INSTRUCTION MODULE

Subject: English

1. Background

English proficiency tests are designed to assess student's level in the English grammar and
usage. This covers the following areas: listening comprehension, fluency development, oral
intelligibility, reading, grammar, writing and vocabulary development.

2. Overview of Contents
1. Parts of Speech
1.1 Noun
1.2 Pronouns
1.3 Prepositions
1.4 Verbs
1.5 Adjectives
1.6 Adverbs
1.7 Conjunctions
1.8 Interjections

2. Agreement
2.1 Subject and Verb Agreement
2.2 Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement
3. Verb Usage
3.1 Tenses
3.2 Voice of the Verb
3.3 Conditionals
3.4 Parallelism
3.5 Redundancies
3.6 Double Negation
4. Reading Comprehension
Parts of Speech
1.1 Noun - is a name of a person, a thing, an animal, an event, or a place, such as John, pencil, horse, Monday, or
church. Nouns usually serve as subjects in a sentence, as objects of verbs, and as complements of verbs and prepositions.
John is the leader of the band. (John is the subject or the one being talked about in the sentence.)
He sharpened the pencil. (Pencil is the receiver of the action word ‘sharpened’.)
We went to church. (Church acts as a complement to the preposition ‘to’.)
1. Concrete Nouns - things you can see, hear, smell, taste, or touch.
o mother, music, perfume, chocolate, or fabric
2. Abstract Nouns - things you cannot perceive through any of your five senses; uncountable.
o hope, love, improvement, ideas, knowledge, justice, music, energy,
3. Collective Nouns - a group or collection of things and people; considered singular if it acts as a group or a single
unit, but plural if it pertains to the individual members.
o choir, bunch, class, flock, police, baggage, furniture
4. Common Nouns - any one of a class of people or things.
o boy, pencil, country, month, dog
5. Proper Nouns - specific people or things. The first letter is should be capitalized.
o Paul, Mongol, Philippines, July, Pluto
6. Compound Nouns - made up of two or more words acting as a single unit.
o matchbox, sister-in-law, pay day
7. Singular Nouns - a single person, single thing, or a single unit.
o meal, bush, baby, knife, alumnus, child, mouse
o Plural Nouns. These are words that name more than one person, one thing or one place. They are
formed by adding s, es, ies, ves, i, or by changing the spelling.meals, bushes, babies, knives, alumni,
children, mice
8. Plural-looking Nouns - plural in form but singular in meaning.
o economics, politics, news, measles
9. Singular-Looking Nouns. Some nouns pertain to a single object but are considered plural since they have two
identical parts.
o scissors, pants, tweezers, binoculars, glasses, pajamas
10. Count Nouns - things we can count which can be singular or plural. ‘A’ or ‘an’ is used for singular countable
nouns while ‘many’, ‘several’, ‘ a large number of’, ‘some’ or ‘few’ is used for plural countable nouns. For
questions and negative sentences, ‘any’ is used instead.
11. Mass Nouns - things we cannot count but can be measured. Not countable because they are too small to count,
or they are particles, liquids, gases, concepts or activities.
o Particles: rice, corn, dirt, dust, sugar
o Liquids: water, coffee, tea, milk
o Gases: smoke, pollution, steam
We cannot put ‘s’ to mass nouns. The plural form of mass nouns is formed with quantifiers.
o bottles of apple juice, sacks of sand, gallons of water, bowls of rice
‘Much’, ‘large amount of’’, ‘a great deal of’ and ‘little’ should be used for mass nouns.
o There is too much pepper in the dish; put a little sugar in it.
We may also use some and any for mass nouns
o Did you buy any apple juice? Yes, I bought some apple juice.
Here are some of the most commonly misused mass nouns:
advice hair furniture homework
baggage behavior equipment garbage
bread data permission vocabulary
damage progress scenery food
traffic weather work
1.2 Pronouns - are nouns in disguise, and have the same use as nouns. These are words that take the place of nouns.
o He is the leader of the band. (The pronoun he is the subject in the sentence.)
o He sharpened it. (The pronoun ‘it’ is the receiver of the action.)
o We went there. (The pronoun ‘there’ acts as a complement to the verb.)

