibrated dial.
The spindle operates when brought in contact with the shaft. The counter however does not function until the
start button pressed to start the watch and engage the automatic clutch. Depressing the starting knob also serves
to wind the timer watch. The revolution counter automatically gets disengaged after a short period of time.
These tachometers can measure up to a speed of 30000 rpm with an accuracy of 1%. The revolution counter is
used with a timing device to determine the number of revolutions in a measured length of time. Thus it measures
an average rotational speed over a short interval of time rather than instantaneous rotational speed.
Digital tachometers have become more common as they give numerical readings instead of using dials and
needles.
26.2.2 Centrifugal tachometer
The principle of operation of centrifugal tachometer is that the centrifugal force is proportional to the speed of
rotation. The schematic diagram of a centrifugal tachometer is shown in Fig. 26.2. Two small weights in the
form of balls are attached to the spindle and rotate along with the spindle. As the spindle rotates the centrifugal
force is developed by these balls. This centrifugal force compresses the spring and a grooved collar or sleeve
attached to its free end slides on the spindle and its position can be calibrated with the spindle speed. Through a
series of linkages, motion of the sleeve is amplified and communicated to the pointer of the instrument to
indicate speed. Certain attachments are provided with the spindle to indicate the linear speed. These types of
instrument can be used up to 40000 rpm. They are also used in the speed governors to break circuit for speed
control. These tachometers have a distinct advantage over revolution counter in that they indicate whether or not
the speed remains substantially constant.
Electrical tachometers provide the advantages of electrical transducers and in view of this they are preferred
over mechanical tachometer. They depend for its indication upon an electrical signal generated in proportion to
the rotational speed of the shaft. Depending upon the type of transducer, electrical tachometers have been
constructed in the variety of designs. For example commutated capacitor tachometer based on alternately
charging and discharging capacitor controlled by speed of rotating member. In eddy current type tachometer the
rotating shaft rotates a permanent magnet and this induces eddy currents in a disc. The eddy current produces a
torque that rotates the disc against the torque of a spring. The disc turns in the direction of rotating magnetic
field until the torque developed equals that of spring. A pointer attached to the disc indicated the rotational speed
on a calibrated scale. The tachometer generator has been developed on the principle that the e.m.f. generated
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depends upon the magnetic field and the speed. If for the field the permanent magnetic pole pieces are used then
the generated voltage only depends upon the speed. The tachogenerator may be AC or DC type of tachometer
depending upon the taking out means of e.m.f. generated. Hence the speed can be calculated by measuring the
e.m.f. generated.
The photoelectric tachometer utilizes a rotating shaft to intercept a beam of light falling on a photo conductive
cell. The shaft has an intermittent reflecting (white) and non reflecting (black) surfaces. When a beam of light
hits the reflecting surface on the rotating shaft, light pulses are obtained and the reflected light is focused on to
the photoelectric cell. The frequency of light pulses is proportional to the shaft speed and so will be the
frequency of electric output pulses from the photo electric cell.
Another similar method consists of an opaque disc mounted on the rotating shaft as shown in Fig. 26.3. The disc
has a number of evenly spaced peripheral holes. A light source is placed on one side of the disc and a light
sensor on the other side of the disc inline with it.
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cooling. The relative humidity is determined from the two temperatures readings with the help of psychrometric
chart.
The other most frequently used hygrometers are the resistive hygrometer, impedance type hygrometer and the
dew point recorder.
26.5 Resistive Hygrometer
A typical resistive type hygrometer is shown in Fig. 26.4. It consists of two metal wire grids which are bonded to
a plastic sheet. Over this whole there is a coating of moisture sensitive chemical lithium chloride, which exhibits
a change in resistivity with the humidity.
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Hair and other organic materials absorb moisture from the ambient atmosphere. The amount depends upon the
temperature and the partial pressure of atmosphere. As the water content of the hair increases, the hair lengthens,
closely approximating the relative humidity. Hairs are joined in parallel to form a hygrometer probe. They are
sufficiently apart to give the free access to moisture. Hairs are in firm tension to maintain them straight. Animal
or human hairs and synthetic fibers are used to form such probes. The lower and the upper limits for the use of
hair hygrometer are 15 to 95% relative humidity.
