Introduction:

The term “ecology” was carried by Ernet Haeckel (1866). The word ecology comes from the
Greek “oiks”, meaning house or home. Therefore ecology means study of home, habitat of
organisms.

Naturally, there will be many species living in a habitat, which interact with each other. The
interaction not only occurs among members of the same species of organisms. Is also occurs among
members of different species and between the species and the environment. Environment consists
of both the living component (abiotic component) such as physical factors like soil, rainfall, sunlight
and temperatures. Therefore, it can be concluded that ecology is the systematic study on what
organisms interact with their environment,

Ecological studies give us the scientific foundations for our understanding of agriculture,
forestry and fisheries. Ecology also gives us the basic of periodical, preventing and remedying
pollution. It helps us to understand the likely consequences of massive environment intervention, as
in construction of dams of diversion of rivers, and provides the rationale underpinning biological
conservation.

Since there are many levels and types of interaction between organisms and their
environment, the questions ecologists address are wide-ranging and complex. Ecology can be
divided into four increasingly comprehensive level of study from ecology of individual organisms to
the dynamics ecology and ecosystem ecology.

We have carried out a practical ecology can be divided into three aspects:

i) Soil analysis
ii) Determination of the types of soil organisms
iii) Determination of the density of plant species in a habitat

All the procedure, results, discussion and conclusion will be typed and will be filed systematically
so that it is easier o refer anytime.

Objective:

1. Learning baic princeples of ecology through students’ own effort.

1.1 elements of ecosystem : biosis and abiosis.
1.2 Dynamic relationship of elements and flow of energy through ecosystem.
2. Using simple apparatus and instruments in ecological studies.
3. Learning the methods of collecting and analyzing ecological data.
4. Writing ecological study report.
5. Inculcating nature loving attitude.
6. Inculcating good moral values – cooperation, independence and self-confidence.
5.1

Discussion:

In the investigation, the soil sample is extracted from various levels with the metal cylinder.
Then the soi is removed from the cylinder with a piston. A large part of the natural soil sample can
be extracted from different levels with a shovel. However, shovel harder to handle.

Conclusion:

To preserve the soil sample, the appropriate way of soil sampling is through the use of a
metal cylinder and piston.

5.2

Discussion:

From the result we get, it was found that the percentage of soi component for the sand,
loam and clay are 55.56%, 33.33% and 11.11% respectively.

The soil consists of water, air, organic matter, inorganic matter and various types of soil
organisms. Water is essential for absorption of mineral salt and their conduction throughout the
plant by roots. Soil air provides atmosphere air for soil organism respiration whereas humus adds
fertility to the soil. The texture of the soil will affect the soil ventilation and the tendency of the soil
to retain water.

In the experiment, the soil was shaken vigorously to allow the mixture to settle out
according to the density and the surface area of the particles. The heavy particles of sand settle first
followed by loam and clay. The humus remains float on the surface of the water. The volume of the
mixture was less than the original level because when the soil and water mixed together the
particles of water fill the spaces in the soil. Besides that, some of the water also dropped out from th
cylinder while shaking.

From the experiment, the soil sample is classified as sandy loam according to the texture of
triangle.

Conclusion:

The percentage for the sand is 55.56%, loam is 33.33% and clay is 11.11%.

5.3

Discussion:

From the results was obtained from the experiment, it was found that percentage of
water in soil sample in location 1,2,3 and 4 are 31.25%, 31.66%, 33.75% and 23.25%.

The soil sample is heated in the oven at 110 0C because the boiling point for water is
100oC. At this boiling point, the water will evaporate and are removed from the soil. After the soil
sample is taken out and weighed for the first time, it is put back to the oven again. This is to ensure
that all the water content in the soil sample is totally removed from the soil sample. This result is
obtained when constant mass is gained at the end of the experiment.

Conclusion:

From the result of the experiment, we can conclude thant the water content in the soil
sample varied from one area to another. Some soil sample may contain high water content up to
33.75% while the other may contain only 23.25%.

5.4

Discussion:

Soil sample has a higher organic matter content up to 7.95%, then followed by 4.47%,
4.29% and 2.99%.

