Soil Properties and their Influence on Design of Dams

Y.C.Agarwal*
SYNOPSIS:
 
Many dams fail due to improper assessment of effect of soil properties of borrow area and foundation soils on the stability of
dams and appurtenant works. In this paper, an effort has been made to high light the different soil properties such as
dispersivity and swelling pressure and their effect on dam design. This will help in safe design of dams and will reduce the
number of dam failures. FIVE Annexes have been enclosed explaining soil classification including description, average
properties for different type of soils, suitability of soils for construction of dams, degree of expansion of fine-grained soils and
general guidelines for embankment sections.
Generally the following soil tests are conducted before designing an earthen embankment. These tests should be conducted
on soils in the borrow area, foundation and existing embankment (if any).

1. Particle size distribution

2. Atterberg limits
3. In situ moisture content and density test
4. Proctor maximum dry density and optimum moisture content
5. Total soluble solids with EC, pH, carbonates, bicarbonates, and sulphates
6. Specific gravity
7. Permeability of disturbed samples and field permeability
8. Triaxial shear test for cohesion and angle of internal friction
9. Dispersivity by
(a) Pin hole test 
(b) Crumb test
10. Free swell index
11. Swelling pressure
12. Compressibility
13. Ionic concentration of river water
14. Organic matter

1. Particle size Distribution:

Particle size distribution by sieve analysis (for particle size greater than 0.075 mm) and by hydrometer analysis (for
particle size smaller than 0.075 mm) is carried out in order to determine percentage of components (Table 1)
present in the soil.
Table 1. Grain size classification of soils:

S.
Soil Type Partical size
No.
1 Clay Less than 0.002 mm
2 Silt 0.002 to 0.075 mm
3 Fine sand 0.075 to 0.425 mm
4 Medium sand 0.425 to 2.000 mm
5 Coarse sand 2.000 to 4.750 mm
6 Fine gravel 4.750 to 20.00 mm
7 Coarse gravel 20.00 to 80.00 mm
2. Grain shape varies with particle size and mineralogy. Soil grains are classified in three categories.
1. Bulky Grains: If the dimensions of the soil particles are about the same, as in sand and gravel, the soil
grains are described as being of a bulky shape. Coarse-grained soils are bulky (except for mica).
2. Flaky or scale like grains: These resemble a piece of paper and are extremely thin compared to their
length and breadth.
 3. Needle like grain shape:
 Fine grained soils: These are soils more than 50% of which pass through 75 micron IS Sieve.
 Coarse grained soils: These are soils 50% or less of which pass through 75 micron IS Sieve.

Clay (Particle size less than 0.002 mm)

Clays are plastic fines. They have low resistance to deformation when wet, but when dry they are hard, cohesive
masses. Clays are virtually impervious, difficult to compact when wet and impossible to drain by ordinary means.
Large expansion and contraction with changes in water content are characteristics of clays. The small size, flat
shape and type of mineral composition of clay particles combine to produce a material that is both compressible
and plastic. The clays having higher liquid limit are more compressible. At the same liquid limit, the higher the
plasticity index, the more cohesive is the clay.
Small amount of organic matter in colloidal form in clay will result in appreciable increase in liquid limit without
increasing plasticity index. Clays with high organic matter create voids through decay. 
Silts (Particle size 0.002 to 0.075)
Silts are the non-plastic fines. They are inherently unstable in the presence of water and have a tendency to
become quick when saturated. Quick silts are often called bull's liver by construction people. Silts are fairly
impervious, difficult to compact and are highly susceptible to frost heaving. Silt masses undergo change of volume
when distorted or strained in shear (the property of dilatancy). The dilatancy property together with the "quick"
reaction to vibration affords a means of identifying typical silt in the loose, wet state. When dry, silt can be
pulverised easily under finger pressure (i.e. very slight dry strength)
Silts differ among themselves in size and shape of grains, which are reflected mainly in the ability to compress.
Higher the liquid limit of a silt, more compressible it is. The liquid limit of a typical bulky- grained, inorganic silt is
about 30 percent, while highly micaceous or diatomaceous silts (so called elastic silts) consisting mainly of flaky
grains may have liquid limit as high as 100 percent.
Soils containing large quantities of silt and clay are the most troublesome to the engineer. These materials exhibit
marked changes in physical properties with change of water content. Dry clay is hard and suitable as a foundation
for heavy loads, but may turn into a soft, highly compressive material when wet. Many of the fine soils shrink and
crack on drying and expand on wetting, which may adversely affect structures founded upon them or constructed
of them.
Coarse Grained Soils ( Gravel & Sand)
Gravel and sand have essentially the same engineering properties, differing mainly in degree. Well-graded
compacted gravel or sands are stable materials. The coarse grained soils, when devoid of fines are pervious, easy
to compact, little affected by moisture and not subjected to frost action. Gravels are generally more pervious, more
stable and less affected by water or frost than are sands, for the same amount of fines.
As sand becomes finer and more uniform, it approaches the characteristics of silt with a corresponding decrease in
permeability and reduction in stability in the presence of water.
The soil classification based on particle size distribution and Atterberg limits have been given in Annex 1.

3. Atterberg Limits:
The behaviour of all soils with fines and particularly clays varies considerably with water content. Clay may be
almost like a liquid or it may be very stiff depending upon its water content.
If a fine-grained soil is mixed with a large quantity of water, it is in a liquid state.
If the water content is gradually reduced, then the following apply:
1. Liquid limit: The limit of water content, at which soil water suspension passes from zero strength to an
infinitesimal strength, is the true liquid limit.
2. Plastic limit: The moisture content at which the soil has a small plasticity, as determined by a standard
test, is called the plastic limit.
3. Shrinkage limit: The moisture content, at which its further reduction will not cause a further reduction in
the volume of soil, is called shrinkage limit. At shrinkage limit, voids in soil are completely filled with water.
In between plastic and shrinkage limits, the soil displays the property of semi solid. Between the plastic and
liquid limits, the soil exhibits plastic behaviour.
Table 2. Moisture content variation and Atterberg limits: 

STATE LIMIT SATURATION VOLUME COLOUR

Liquid state
Liquid limit
Plastic state Plastic limit 100% Decreases Dark
Semi solid state Shrinkage
limit
Solid state Decreases Constant Light
 4. The liquid limit is indicative of the compressibility of the soil. Soils having a liquid limit above 45 are
compressible in nature. Small amount of organic matter in colloidal form in clay will result in an appreciable
increase in liquid limit without increasing the plasticity index. Liquid limit of bulky grained inorganic silt is about
30%, which may be increase to 100% for elastic silts consisting mainly of flaky grains.
If the shrinkage limit is less than 15, it is likely to develop cracks in the embankment. If it is less than 10, the soil
should not be used in embankments, as the section is likely to develop extensive cracks. Soils having shrinkage
limit more than 25 are also not suitable for dam construction.
The shrinkage limit should be higher than the optimum moisture content (OMC), otherwise dam section will
develop cracks on moisture reduction (drying).
If the shrinkage limit of the soil is lower than the OMC, then the soil should be used for the inner core only.
Outer shell should consist of soils having a shrinkage limit higher than OMC.
5. Plasticity index: It is the difference between the liquid and plastic limits. For non-plastic soils, the plasticity
index is zero. For clayey soils, the plasticity index is higher. It indicates the moisture contents over which the
soil is in plastic condition. The plasticity index depends upon the clay present in the soil. The information
regarding the type of clay in the soil may be obtained by considering the plasticity index in relation to the liquid
limit.
6. Shrinkage index: The numerical difference in between plastic limit and shrinkage limit, is called shrinkage
index.
In Annex 2 the suitability of soils for construction of dams based on soil classification is available for general
guidance.
4. In Situ Moisture Content and Density:
These values indicate whether the natural/embankment soil is dense or not, and if the natural moisture content is
near the OMC or not.
Extract from 'Earth Maual' by U.S.B.R.: Various criteria for quality control have been proposed. Table 3 lists
suggested limits of density and moisture control based on experience gained in compacting 44 cohesive soils and
18 cohesionless soils in Bureau of Reclamation earthfill dams. In the absence of instructions to the contrary, the
criteria given in this table should be used. It is recognised that the normal frequency distribution curve for any
desired average value permits a small percentage of very low tests. However, because of the relatively small
samples recommended to be tested, the values listed in the table as " minimum acceptable" are suggested as a
basis for requiring recompaction of the area represented by lower test values.
The effect of gravel content in cohesive soils must be taken into account in control. Available data indicate that
lesser percentages of density on the 4.76mm fraction basis are required for gravelly cohesive soils than for soils
containing little or no gravel. This fact is reflected in Table 3.
Table 3. Criteria for control of compacted dam embankments 

