CHAPTER 4

LEARNING THEORIES AND STYLES

INTRODUCTION.
Learning involves the acquisition of abilities that are not innate. Learning depends on experience, including feedback from the environment.

The different learning theories:

❖ BEHAVIORAL THEORIES:
Behavioral Theories, also known as Behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.
Behaviorism emphasizes the learning of facts and skills that teachers have decided are important.
Behavioral learning theories suggest that learning results from pleasant or unpleasant experiences in life. Early research into learning studied
the effects of stimuli on reflexive behaviors. Ivan Pavlov contributed the idea of classical conditioning, in which neutral stimuli can acquire the
capacity to evoke behavioral responses through their association with unconditioned stimuli that trigger reflexes. E. L. Thorndike developed the
Law of Effect, emphasizing the role of the consequences of present behavior in determining future behavior. B. F. Skinner continued the study of
the relationship between behavior and consequences. He described operant conditioning, in which reinforcers and punishers shape behavior.

Behavioral approaches to teaching generally involve the following:

a. Breaking down the skill and information to be learned into small units.
b. Checking student’s work regularly and providing feedback as well as encouragement (reinforcement).
c. Teaching “out of context”. Behaviorists generally believe that students can be taught best when the focus is directly on the content to
be taught.
d. Direct or “teacher centered” instruction. Lectures, tutorials, drills, demonstration and other forms of teacher controlled teaching
tend to dominate behavioral classrooms.

Behavioral theories dominated psychology during the early half of the twentieth century. Today, behavioral techniques are still widely used in
therapeutic settings to help clients learn new skills and behaviors.

❖ COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES:

Cognitive theories of learning suggest that learning is based upon mental processes. It is based upon the idea that learning comes about as a
result of processes related to experience, perception, memory, as well as overtly verbal thinking. It focuses on internal states, such as
motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking and attention.
Cognitive learning is a powerful mechanism that provides the means of knowledge, and goes well beyond simple imitation of others. Cognitive
learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge and skill by mental or cognitive processes —; the procedures we have for manipulating
information 'in our heads'. Cognitive processes include creating mental representations of physical objects and events, and other forms of
information processing.
In cognitive learning, the individual learns by listening, watching, touching, reading, or experiencing and then processing and remembering the
information. Cognitive learning might seem to be passive learning, because there is no motor movement. However, the learner is quite active, in
a
cognitive way, in processing and remembering newly incoming information.

Cognitive learning enables us to create and transmit a complex culture that includes symbols, values, beliefs and norms. Because cognitive
activity is involved in many aspects of human behavior, it might seem that cognitive learning only takes place in human beings. However, many
different species of animals are capable of observational learning. For example, a monkey in the zoo, sometimes imitates human visitors or other
monkeys. Nevertheless, most information about cognitive learning is obtained from studies on human beings.
Cognitive learning is about enabling people to learn by using their reason, intuition and perception. This technique is often used to change peoples'
behavior. But people's behavior is influenced by many factors such as culture, upbringing, education and motivation. Therefore cognitive learning
involves understanding how these factors influence behavior and then using this information to develop learning programs.

History of and Assumptions of Cognitivism:

Edward Tolman proposed a theory that had a cognitive flair. He was a behaviorist but valued internal mental phenomena in his explanation of
how learning occurs.
Based on his research on rats, Tolman proposed that rats and other organism develop cognitive maps of their environments. They learn where
different parts of the environment are situated in relation to one another. The concept of cognitive map also called a mental map has continued
to be a focus of research.

General Educational implications of Cognitive Theories:

1. Cognitive processes influence learning.
2. Learning difficulties often indicate ineffective or inappropriate cognitive processes, especially for children with learning disabilities,
who tend to process information less effectively. Therefore, teachers, need to be aware that all students are trying to learn something,
as well as what they are trying to learn.
3. As children grow, they become capable of increasingly more sophisticated thought.
4. People organize the things they learn. Therefore, teachers can facilitate students’ learning by presenting information in an organized
manner. This organization should reflect students’ previous knowledge and show how one thing relates to the other (i.e., helping
students understand and make connections).
5. New information is most easily acquired when people can associate it with things they have already learned. Teachers should then
show how new ideas relate to previous learning.
6. People control their own learning. Ultimately, students and not their teachers, determine what things will be learned and how they will
be learned.

Cognitivism is currently the predominant perspective within which human learning is described and explained. Contemporary cognitivism
emphasizes mental processes and proposes that many aspects of learning that may be unique to the human species. Cognitivism highlights the
role of the teacher in terms of the effectiveness of presentation of instructional material in a manner that facilitates students’ learning.