The soil sample is red-heated to burn off all the organic matter inside the soil sample.
The soil sample is heated until a constant result is obtained to ensure all the organic matter had all
burned up.

From the result of the experiment, the organic matter content in the soil sample varies
from one area to another area.

Conclusion:

According to the information we obtained, we can concluded that different area of soil
contain different percentage of organic matter. The highest percentage is 7.95% and the lowest is
2.99%.

5.5

Discussion:

The highest percentage of air in the soil sample is 30.2% which is taken from Area 3.
The percentage of air in the soil sample in Area 2 is 15.4%. 7.2% of air present in the soil sample
form Area 1. The lowest percentage of air in the soil sample is 5.1% which is taken from Area 4.

The value obtained from the experiment was ther percentage of water present in the
soil. These values involve gravitational water and capillary water. Capillary water is water that is
retained in capillary space between grains of soil. The smaller the size of the grain, the capillary
water content is higher.

The high percentage of air in the soil in Area 3 is due to the low water content. It is
cause by the space within the soil particle. Conversely, the lower percentage of air content in Area 4
is because the water content is higher. Besides that, it is due to the low percentage of sand as sand
is porous. The air content is used for the ventilation of organism and plants in the soil.
Conclusion:

The percentage of the air content of the soil sample is arranged according to the
highest rank of percentage of air content to the lowest one. Percentage of air content is highest in
Area 3 with 30.2%. it is followed by Area 2 which is 15.4%. Then, followed by Area 1 with 7.2%. The
lowest percentage of the air content is taken form Area 4 which is 5.1%.

5.6

Discussion:

According to the result of the experiment, most of the soil sample obtained are less
than pH7. The colours of the soil samples are orange in colour and match the values of pH5.

In the experiment, barium sulphate is used to ensure flocculation of the colloidal clay.
This is because colloidal clay may affect the result of the experiment. After the BDH universal
indicator is added, the test tube is shaken vigorously to ensure that the universal indicator has
spread across the entire soil sample. When referring to the BDH reference colour chat, the nearest
to the corresponding pH is taken if there are no colour exactly the same as the result of the
experiment.

Conclusion:

According to the result of the experiment, most of the soil sample obtained from
different areas a little bit acidic, the pH of the soil sample are less than 7, which are the range of pH5
to pH7.

6.1

Discussion:

From the experiment, soil fauna that can extract by Tullgren funnel included ant
(Arthropoda), earthworm (Annelida) and millipede (Mgriapoda). Organisms that live in the soil can
be extracted using Tullgren funnel.

The Tullgren funnel method is based on the negative feedback organisms towards
strong light, high temperature and low humidity. The heat form the bulb dries and warms the soil
sample, causing the organisms to move downwards and fall through the sieve into funnel which
directs them into a beaker containing 4% formalin solution. The formalin solution was used to kill
and preserve the soil organisms.

The surface of the funnel must be smooth and can prevent condensation where it can
trap fine organisms before them reach the bottom. The smaller soil organisms were examined using
hand lens in order to make the process of categorizing and drawing easier.

Conclusion:

The soil organisms collected in the experiment were ant (Arthropoda), earthworm
(Annelida), and millipede (Myriapoda) based on the princeples that soil organisms are sensitives to
light humidity and heat.
6.2

Discussion:

Bearmann funnel is specially designed to ectract aquatic or semi-aquatic subterranean

organisms such as Paramecium, Amoeba, Euglena and Chlamydomonas. Aquatic and semi-aquatic
organisms are easily killed by aridity. If Tullegren funnel is use, these organisms will die and cannot
be extracted form the soil.

The Bearmann funnel works on the principle that such that organisms will migrate to
the cooler (lower) parts of the sample once a temperature gradient has been established by the use
of a lamp supported above the funnel. The soil sample wrapped in the muslin cloth was placed in the
funnel filled with water. The bright ray from the light of the bulb will heat up the soil in the funnel
without drying it. Thus, this will cause the aquatic and semi-aquatic organisms move away from light
source towards the bottom of the funnel. By opening the Bearmann funnel dip, the organisms will
fall into the beaker contains formalin. Hence, these organisms can be collected and identified under
a microscope.