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Module 6. Process control
Lesson 27
ELEMENTS OF GENERALIZED PROCESS CONTROL
27.1 Introduction
Most industrial processes require that certain variables such as temperature, flow, level or pressure and
concentration, remain at or near some reference value (set-point). The set-point is a value for a process variable
that is desired to be maintained. A closed control loop exists where a process variable is measured, compared
with a set-point and action is taken to correct any deviation from the set-point. The system that serves to
maintain a process variable at the set point is called controller which is the part of a control system. In automatic
control system, controller performs the basic operation used by many systems provides regulation or command
to the process variable to be controlled. Our goal using this type of feedback control is to determine the value or
state of some physical quantity and often to maintain it at that value, despite variations in the system or the
environment.
Automatic control system provides the means of attaining optimal performance of dynamic systems and
improving productivity. This defines as a series of operations during which some materials are placed in more
useful state by continually measuring process variables (A process variable is a condition of the process fluid
that can change the manufacturing process in some way) and taking actions such as opening valves, slowing
down pumps and turning up heaters so that the measured process variables are maintained at operator specified
set point values. Mainly there are four basic objectives of automatic process control which are as under.
1. Suppressing the influence of external disturbances
2. Optimizing the performance
3. Increasing the productivity
4. Cost effective
27.2 Fundamental Structure of Control Systems
A control system is that means by which any quantity of interest in a machine or mechanism can be changed,
maintained or unaltered in accordance with desired manner. This system uses an interconnection of components
forming a system configuration that will provide a desired system response. Input Signals flow through the
system and produce an output as shown in Fig.27.1(a).
The input will usually be an ideal form of the output. In other words the input is really what we want the output
to be. It's the desired output. The output of the system has to be measured. In the Fig. 27.1 (b), we have shown
the system in which we are trying to control - the "plant" and a sensor that measures what the controlled system
is doing.
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The input to the plant is usually called the control effort, and the output of the sensor is usually called the
measured output, as shown Fig. 27.1 (b).
For example, if we want the output to be 100°C, then that's the input.
To control the process output, it is necessary to first measure the process output which is to be controlled at a
desired set point. The sensor measures the actual process output. In the block diagram representation (Fig. 27.2),
the sensor senses the process-output temperature and generates a proportionate output signal. A sensor might be
an LM35, which produces a voltage proportional to temperature - if the output signal is a temperature. Sensor is
needed in the system to measure what the system is doing. The sensor measures the output e.g. temperature of
the system to be controlled, and converts it into proportionate electrical signal. The LM35 temperature sensors,
for example, produce 0.01 volts for every 1.0°C change. To control the system we need to use the information
provided by the sensor. Usually, the output, as measured by the sensor is subtracted from the input (which is the
desired output) as shown in Fig. 27.2. That forms an error signal that the controller can use to control the plant.
Fig. 27.2 Representation of input and output of a process with error comparator
The device which performs the subtraction to compute the error E is a comparator. Finally, the last part of this
system is the controller which is as shown in Fig.27.3.
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The controller receives the error signal from the comparator and generates an actuating signal which can be used
to control the process-output through the actuating element. Thus, the controller has two functions:
1. To compute what the control effort should be.
2. To apply the computed control effort.
The open-loop system (Fig. 27.4) is also called the non-feedback system. It utilizes an actuating device to
control the process directly without using feedback. Gas geyser, electric geyser etc. used for heating of water are
few examples of open-loop control system. This is the simpler of the two systems. However, since it is not
possible to achieve desired accuracy of control of the parameter and its use is limited in the industry. In open-
loop control system there is only a forward action from the input to the output.
The closed-loop system is also called the feedback system. Feedback control system is to control the process by
using the difference between the output and reference input. A closed-loop control system uses a measurement
of the output and feedback of this signal to compare it with the desired output (reference or command) as
explained above in Section 27.2.
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variable into some proportional information in a useful form required by the other elements in the process-
control loop.
3. Evaluation
The next step in the process-control sequence is to examine the measurement and determine what action, if
any, should be taken. The evaluation may be performed by an operator, or by electronic/pneumatic signal
processing, or by a computer. A controller is a device that receives data from a measurement instrument,
compares that data to a programmed set-point, and, if necessary, signals a control element to take corrective
action. Computer use is growing rapidly in the field of process control because it is easily adapted to the
decision making operations and because of its inherent capacity to handle control of multivariable systems.
The controller requires an input of both a measured representation of the dynamic variable and a
representation of the desired value of the variable, expressed in the same terms as the measured value. The
desired value of the dynamic variable is referred to as the set point. Thus, the evaluation consists of a
comparison of the controlled variable measurement and the set point and a determination of action required
to bring the controlled variable to the set point value.
4. Control element
The correcting or final control element is the part of the control system that acts to physically change the
manipulated variable. This element accepts an input from the controller, which is then transformed into some
proportional operation performed on the process. In any process control loop, final control elements are
typically used to correct a variable that is out of set-point.