1. Personal Pronouns. Pronouns that refer to particular people, places, or things.

o Subjective: I, You, He, She, It, we, they
o Possessive: my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, their, theirs
o Objective: me, you, him, her, them, us
2. Reflexive Pronouns - end in –self or –selves; add information to a sentence by pointing back to a noun or
pronoun near the beginning of a sentence; usually act as objects of verbs.
o We watched ourselves on the TV monitor.
3. Intensive Pronouns - end in –self or –selves as well; add emphasis to a noun or pronoun in the same sentence
instead; usually comes after the subject of the sentence.
o The President himself admitted his fault.
4. Demonstrative Pronouns - direct attention to a specific person, place, or thing.
o Singular: This, That
o Plural: These, Those
o Of all the colors available, I like this best.
o Those are the special guests who need assistance.
5. Relative Pronouns - begin a subordinate clause and connect it to another idea in the sentence.
o That, which, who, whom
o We will go to store that advertised a sale.
o We saw a person whose essay had won the prize.
6. Interrogative Pronouns. An interrogative pronoun is used to begin a question
o What, which, who, whom, whose
o Who knocked on the door?
o Whose pencil is this?
o Who’s the girl in the red dress?
7. Indefinite Pronouns - refer to people, places, or things, often without specifying which ones.
o Singular: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, little,
much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something
o Plural: both, few, many, others, several
o Both: all, any, more, most, none, some
1.3 Prepositions - are again mostly little words. They typically come before noun phrases and pronouns, and tell you
something about place, time, reason, and so on.
o on the bus, at home, opposite the table, until Tuesday, after Christmas

PREPOSITION OF TIME
IN
 We use IN for long periods of time such as months, seasons, years, decades, centuries.
o I was born in August.
o The war began in 1982.
o Technology boomed in the 21st century.
o We just stay at home in winter.
 We can also use IN for parts of the day
o I take my vitamins in the morning.
o I watch TV in the evening.
 We use IN to designate a time in the future or to indicate the duration of an action.
o The train will leave in a few minutes.
o I learned to drive in four weeks.
ON
 We use ON before days, date and holidays.
o I will see you on Friday.
o We will celebrate on the 25th of July.
o We exchange gifts on Christmas Day.
AT
 We use AT for specific time of the day.
o My work starts at 7:00 in the morning.
o We read a story at bedtime.
FOR
 We use FOR when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years).
o He held his breath for seven minutes.
SINCE
 We use since with a specific date or time.
She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-thirty.

PREPOSITION OF LOCATION
IN
 We use IN for an enclosed area or container.
o He is swimming in the pool.
o There is a garden in front/back of our house.
ON
 We use ON for surfaces.
o There is an old painting on the wall.
o We saw the advertisement on the television.
 We use ON for specific directions like:
o on the left, on the right
 We use ON for vehicles with surfaces where we can navigate.
o on the plane, on the bus, on the ship
 We use ON to indicate that something is on top of another thing
o I will ride on his motorcycle.
o I haven’t ridden on a horse.
AT
 We use At to refer to a particular spot or building.
o I will be waiting for you at the bus stop.
o There is a store at the corner of the street.
o Put you name at the bottom of your paper.
 o I am at the mall right now.
 We use AT to refer to places where you do something or where an event takes place
o I am reading at the library.
o I am at the concert.
o I will stay at home.

PREPOSITION OF PLACE
IN
 town, province, city, country, village
o in Sta. Cruz
o in Laguna
o In the Philippines
ON
 to designate names of streets, avenues, and roads
o Her house is on Lopez Avenue.
AT
 for specific addresses including the house number
o John Smith lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.

PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT
TO
 We use to in order to express movement toward a place.
o She's going to the dentist's office this morning.
TOWARD/TOWARDS
 Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. These are simply variant spellings of the
same word; use whichever sounds better to you.
o This is a big step towards the project's completion.
NO PREPOSITION
 With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we do not use preposition.
o Grandma went upstairs

1.4 Verbs - are words that do not only express action or what is being done in a sentence, but also time or when the
action takes place.

1. Action Verbs -tell what action someone/something is doing; usually refer to visible actions or movements.
o Singular/ s-form: jumps, runs
o Plural/Base form: jump, run
2. Abstract Verbs - suggest actions but not necessarily movement. They are usually not visible.
o Singular: learns, thinks, imagine
o Plural: learn, think, imagine
3. Linking Verbs - do not suggest action but connects the subject to its predicate
Singular linking verbs:
o The house is empty.
o The door was locked.
o She has dimples.
Plural linking verbs:
o The houses are the same.
o The doors were locked.
o You have dimples too.
4. Auxiliary Verbs - do not exist on their own; combination of a linking verb and another verb.
o The baby has slept all afternoon.
o The man is crying for help.
Transitive Verbs - direct action towards someone or something; need a direct object that will receive the action.
 o She read the whole book.
o She sang an old song.
Intransitive Verbs - These are verbs that do not need a direct object or person.
 She reads every day.
 She sang badly.
VERBALS
1. Gerunds - verbs that are used as nouns; formed by adding ‘-ing’ to the base form of the verb (present participle); used
as subjects in sentences.
o Writing is time consuming.
o The tree planting was successful.
2. Participles - verbs that are used as adjectives. They can either be the present participle or the past participle
o The man was so frightened.
o The frightened man ran quickly.
3. Infinitives - verbs that are used as nouns and adverbs as well; formed with TO and the main verb.
o To jog is useful.
o He has some work to complete.