Conclusion:

The soil organisms collected in this experiment were Paramecium, Amoeba , Euglena
and Chlamydomonas. The extraction method of the Bearmann funnel shows that aquatic and semi-
aquatic organisms move away from bright light radiance, high radiance, high temperature and low
dampness.

Results:

Student’s name:

Date:

Habitat: school field

Location: SMK St.Anthony

Type of plant:

Quadrant: 1m2

7.1.1

Discussion:

From the results obtained, the species Fimbristylis dichotoma (L) Vahl and Pluschea
sagittalis have relative frequency of 7.89% while Cyperus iria L. has relative frequency of 6.58%.
Ageratum conyzoides L. and Axonopus compressus P. Beauv. Have the same relative frequencies
which are 11.84%.
 Meanwhile, relative frequencies for Satin tail, Murdannia simplex (Vahl.) Brenam and
Lindernia antipoda (L.) Alston are the same, 13.16%. Lastly, Cyperus difformis and Paspalum
conjugatum Berg. Have relative frequency of 9.21% and 5.27% respectively.

The results obviously showed that species Satin tail, Murdannia simplex (Vahl.) Brenam
and Lindernia antipoda (L.) Alston can grow well in various areas under investigation with the highest
value for the relative frequency, 13.16%, this species has the most powerful adaptation ability.
Species Satin tail, Murdannia simplex (Vahl.) the most powerful adaptation ability. Species Satin tail,
Murdannia simplex (Vahl.) Brenan and Lindernia antipoda (L.) Alston had being able to harmonize
itself with the surrounding bringing it to the path of victory in the competition for sunlight, minerals
and water. Therefore, this species appears in most of the terrestrial area.

Meanwhile, species Paspalum conjugatum Berg. has the lowest relative frequency,
5.27%. This shows that species Paspalum conjugatum Berg. has the least adaptation ability to the
surrounding. This causes the species to lose in the competition for the life necessity with other
species, hence it only gorws in few areas.

Conclusion:

In the decending order, the species Satin tail, Murdannia simplex (Vahl.) Brenan and
Lindernia antipoda (L.) Alston have the highest relative frequency (13.16%), followed by Ageratum
conyzoides L. and Axonopus compressus P. Beauv (11.84%), Cyperus difformis (9.21%), Fimbristylis
dichotoma (L.) Vahl dan Pluschea sagittalis (7.89%), Cyperus iria L. (6.58%) and Paspalum
conjugatum Berg. (5.27%).

7.1.2

Discussion:

Based on the experiment given, the species Cyperus kyllinga has relative coverage of
0.44% while Ageratum conyzoides, Ageratum houstonianium and Cyperus difformis has relative
coverage of 21.11%, 1.47% and 1.32% respectively. Meanwhile, relative coverage of Chrysopogon
aciculatus and Cyperus ivia L. show the figure of 5.43% and 3.52% respectively. Both Pluchea
sagittalis and Hedyotis diffusa willd stand for 1.32% and 20.23% for their relative coverage
respectively. The species Paspalum distichum L. has relative coverage of 34.16%. Lastly, the species
Imperata cylindrical L. has the relative coverage of 11.00%.

This result obviously shows that species Paspalum distichum L. is the most abundant
species in the area of investigation. Is has the highest percentage of relative coverage that is 34.16%.
The species is the most successful in the competition for the location and space among the ten
species. The species grows and reproduces successfully.

Species Cyperus kyllinga however appear to be defeated species in the competition.

They only cover up a small area with relative coverage of 0.44%, which is the lowest figure compared
to the other species. This figure indirectly indicates that the species mentioned has weak adaptation
power and this causes them to lose in the competition.
Conclusion:

In the descending, the species Paspalum distichum L. has the highest relative coverage
(34.16%), followed by Ageratum conyzoides (21.11%), Hedyotis diffusa willd (20.23%), Imperata
cylindrical L. (11.00%), Chrysopogon aciculatus (5.43%), Cyperus ivia L. (3.52%), Ageratum
houstonianum (1.47%), Cyperus difformis (1.32%), Pluchea sagittalis (1.32%) and lastly Cyperus
kyllinga has relative coverage of 0.44%.