❖ SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY:

Describes learning as the interrelation between behavioral, environmental, and personal factors.

History and Orientation:

In 1941, Miller and Dollard proposed the theory of Social Learning. In 1963, Bandura and Walters broadened the social learning theory with the
principles of observational learning and vicarious reinforcement.
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) describes learning in terms of the interrelationship between behavior, environmental factors, and personal factors.
It also provides the theoretical framework for interactive learning used to develop both Constructivism and Cooperative Learning.
According to SCT, the learner acquires knowledge as his or her environment converges with personal characteristics and personal experience.
New experiences are evaluated vis-a-vis the past; prior experiences help to subsequently guide and inform the learner as to how the present
should be investigated.
Because SCT is based on understanding an individual’s reality construct, it is especially useful when applied to interventions aimed at personality
development, behavior pathology, and health promotion and communication. For example, SCT could be used to help a patient quit smoking in so
far as a smoker may be more willing to learn from an ex-smoker who may share experiences that resonate with a patient’s unique personal
history. Ideally, the patient’s affinity with the ex-smoker, when combined with a supportive environment, would help him or her quit smoking for
good!

How Has Social Learning Theory Contributed to Our Understanding of Human Learning?
Social learning theory is based on recognition of the importance of observational learning and self-regulated learning. Bandura noted that
learning through modeling-directly or vicariously-involves four phases: paying attention, retaining the modeled behavior, reproducing the
behavior, and being motivated to repeat the behavior. Bandura proposed that students should be taught to have expectations for their own
performances and to reinforce themselves. Meichenbaum proposed steps for self-regulated learning that represent a form of cognitive behavior
modification.
Behavioral learning theories are central to the application of educational psychology in classroom management, discipline, motivation,
instructional models, and other areas. Behavioral learning theories are limited in scope, however, in that they describe only observable behavior
that can be directly measured.

TYPES OF LEARNING
Signal learning- an individual learns to make a (general) response to a signal, similar to the conditioned response in Pavlov’s theory; learn how
to respond to a signal, like Pavlov’s dog (Pavlov’s classical conditioned response). Usually the response is emotional.
Stimulus Response Learning- the learner learns to make a more precise response to a more specific stimulus. Different from signal learning,
signal learning leads to involuntary responses, whereas the responses in Stimulus-Response learning are voluntarily controlled.
Chaining- the learner is able to chain two or more stimulus-response connections. Learning related behaviors in a series in which each response
serves as a stimulus for the next response.
Chaining involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a complex behavior. It is frequently used for training behavior
al sequences (or "chains") that are beyond the current repertoire of the learner.The term is often credited to the work of B.F. Skinner.
Verbal Association- the learner is able to learn using verbal chains. It is used in the process of learning medical terminologies.
Discrimination Learning- the individual learns to discriminate between different but physically similar stimuli. Learn how to distinguish between
similar stimuli. The learner can make different responses to each type of stimulus, even when they may be perceptually similar. To learn and
retain large numbers of chains, the person has to be able to discriminate among them.
Concept Learning- the learner can make a singular response to an entire class of stimuli.
Concept learning, also known as category learning and concept attainment, is largely based on the works of the cognitive psychologist Jerome
Bruner. Bruner defined concept attainment (or concept learning) as "the search for and listing of attributes that can be used to distinguish
exemplars from non- exemplars of various categories." More simply put, concepts are the mental categories that help us classify objects, events,
or ideas and each object, event, or idea has a set of common relevant features. Thus, concept learning is a strategy which requires a learner to
compare and contrast groups or categories that contain concept-relevant features with groups or categories that do not contain concept-
relevant features.
Concept learning also refers to a learning task in which a human or machine learner is trained to classify objects by being shown a set of example
objects along with their class labels. The learner will simplify what has been observed in an example. This simplified version of what has been
learned will then be applied to future examples. Concept learning ranges in simplicity and complexity because learning takes place over many
areas. When a concept is more difficult, it will be less likely that the learner will be able to simplify, and therefore they will be less likely to learn.
Colloquially, task is known as learning from examples. Most theories of concept learning are based on the storage of exemplars and avoid
summarization or overt abstraction of any kind.
Rule Learning- learner applies a rule, which is a chain of two or more concepts. A Rule can be considered a chain of concepts or a relationship
between concepts. Rules are generally expressed as “IF…THEN…” relationships.
Problem solving- a kind of learning based on deep thought. Highest learning type which lead to the discovery of higher order rules. All other
types of learning must have been completed for it to be present.
Cognitive processing aimed at figuring out how to achieve a goal is called problem solving. In problem solving, the problem solver seeks to devise
a method for transforming a problem from its current state into a desired state when a solution is not immediately obvious to the problem solver.
Thus, the hallmark of problem solving is the invention of a new method for addressing a problem. This definition has three parts: (1) problem
solving is cognitive - that is, it occurs internally in the mind (or cognitive system) and must be inferred indirectly from behavior; (2) problem
solving is a process - it involves the manipulation of knowledge representations (or carrying out mental computations); and (3) problem solving
is directed - it is guided by the goals of the problem solver.
The definition of problem solving covers a broad range of human cognitive activities, including educationally relevant cognition - figuring out
how to manage one's time, writing an essay on a selected topic, summarizing the main point of a textbook section, solving an arithmetic word
problem, or determining whether a scientific theory is valid by conducting experiments.
A problem occurs when a problem solver has a goal but initially does not know how to achieve the goal. This definition has three parts: (1)
the current state - the problem begins in a given state; (2) the goal state - the problem solver wants the problem to be in a different state, and
problem solving is required to transform the problem from the current (or given) state into the goal state, and (3) obstacles - the problem
solver does not know the correct solution and an effective solution method is not obvious to the problem solver.