VERB CONJUGATION
Verb + Present Participle
enjoy avoid stop delay
finish consider quit imagine
postpone admit mind deny
suggest miss risk involve
practice allow
 Everybody stopped talking.
 I have finished cleaning the house.
Verb + Infinitive
offer agree refuse decide
plan arrange hope aim
learn deserve afford need
attempt manage fail mean
intend forget promise threaten
seem tend pretend dare
 We decided to take a taxi home.
 Karen failed to make a good impression.
1.5 Adjectives - are words that describe or modify a noun or a pronoun; usually come before noun or after linking
verbs including seem, taste, feel, look, grow, remain, stay, sound and appear, become; usually end in –able, -ly, -ic, -ive, -
ful.
 Which?
 What kind of?
 How many?
o He has an elegant handwriting.
o It sounds stupid.
TYPES OF ADJECTIVE
1. Adjective of Number
 a, an, the, many, few, much, little, one, dozen, hundreds
 a – used before a singular noun that starts with a consonant sound
o a flower, a unit
 an – used before a singular noun that starts with vowel sound
o an apple, an honest man
 the – used for particular things or people, for plural nouns, one kind of something
o the sun, the world, the Philippines, the Filipinos
 many/ few – countable nouns
 little/much – mass nouns
2. Adjective of Quality
 beautiful, dirty, clean, strong, hard
3. Adjective of Size, Length, Shape and Width
 big, short, round, fat
4. Adjective of Age
 young, old, new
5. Adjective of Color
 red, black
6. Adjective of Origin
 Filipino, Australian, Japanese
7. Adjective of Material
 wooden, plastic, cotton
 Examples:
o a tall young man
o long black hair
o a small plastic bag
o a large wooden table
o an old Filipino song
o an old white cotton shirt
o big round blue eyes

VERBS AS ADJECTIVES
Present Participle
 used to describe something
o The news was shocking.
Past Participle
 used to describe someone
o I was shocked when I heard the news.
DEGREES OF COMPARISON
Comparatives
 used for comparing two things or places
 formed by adding r/er/ier/more to the positive form of the verb
 usually followed by than
 you may use much, a little, slightly, and a lot before comparatives
o He is older than John.
 o Can you walk a little faster?
o I would like to have a more reliable car.
o This bag is slightly heavier than the other one.
Superlatives
 used for emphasizing one thing or one person among other things or other people
 formed by adding st/est/iest/most to the positive form of the verb
 use the before superlatives
o Peter is the oldest among the three brothers.
o You are the fastest runner I have ever met.
o Is the inner core the hottest part of the earth?

1.6 Adverbs - are words that modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. They tell how, how often, why, when and
where the action takes place; usually end in –ly. They come before or after the verb and before adjectives and adverbs.
o He plays well.
o They arrived late.
o Don’t sit there.
o He was very happy.
1. Adverbs of Place - refer to the direction or place where the action takes place; answer the question where?
 Down, towards, there
o The balloon floated up.
2. Adverbs of Time - refer to the time when the action happened. They answer the question when?
 later, tomorrow, soon, last year, next month
o The letter was delivered today.
3. Adverbs of Frequency - refer to how frequent the action happens. They answer the question how often?
 usually, always, seldom, sometimes
o She never eats vegetables.
4. Adverbs of Manner - describe the manner by which the action is done. They answer the question how?
 quickly, slowly, carefully, beautifully
o Time passed quickly.
5. Adverbs of Degree - refer to the degree of the condition. They answer the question to what extent?
 very, so, extremely
o He is so smart.

CONFUSIONS WITH ADVERBS

Good and Well
 good is an adjective while well is an adverb
o Susan is a good pianist. She plays the piano well.
Late and Lately
 late is the opposite of early while lately means recently
o Haven’t I told you lately that you should not be late for work again?
Hard and Hardly
 hard is an adjective while hardly gives a negative meaning
o He tried hard to find a job.
o He hardly tried to find a job.
So and Such
 so comes before an adjective while such comes before a noun/ a noun phrase
o The room is so messy.
o It’s such a messy room.
1.7 Conjunctions - are words that connect parts of the sentence or clauses.
o And, but, or because, when
o I am learning English so that I can get a better job.
o You look as if you have seen a ghost.
o We were late because the car broke down.
1. Coordinating Conjunctions. These are conjunctions that join two items of equal importance. They include for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, and so. When using a conjunction to join two sentences, use a comma before the conjunction.
o This is a useful rule, but difficult to remember.
o I wanted to sit in the front of the balcony, so I ordered my tickets early.
o We are not allowed to bring a dictionary nor a calculator in the examination room.
2. Correlative Conjunctions. These are conjunctions that are always used in pairs. They join equal elements. They
include both – and, not only- but also, neither – nor, either – or and whether – or.
o Both my sister and my brother play the piano.
o Either Debbie or Nelson will wash the dishes.
o Neither the students nor teacher witnessed the incident
o Not only does Sue raise money for the symphony, but she also ushers at all of their concerts.
o Whether you win this race or lose, it doesn't matter as long as you do your best.
3. Subordinating Conjunctions. These are conjunctions that introduce a dependent clause. English examples include
after, although, if, unless, so that, therefore and because.
o He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life.
o Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies.
o Unless we act now, all is lost.