In most cases, the final control element is a valve/servo motor used to restrict or cut off fluid flow, but
motors, louvers (typically used to regulate air flow), solenoids, and other devices can also be final control
elements. For example, a final control element may regulate the flow of fuel/air to a burner to control
temperature, the flow of a catalyst into a reactor to control a chemical reaction.
A block diagram can be used simply to represent the composition and interconnection of a system. Also, it
can be used together with transfer function to represent the cause and effect relationship throughout the
system. Transfer Function defines the relationship between an input signal and an output signal for a system.
Each element in a process-control loop is represented in a block diagram as a separate step. The controlled
dynamic variable in the process is denoted by C and the measured dynamic variable is labeled as CM. The
controlled variable set point, labeled CSP, must be expressed in the same proportion as that provided by the
measurement function. The evaluation operation generates an error signal (E = CM - CSP) to the controller
for comparison and corrective action.
To further illustrate, the block diagram concept in Fig. 27.7 shows a typical flow control system. In this
example, the dynamic variable is the flow rate that is converted to electric signal as an analog. The process is
the flow, and the measurement is to determine the difference of pressure. With the set point in the controller,
the flow of the process is controlled through the control element i.e. the valve.
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Fig. 27.7 Process Control System to regulate flow and the corresponding block diagram
27.5 Process Equations
The purpose of a process control loop is to regulate some dynamic variable in a process. The dynamic variable
or a process parameter may depend on many other parameters (in the process) and thus suffer changes from
many different inputs. One of these parameters is selected as a controlling parameter. This means that if a
measurement of variable shows the deviation from the set point, then the controlling parameter is changed. For
an example, consider the control of liquid temperature in tank shown in Fig. 27.8.
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Module 6. Process control
Lesson 28
CONTROL SYSTEM PARAMETERS
28.1 Introduction
A control system monitors and determines a difference between a desired and measured parameter values,
applies a weighting factor to the difference and selects a control strategy based on the weighted difference. The
weighting factor generally reflects the confidence in the accuracy of the parameter value determined by the
parameter monitor. The weighting factor may be determined based on one or more ambient operating conditions
or parameters, or on statistical analyses of monitor values and/or control system parameter values.
Error is the difference between the measured variable and the setpoint. Error can be either positive or negative.
The objective of any control scheme is to minimize or eliminate error. The deviation or error of dynamic
variable from set point is given by:
E = Cm - Csp
Where E = error
Cm = measured value of variable
Csp = set point of variable
The above equation expresses error in an absolute sense, usually in units of measured analog of control signal.
Note that a positive error indicates a measurement above the set points whereas a negative error indicates a
measurement below the set point.
Sometimes a dead zone is associated with the process control loop. The time corresponding to dead zone is
called dead time. This is the elapsed time between the instant a deviation (error) occurs and when the corrective
action first occurs.
In this mode there is a possibility of smooth variation in control parameter and the controllers automatically
compare the value of the process variable to the set-point to determine if an error exists. If there is an error, the
controller adjusts its output according to the parameters that have been set in the controller. When there is an
error, the controller makes a change in its output. It determines:
· How much? Proportional Mode
· How long? Integral Mode
· How fast? Derivative Mode
In this mode controller command initiates a discontinuous change in control parameter. The manipulated
variable of a discontinuous controller mode can only be changed in set steps. The best-known discontinuous-
action controller is the two-step control that can only assume the conditions ‘on’ or ‘off’. An example is the
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thermostat of a hot air oven. It switches the electric current for the heating element ‘on’ or ‘off’ depending on
the set temperature.
The choice of operating modes for any given process control system is a complicated decision. It involves not
only process characteristics but cost analysis, product rate, and other industrial factors. The different types of
discontinuous controller operating modes are defined as follows:
(A) Two Position Controller Mode: A two position controller mode uses a device that has two operating
conditions: completely on or completely off. These also called ON-OFF control or Discrete controllers. On /off
control activates an output until the measured value reaches the reference value. Fig. 28.1 shows the input to
output characteristic for a two position controller for a refrigerator that switches from its ‘OFF’ to its ‘ON’ state
when the measured variable increases above the set point.
Conversely, it switches from its ‘ON’ state to its ‘OFF’ state when the measured variable decreases
below the set point. This device provides an output determined by whether the error signal is above or below the
set point. The magnitude of the error signal is above or below the set point. The magnitude of the error signal
past that point is of no concern to the controller.
The meaning here is that as error exceeds certain set limits + Ei, the controller output is adjusted to preset values
Pi.