% of Percentages based on 4.75 mm fraction

4.75m
15 m or less in height Greater than 15 m height
m&
above
Type of
by dry Desirabl Desirabl
material Minimum Moistur Minimum Moistur
weight e e
acceptabl e limits acceptabl e limits
of total average average
e density Wo-Wt e density Wo-Wt
material density density
retained
95% of 98% of 98% of 100% of
0-25
MDD MDD MDD MDD
Cohesive
soils 92.5% of 95% of 95% of 98% of 2% to
26-50 -2% to
controlled MDD MDD MDD MDD 0%
+2%
by the (note 2)
more
Proctor test 90% of 93% of 93% of 95% of
than 50
MDD MDD MDD MDD
(note 1)
Cohesionles Fine Dd=75 Dd=90 Soils Dd=75 Dd=90 Soils
s soils sands should should
 with 0-
25
Mediu
m sands
Dd=70 Dd=85 Dd=70 Dd=85
controlled with 0-
by the 25 be very be very
relative wet wet
Coarse
density test
sands
and
Dd=65 Dd=80 Dd=65 Dd=80
gravels
with 0-
100

5.
Wo -Wt is the difference between optimum water content and fill water content in percent of dry weight of soil MDD
is the Proctor's maximum dry density.
Dd is relative density
(note 1) Cohesive soils containing more than 50 percent gravel sizes should be tested for permeability of the total
material if used as a water barrier
( note 2) For high earth dams special instructions on placement moisture limits will ordinarily be prepared
6. Proctor Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content
Soil compaction refers to the process of obtaining increased density of soil in a fill by reduction of its pore space by
the expulsion of air. The bearing capacity of any soil usually increases with increasing dry density and decreasing
moisture content. High density assures high shear strength and greater imperviousness. When a soil is
submerged, its effective density is reduced and with this it's bearing capacity.
The moisture content of a soil is defined as the ratio of the weight of water present in the soil to the dry weight of
solid soil particles. The moisture content at which the weight of soil grains obtained in a unit volume of the
compacted soil mass is maximum is called the "optimum moisture content" and the dry density so obtained is
called "Maximum Dry Density" (MDD). As coarse-grained soils do not absorb the water and are not appreciably
amenable to lubrication, they do not display distinct Optimum moisture content. For coarse and fine-grained soils,
average values are 8 to 15 and 17 to 36 respectively as given in Annex 3. At OMC, the soil is broadly 90%
saturated depending upon type of soil, meaning that about 10% of the void space is occupied by air.
Warning: The OMC should always be less than the shrinkage limit. Otherwise on exposure to sun, cracks will
develop in such soil. If such soil has to be used in embankments, then it should be covered with good suitable soil,
so that moisture reduction in such soils is avoided.
7. Total Soluble Salts, E.C., pH, Carbonates, Bicarbonates and Sulphates
Total Soluble Salts: These consist of sodium, calcium, magnesium, and potassium. The suitability of soil depends
upon the percentage of sodium in comparison to other cations. In dispersive soils, the increased salt concentration
(without an increase in sodium salt) reduces the dispersivity of the soil. A very high percentage of total soluble
salts may cause failure of an embankment by formation of cavities caused by removal of salts with seeping water.
Electrical Conductivity: This measures the ability of the solution to conduct electricity and is expressed in
millimhos/cm or micromhos/cm. E.C. value in millimhos/cm at 250 c can be converted to salt concentration in parts
per million or milligram per litre with reasonable accuracy by multiplying by 640.
Table 4. Electical Conductivity showing severety of salt content

E.C. in miili-mhos/cm Severity

Less than 1 Normal
Between 1 and 2 Fairly good
Between 2 and 3 High
Between 3 and 4 Very High
8.
1 miili-mhos/cm=1000 micro-mhos/cm
pH value: The pH value represents the concentration of hydrogen ions (H) in water. It is the logarithm of the
reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration. A value of pH less than 7 indicates acidic character while pH value
more than 7 is indicative of alkaline character, while 7 is neutral. Alkaline soils (pH > 7) are more prone to
dispersivity.
Carbonates: of calcium and magnesium are not soluble in water. Only carbonates of alkali metals like sodium and
potassium are soluble in water.
Bicarbonates: Bicarbonates are generally soluble in water. High concentration of bicarbonates may result in
precipitation of calcium and magnesium bicarbonates from soil, increasing the relative proportions of sodium ions,
which is harmful for stability of embankments.
Sulphates: The sulphates (principally soluble sulphates) present in soil or ground water in contact with
concrete/masonry works attack the cement paste causing deterioration and disintegration. The free lime of cement
acts with sulphates finally forming calcium sulphate aluminate. This compound crystallises on drying causing
expansion and ultimate disintegration of concrete. As such, soils having sulphates in appreciable quantity should
not be used adjoining concrete/masonry structures. If it is essential to use soils containing sulphates then suitable
admixtures should be added to concrete/mortar to save them from the ill effects of sulphates.
Salt concentration is expressed in parts per million (PPM) or milligram per litre (mg/l) both units being equal.
9. Specific Gravity:
This is the ratio of weight in air of a given volume of soil solids to the weight of an equal volume of distilled water,
at a given temperature.
The specific gravity of engineering soils usually varies between 2.6 to 2.8. If it is less than 2.6, it may indicate
possible presence of organic matter.
10. Permeability:
The rate of movement of gravitational water through soil pores is termed the permeability of soil.
Permeability of disturbed/undisturbed soil samples should be measured in the laboratory. Permeability of
foundation and embankment soils should also be measured in situ. The soils are categorised as permeable, semi
permeable or impermeable as per the following limits.
Impermeable : with permeability less than 1 x 10-6 cm/sec
Semi permeable: with permeability 1x 10-6 to 1x 10-4 cm/sec.
Permeable : With permeability more than 1x 10-4 cm/sec.
The dam embankments should be impermeable. The permeability of the down stream section of embankment
should not be less than that upstream.
11. Triaxial Shear Test 
This is a test in which a cylindrical specimen of soil encased in an impervious membrane is subjected to a
confining pressure and then loaded axially to failure.
1. Unconsolidated Undrained Test (Q test)
This is a soil test in which the water content of the soil sample remains unchanged during the application of the
confining pressure and the additional axial (or shearing) force. No drainage and hence no dissipation of pore
pressure is permitted during the application of the confining pressure and then the axial load.
This test is usually performed on partly saturated soil and is used mostly for analysis of the stability of the earth
dam under the "end of construction" condition.
2. Consolidated Undrained Test (R test)
Drainage is permitted after application of confining pressure so that the sample is fully consolidated under this
stress. No drainage is permitted under the application of the axial load. This test is carried out with pore water
pressure measurement, for obtaining effective stress values of cohesion and angle of internal friction.
The values of C and f obtained from this test, are used to check stability of the upstream slope under the
sudden draw down condition, after the soils are fully saturated.
3. Consolidated drained Test (S test)
Drainage is permitted after application of the confining pressure and during the axial loading. The values of
shear parameters so obtained are almost the same as the effective stress values obtained from undrained tests
with pore pressure measurement.
The values of C and f obtained from this test are used to check stability of the downstream slope when the
reservoir is in operation.
Generally, the 25th percentile strength values are used in the stability analysis of slopes (i.e. 75% of the
samples exhibit strength values).
12. Dispersivity:
Dispersive soils are clay soils, which are highly susceptible to concentrated leak by a process of colloidal erosion.
These clays have a predominance of dissolved sodium cations in the pore water, whereas ordinary erosion
resistant clay has calcium and magnesium as the dominating dissolved cations. These are eroded by a process in
which the, individual colloidal clay particles go into suspension in practically stilled water. All colloidal particles
carry a like electric charge, which prevents the particles from attracting each other.
Dispersivity of clayey soils is determined by two tests namely:
1. Sherard's pin hole test
2. Crumb test
These two tests should be carried out on a given sample and if the soil is found dispersive by any of the two tests, it should
be categorised as dispersive.
Higher values of pH and sodium concentration and lower values of total dissolved salts promote soil dispersivity.
Soils containing the clay mineral montmorillonite, are prone to dispersion. Generally, dispersive clays have been red, brown,
grey (some nearly white), yellow and all transitions among them. No black colour soils with obviously high organic contents
have tested dispersive. All tested fine grained soils, known to be derived from in situ weathering of igneous and
metamorphic rocks, have been found non dispersive as well as soils derived from lime- stone.
Salt, hydrated lime, gypsum, alum and fly ash may be used to treat dispersive soils after observing their effect on the soil in
laboratory.
Dispersive soil can be used as fill material by keeping placement moisture content on the wet side (about 1%) of optimum
moisture content. Such soil should be compacted in thinner layers using pneumatic tampers to obtain a high degree of
density, and permeability less than 1x10-6 cm/sec and good bond with the structure/ foundation rock. As far as possible
non- dispersive soils should be used near structures and at rock interface.
With dispersive soils the frequency of density and moisture control tests should be increased.
One should closely observe the compacted soil surface for cracks and take measures for prevention/correction of moisture
by appropriate methods.
Effectively seal surface cracks in the foundation rock by slush grouting.