1.8 Interjections - are words or phrases used to exclaim. They usually express different emotions. They sometimes
stand by themselves, but they are often contained within larger structures. They are usually accompanied by an
exclamation point, but a comma can also be used.
 Wow! I won the lottery!
 Oh, I don't know anything about that.
Agreement
2.1 Subject and Verb Agreement

Rule 1. Agreement in Number

 A singular subject takes a singular verb.
 The DOG growls when he is angry.
 A plural subject takes a plural verb.
 The DOGS growl when they are angry.
Rule 2. Intervening Clauses
 A phrase or a clause that interrupts the subject and its verb does not affect the agreement.
 The CLOWN with the sad eyes looks pathetic.
 ONE of the girls is absent.
 Your theory, as well as his, lacks support.
Rule 3. Positive and Negative Subjects
 In compound sentences having one positive and one negative subject, the verb should agree with the positive
subject.
 JOE, not the other men, was sent home.
 The DOGS, not the trainer, were making the noise.
Rule 4. One of and Only One of
 In using one of, the verb agrees with the antecedent of the relative pronoun.
 She was one of the LADIES who were always dressed up.
 In using only one of, the verb agrees with the singular antecedent ONE.
 He was only ONE of the men who was ready to argue the matter.
Rule 5. OR/NOR
 For compound subjects joined by or/nor, the verb must agree with the closest subject.
 Does a FLAGSTONE or a brick make a good?
 Chopped apples or NUTS make a good topping.
 Neither pins nor TAPE was holding the pieces.
Rule 6. AND
 A compound subject joined by and is generally plural and must have a plural verb.
 PINS and TAPE were holding the pieces.
 COOKING and GARDENING are my hobbies.
 TO BALANCE in a rope and TO JUGGLE balls require great skill.
 Exceptions with AND :
If the compound subject joined by and equals one thing, a singular verb is required.
 Macaroni and cheese is an easy dish to make.
 The accountant and clerk of the office is my brother.
A singular verb is needed when each and every modified singular subjects are joined by and.
 EACH man and woman was waving a flag.
 EVERY boy and girl has come to the party.
Rule 7. Subject after the Verb
 A subject that comes after its verb must still agree with it in number.
 There is a PROBLEM with the balance sheet.
 Here are the PAPERS you requested.
 Does your PET usually eat grass?
 Where are the PIECES of this puzzle?
Rule 8. Linking Verbs
 A linking verb must agree with its subject, regardless of the number of its predicate nominative.
 Orange BLOSSOMS are one sign of spring.
 One SIGN of spring is orange blossoms.
Rule 9. Collective Nouns
 A collective noun takes a singular verb when the group it names acts as a single unit. It can also take a plural verb
if it refers to the members of the group.
 The JURY has reached a decision. (action is done by the whole group)
 The team are tying their shoe laces. (action is done by the individuals)
Rule 10. Uncountable Nouns.
 Some abstract nouns are uncountable and do not have plural forms. They should take singular verbs.
 “Love is blind.”
 “Honesty is the best policy.”
 Mass nouns also take singular verbs. You can make them plural by using quantifiers.
 Money makes the world go round.
  The gallons of water were poured into the dry field.