(C) Floating Control Modes
In this control mode, specific output of the controller is not uniquely determined by error. If error is zero, the
output will not change but remains (floats) at whatever settings it was when the error went to zero. When the
error moves off zero, the controller output begins to change e.g. a floating control will operate a control valve
which, as level rises and falls will throttle down or gradually open a level control valve in the inlet (or outlet)
line, thereby controlling the level at a pre-set height in the tank.
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Module 6. Process control
Lesson 29
TYPES OF CONTROLLER MODES
In the proportional (throttling) mode, there is a continuous linear relation between value of the controlled
variable and position of the final control element. In this control mode, the output of the controller is
proportional to error e(t). The relation between the error e(t) and the controller output p is determined by a
constant called proportional gain constant denoted as Kp. The output of the controller is a linear function of e(t).
The direct and reverse action is possible in the proportional controller mode. The error may be positive or
negative because error (r-b) depending upon whether b is less or greater than the reference setpoint r(t).
If the controlled variable i.e. input to the controller increases, causing increase in the controller output, the action
is called direct action. For example the output valve is to be controlled to maintain the liquid level in a tank. If
the level increases, the valve should be opened more to maintain the level. On the other hand if the variable
decreases, causing increase in the controller output, the action is called reverse action. Conversely, increase in
the controlled variable, causing decrease in controller output is also a reverse action.
29.1.1 Characteristics of proportional mode
Proportional gain is the percentage change of the controller output relative to the percentage change in controller
input. Gain, also called sensitivity, compares the ratio of amount of change in the final control element to
amount of change in the controlled variable. Mathematically, gain and sensitivity are reciprocal to proportional
band. The gain kP can be expressed as:
KP = 100 / P
Where
P = proportional band
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The gain determines how fast the system responds. If the value is too large the system will be in danger to
oscillate and/or become unstable. If the value is too small the system error or deviation from set point will be
very large.
29.1.4 Offset
Offset, also called droop, is deviation that remains after a process has stabilized. Offset is an inherent
characteristic of the proportional mode of control.
= Ki e(t)
The constant Ki is also called integral constant. Integrating the above equation, the actual output at any time t
can be obtained as
p = Ki∫ e(t)dt + p(0)
29.2.1 Advantages
1. Integral controllers tend to respond slowly at first, but over a period of time they tend to eliminate errors.
2. The integral controller eliminates the steady-state error, but has the poor transient response and leads to
instability.
29.2.2 Characteristics of integral mode
1. If error is zero, the output remains at a fixed value equal to what it was, when the error become zero.
2. If the error is not zero, then the output begins to increase or decrease, at a rate Ki % per second for every ±
1 % of error.
3. The inverse of Ki is called integral time and denoted as Ti.
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Ti = = Integral Time
The comparison of proportional and integral mode behavior at the time of occurrence of an error signal is given
in Table 29.1.
It can be seen that proportional mode is more favorable at the start while the integral is better for steady state
response. In pure integral mode, error can oscillate about zero and can be cyclic. Hence in practice, integral
mode is never used alone but combined with the proportional mode, to harness the merits of both modes.
The derivative gain constant indicates by how much % the controller output must change for every % per second
rate of change of the error. Generally Kd is expressed in minutes. The important feature of this type of control
mode is that for a given rate of change or error signal, there is a unique value of the controller output.
The advantage of the derivative control action is that it responds to the rate of change of error and can produce
the significant correction before the magnitude of the actuating error becomes too large. Derivative control thus
anticipates the actuating error, initiates an early corrective action and tends to increase stability of the system,
improving the transient response. The derivative or differential controller is never used alone because when error
is zero or constant, the controller has either no output or the nominal output for zero error.
29.4.1 Characteristics of derivative control mode
For a given rate of change of error signal, there is a unique value of the controller output. When the error is zero,
the controller output is zero. When the error is constant i.e. rate of change of error is zero, the controller output is
zero. When the error is changing, the controller output changes by Kd % for even 1 % per second rate of change
of error.
When the error is zero or a constant, the derivative controller output is zero. Hence, it is never used alone. Its
gain should be small because faster rate of change of error can cause very large sudden change of controller
output. This may lead to instability of the system.
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29.4.2 Advantages
1. With sudden changes in the system the derivative controller will compensate the output fast.
2. The long term effects the controller allows huge steady state errors.
3. A derivative controller will in general have the effect of increasing the stability of the system, reducing the
overshoot, and improving the transient response.