THE LEARNING STYLES

Learning styles are various approaches or ways of learning. They involve educating methods, particular to an individual that are presumed to
allow that individual to learn best. Most people prefer an identifiable method of interacting with, taking in and processing stimuli or information.
Based on this concept, individualized “learning styles emerged in the 1970s and gained popularity.
Learning styles are defined as “a certain specified pattern of behavior and/or performance, according to which the individual takes in new
information and develops new skills, and the process by which the individual retains new information or new skills”.
Learning styles are characterized as how people acquire and understand new knowledge and skills. Thus a student’s learning style is closely
related to his or her cognitive style, which is the way in which students actually process and retain the information about that new skill or
knowledge they are given. Students will generally have trouble processing information in one way and trying to learn or be assessed on that
information in a method that is uncomfortable for them. “When a teaching style doesn’t meet the needs of a particular learning style, not much
learning takes place”.
LEARNING STYLE MODELS

1. Kolb’s theory of Experiential Learning

David Kolb has defined one of the most commonly used models of learning. The theory sets out four learning styles (or preferences), which
are based on a four-stage learning cycle. Kolb’s model offers both a way to understand individual people’s learning styles, and also an
explanation of a cycle of experiential learning that applies to us all.
Kolb says that the process represents a learning cycle or spiral where the learner “touches all the bases”- a cycle of experiencing, reflecting,
thinking and acting. The learner can begin at any stage and is continuous, ie., there is no limit to the number of cycles you can make in a learning
situation. Without reflection, we would simply continue to repeat our mistakes.

Kolb’s model therefore works on two levels –

Level 1- a four stage cycle:
1. Concrete Experience (CE)
2. Reflective Observation (RO)
3. Abstract Conceptualization (AC)
4. Active Experimentation (AE)
Level 2- Four Learning Styles (a combination of two preferred styles of the four stage cycle):
1. Diverging (CE/RO)
2. Assimilating (AC/RO)
3. Converging (AC/AE)
4. Accommodating (CE/AE)

As in the diagram below, it is based on two preference dimensions, giving four different styles of learning. Kolb's learning styles theory is
based on the idea that learning is comprised of two dimensions: (a) how information is processed (active vs reflective) and (b) and how it is
perceived (abstract vs concrete) during the learning experience.
The bipolar dimensions of the Experiential Learning Styles Theory are based on the notion that there are competing abilities within each
dimension of process and perception. The presence of one ability over another is the basis of learning styles preference.

The Experiential Learning Cycle:

ACCOMODATORS Concrete
Experience DIVERGERS
(putting it into practice)
^
|
I
Active Reflective
Experimentation <------ Processing dimension ------> Observation(objectively analyze the
(experimenting to find solutions) outcome)
|
|
CONVERGERS Abstract conceptualization ASSIMILATORS
(reviewing your conceptual understanding)

Perception dimension:
In the vertical Perception dimension, people will have a preference along the continuum between:
Concrete experience: Looking at things as they are, without any change, in raw detail.
Abstract conceptualization: Looking at things as concepts and ideas, after a degree of processing that turns the raw detail into an internal model.
People who prefer concrete experience will argue that thinking about something changes it, and that direct empirical data is essential. Those
who prefer abstraction will argue that meaning is created only after internal processing and that idealism is a more real approach.