Rule 11. Confusing Nouns

 Nouns that are plural in form but singular in meaning take singular verbs.
 Physics is a challenging subject.
 The news was very interesting.
 Words such as eyeglasses, pants, pliers, and scissors, though they name single items, take plural verbs. They are
considered plural since they have two identical parts. The singular form of these nouns is formed by using ‘a pair
of.’
 My lost eyeglasses were behind the sofa.
 My pants are a perfect fit.
Rule 12. Indefinite Pronouns
 Singular indefinite pronouns include each, someone, anybody, everything, nobody etc., they take singular verbs.
 Each of the answers is correct.
 Everybody is happy about the news.
 Many, few, several, and both are plural indefinite pronouns and must be used in the plural sense only.
 Both of the cars were dented.
 Several students do not approve of the tuition increase
Rule 13. Pronouns and its Antecedent
 In using all, any, more, most, none, and some, the verb must agree with its antecedent.
 Some of the FRUIT is rotten.
 Most of the PIECES are lost.
 Any of IT is worth taking.
 None of the GIRLS are coming.
Rule 14. Amounts and Measurements
 Expressions stating amount of time, money, weight, volume are plural in form but take a singular verb as in:
 THREE WEEKS is a long time.
 TWO HUNDRED DOLLARS is a lot of money.
 TWO CUPS of flour is needed for the cake.
Rule 15. Fractions
 A fraction of singular nouns takes a singular verb.
 Half of the BUILDING is lighted.
 A fraction of plural nouns takes a plural verb.
 Half of the INVITATIONS were mailed today.
Rule 16. Titles
 A title is singular and must have a singular verb.
 The Notebook is one of my favorite movies.
 The Alchemist is a novel written by Paulo Coelho.
Rule 17. A number vs. The number
 The expression A NUMBER takes plural verb while the number takes a singular verb.
 A number of boys have come here.
 The number of boys has increased by 50 percent.

2.2 Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement

1. Person. This refers to the quality of being.

 If a person wants to succeed in corporate life, you have to know the rules of the game.
 If you want to succeed in corporate life, you have to know the rules of the game.
2. Number. This is the quality that distinguishes between singular (one entity) and plural (numerous entities).
 When an employee does not agree with their boss's decision, the employee should not support that
decision.
 When an employee does not agree with his boss's decision, the employee should not support that
decision.
 Everyone should make their own decision.
 Everyone should make his or her own decision.
3. Gender. This is the quality that distinguishes the entities as masculine or feminine.
 Mother cooked his specialty.
 Mother cooked her specialty.
 Everyone should clean his plate.
 Everyone should clean his or her plate.
Verb Usage
3.1 Tenses
SIMPLE TENSES
1. Present Tense - uses the s-form or base form of the verb; used for present actions, habitual actions, repeated
actions, regularly occurring actions, constant facts
 never, usually, always, every day, every time, often, every week, daily, seldom
o I hear a radio in the next room.
o The earth rotates on its axis.
o Birds fly south in the fall.
o I visit my dentist every month

2. Past Tense - formed by adding -d/-ed (regular verbs) or by changing the spelling of the verb itself (irregular
verbs); used for completed actions
 Yesterday, ago, last week/month/year.
o The art exhibit opened last week.
o There was a drought in California last year.
3. Future Tense - formed with will/shall and the base form of the verb; used for actions that will be done some time
in the future
 tomorrow, later, next month/year
o I will be home at seven.
o Ed will take the test tomorrow.

PERFECT TENSES
4. Present Perfect Tense - formed with HAVE/HAS and the past participle of the verb; used for actions that started
in the past and is still continuing at present time and for action done ahead of time.
 already, just
o The baby has slept all afternoon.
o I have just finished reading the book.
o Paris has changed since the 1985.
5. Past Perfect Tense - formed with HAD and the past participle of the verb; used for past actions that took place
before another past action
 by the time, before, after
o He had worked as a staff nurse here in the Philippines before he started working in Australia.
o She had been a full time teacher before she decided to become singing.
6. Future Perfect Tense - formed with will have and the past participle of the verb; expresses a future action that
happened before another future action
 by the time, before, after, by the end of
o I will have painted the house by the end of summer.
o I will have arrived in Japan by the time you read this letter.

PROGRESSIVE TENSES
7. Present Progressive Tense - formed with is/are and the present participle of the verb; used for
ongoing/continuing/progressive actions. It can used for actions happening at the time of speaking. It can also be
used to show plans or arrangements
 right now, at this moment
o She is writing a novel.
o Look! The boy is climbing the tower.
8. Past Progressive Tense - formed with was/were and the present participle of the verb. It is used for
ongoing/continuing/progressive actions done in the past.
 last year, last night, yesterday, ago
o We were travelling in Europe last summer.
o I was watching TV this morning.
9. Future Progressive Tense - formed with will be and the present participle of the verb. It is used for continuing
actions that will be done some time in the future.
 next year, tomorrow, later
o John will be growing corn in his garden this summer.
o I will be visiting France next year.
PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSES
10. Present Perfect Progressive Tense - formed with has/have been and the present participle of the verb. It is used
for continuing actions that started in the past up to the present time.
 Since, for
o I have been working there since January.
o I have been living in the Philippines for 12 years.
11. Past Perfect Progressive Tense. This tense is formed with had been and the present participle of the verb. It is
used for past continuing action interrupted by another past action.
 When
o I had been talking on the phone when she arrived.
o I had been fixing the bulb when the accident happened.
12. Future Perfect Progressive Tense. This tense is formed with will have been and the present participle of the verb.
It is used for continuing future action completed before another future action.
 by the time, before, after
o I will have been driving for eight hours by the time she reaches Los Angeles.
o I will have been waiting for two hours by the time she arrives home.