This involves the series or cascade combination of proportional and derivative modes. The controller output
could be expressed as:
This system cannot eliminate the offset of proportional controllers. However, it can handle fast process load
changes as long as the offset error is acceptable.
29.8 Proportional Integral Derivative Controller (Three Mode Controllers)
The three mode controller uses proportional, integral and derivative (PID) action and is the most versatile of all
controller actions. The proportional part of this controller multiplies the error by a constant. The integral part
integrates the error. Finally, the derivative part differentiates the error. The functions of the individual
proportional, integral and derivative controllers complement each other. If they are combined it is possible to
make a system that responds quickly to changes (derivative), tracks required positions (proportional), and
reduces steady state errors (integral). The output of the controller is the sum of the previous three signals as
given in the following equation:
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The proportional, integral and derivative terms must be individually adjusted or ‘tuned’ to a particular system.
29.8.1 Advantages
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Module 6. Process control
Lesson 30
FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS AND ACTUATORS
30.1 Introduction
Final control elements are devices that complete the control loop. They link the output of the controlling
elements with their processes. Some final control elements are designed for specific applications. The final
control element is the last element of the closed control loop that implements the control action. It receives the
output signal (control or actuating signal) from a process controller and adjusts accordingly the value of the
manipulated variable by changing the amount of matter or energy entering the process in a way to bring the
controlled variable (process variable) to its set point. The final control element is probably the most important
because it exerts a direct influence on the process.
For example, neutron-absorbing control rods of a reactor are specifically designed to regulate neutron-power
level. However, the majority of final control elements are general application devices such as valves, dampers,
pumps, and electric heaters. Valves and dampers have similar functions. Valves regulate flow rate of a liquid
while dampers regulate flow of air and gases. Pumps, like valves, can be used to control flow of a fluid.
Heaters are used to control temperature.
These devices can be arranged to provide a type of "on-off" control to maintain a variable between
maximum and minimum values. This is accomplished by opening and shutting valves or dampers or energizing
and de-energizing pumps or heaters. On the other hand, these devices can be modulated over a given
operating band to provide a proportional control. This is accomplished by positioning valves or dampers,
varying the speed of a pump, or regulating the current through electric heater. There are many options to a
process control. Out of the final control elements discussed, the most widely used in power plants are valves.
Valves can be easily adapted to control liquid level in a tank, temperature of a heat exchanger, or flow rate.
Control valves are the single most common type of final control element in process.
A control valve is a valve with a pneumatic, hydraulic, electric or other externally powered actuator that
automatically, fully or partially opens or closes the valve to a position dictated by signals transmitted from
controlling instruments.
Control valves are used primarily to throttle energy in a fluid system and not only for shut-off purposes. Their
internals must withstand high fluid velocity and turbulence for long periods without maintenance. A control
valve is simply a variable orifice that is used to regulate the flow of a process fluid according to the requirements
of the process.
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Fig. 30.1 illustrates a typical globe-type control valve body in both the fully open and fully closed positions. In a
control valve, an actuator that is connected to the valve’s plug stem moves the valve between the open and
closed positions to regulate flow in the process. The valve body is mounted in the process fluid line and is used
to control the flow of fluid in the process. The body of a control valve is generally defined as the part of the
valve that comprises the main boundary, including the connecting ends. Valves are classified into two general
types based on the movement of the valve’s closure part: linear and rotary.
30.3 Types of Actuator
An actuator is the part of a final control device that causes a physical change in the final control device when
signaled to do so. The most common example of an actuator is a valve actuator, which opens or closes a valve in
response to control signals from a controller. By themselves, valves cannot control a process. Manual valves
require an operator to position them to control a process variable. Valves that must be operated remotely
and automatically require special devices to move them. These devices are called actuators. Actuators are
often powered pneumatically, hydraulically, or electrically. Diaphragms, bellows, springs, gears, hydraulic pilot
valves, pistons, or electric motors are often parts of an actuator system. There are four principal types of
actuator:
· Pneumatic
· Hydraulic
· Solenoid
· Electric Motor
30.3.1 Pneumatic actuator with valve
The pneumatic valve is an air-operated device which controls the flow through an orifice by positioning
appropriately a plug (Fig. 30.2 and 30.3).
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The plug (1) is placed in the orifice (2) of the valve and attached to the end of the stem (3). The orifice is placed
inside the body of the valve (4) made of cast iron, alloy steels, alloy steels plus corrosion-resistant alloys, or
bronze. The upper part of the final control element is an actuator (5). A diaphragm (6) divides this actuator in
two chambers. The upper end of the stem is supported on the diaphragm. When the airs pressure (the output
signal from a pneumatic controller) above the diaphragm increases, the diaphragm deflects and the stem moves
downwards thus restricting by the plug flow of the fluid through the orifice. This type of a pneumatic valve is
called ‘air-to-close’ valve.