1. Free Swelling Index:

This indicates swelling potential of fine-grained soils when water is added to them. If the free swell index of a soil is
more than 100, then such behaviour may require special attention. The degree of expansion of fine-grained soils
based on their properties is available at Annex 4.
2. Swelling Pressure:
The characteristics of swelling and the swelling pressure of black cotton soils are attributed to the presence of
montmorillonite or a combination of montmorillonite and illite clay minerals. Clay minerals are made of colloidal
particles having diameters less than one micron. The presence of specific clay minerals is determined by an x-ray
diffraction test.
Degree of expansion: The fine-grained soils exhibit low to very high degree of expansion depending upon the
presence of clay minerals. Based upon the Atterberg limits and free swell of a soil the degree of expansion and
degree of severity is indicated in at Annex 4.
As per IS 6186 : 1986, Bentonite, a characteristic type of fine- grained clay, is an alteration product of volcanic ash
containing not less than 85 percent of the clay mineral montmorillonite.
Black cotton soils have a predominance of the montmorillonite clay mineral. The grain size distribution and index
properties of expansive soils expressed in percentages are in the following ranges. 
Gradation:

Clay (less than 2 micron) 50 to 70%

Silt (0.075 mm to 0.002 mm) 20 to 35%
Fine and medium sand (2 mm to 0.075 mm) 30 to 50%
Coarse sand and Gravel (greater than 2 mm) Less than 10%

3.
Index Properties:

Liquid Limit 60 to 100%

Plastic Limit 30 to 50%
Plasticity
30 to 40%
Index
Shrinkage
8 to 12%
Limit

4.
If a high liquid limit (greater than 55 %) is accompanied by a low shrinkage limit (lower than 10) swelling pressure
and free swell tests should be conducted.
The swelling pressure is determined by conducting a one dimensional swelling pressure test using either fixed or
 floating rings on both undisturbed and remoulded soils in the partially saturated condition. Two methods are used
to determine swelling pressure.
o Consolidometer method in which the volume change of the soil is permitted and the corresponding
pressure required to bring back the soil to its original volume is measured.
o Constant volume method in which the volume change is prevented and the consequent pressure is
measured. The details of the two methods are available in IS 2720 (Part XLI): 1977.

If the swelling pressure is more than 50 kPa, treatment is necessary. In canals, treatment is provided by a cover of cohesive
non-swelling soils over swelling soils as per IS 9451: 1994

1. Compressibility:
The decrease in volume per unit increase of pressure is defined as the compressibility of soils. It is measured only
for undisturbed samples. Compressibility is a property of a soil pertaining to its susceptibility to decrease in volume
when subjected to load. The phenomenon of compressibility is associated with a change in volume of the voids
and, to a very limited extent with changes in the soil particles.
Soils having only air voids will be compressed immediately upon application of load. In saturated soils, the pore
pressure will increase significantly with an increase in the soil's compressibility. In general a very compressible
cohesive soil will develop high pore pressure when loaded, unless there is an appreciable amount of air present.
Compressibility of sand and silt varies with density. Compressibility of clay varies directly with water content and
inversely with shear strength.
2. Ionic concentration in river water:
Ionic concentration in river water below 1.2 meq/litre is considered low. River water passes through embankment.
As such it may dissolve salts present in the embankment and foundation. Small quantities of calcium and
magnesium salts in soil may increase dispersivity of soils and thus such reservoir water may aggravate a piping
problem.
3. Organic matter:
Even a small amount of organic matter in colloidal form in clay, will result, in an appreciable increase in liquid limit
of the material, without increase in plasticity index. The tendency for soils high in organic content is to develop
voids by decay while this makes them undesirable for engineering use. Soils containing even moderate amounts of
organic matter are significantly more compressible and less stable than inorganic soils.
In Annex 5, general guidance for embankment slope inclination based on soil classification and height of
embankment has been provided for guidance.

CONCLUSIONS:
The inference of soil test result help in designing the earthen embankments/ dams with proper safety measures and
economy.
Following inferences need special attention.

1.  
1. S.L.(shrinkage limit) of soil should be higher than its optimum moisture content (OMC), otherwise cracks
will develop upon moisture reduction below O.M.C.
2. Soils having S.L. less than 10 should not be used in dam embankment, as the dam section is likely to
develop extensive cracks.
3. If S.L. is in between 10 to 15, than it is likely to develop cracks in the embankment.
4. Specific gravity of most inorganic soils is in between 2.60 to 2.80. Values less than 2.60 indicate possible
presence of organic matter in appreciable quantity.
5. Permeability of the downstream portion of an embankment should be higher than the upstream portion;
otherwise dam may fail on this account only.
6. The soils containing appreciable quantities of colloidal particles (less than 0.001 mm in diameter),
sodium, the clay mineral Montmorillonite & illite, are prone to dispersion. Higher values of percent sodium in soil
make it dispersive.
7. The dispersive soil may be used safely in dam embankment except near masonry/concrete works and
near foundation rock, if the permeability of the embankment may be ensured to be 1x10-6 cm/sec or less.
8. Soils of high swelling potential are not suitable as embankment material.
9. The soils containing appreciable quantities of sulphates should not be used adjoining the
concrete/masonry works. If it is essential to use, then a suitable admixture should be added to the
concrete/mortar to make safe.

REFERENCES:

1 I.S. 1498: 1970. Classification and identification of soils for general engineering purposes"
2 I.S.12169: 1987. Criterion for design of small embankment dams"Criterion for design of small
 embankment dams"Criterion for design of small embankment dams"
Special Technical Publication No. 623(1977). "Dispersive clays, Related Piping,
3 ASTM
and Erosion in Geotechnical Projects"
4 I.S. 6186:1986 Specification for bentonite
5 I.S. 3873: 1993 Laying cement concrete/stone slab lining on canals Code of practice
6 I.S. 9451:1994 Guidelines for lining of canals in expansive soils
I.S. 2720(Part
7 Methods of test for soils-Part XLI Measurement of swelling pressure of soils.
XLI:1977)
8 'Earth Manual' Publication of United States Bureau Of Reclamation
ANNEXURE-I
Soil Classification including Description

1. Coarse grained soils: These contain more than half materials larger than 75 micron IS sieve size, the smallest
particle visible to the naked eye.
(i) Gravels - More than half of coarse fraction is larger than 4.75 mm IS Sieve size.

Well graded gravel, gravel sand mixture,

Clean gravels (Little or no fines) GW
little or no fines
Poorly graded gravel or gravel sand
-- do -- GP
mixture, little or no fines
Gravel with fines(Appreciable Silty gravel, poorly graded gravel - sand -
GM
amount of fines) silt mixture
Clayey gravel, poorly graded gravel - sand
-- do -- GC
- clay mixtures

2.

(ii) Sands - More than half of fraction is smaller than 4.75 mm IS sieve size.

Clean sands ( Little or no fines) SW Well graded sands, gravelly sands, little or no fines

Poorly graded sands or gravelly sands, little or no

-- do -- SP
fines

Sands with fines (Appreciable amount of fines) SM Silty sands, poorly graded sand - silt mixtures

-- do -- SC Clayey sands, poorly graded sand clay mixtures

1. Fine grained soils: These contain more than half of materials smaller than 75 micron IS sieve size. The 75 micron
IS sieve size is smallest particle size visible to the naked eye.