EMPHATIC FORMS
13. Present Emphatic Form. This is formed with do/does (not) and the base form of the verb. It is used to emphasize
a statement, to ask a question, and to make a statement negative.
o The course does require a term paper.
o Does she own that car?
o I don’t know the answer.
14. Past Emphatic Form. This is formed with did (not) and the base form of the verb. It is used to emphasize an
action done in the past, to ask a question and to make a negative statement.
o Rose did apologize for her rudeness.
o Did you clean your room?
o I did not hear the announcement.

3.2 Voice of the Verb

PASSIVE VOICE
In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. This
voice is formed with be-verb and the past participle of the main verb.
The writer sometimes does not specify who is acting.
 The report was written yesterday." (It could have been written by the secretary, George Bush, or the manager)
Or the agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase.
 The report was written by the secretary. (The secretary is the doer of the action but the report is the subject.)

ACTIVE VOICE
In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts. The person
acting is clear:
 The manager wrote the report yesterday. (The person acting is the manager.)

3.3 Conditionals

1. Conditional ZERO: Present Real Conditional

Situations that are always true if something happens. This is similar to, and can usually be replaced by, a time
clause using 'when'. This is formed by the use of the present simple in the if clause followed by a comma the present
simple in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first without using a comma between the clauses.
 When I am late, my father takes me to school.
 When I have a day off from work, I often go to the beach.
 Jerry helps me with my homework when he has time.
 I read if there is nothing on TV.
 2. Conditional ONE: Future Real Conditional
Conditional 1 is often called the "real" conditional because it is used for real - or possible - situations. These
situations take place if a certain condition is met. In the conditional 1 we often use unless which means 'if ... not'. In
other words, '...unless he hurries up.' could also be written, '...if he doesn't hurry up’. Conditional 1 is formed by the
use of the present simple in the if clause followed by a comma will verb (base form) in the result clause. You can also
put the result clause first without using a comma between the clauses.
 If it rains, we will stay at home.
 He will arrive late unless he hurries up.
 Peter will buy a new car, if he gets his raise.

3. Conditional TWO: Present Unreal Conditional

Conditional 2 is often called the "unreal" conditional because it is used for unreal - impossible or improbable -
situations. This conditional provides an imaginary result for a given situation. The verb 'to be', when used in the 2nd
conditional, is always conjugated as 'were'. Conditional 2 is formed by the use of the past simple in the if clause
followed by a comma would verb (base form) in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first without using
a comma between the clauses.
 If he studied more, he would pass the exam.
 I would lower taxes if I were the President.
 They would buy a new house if they had more money.

4. Conditional THREE: Past Unreal Conditional

Conditional 3 is often referred to as the "past" conditional because it concerns only past situations with
hypothetical results. Used to express a hypothetical result to a past given situation. Conditional 3 is formed by the use
of the past perfect in the if-clause followed by a comma would have past participle in the result clause. You can also
put the result clause first without using a comma between the clauses.
 If he had known that, he would have decided differently.
 Jane would have found a new job if she had stayed in Boston.

3.4 Parallelism - using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance.
This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating
conjunctions such as "and" or "or."

Words and Phrases

o With the -ing form (gerunds)of words:
 Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.
o With infinitive phrases:
 Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle. OR Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle.
Do not mix forms:
 The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and in a detailed manner.
 The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly.
 The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam,
completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low.
 The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam,
completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacked motivation.

2. Clauses
o A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing
the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism.
 The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do
some warm-up exercises before the game.
 The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that
they should do some warm-up exercises before the game. — or — The coach told the players that they
should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-up exercises before the game.
 The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him
to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective buyers. (passive)
  The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him
to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him questions.
3. Lists After a Colon:
 The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and
looking up irregular verbs.
 The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and
irregular verbs.

3.5 Redundancies - more of anything than is (strictly) needed, usually resulting from repetition or duplication;
pleonasm or tautology. Technically, they are either the repetition of information (or the inclusion of extra information so as
to reduce errors in understanding messages) and part of a message which can be eliminated without loss of essential
information.

Practice:

1. The diskette stores a total of 1.4 megabytes.

2. After a time interval of 15 minutes, the power supply switches off.
3. The radar system operated for a time duration of 12 hours.
4. The car's fuel system has a built-in alarm feature.
5. This command is for the purpose of saving the file.
6. The computer checks available memory on a continuous and automatic basis.