Pneumatic actuators are normally used to control processes requiring quick and accurate response, as they do not
require a large amount of motive force. However, when a large amount of force is required to operate a valve
(for example, the main steam-stop valves), hydraulic actuators are normally used. Hydraulic actuators use
fluid displacement to move a piston in a cylinder positioning the valve as needed for 0-100% fluid
flow. Although hydraulic actuators come in many designs, piston types are most common.
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A typical piston-type Hydraulic Actuator is shown in Fig. 30.4.
It consists of a cylinder, piston, spring, hydraulic supply and returns line, and stem. The piston slides vertically
inside the cylinder and separates the cylinder into two chambers. The upper chamber contains the spring and the
lower chamber contains hydraulic oil. The hydraulic supply and return line are connected to the lower
chamber and allows hydraulic fluid to flow to and from the lower chamber of the actuator. The stem
transmits the motion of the piston to a valve.
When the hydraulic force is greater than the spring force, the piston begins to move upward, the spring
compresses, and the valve begins to open. As the hydraulic pressure increases, the valve continues to
open. Conversely, as hydraulic oil is drained from the cylinder, the hydraulic force becomes less than the
spring force, the piston moves downward, and the valve closes. By regulating amount of oil supplied or
drained from the actuator, the valve can be positioned between fully open and fully closed.
30.3.3 Electric solenoid actuators
Solenoid actuators are used on small valves and employ an electromagnet to move the stem which allows
the valve to either be fully open or fully closed. A typical electric solenoid actuator is shown in Fig. 30.5. It
consists of a coil, armature, spring, and stem.
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The coil is connected to an external current supply. The spring rests on the armature to force it downward. The
armature moves vertically inside the coil and transmits its motion through the stem to the valve.
When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field forms around the coil. The magnetic field attracts the
armature toward the center of the coil. As the armature moves upward, the spring collapses and the valve
opens. When the circuit is opened and current stops flowing to the coil, the magnetic field collapses. This allows
the spring to expand and shut the valve.
A major advantage of solenoid actuators is their quick operation. Also, they are much easier to install than
pneumatic or hydraulic actuators. However, solenoid actuators have two disadvantages. First, they
have only two positions: fully open and fully closed. Second, they don’t produce much force, so they usually
only operate relatively small valves.
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Most electric motor actuators are equipped with limit switches, torque limiters, or both. Limit switches de-
energize the electric motor when the valve has reached a specific position. Torque limiters de-energize the
electric motor when the amount of turning force has reached a specified value. The turning force normally is
greatest when the valve reaches the fully open or fully closed position. This feature can also prevent damage to
the actuator or valve if the valve binds in an intermediate position.
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Module 6: Process control
Lesson 31
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS IN DAIRY PLANT
Electromagnetic switching relay is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction and is used to switch on
the power supply to electric equipments. It is employed to supply 24 V D.C. supply to Solenoid Valves, 220 to
440 V for motor starters or any other electrical equipment. The working switching relay is shown in the Figure
31.1.
When the green button (marked Start) is pressed the electric circuit provides the supply to the Solenoid Coil
(SC). The coil becomes an electromagnet and attracts the steel Armature to the left. This movement of armature
makes the contact of movable contactors to the fixed contactors and completes the circuit through the ends A
and B, thus giving the power supply to any equipment connected to the terminals at the end B. The start button
opens up when our finger is removed from the button. But the current to coil is maintained through auxiliary
contacts A&B, which is connected in parallel to the Green button switch as shown in the figure. By closing the
Red button the circuit to the coil breaks and the control spring pulls the movable contactors to the right, thus
cutting the power supply and the equipment stops.
31.2 Air Operated Milk Valve
A solenoid valve is an electro-mechanically operated valve. The valve is controlled by an electric current
through a solenoid. It has two main parts: the solenoid and the valve. The solenoid converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy which, in turn, opens or closes the valve mechanically. One such air operated milk valve
used in dairy plants is shown in figure 3.2.
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Figure 3.3 shows a self acting steam thermostat with glycerin liquid, commonly used in dairy plants. A SS
sensing bulb filled with glycerin under pressure is immersed in the tank, the contents of which are heated by
steam. As the temperature increases the glycerin liquid expands in proportion to the temperature at the sensing
bulb. This pushes the piston in the valve and the steam supply is regulated by the steam valve. The glycerin is
used because its volumetric expansion is quite high and enough to generate power to operate the steam valve.