Silts and clays with low Inorganic silts and very fine sands rock
compressibility and liquid limit ML flour, silty or clayey fine sand or clayey silts
less than 35 with none to low plasticity
Inorganic clays, gravelly clays, sandy clays,
-- do -- CL
silty clays, lean clays of low plasticity
-- do -- OL Organic silts and organic silty clays of low
 plasticity
Silts and clays with medium
Inorganic silts, silty or clayey fine sands or
compressibility and liquid limit MI
clayey silts of medium plasticity
greater than 35 and less than 50
Inorganic clays, gravelly clays, sandy clays,
-- do -- CI
silty clays, lean clays of medium plasticity
Organic silts and organic silty clays of
-- do -- OI
medium plasticity
Silts and clays with high Inorganic silts of high compressibility,
compressibility and liquid limit MH micaceous or diatomaceous fine sandy or
greater than 50 silty soils, elastic soils
-- do -- CH Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays
-- do -- OH Organic clays of medium to high plasticity

2. Highly organic soils:

Pt Peat and other high organic soils with very high compressibility

3.
(Extract from Table 2 of I.S. 1498-1970

ANNEXURE-II
Suitability of soils for construction of dams

Zoned Dam
Relative Suitability Homogeneous Dykes Impervious Blanket
Impervious Core Pervious Shell

Very Suitable GC GC SW, GW GC

Suitable CL, CI CL, CI GM CL, CI

Fairly Suitable SP, SM, CH GM, GC, SM, SC, CH SP, GP CH, SM, SC, GC

Poor -- ML, MI, MH -- --

Not Suitable -- OL, OI, OH, Pt -- --

(Extract from Appendix A of I.S. 12169-1987)
ANNEXURE-III
Average properties for different types of soils

Maximum Dry Optimum Moisture

S. No. Soil Group Cohesion Kg/sqm Degrees
Density (Kg/cum) Content (Percent)

1 GC >1840 <15 NA >31

2 GM >1830 <15 NA >34

3 SM 1830+16 15+0.4 500+500 30+4

4 SC 1840+16 15+0.4 1100+600 31+4

5 ML 1650+16 19+0.7 900+NA 32+2

 6 CL 1730+16 17+0.03 1200+200 28+2

7 CH 1510+32 25+1.2 1300+600 19+5

8 MH 1310+64 36+3.2 2000+900 25+3

(Extract from Table 2 of I.S. 12169-1987)
ANNEXURE-IV
Degree of Expansion of fine grain soils

Liquid Shrinkage Degree of

Plasticity Index Free Swell (Percent) Degree of Severity
Limit Index Expansion

20-35 <12 <15 <50 Low Non Critical

35-50 12-23 15-30 50-100 Medium MArginal

50-70 23-32 30-60 100-200 High Critical

70-90 >32 >60 >200 Very High Severe

(Extract from Table 8 of I.S. 1498-1970)
ANNEXURE-V
General guidelines for embankment sections

S. Height above 10 m. and upto

Description Height upto 5 m. Height above 5 m.
No. 15 m.

Zoned/ Modified Zoned/ Modified

Homogeneous/ Modified
1 Type of Section homogeneous/ homogeneous/
homogeneous section
Homogeneous section Homogeneous section

Side slopes for coarse

2(a) U/S D/S      
grained soils

Not suitable for core, suitable

(i) GW, GP, SW, SP Not Suitable Not Suitable
for casing zone

Section to be decided based

(ii) GC, GM, SC, SM 2:1 2:1 2:1 2:1
upon the stability analysis

(b) Fine Grained Soil      

(i) CL, ML, CI, MI 2:1 2:1 2.5:1 2.25:1 --do--

(ii) CH, MH 2:1 2:1 3.75:1 2.5:1 --do--

3 Hearting zone Not required May be provided Necessary

(a) Top Width -- 3 m. 3 m.

(b) Top level -- 0.5 m above MWL 0.5 m above MWL

Not necessary upto 3 m

height. Necessary. Necessary.
4 Rock Toe Height Above 3 m height, 1m H/5, where H is height of H/5, where H is height of
height of rock toe may be embankment. embankment.
provided.

The berm may be provided

5 Berms Not necessary Not necessary as per design. The minimum
berm width shall be 3m.
(Extract from Table 1 of I.S. 12169-1987)
Abbreviations:
U/S =upstream
D/S = downstream
H = Horozontal
V = Vertical
Design of Small Earth Dams
Y.C.Agarwal*
 
SYNOPSIS:
On the earth, most of the dams constructed so far are earthen dams. Failure of a number of earthen dams is due to faulty
design. The design of different components of earthen dam has been narrated in this paper. This will help in better
understanding of design of dams and dam failures.
Definition: A dam exceeding 15m in height above deepest river bed level is defined as large dam. Also a dam in between 10
m to 15 m height is termed as large dam if volume of earth dam exceeds 0.75 million cubic metre and storage exceed one
million cubic metre or the maximum flood discharge exceeds 2000 m3/ sec. 
A dam not satisfying the above criterion of large dam is termed as Small dam.
An earthen dam may be homogeneous or zoned type.

 Homogeneous earth dam: A purely homogeneous type of dam is composed of a single kind of material. The purely
homogeneous type of section, has now been replaced by a modified homogeneous section, in which small amount
of carefully placed pervious material control the action of seepage so as to permit much steeper slopes as
compared to pure homogenous dam. (Fig. 1).
 Zoned earth dam: Zoned earth dams are composed of a central impervious core flanked by zones of materials
considerably more pervious called shells. (Fig. 2)

The main components of the earth dam are described below:

COMPONENTS OF EARTH DAM

1. Cut off
2. Core
3. Casing
4. Internal drainage system and foundations
5. Slope protection
6. Surface drainage
7. Impervious blanket

FUNCTIONS AND DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

1. Cut off:
The cut off is required,
o To reduce loss of stored water through foundations and abutments
o To prevent sub-surface erosion by piping.

1. The cut off shall be located such that its centre line should be within the base of impervious core and
should be upstream of centre line of dam.
2. The positive cut off should be keyed at least to a depth of 0.4 metre into continuous impervious sub
stratum or inerodable rock formation.
3. A minimum bottom width of 4.0 metre is recommended.
4. Side slopes of at least 1:1 or flatter may be provided in case of over burden while 1/2:1 and 1/4:1 may be
provided in soft rock and hard rock respectively.
5. The back fill material for cut off trench shall have same properties as those specified for impervious core.
6. The cut off in the flanks on either side should normally extend upto the top of impervious core.
 7. If cut off trench is terminated in rock formation which is weathered or have cracks, joints and crevices;
and if percolation test exhibit a lugeon value of more than 10(refer IS 6066-1984), then rock foundation below
the bed of cut off trench should be grouted.

The type of cut off should be decided on the basis of detailed geological investigations. It is desirable to provide
positive cut off. Where this is not possible, partial cut off with or without upstream impervious blanket may be
provided. In any case, adequate drainage arrangements may be provided on the down stream.
The following guidelines may be adopted for design of cut off.

. Core:
The core provides impermeable barrier within the body of the dam. Impervious soils are generally suitable for the
core (IS 1498 -1970). However soils having high compressibility & liquid limit, and having organic contents may be
avoided, as they are prone to swelling & formation of cracks.
Following guidelines are recommended for design of core.
1. The core may be located either centrally or inclined upstream.
2. The minimum top width should be kept 3 metres.
3. The top level of the core should be fixed at 0.5 m above MWL.
4. The side slopes may be kept 0.5:1 and 1:1.
5. Thickness of core at any section shall not be lesser than 30% (preferably not less than 50 percent) of
maximum head of water acting at that section.
. Casing:
The function of casing is to impart stability and protect the core. The relatively pervious materials, which are not
subjected to cracking on direct exposure to atmosphere, are suitable for casing. Top width of dam should be
provided as 4.5 m (minimum). The berms may be provided for the dam, which are more than 10 m in height.
Minimum berm width may be kept as 3 m.
. Internal drainage system:
To ensure safety of dam, it is very important to handle the seepage water in the dam so as to maintain the original
particles of soils in their place. The measures commonly adopted for safe disposal of seepage water through
embankment dams are;
1. Inclined or vertical filter (chimney filter)
2. Horizontal filter
3. Rock toe
4. Toe drain