Processing dimension:
In the horizontal Processing dimension, people will take the results of their Perception and process it in preferred ways along the continuum
between:
Active experimentation: Taking what they have concluded and trying it out to prove that it works.
Reflective observation: Taking what they have concluded and watching to see if it works.

Four learning styles under Kolb’s theory

a. Diverging (Concrete experience/Reflective observation)
These people are able to look at things from different perspective. They are sensitive. They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather
information and use imagination to solve problems. They are best at viewing concrete situations several different viewpoints. Divergers take
experiences and think deeply about them, thus diverging from a single experience to multiple possibilities in terms of what this might mean. They
like to ask 'why', and will start from detail to constructively work up to the big picture.
They enjoy participating and working with others but they like a calm ship and fret over conflicts. They are generally influenced by other
people and like to receive constructive feedback. They like to learn via logical instruction or hands-one exploration with conversations that lead
to discovery.

b. Converging (Abstract conceptualization/Active experimentation)

People with a converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to find solutions to practical issues. They prefer
technical tasks, and are less concerned with people and interpersonal aspects. Convergers think about things and then try out their ideas to see
if they work in practice. They like to ask 'how' about a situation, understanding how things work in practice. They like facts and will seek to make
things efficient by making small and careful changes.
They prefer to work by themselves, thinking carefully and acting independently. They learn through interaction and computer-based learning
is more effective with them than other methods.

c. Accommodating (Concrete experience/Active experimentation)

Accommodators have the most hands-on approach, with a strong preference for doing rather than thinking. They rely on intuition rather than
logic. These people use other people’s analysis and prefer to take a practical, experiential approach. They are attracted to new challenges and
experiences, and to carrying out plans. They commonly act on gut instinct rather than logical analysis. They like to ask 'what if?' and 'why not?'
to support their action-first approach. They do not like routine and will take creative risks to see what happens.
They like to explore complexity by direct interaction and learn better by themselves than with other people. As might be expected, they like
hands-on and practical learning rather than lectures.

d. Assimilating (Abstract conceptualization/Reflective observation)

The assimilating learning preference is for a concise, logical approach. Ideas and concepts are more important than people. These people
require good, clear explanation rather than practical opportunity. They excel at understanding wide-ranging information and organizing it in a
clear logical format.
Assimilators have the most cognitive approach, preferring to think than to act. They ask 'What is there I can know?' and like organized and
structured understanding. They prefer lectures for learning, with demonstrations where possible, and will respect the knowledge of experts.
They will also learn through conversation that takes a logical and thoughtful approach.
They often have a strong control need and prefer the clean and simple predictability of internal models to external messiness.
The best way to teach an assimilator is with lectures that start from high-level concepts and work down to the detail. Give them reading
material, especially academic stuff and they'll gobble it down. Do not teach through play with them as they like to stay serious.

2. Gregorc Cognitive Styles Models

Anthony F. Gregorc, together with Kathleen A. Butler, worked to organize a model describing how the mind works. This model is based on the
existence of perceptions- our evaluation of the world by means of an approach that makes sense to us. These perceptions in turn are the
foundation of our specific learning strengths, or learning styles.
Gregorc proposes an energetic model of personality-centered styles, which emphasizes the concept of style referring to how the individual
acts during performing a task, structuring the concept of style on two dimensions, time and space. According to Gregorc, space refers to the
categorization information in concrete (physical) and abstract (metaphorical) and time is considered to be sequential (any event unfolds step
by step, actions being displayed in a logical sequence) and randomized (events unfold in a spiral).
In this model, there are two perceptual qualities: 1) concrete and 2) abstract; and two ordering abilities: 1) random and 2) sequential.
 Both of the perceptual abilities and both of the ordering abilities are present in each individual, but some qualities and ordering abilities are
more dominant within certain individuals.
Combining the two styles there are obtained four types of information processing during the various activities an individual performs:
* concrete-sequential - attention is focused on real elements with a well established meaning;
* abstract-sequential - interest for logic and synthetic elements;
* abstract-randomized - attention is focused on feelings and emotions of others and establishing internal control;
* concrete-randomized - focus on intuitive elements and instinctive feelings in order to validate own ideas.