KEY ANSWERS:
1. The diskette stores 1.4 megabytes.
2. After 15 minutes, the power supply switches off.
3. The radar system operated for 12 hours.
4. The car's fuel system has a built-in alarm.
5. This command is for saving the file.
6. The computer checks available memory continuously and automatically.

3.6 Double Negation - the nonstandard usage of two negatives used in the same sentence so that they cancel each
other and create a positive.

Negative Words:
 No, nobody, not, no one, none, hardly, nothing, scarcely, nowhere, barely, neither
Negative Forms
1. Negative + Negative = Positive
o I don't want nothing. (I want something.)
o I hardly have none. (I have some.)
2. Negative + Positive = Negative
o I hardly have any. (I have few.)
o I don't want anything. (I want nothing.)
Reading Comprehension
Some types of questions to anticipate in reading comprehension exams.
I. Vocabulary and Context Clues
A. Vocabulary: the dictionary meaning of the indicated word in a given word in a given passage
B. Context Clues: the derived meaning of the indicated word, usually coming from the context of the passage. There
are many varieties of context clues. Some of them are reading between the lines, direct definition, synonyms and
antonyms. Consider these examples:
He was only ten years old when his daddy dies in prison. I looked after tommy because he
was my brother’s son. (What is the relationship of the author to tommy?)
Supermarkets and manufacturers must not use non-biodegradable materials – those that do
not perish or melt for a period of time? (What is the meaning of word “biodegradable”?)
II. Giving an Appropriate Title
III. Finding the Main Idea and the Supporting Details
Tip: Main ideas are typically located in the beginning of the passage, or at its end. Example Passage:
Many outdoor enthusiasts are looking for more adventure in their sports. Why else
would a sane person jumps out an airplane, do some acrobatic tricks on a skyboard, and
then parachute to the ground? Other airborne adventure sports include skydiving and
hang gliding. By water, people navigate the same rivers and shoot the same rapids that
early Native Americans, fur traders, and explorers did. They travel by canoe, kayak, or raft.
On land, adventurers backpack and camp in the wilderness, in areas where they might
meet bears, moose and mountain lions. After climbing mountains, they ski, snowboard, or
even bike down to the bottom. Today, there seems to be an adventure sport for just about
everyone, with more being invented all the time.
(In the passage, the main idea is in boldface while the sentences in italics are the supporting details.)
IV. Attitude or tome of the writer
Tone is the attitude of the writer towards the topic. It is expressed through the use of words in the passage. Examples:
The following statements each express different attitudes about a shabby apartment. Six different tones are used:
optimistic, bitter, tolerant, sentimental, humorous, and objective.
a. This place may be shabby, but since both of my children were born while we lived here, it has a special place
in my heart.
The tone is sentimental. “It has a special place in my heart,” expresses tender emotions.
b. This isn’t the greatest apartment in the world but it’s not really that bad.
The tone is tolerant. The words “not really that bad” show that the writer accepts the situation while
recognizing that it could be better.
c. If only there were some decent jobs out there, I wouldn’t be reduced to living in this miserable dump.
The tone is bitter. The writer resents a situation that forces him/her to live in a “miserable dump.”
d. This place does need some repairs, but I’m sure the landlord will be making improvements sometime soon.
The tone is optimistic. The writer is expecting the apartment to be improved soon.
e. When we move away, we’re planning to release three hundred cockroaches and tow mice, so we can leave
the place exactly as we found it.
The tone is humorous. The writer claims to be planning a comic revenge on the landlord by returning
the apartment to the terrible condition it was in when the tenants moved in.
f. This is the apartment we live in. it provides shelter. The tone is objective.
The writer does not express feelings about the apartment. He simply states facts.

IV. Purpose of the Writer

The purpose of the writer is the reason why the author writes about that topic. There are three general purposes of
writers.
To inform – to give information about the subject. Authors with this purpose wish to provide
facts that will explain or teach something to readers.
Example: Pain is a normal part of a physical process that lets us know if something is wrong.
To entertain – to amuse and delight; to appeal to the readers senses and imagination.
Authors with this purpose set out to captivate or interest the audience.
Example: Yes, I have gained weight. I weighted only 8 pounds when I was born.”
To persuade – to convince the reader to agree with the author’s point of view on a subject.
Authors with this purpose may give facts, but their main goal is to argue or to prove a point
to readers.
Example: the death penalty is deeply flawed and should be abolished.
VI. Explicit information vs. Implicit information
B. Explicit information are those found literally in the passage
C. Implicit information is those which are not written in the passage, usually in the form of
inferences.
D. Interference is a mental process by which one proposition is arrived at and affirmed that are
assumed as the starting point of the process.
Consider this example:
It might be easy to think of the supreme court of the United States as a distant and mechanical law-judging body,
far removed from the people it serves. This career of a Supreme Court justice is, in fact, serious business, as the Supreme
Court heads the judicial branch of the US federal government and is the heist judicial body in the United States.
The evening news or daily paper might give us a glimpse of some stately figure dressed in long black robe,
pounding a gavel on a shiny wooden desk. We might see stern-faced Supreme Court justices and think of them as the
demigods of the US political system, but the truth is that the nice justices of the Supreme Court are also people, just like
we are who work hard to get their jobs and do their work that they have to know and love.
The hiring and retiring process however, is unique in that justices are appointed for life, and this aspect of the
Supreme Court justice job description has both its positive and negative impacts on the US judicial system.