As far as possible locally available sand, gravel etc should be used. Inclined or vertical filter is provided just on
down stream slope of core. Its thickness is kept 1.0 metre (minimum). Horizontal filter collects the seepage from
chimney filter & foundation, and carries to the rock toe & toe drain. Its thickness is kept minimum as 1.0 metre. The
standard filter criterion between filter and adjoining soil (casing or foundation) should be satisfied .In case of dam
portions, where the head of water is 3 m or less it is not required to provide chimney filter or horizontal filter.
Adequate toe protection shall however be provided. The height of rock toe is generally provided as 0.2 H, where H
is the height of embankment. However minimum height of rock toe be kept as 1.0 metre. Rock toe is not necessary
where height of embankment is 3 m or less. 
The toe drain is provided at the downstream toe of the earth dam to collect seepage from horizontal filter, rock toe
& through foundation and to discharge it away from the dam by suitable surface or sub surface drains. The section
of toe drain should be adequate enough to carry seepage. The bed of toe drain should be given a suitable slope to
lead the seepage to natural drains. Depth of toe drain is usually provided as 1.5 m with bottom width of 1 m
minimum and side slopes of 1:1 .For details IS 9429-1980 be referred.
The filter material should satisfy the following criteria with the base material:

5. D15 (f) / D15 (b) > 4 and < 20

6. D15 (f) / D85 (b) < 5

A filter that satisfies the above criteria may yet fail if it has an excess or lack of certain sizes or is not uniformly
graded. The following criteria must be fulfilled.

7. D50 (f) / D50 (b) < 25

8. The gradation curve of the filter material should be nearly parallel to the gradation curve of the base
material.
The suffix 'f' stands for the filter material and 'b' for the base material. 15, 50, 85 percent particles, by weight,
respectively are finer than D15, D50 and D85 particle size.
. Slope protection:
Upstream slope: The upstream slope protection is ensured by providing riprap. For design of riprap, IS 8237-1985
may be referred. A minimum of 300 mm thick riprap over 150 mm thick filter layer may be provided upto the top of
 dam.
Downstream slope: The down stream slope protection is ensured by turfing or riprap. It is usual practice to protect
the down stream slope from rain cuts by providing suitable turfing on the entire downstream slope from top to toe.
For details of downstream slope protection, IS 8237-1985 may be referred.
. Surface drainage:
For surface drainage of downstream slope, a system of open paved drains (chutes) along the sloping surface
terminating in the longitudinal collecting drains at the junction of berm and slope shall be provided at 50 m c/c to
drain the rain water. The section of drain may be trapezoidal having depth of 30 cm. From longitudinal collecting
drain, the rain water is carried through 15-cm diameter pipes placed at 50 m c/c into paved chutes on the d/s
slope. For details please refer IS 8237-1985. Where no berm has been provided, the open paved drains (chutes)
should terminate in the downstream rock toe or toe drain.
. Impervious blanket:
The horizontal impervious blanket is provided to increase the path of seepage when full cut-off is not practicable in
pervious foundation. The impervious blanket shall be connected to the core of the dam. To avoid formation of
crack, the material should not be highly plastic. Reference may be made to IS: 1498-1970 for suitability of soils for
blanket. (Table 2) A 300mm thick layer of random material over the blanket is recommended to prevent cracking
due to exposure to atmosphere. The impervious blanket may be designed in accordance with IS: 8414-1977. As a
general guideline, impervious blanket with a minimum thickness of 1.0 metre and a minimum length of 5 times the
maximum water head measured from upstream toe of core may be provided.

BASIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS:

1. Safety against overtopping:

1. Sufficient spillway capacity should be provided to prevent overtopping.
2. The free board should be sufficient to prevent overtopping by waves and should be provided as per IS
10635-1993. The minimum free board of 1.5m should be provided.
3. The free board should be sufficient to take into account the settlement of embankment and foundation.
2. Stability analysis:
The design of small embankment dam sections may be divided into the following three categories based upon the
height of the embankment in its deepest portion.
1. where the height of embankment is 5m or less
2. where the height of embankment is 10 m or less, but more than 5 m
3. where the height of embankment is 15 m or less, but more than 10 m

For small dams under category (a) and (b) above, the stability analysis may not be necessary. General guidelines
and the recommended slopes are given in Table 1 for guidance of the designer. The minimum top width may be
kept as 4.50 m.
However the designer with his experience and judgement may decide the adequate side slopes where special
technical or economic considerations may have to be taken into account.
Stability analysis may be carried out in accordance with IS 7894-1975 based upon the detailed foundation &
borrow area investigation and laboratory testing if the soil strata below the dam seat consist of weak foundation
and / or the height of embankment is more than 10 m. 
Weak foundation conditions include fissured clay, expansive soils, shales, over consolidated highly plastic clays,
soft Clays, dispersive soils etc. within the substratum in the dam seat.
Main problem of silt and clay foundations is stability. In addition to the obvious danger of bearing failure of
foundations of silt and clay, the design must take into account effect of saturation of the foundations of the dam
and appurtenant works by the reservoir.
Method of treatment
(a) To remove soils of low shearing strength
(b) To provide drainage of foundation to permit increase of strength during construction
(c) To reduce magnitude of average shearing stress along potential surface of sliding by flattening slopes of
embankment
Pockets of material substantially more compressible or lower in strength than the average, are usually removed.
The most practicable solution for foundation of saturated fine-grained soils is to flatten the slopes of embankment.
Soils of low density are subjected to large settlements when saturated by the reservoir, although these soils have
high dry strength in natural state. If proper measures are not taken to control excessive settlement, failure of dam
may occur by differential settlement and foundation settlement .The required treatment of low-density foundation
would be dictated by the compression characteristics of the soil. Foundation consolidation will be achieved during
construction.

3. Seepage control and safety against internal erosion:

The seepage through the dam embankment & foundation should be such as to control piping, erosion, sloughing
and excessive loss of water. Seepage control measures are required to control seepage through dam and
foundation.
 Design for control of seepage through dam shall be made in accordance with provisions contained in IS 9429-1999
"Code of practice for drainage system for earth and rockfill dams. Design for control of seepage through foundation
may be made in accordance with IS 8414-1977 "Guidelines for design of under seepage control measures for
earth and rock fill dams".
Zoning:
If only one type of suitable material is readily available nearby, a homogeneous section is generally preferred. If
the material available is impervious or semi pervious, a small quantity of pervious material is required as casing for
protection against cracking. On the other hand if it is pervious, a thin impervious membrane is required to form a
water barrier.

Stability at junctions
Junctions of embankment dam with foundation, abutments, masonry structures like overflow, non-overflow dams and outlets
need special attention with reference to one or all of the following criteria.
(a) Good bond between embankment dam and foundations
(b) Adequate creep length at the contact plane
(c) Protection of embankment dam slope against scouring action
(d) Easy movement of traffic
For details IS 12169-1987 should be referred.
REFERENCES:

1. IS 12169:1987 Criteria for design of small embankment dams

2. IS 8237:1985 Code of practice for protection of slope for reservoir embankment
3. IS 9429:1999 Code of practice for drainage system for earth and rockfill dams
4. IS 8414:1977 Guidelines for design of under seepage control measures for earth and rock fill dams
5. IS 6066:1994 Pressure grouting of rock foundations in river valley projects - Recommendations (Second revision)
6. IS 10635:1993 Guidelines for freeboard requirement in embankment dams
7. IS 1498:1970 Classification and identification of soils for general engineering purpose
8. IS 7894:1975 Code of practice for stability analysis of earth dams

TABLE 1. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR EMBANKMENT SECTIONS

S. Height above 5 m and Height above 10 m

Description Height up to 5 m
No. upto 10 m and upto 15 m

Zoned / modified
Zoned / Modified
Homogeneous/Modified homogeneous/
1. Type of section omogeneous
homogeneous section homogeneous
/Homogeneous section
section

2. Side slopes U/S D/S U/S D/S U/S D/S

a) Coarse grained soil      

Not suitable for core,

  (i)GW,GP,SW,SP Not Suitable Not Suitable Suitable for casing
zone

Section to be decided
  (ii)GC,GM,SC,SM 2:1 2:1 2:1 2:1 based upon stability
analysis

b) Fine grained soil      

  (i)CL,ML,CI,MI 2:1 2:1 2.5:1 2.25:1 -do-

  (ii) CH, MH 2:1 2:1 3.75:1 2.5:1 -do-

3. Hearting zone Not required May be Provided Necessary

  a) Top width -- 3m 3m

  b) Top Level -- 0.5m above MWL 0.5m above MWL

Not necessary upto 3m height. Necessary.H/5, where Necessary.H/5,

4. Rock toe height Above 3m height, 1m ht. of rock toe H is height of where H is height of
may be provided embankment embankment
 The berm may be
provided as per
5. Berms Not necessary Not necessary design. The minimum
berm width shall be 3
m.
(Extract from Table 1 of IS: 12169 - 1987)
TABLE 2. SUITABILITY OF SOIL FOR CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS