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The online density transducer, as shown in figure 3.4, is used in the computerized dairy plants for sensing
density, total solids, fat, temperature etc. The density measurement is based on measuring the period of
oscillation of a mechanical oscillator operated at its normal frequency.
In HTST pasteurizer the raw milk / product is pumped from a constant level tank to the heating section where
the temperature is raised to exceed the pasteurization lower limit. The hot product temperature is measured and
recorded at the end of the holding tube. If the temperature is less than the pasteurization temperature, the product
is sent back to the constant level tank by the flow diversion valve and is recycled. Once the temperature exceeds
the pasteurization temperature the flow diversion valve routs the product to the forward flow to the regenerator
and cooling sections of the heat exchanger. The operation of a flow diversion controller of an HTST pasteurizer
is shown in figure 31.5.
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Fig. 31.5 Flow diversion valve controller in HTST pasteurizer
A SS temperature sensing bulb is inserted in the milk line that senses the temperature and provides proportionate
signal to the Bourdon element by expansion of liquid through a capillary. The position of the contact ‘A’
attached to the Bourdon element is guided by the movement of the free end of the Bourdon element. As soon as
the temperature of milk exceeds 72.5oC the contacts A-B closes. This switches on the micro-switch (MS) that
provides the 24 V DC supply to the solenoid operated pilot valve (PV). When the pilot valve opens compressed
air enters the cylinder pushes the piston P2 downwards. The stem of the flow diversion valve then moves to the
downward position and closes the diverted flow port. Milk thus enters the forward flow line. The reverse
happens when the temperature of milk is less than 72.5oC, resulting in the diverted flow.
31.5.2 Control system in HTST pasteurizer
Complete control system of a HTST pasteurization plant is given in figure 31.6 showing the flow recorder
controller and the temperature recorder controller. The temperature recorder controller gets the input with
regards to the temperatures of hot water, temperature of milk at the end of the holding tube and the temperature
of pasteurized chilled milk. Hot water is normally used to heat the milk in a plate heat exchanger. Steam is
introduced to the water tank, and the temperature of hot water is normally kept 2 to 3oC above the pasteurization
temperature. The temperature of hot water is sensed and sent to temperature controller. Heating will continue
until the preset temperature vale is reached.
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The outlet air temperature in a spray drying chamber is controlled by keeping the inlet air temperature at a
constant level and varying the milk input. The schematic diagram of outlet air temperature control in the spray
dryer is given in Fig. 31.7
.
Fig. 31.7 Outlet air temperature controller in spray dryer
A thermistor sensing device senses the air temperature at the outlet of drying chamber at point (2). A
Wheatstone bridge circuit is used to compare the measured temperature with the desired temperature. The output
of the signal processor at (3) operates the servomotor (4), which rotates in either direction depending upon the
outlet air temperature, whether it is more or less than the desired value. The servomotor controls the pressure of
oil between the set of clutch plates through a pressure reducing valve. This controls the speed of milk pump and
hence the milk input to the dryer to maintain a constant temperature at the outlet.
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Module 6: Process control
Lesson 32
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS IN CIP CLEANING AND SANITIZING
32.1 Introduction
Cleanliness is an essential component of process hygiene and a satisfactory hygiene is the statutary requirement
of dairy processing industry. Dairy plants need frequent and effective cleaning of equipments. This has led to
the equipment designs which are cleaned-in place and the large modern dairy plants employ automated CIP
methods. In this system various cleaning, flushing and sanitizing fluids are circulated through the equipment,
without dismantling it. Cleaning is achieved by the physical action of high velocity flow jets, agitation and
chemical action of cleaning agents. The cleaning action may be enhanced by heating the fluids. Most of the
cleaning action is provided by surfactants, acids, alkalis and sanitizers. A CIP system consists of tanks and pipe
lines for distribution and return of cleaning agents. It reduces the labour requirement and improves the
productive utilization of plant and machinery.
32.2 CIP Cleaning-In-Place
Cleaning-In-Place (CIP) and Sterilization-In-Place (SIP) are systems designed for automatic cleaning and
disinfecting of the dairy equipments without major disassembly and assembly work. The CIP system allows
cleaning one part of the plant while other areas continue to produce product. Furthermore, a modern CIP system
will not only save money in terms of higher plant utilization but also due to significant savings in cleaning
solutions, water and labour requirement. The system also ensures the operator safety and minimized product
change over time.