What does the author of the passage mean when he suggests that some people might think of the Supreme Court
as a distant and mechanical law judging body?
a. Some people incorrectly assume that the Supreme Court is an impersonal collection of individuals
b. The Supreme Court is located in a geographically remote location, far away from most American citizens
c. The Supreme Court relies too much on machines to make its important decisions.
d. If we did think of the Supreme Court in this way, perhaps we would be more sympathetic with our judicial
system.

VII. Figurative vs. Literal Meaning

A. A passage’s literal meaning comes from the literal meaning of the words written in them. These are ordinary
construction of the words = based on the dictionary meaning.
B. Figurative meaning, on the other hand, is an extension of the literal meaning of the literal language,
requiring a reader to use his/her imagination to get the real meaning of the passage by comparing and
correlating two very dissimilar objects to make a point.
Sample Exercises

Exercise 1. Singular and Plural nouns

Direction: Identify whether each noun is singular or plural and write its singular or plural form.
Wife
1. Wife
2. Mice
3. Eyeglasses

Exercise 2. Mass and Count Nouns

Direction: Complete each sentence by choosing the correct word.
1. There is so (many, much) smoke coming out of the chimney.
2. There are (plenty of, a large amount of) fish in the pond.

Exercise 3. Articles
Direction: Complete the sentences with a suitable article. Write a, an, or the on the blanks provided.
Write Ø if no article is needed.
1. Are you shopping for _____ health club to join so you can get in shape?
2. Shop wisely! You could end up choosing _____ wrong club and losing more money than pounds.

Exercise 4. Pronouns
Direction: Choose the correct case of pronouns.
1. Vinny, you & (herself, she, herself, her) will come.
2. My father took my brother and (I, myself, me, my, mine) out.

Exercise 5. Prepositions
A. Direction: Supply the missing preposition for each sentence.
1. My best friend lives ______ Main Street.
2. I will be ready to leave ______ about five minutes.

B. Direction: Read each sentence carefully. In some of the sentences, you will need to put in
prepositions; while in others, you will need to correct the misused preposition.
1. I have been invited to a wedding in February 14th.
2. There are usually a lot of parties at New Year’s Eve.

Exercise 6. Verbs
Directions: Infinitives and Participles. Put the correct form of the verb, choosing either the infinitive form
or the present participle of the main verb in the parentheses.
1. When I’m tired, I enjoy _______________ TV. It’s relaxing. (watch)
2. It was such a nice day, so we decided ________________ for a walk. (go)
Solution Manual to Sample Exercises
Exercise 1. Singular and Plural nouns
1. Singular
2. Plural
3. Plural

Exercise 2. Mass and Count Nouns

Direction: Complete each sentence by choosing the correct word.
1. There is so much smoke coming out of the chimney.
2. There are plenty of fish in the pond.

Exercise 3. Articles
Direction: Complete the sentences with a suitable article. Write a, an, or the on the blanks provided.
Write Ø if no article is needed.
3. Are you shopping for a health club to join so you can get in shape?
4. Shop wisely! You could end up choosing the wrong club and losing more money than pounds.

Exercise 4. Pronouns
Direction: Choose the correct case of pronouns.
3. Vinny, you & her will come.
4. My father took my brother and I out.

Exercise 5. Prepositions
Direction: Supply the missing preposition for each sentence.
3. My best friend lives on Main Street.
4. I will be ready to leave in about five minutes.

Direction: Read each sentence carefully. In some of the sentences, you will need to put in
prepositions; while in others, you will need to correct the misused preposition.
3. I have been invited to a wedding on February 14th.
4. There are usually a lot of parties on New Year’s Eve.

Exercise 6. Verbs
Directions: Infinitives and Participles. Put the correct form of the verb, choosing either the infinitive form
or the present participle of the main verb in the parentheses.
3. When I’m tired, I enjoy watching TV. It’s relaxing. (watch)
4. It was such a nice day, so we decided to go for a walk. (go)