RelativeSuitabilit Zoned Dams

HomogeneousDykes Impervious Blankat
y Impervious core Pervious casing

Very Suitable GC GC SW, GW GC

Suitable CL,CI CL,CI GM CL, CI

Fairly suitable SP, SM, CH GM, GC, SM, SC, CH SP, GP CH, SM, SC, GC

Poor - ML, MI, MH - -

Not suitable - OL, OI, OH, Pt - -

(Extract from Appendix A of IS 12169-1987)
Note : Refer IS: 1498-1970 'Classification and Identification of soils for general engineering purpose (first revision)'.
* Director, Minor Irrigation Schemes, Jaipur - 302015

Design Of Spillway
Y.C.Agarwal*

1. Function: 
Spillway are provided for storage and detention dams to release surplus or flood water which cannot be contained
in the allotted storage space and at diversion dams to by-pass flows exceeding those which are turned into the
diversion dam.
The primary function of spillway is to release surplus waters from the reservoir in order to prevent overtopping and
possible failure of the dam.
The water discharged over the spillway of a dam attains a very high velocity due to its static head, which is
generally much higher than the safe non-eroding velocity in the downstream. This high velocity flow may cause
serious scour and erosion of river bed downstream. To dissipate this excessive energy and to establish safe flow
conditions in the downstream of a dam spillway, energy dissipaters are used as remedial devices.
2. Inflow design flood: The criteria for inflow design flood is given in IS:11223-1985 "Guidelines for fixing spillway
capacity". The dams may be classified according to size by using the hydraulic head (from normal or annual
average flood level on the downstream to the maximum water level) and the gross storage behind the dam as
given below. The overall size classification for the dam would be greater of the following two parameters

Classification Gross Storage Hydraulic Head

Small Between 0.5 and 10 million m3 Between 7.5 m and 12 m

Intermediate Between 10 and 60 million m3 Between 12 m and 30 m

Large Greater than 60 million m3 Greater than 30 m

The inflow design flood for safety of the dam would be as follows:

Size as determined
Inflow design flood for safety of dam
above

Small Generally 50 years return period flood should be adopted for design of surplussing arrangement.
 Where dam breach may cause loss of human lives or great damage to property etc, the inflow
design flood may be adopted as per IS 11223 : 1985

Intermediate Standard project flood (SPF)

Large Probable maximum flood (PMF)

1. Factors affecting design:

1. Safety considerations consistent with economy
Many failures of dams have resulted from improperly designed spillway or spillways of inadequate capacity.
Properly designed structure of adequate capacity may be found to be only moderately higher in cost than a
structure of inadequate capacity.
2. Hydrological and site conditions
The spillway design and its capacity depend on
 Inflow discharge, its frequency, and shape of hydrograph
 Height of dam
 Capacity curve
 Geological and other site conditions
Important topographical features, which affect spillways design, are
 Steepness of terrain
 Amount of excavation and possibility of its use as embankment material.
 The possibility of scour
 Stability of slopes, safe bearing capacity of soils.
 Permeability of soils.

For example, incase of narrow valley dams, side or chute channel spillway is very seldom possible, because of
steepness of banks and their insufficient stability.

3. Type of Dam
The type of dam influences the design flood and spillway. Earth and rockfill dams have to be provided with
ample spillway capacity.
4. Purpose of dam and operating conditions
The ungated spillway should be provided, except in special circumstances when gated spillway may be
provided.
2. Combined service and auxiliary spillway:
When site conditions are favourable, the possibility of gaining over all economy by utilising an auxiliary spillway in
conjunction with a smaller service type structure should be considered. In such cases, service spillways should be
designed to pass floods likely to occur frequently and the auxiliary spillway control set to operate only after such
small floods are exceeded. For this purpose a saddle or depression along the rim of the reservoir is a favourable
condition.
3. Spillway components:
Spillway can be built as part of main dam or separately. Concrete or masonry overflow spillway can be built in the
river section where rock foundations are suitable even though adjacent section of the dam may be embankment
type. Separate spillways are required for all types of embankment dams.
Major components of spillways are as follows

 Entrance channel: It admits reservoir water to the spillway and controls the discharge.
 A conduit, which carries the spillway discharge from the entrance structure to a low level outlet downstream of the
dam.
 An outlet structure to dissipate the energy of the high velocity flow from the conduit and conveys the water to the
channel downstream

1. Type of spillways:
Spillways are classified according to their most prominent feature either as it pertains to the discharge carrier or
some other component. These may be gated or ungated. Common types, which are generally constructed in MIW,
are as below:
o Free overfall or straight drop spillways broad crested
o Overflow or ogee spillways.
o Chute spillways
o Saddle spillway
o Bye wash spillway
 1. Free overfall or straight drop spillway
In this type, water drops freely from the crest. Occasionally the crest is extended in the form of overhanging lip
to direct small discharges away from the face of overfall section. Ordinarily the use of this structure for hydraulic
drops (head pool to tail water) in excess of 20 meters should not be considered.
2. Ogee or overflow spillway
This type comprises a control weir, which is ogee or 'S' shaped. The ogee shape conforms closely to the profile
of aerated lower nappe and falling from a sharp crested weir. The upper curve at the crest may be made either
broader or sharper than the nappe. A broader curve will support the sheet and hydrostatic pressures will occur
along the contact surface. Support sheet thus creates a backwater effect and reduces the coefficient of
discharge. The sharper crest on the other hand creates negative pressure, increases the effective head and
thereby discharge. This type of spillway should be constructed in the Nalla itself as far as possible.
3. Chute spillway
In this type water is conveyed from the reservoir to the river or to nalla below the dam through an excavated
open channel, through fairly steep slope and placed either along the abutment or through a saddle in the rim of
reservoir. Chute spillway ordinarily consist of an entrance channel either straight or curved in alignment, a
control structure, a terminal structure, and an outlet channel. The main design consideration would be to fix the
longitudinal bed profile of the channel and its sectional dimensions. The energy of the flow has to be suitably
dissipated at the outlet, before the flow enters the downstream channel. These are mostly used with earth dams
and have the following merit.
 It can be provided on any type of foundations.
 It becomes economical if earth received from spillway excavation is used in dam construction.
 Simplicity of design.
 However this type of spillway should not be provided where too many bends are to be given as
per topography. This type should be avoided on embankments.
4. Saddle spillways
In some basins formed by a dam, there may be one or more natural depressions or saddles in the rim of the
basin, which can be used as spillway. It is usually necessary for the saddle to be on firm rock.
5. Bye wash and waste weir :
Bye wash spillway may be provided near the either flank of dam embankment, where the rocky strata is
available (i.e. approx. 1 m below the N.S.L.) and the NSL are near FTL. The bed bar may be provided adjacent
with wing wall. It is very economical, less complicated construction and less maintenance. No energy
dissipation is generally necessary if rock is available. For small discharges per unit length of bye wash, the
availability of hard soil, instead of rocky strata, may be sufficient. Where near the flanks, the NSL is lower than
FTL, then upto 1.5 m drop a waste weir may be provided with downstream energy dissipating cistern.
. Type of energy dissipators:
These can be classified as below:
1. Hydraulic jump type stilling basin
Hydraulic jump may be defined as a phenomenon, which is a distinct rise or jump of water, accompanied by a
great deal of turbulence. This phenomenon may occur when a shallow stream of water moving with a high
velocity strikes a stream of water moving with a low velocity. When a fast moving wall of water has to be slowed
down to prevent scour damage below a work, the hydraulic jump can be used with great advantage to destroy
the kinetic energy.
 Horizontal apron type
 Slopping apron type

Factors affecting the design of energy dissipators are:

(a) Nature of foundations (b) Magnitude of floods and their recurrence (c) Velocity of flow (d) Orientation of flow
(e) Elevations of tail water at various discharges (f) Type of dam and its spillway.