CIP (cleaning-in-place) covers a variety of areas but its main purpose is to remove solids and bacteria from
tanks, vessels, and pipe work in the dairy processing equipments. The type of cleaning medium or detergents
includes caustic, acid, disinfectant, return water and the fresh water. The detergents are usually recycled. The
number of CIP circuits depends upon the plant areas to be cleaned and the required availability for the same.
The number of tanks in the CIP circuit depends on the required detergent and disinfectant volumes; however the
number rarely exceeds 8 tanks per system. The volume of the tanks is as per the effective volume needed for the
cleaning. The flow rates of detergents in the system are kept normally up to 150 m³/h.
32.3 CIP System Configuration and Layout
A CIP system consists of piping for distribution and return of cleaning agents, tanks and reservoirs for cleaning
solutions, heat exchangers spray heads, flow management devices and programmable control unit. Two main
types of CIP systems are available: single-use units, in which all cleaning solutions are used once and discarded
and the reuse units which use the cleaning media and rinse liquid more than once. The latter type of system
recovers the recirculated alkali which is stored for the next cleaning event. Single use systems are preferred
when there is a concern of cross contamination. For acid and alkali recirculation, concentrated solutions are
metered into deionized water-filled acid / alkali tanks. The contents of the tank are mixed by recirculation
through CIP supply pump. A heat exchanger heats the solution to the desire temperature. Temperature of the
return flow is monitored and recorded. The steam supply to the heat exchanger is controlled by the return flow
temperature signal during recirculation of the alkaline detergent. Dry running of supply pump is prevented by
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no-flow sensors. During the final water wash, the conductivity sensor is used to monitor the return flow which is
sent to drain when a preset low conductivity value is reached indicating complete removal of acid or alkali from
the system. Sensors are provided to monitor the strength of cleaning solutions. Sometimes, the cleaning
solutions are dosed in line.
In the figure the T1, T2, T3, and T4 are the Tanks for luke warm water, hot water, alkali (sodium hydroxide) and
nitric acid solutions. The heating is done by steam and the temperature in the tanks is controlled by steam
thermostat. The milk flow path is denoted by MFP and all the milk contact surfaces of the equipments such as
separator, homogenizers, plate heat exchangers, pasteurizers are connected series. The valves V1 to V9 are the
air operated heavy duty valves which are operated by pilot valves. The valve V9 is the drain valve. P1 and P2
are the forward and the return flow pumps respectively. SV represents the solenoid valve for compressed air
flow. S1 and S2 are the Solution Analyzers to control the concentration of Lye and Acid solutions respectively.
The Wheatstone Bridge type circuit is used where the conductivity (electrical conductivity) of the solutions are
compared to operate and control solution valves for injecting on to CIP lines. The operation of the CIP system is
illustrated in Figure 32.2.
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To start the system the start button ST is switched on. This in turn switches on the Electromagnetic Switching
Relays R1 to R5. Now the power is ready for all the valves. The various valves in the CIP system include; X1
and X2 which are the air operated pilot valve for the Rinse Water, X3 and X4 for Lye Solution, X5 and X6 for
Hot Water flow, X7 and X8 for Acid solution, Z1 is the compressed air solenoid valve, Z2 CIP drain valve and
Z3, Y are the solution analyzers valves. The power supply is controlled by electronic timers T1 to T12, which
switches on / off at different times set for various valves for flow of cleaning solutions.
32.5 Automatic Chlorinator
A simple automatic chlorinator using venturi flow meter is shown in figure 32.3. It consists of a balloon of a
flexible material which contains the chlorine solution. The flexible balloon is placed in a fixed metallic or PVC
drum. A venture tube is placed in the water supply line. Pressures across the venturi tube are sensed and this
pressure differential drives the flow if chlorine solution (i) to the water line. The quantity of chlorine solution
injected is proportional to the pressure differential (P1-P2) which in turn is proportional to the flow of water.
Hence chlorine is injected at the constant rate to the water line. The system is designed for 50 ppm of free
chlorine.
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REFERENCES
• Doebelin, E.O. 2003. Measurement systems – Application and Design. Tata McGraw-
Hill, New Delhi.
• Gupta, J. B. 2003. A course in Electronic and Electrical Measurements. S. K. Kataria and
Sons, New Delhi.
• Johnson, C. D. 1977. Process control instrumentation technology. John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
• Rajput, R. K. 2006. Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation. S. K. Kataria &
Sons, New Delhi.
• Theraja, B. L. 2008. A Text Book of Electrical Technology. S. Chand & Co., Ltd, Delhi.
• Moorthy, D. V. S. 2003. Transducers and instrumentation. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
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