3. Field dependence
Sometimes called global vs. analytical thinking this variable reflects on how learners think and process information. The field dependent
learner is one who processes information globally. This learner is less analytical, not attentive to detail, and sees the perceptual field as a whole.
This whole resists analysis or decomposition. According to Witkin and Goodenough, Field dependent persons are more socially oriented and
therefore they respond more to reward and punishment. They pay more attention to social cues, they like to be with others and they seek learning
and vocational experiences that put them in contact with people. Field dependent children perform less well on formal operations tasks. They
also need more explicit instructions when material to be learned is disorganized. They also are less able to synthesize and analyze.
The FD learner achieves a higher degree of success in everyday language situations beyond the constraints of the classroom; tasks requiring
interpersonal communication skills.

4. Field independence
A person who can easily recognize the hidden castle or human face in a 3D poster and a child who can spot monkeys camouflaged within the
trees and leaves of an exotic forest in a coloring book tend toward a field independent style. Field independence requires a restructuring of the
perceptual or psychological field and therefore is a more differentiated process. The “field” may be perceptual or it may be abstract, such as a
set of ideas, thoughts or feelings from which the tasks is to perceive specific subsets.
The field independent person can easily break the field down into its component parts. He/she is typically not influenced by the existing
structure and can make choices independent of the perceptual field. Learner excels in classroom learning which involves analysis, attention to
detains, and mastering of exercises, drills and other focused activities.

Matching learning styles to Instruction

Most educators recognize that students differ in abilities, attributes and motivation. Research findings support the notion that individual
differences affect learning performance among adults. Understanding these differences helps instructors cope with the variations in
performance exhibited by their students. In addition, understanding these differences has important implications for designing and developing
instruction in that a singular method of instruction is not necessarily best for all students.
Although there are a number of variables that might influence performance, one difference that might affect the learning process is learning
styles. Learning styles refer to how individuals learn. Dunn defines learning styles as ways in which an individual "adsorbs and retains information
or skills". Kolb agrees with Dunn's definition in general, but adds an emphasis on the processing and perception of information. Gregorc expands
Kolb's definition by stating that learning styles are overt, observable behaviors that provide clues about how individuals process, or mediate
information. Davidson supports these definitions by stating that learning styles are characteristic ways of gaining, processing and storing
information.
For the most part, these definitions suggest that learning styles are concerned with how individuals process and perceive information within
a learning situation. Further, these scholars agree that learning styles are relatively stable traits and suggest that learning styles tend to be
consistent across different contents and situations. The dimensions of processing and perception form the basis of understanding how learning
styles influence the learning process.
Learning styles are important considerations in the learning process. According to Yoder, awareness of the individual differences of learning
styles and their interaction with performance is essential to educators. Bostrom, Olfman and Sein also support the importance of the variables
of learning styles especially in a computer environment.
Studies have demonstrated that student performance improves when their learning styles are taken into consideration. For example, a study
of the matching of learning styles and instructional method found that learning styles made a significant contribution to student performance in
a computer-based lesson.
Information about style can help faculty become more sensitive to the differences students bring to the classroom. It can also serve as a
guide in designing learning experiences that match or mismatch students' styles, depending on the teacher's purpose. Matching is particularly
appropriate in working with poorly prepared students and with new college students, as the most attrition occurs in those situations. Some
studies show that identifying a student's style and then providing instruction consistent with that style contribute to more effective learning.
In other instances, some mismatching may be appropriate so that students' experiences help them to learn in new ways and to bring into
play ways of thinking and aspects of the self not previously developed. Any mismatching, however, should be done with sensitivity and
consideration for students, because the experience of discontinuity can be very threatening, particularly when students are weak in these areas.
Knowledge of learning style can thus help faculty design experiences appropriate for students in terms of matching or mismatching and enable
them to do so thoughtfully and systematically.

SUMMARY OF THE LEARNING THEORIES

Aspect Behavioral Cognitive theory/Cognitivist Social Cognitive theory
Theory/Behaviourist
Learning Theorists Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, Bruner, Gagne Miller and Dollard, Bandura
Skinner, Tolman

View of the Learning process Change in behavior Internal mental process Interaction/observation in social
(including insight, information context. Movement from the periphery to
processing, memory, the center of a community of practice
perception)
Locus of learning stimuli in external internal cognitive structuring learning is in relationship between
environment people and environment

Purpose in education produce behavioral change develop capacity and skills to full participation in communities of
in desired direction learn better practice and utilization of resources

Educator's role arranges environment to structures content of learning works to establish communities of
elicit response activity practice in which conversation and
participation can occur

Manifestations in adult behavioral objectives Cognitive development Socialization

learning
Competency-based Learning how to learn Social Participation
education
Skill development and Conversation
training