. Design of side walls :

The profile of flow on spillway surface determines the height of side walls required to retain flow on the spillway.
These are designed as retaining walls with water side face to be vertical or near vertical for perfect energy
dissipation.
The bottom width of side wall is decided as per the safe bearing capacity of soil at foundation level.
The stability should be checked at foundation level, top of bed concrete level and at water side floor level etc. The
design loads and load combination should be as per IS: Code 12720- 1993
The foundation level of downstream side wall should be kept at downstream floor foundation level.
Uplift pressures should always be considered at all elevations while checking stability.
Foundation of upstream side walls should be kept at foundation level of upstream impervious floor.
. Upstream and downstream pile line :
In pervious foundations these should be provided. Downstream pile should be provided of R.C.C. Depth of
downstream pileline should be provided as per Khosla's theory and below maximum scour level.
. Thickness of concrete floor :
In pervious foundations these should be provided as per Khosla's theory.
REFERENCES:

1. "Design of small dams" by United States Bureau of Reclamation

2. Theory & design of irrigation structures, Volume II by R S Vashney, S.C. Gupta & R.L. Gupta

3. IS 11223 : 1985 Guidelines for fixing spillway capacity

4. IS 12720 : 1993 Criteria for structural design of spillway training walls and divide walls

5. IS 11155 : 1994 Construction of spillways and similar overflow structures - Code of practice

6. IS 4997 : 1968 Criteria for design of hydraulic jump type stilling basins with horizontal and sloping apron

7. IS 12804 : 1989 Criteria for estimation of aeration demand for spillways and outlet structures

8. IS 7365 : 1985 Criteria for hydraulic design of bucket type energy dissipators

9. IS 11527 : 1985 Criteria for structural design of energy dissipators for spillways

10
IS 13551 : 1992 Criteria for structural design of spillway pier and crest
.

11
SP 55 : 1993 Design aid for anchorages for spillway piers, training walls and divide walls
.

12
IS 5186 : 1994 Design of chute and side channel spillways - Criteria
.

13 Guidelines for design of drainage arrangements of energy dissipators and training walls of
IS 11772: 1986
. spillways

14
IS 10137 : 1982 Guidelines for selection of spillways and energy dissipaters
.

15
IS 12731 : 1989 Hydraulic design of impact type energy dissipators- Recommendations
.
* Director, Minor Irrigation Schemes, Jaipur - 302015
 

Design and Construction of Water Courses

Y.C.Agarwal*

1. Introduction 
Water course: It is a small channel to deliver water to each and every field in the command area of an outlet
which is approximately 40 Ha for a delivery system of one cusec.
Water course generally off takes from a minor or distributary.
Capacity of a water course depends upon (a) Water allowance (b) running period of outlet and (c) Area to be
irrigated.
Minimum chak size: The minimum size of a chak is so kept that the minimum discharge of a water course is 14
lts/sec. This is kept 0.5 cusecs, so that percentage transit losses are less and command area is irrigated in a
reasonable time.
The length of water course is generally limited to 3 Kms.
Longitudinal slope : A minimum slope of 1 in 2000 is ordinarily adopted for earthen water courses. A slope of
1/1000 to 1/1500 should be preferred. However, natural slope of the land is deciding factor. For lined water
courses, steeper slope like 1/1000 may be generally adopted.
Working head : working head of 0.30 m at outlet head is kept. It is a usual practice to provide a field command of
0.15 m.
Transit losses: Generally transit losses in main canal, branches & distributaries and field channels are 17% ,8%,
& 20% respectively in Indo-Gangetic plains as given by ICRD.
Transit losses in a water course are due to (a) Leakage (b) spillage (c) Evaporation and (d) Seepage.
 Seepage losses can be accurately measured by Ponding method.
Normally the transit losses are considered @ 2.5 cumec / million Square metre of wetted perimeter.
2. Section

S. Type of water Minimum bottom Minimum full supply Free Water surface Minimum bank
No. course width depth board slope width

1 Earthen 30 cm 25 cm 15 cm 1/2000 to 1/500 30 cm

2 Lined 25 cm 30 cm 7.5 cm 1/666 to 1/200 38 cm

1. Field layout
After fixing the minimum chak size and normal chak size, the command area of a canal is divided into chaks, so
that capacity of the water course is 14 lts/sec(minimum) and 28 lts/sec (average).
For this purpose contour plan of the command area of canal is prepared by surveying the command area by grid
system. Grid size as generally kept 30 m x 30 m. The contour interval should be kept 15 cm (for lands up to 1/100
slope) and at 25 cm (for lands above 1/100 slope). The grid and contours should be marked on a village sajra map
and thus sajra sheet should be prepared.
Chak boundaries are kept so that length of water course does not exceed 3 kms.
The alignment of water course is generally kept along the ridge line.
2. Requirements of good distribution net work
A good distribution system should satisfy the following requirements:
o It should provide desired quantity of water economically and efficiently to each part of the chak.
o It should have enough capacity to meet crop water requirements during peak use periods.
o The system should be large enough to allow delivery of water in the time allotted when water is supplied
on rotation or turn basis.
3. Design capacity of water courses
The capacity of water course has to be decided taking into consideration the requirement as per water allowance,
chak area and the losses in transit like seepage losses etc.
The design capacity can be computed as follows
Q = (AW/I.T.)(1/1-L)
Where Q= Design capacity of water course in cumec.
A= Area to be irrigated in Square metres.
T= Time of irrigation in seconds per day
W= Water requirement for one irrigation in metres.
I= Rotation interval or irrigation interval in days.
L= Water conveyance losses as a decimal.
Example:
If A = Area to be irrigated = 40 Ha =( 40x10,000)Sq.m.
T = Time of irrigation in seconds per day =86,400 seconds (24 hours).
W = Water requirement for one irrigation in metres = 60 mm = 0.06 meters.
I = Irrigation interval = 8 days.
L = Water conveyance losses= 0.15 (15% transit losses).
Then required design capacity of water course
Q = (A.W./I.T.)(1/1-L)
Q = {(40x10,000) x 0.06 } x {(1/1-0.15)} ¸ {8 x 86400}
= 0.0406 Cum/sec. or 1.43 cusecs.
Often an extra capacity upto 25% is added to provide for unexpected requirement of irrigation.
4. Design of water courses
The water surface slope in water courses should be (i)1/2000 to 1/500 for earthen water courses (ii) 1/6666 to
1/200 for lined water courses.
In earthen water courses trapezoidal section is provided.
In lined water courses, section depends upon type of lining. It may be trapezoidal, rectangular, semi circular etc.
Manning's formula should be used to decide the parameters like bed width and full supply depth.
5. Benefits of lining of water courses
o Reduction of water losses to a negligible quantity
o Facilitates planned division and subdivision of water
o Reduction in the width of land lost under the water course section (lined channels needs reduced section)
o Prevent water logging adjoining the water course and stagnation in the field, in the event of a break in the
earthen channel
o Reduction in operation and maintenance cost
6. Type of lining 
Generally following types of lining are provided:
 1. Brick lining : The bricks shall be laid in English bond with frogs upward. The width of side walls shall be
115 mm for h eight upto 450 mm (6 courses). For height of side walls of 525 mm(7 courses) the first course
shall be of one full brick, that is 225 mm width and 75 mm height. The width of remaining six courses of side
wall shall be 115 mm. For the height of side wall of 600 mm (8 courses) . The first two courses shall be of full
bricks, that is, the width will be 225 mm and the height will be 150 mm. The width of remaining 6 courses will be
115 mm.
2. Composite cement concrete and brick masonry lining: Following are the two methods for carrying
out the lining work.
 A bed of 50 mm thick 1:3:6 cement concrete is laid over 100 microns LDPE film conforming to
IS 9698-1980. Side walls are constructed in brick masonry in 1:4 cement sand mortar (without plaster)
or 1:5 cement sand mortar (with plaster). The inside and top of these vertical walls should be finished
with 10 mm thick 1:3 cement sand plaster.
 Brick masonry in 1:5 cement sand mortar (with plaster) or 1:4 cement sand mortar ( without
plaster ) on the sides and 5 cm thick 1:3:6 cement concrete in the bed should be laid over 1.5 to 2.0
cm thick sub grade of slate pieces/100 micron LDPE film.
3. Cement concrete lining: 50 mm thick 1:3:6 cement concrete should be laid in the bed over a 100
micron LDPE film. The vertical side walls should be constructed with 75 mm thick 1:3:6 cement concrete. In
case LDPE film is not being used, 75 mm thick 1:3:6 cement concrete shall be laid.
4. Stone masonry/stone slab lining:
 Stone masonry lining: Stone shall be free from laminations, soft spots, etc. Stone masonry
should be laid in 1:2:8 mortar(1 cement : 2 lime : 8 stone dust) or 1:5( 1 cement : 5 sand) mortar. The
joints shall be raked and pointed with 1:3 cement.
 Stone slab lining: Stone slab used for the bed shall have thickness of 25 mm. Stone slab should
be laid in 1:2:8 mortar(1 cement: 2 lime:8 stone dust) or 1:5 mortar ( 1 cement :5 sand). All the joints
shall be raked and pointed. Masonry on the sides shall be laid in 1:2:8 cement line/1:4 cement sand
mortar. The remaining courses of side walls may be laid in 1:4 cement sand mortar.
5. Precast cement concrete lining: It shall be in accordance with IS 10646 :1983.
. Water control structures
These are provided to control and deliver the water to the field.
1. Outlets
These are provided to deliver the water from the government deistribution system to the field and can be in the
form of flow pipe.
The quantity of water delivered would depend upon the head of water and the cross section of the outlet.
Adjustable Proportional Module (APM):
It is a semi module in which discharge is independent of the water level in the water course, subject to a
minimum working head is made available. But discharge in this module varies with variation in the water level in
the distributary/minor.
2. Drops.
These structures are made of concrete, brick or stone masonry and are used to prevent erosion in the channel
laid on highly sloppy land.
The water is lowered from upper section to lower section of water course by spacing these structures in such a
way, that the difference in elevation does not exceed 0.50 metre.
Main function of the drop is to dissipate the energy of falling water. A stilling basin is provided to dissipate the
energy of falling water.
3. Division Boxes
These are made of concrete boxes, brick or stone masonry with two or more rectangular openings to divert the
water from one field channel to other. Often these boxes are provided with gates and the width of each outlet is
proportional to the division of water to be made. The division structure may be separate structure or may be the
outlet of a siphon or drop or turnout from which further diversion is required.
4. Checks
These are placed across field channels to raise the water level to facilitate, irrigation by adequate quantity of
water to the elevation needed. Their function is similar to the cross regulator in the canals.
It also serves to confine water, to the portion of the water course, which is delivering water to the field which is
to be irrigated.
5. Turn out
This is used for releasing water from water course to farm channel or to the field to be irrigated.
Its main function is to control the water released in a basin or a strip or a furrow.
Turnout could be box type, siphon tube type.
6. Flumes
These are used to carry water across gullies, ravines and other natural depressions and along steep hill side
terrain.
Steel, concrete or vitrified clay pipes are used and can be semi circular, rectangular or trapezoidal in shape.
be placed below the water surface to ensure that they flow full.
7. Culverts
Culverts consist of masonry head walls at inlet and outlet ends, connected together by a buried pipe line and
 are used at channel crossings.
The earth covering the pipe should be at least 30 cm thick (preferably 45 cms or more).
8. Inverted siphons
This type of siphon is more economical when a water course has to cross wide depressions or where the road
surface lies close to the field surface.
The structure consists of an outlet and outlet tank connected together at their bottom by a pipe.
A check gate is provided at the inlet end to control water surface level in the upstream channel.
The bottom of tank is kept about 15 cms lower than the bottom of pipe to collect silt.
The size of tank should be 60 cm x 60 cm.
The pipe of inverted siphon should be protected by at least 30 cms layer of earth.
. References

1. Hand book on Farm Development (1977) published by Agriculture Refinance and Development Corporation
Mumbai (Maharashtra)
2. Lining and layout of field channels: System studies of Gomti Kalyania Doab water Resources Development
Training Centre Roorkee (1982)
3. I.S. 12379:1988 Code of practice for lining water courses and field channels.

* Director, Minor Irrigation Schemes, Jaipur -302015

 

Field Identification Of Soil

Soils are generally divided on the basis of their particle size into coarse
grained and fine-grained soils.

Coarse-grained soils are of particle size greater than 0.075 mm or 75 micron

and particles smaller than this make up fine-grained soils.

Further coarse grains are divided into gravel and sand, and fine grains are
divided into silt and clay sized.
 

Gravel sized particles are larger than 4.75mm and sand particles are between
4.75mm to 75 micron.

Silt sized particles are of size 75 micron to 2 micron, and clay sized particles
are of size less than 2 micron.

To identify the type of soil in the field, first we try to distinguish the soil as
coarse grained soil and fine grained soil and we can do so by simply looking
at the soil.

We take the soil sample and spread it on a flat surface. If we can see the
grains of the soil through our naked eyes, provided naked eyes must not be
the defective, and if we are able to separate them, those are the coarse grain
particles. On the other hand if we are not able to do so, then those are fine-
grained particles. These particles are microscopic and are not visible through
the naked eye.

 
 

Through visual inspection we may get the idea of whether the soil we just
spread contains more than or less 50% of visible particles.

It contains more than 50% of visible particles then the soil is coarse grained
soil and if the soil contains less than 50% of visible particles then the soil is
fine grained soil.

After identifying soil as coarse and fine-grained we can further separate them
as gravel, sand, silt or clay.

From our soil sample if we pick up a soil particle clearly visible like a pebble,
roughly larger than 5 mm, then it is gravel particle and if it appears smaller it is
sand particle.

Particles smaller than sand are microscopic and are either silt or clay. We
need to perform a couple of tests to distinguish between them.

Let’s begin with

Sedimentation

For sedimentation we take a spoonful of soil sample and mix it in a jar full of
water. We shake the jar to make the soil suspension.
 Now the jar is placed on the flat
surface and the suspension material is allowed to settle. We will notice that
suspended particles settle in layers. The gravel and coarse sand will settle
almost immediately to the bottom and fine sand will take around 1 to 2
minutes to settle. The silt will take about an hour and the clay will remain
suspended for even longer period of times.

We can estimate the relative quantity of each component (sand, silt, and clay)
by comparing the relative thickness of each of the layer at the bottom of the
jar.

Dilatancy or Shaking Test

Silt soils are more permeable than clay soils. Using this property we can
perform another test to distinguish between these two, called Dilatancy or
shaking test.

We add water to our soil sample so as to nearly saturate it. A small pat of this
soil is placed in the palm of the hand and vigorously shaken horizontally,
striking against the other hand several times.

 
 

If the surface of the soil becomes glossy in appearance it is an indication that

moisture present in the sample has risen to the surface.

If the soil surface becomes shiny this way quickly, then soil contains silt or
very fine sand, and if soil surface does not become glossy at all, the soil is
probably clayey.

If this glistening of surface occurs slowly, we can infer the soil is

predominantly silt with possible small amount of clay.

Dry Strength Test

We also perform Dry Strength Test to distinguish between clay and silt

For that we completely dry our earlier used soil sample

in sun or air due to which lumps are formed in the soil. These lumps are
pressed between thumb and forefinger and the resistance of these lumps to
breaking is termed as dry strength.

We describe the strength as very low, medium, or high.

If a dried soil lump can be powdered easily without application of much force,
it is said to have a low dry strength and such soil may contain fine sand and
silt.
 

If considerable finger pressure is required to break the lump, it possesses

medium dry strength and that soil contains silt with few amount of clay.

If the dried soil lump cannot be powdered with fingers at all, it is has high dry
strength and we can be sure that soil contains appreciable amount of clay.

Ribbon Test

We also perform a Ribbon Test to distinguish between silt and clay

In this test we take some soil in hand and add

some water to it to make workable. Then we press it slowly between the
thumb and index finger to make a ribbon like shape of about 3 mm thick and
as long as it can be formed before it breaks itself under its own weight.

If we could form a ribbon of longer than 100 mm then soil contains high
amount of clay.

While silt and other non-plastic materials cannot be moulded into ribbon at all.

Plasticity Test
Then there is one more test to distinguish clay and silt which is Plasticity Test

We performed this test to determine the plastic limit of the clayey soil.

We mix water in the soil sample and over saturate it. Then we take a soil pat
into hand and roll it into a thread. If we manage to roll the soil pat into long
threads of diameter as small as 3 mm without cracking the soil contains high
clay content. While soils containing Silt can seldom be rolled into threads of
such a small diameter without severe cracking.