Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 2

1.1: BACKGROUND 2
1.2: SIGNIFICANCE 2
1.3: RATIONALE 3
1.7 DELIMITATIONS 5
1.8 LIMITATIONS 5

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 BROAD SURVEY 6

2.2 MUSCULAR PHYSIQUE OF ACTION HEROES 6
2.3 “HARD BODIES” – ARTIFICIAL AND ONE-DIMENSIONAL? 8
2.4 DUAL PERSONALITIES – CHANGING THE “HARD BODY” FORMULA 9
2.5 DUTY AND PURPOSE VS. FAMILY AND LOVE 11
2.7 CONCLUSION AND MISSING GAP IN LITERATURE 12

CHAPTER 3 – DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS 13

3.1 DISSECTING THE “HARD BODIES” PHENOMENON 13

3.1 .1 THE SIMPLE “HARD BODIES” 13
3.1.2 THE POWERFUL “HARD BODIES” 14
3.2 HEROES OF THE NEW MILLENNIUM 16
3.2.1 MASTERY OF PHYSIQUE TO MASTERY OF SKILL 16
3.2.2 THE SENSITIVE MALE AND ALTER-EGOS 17
3.2.3 THE MAVERICK 19
3.3 MORAL UNIVERSES 21
3.3.1 THE MORALLY AMBIGUOUS 21
3.3.2 SELF-CONSTRUCTED MORAL UNIVERSE 22
3.3.3 MAKING THE RIGHT CHOICE 24
3.4 SEX APPEAL VS FATHERLY FIGURE 26
3.4.1 “HARD BODIES” AS FATHERS 26
3.4.2 THE NEW HEARTTHROBS 28

CHAPTER 4 – CONCLUSION 29

Bibliography 32

1|Page
 Chapter 1 - Introduction

1.1: Background

Hollywood has always had a profound influence on the world’s culture; defining our

desires and beliefs in both direct and subtle ways. One of its greatest influences would be

the ever-changing image of the action hero it has instilled in our minds in recent decades.

As the movies and films of Hollywood evolve, so do our perceived ideas of heroism. One

of the most significant epochs of action cinema would be during the Reagan era in the

late early 1980s, which could only be described as a spectacular display of hyper

masculinity. However, as we move into the twenty-first century, the orgy of testosterone-

oozing juggernauts that had defined the action cinema of the early 1980s seems to have

faded away, replaced by the more complex and ambiguous action hero persona of today.

What are the characteristics of modern day heroes in action films and how have these

heroes dictated American masculinity? Are these heroic symbols simply reflective

manifestations of our culture or is Hollywood actually projecting its conventional heroic

icons into our mind, moulding and constructing our belief systems.

1.2: Significance

Ever since the classical era of cinema, the Hollywood film industry has always promoted

its image of heroes to the world, especially in action films. It has forged dominant

representations of masculinity through its action films. One cannot deny the influence it

2|Page
has had on our culture, due to the hegemony it has over our entertainment industry.

Essentially, this research provides insight into the societal mindsets that help in defining

masculinity by exploring the theme of heroism in action films as well as looking at how

film depiction has been setting the benchmark, disintegrating and recreating the

traditional consensus on heroism.

1.3: Rationale

Heroes are what the common man look up to as role models and thus this paper will

examine how the definition of the perfect man has been altered through time. I will be

analyzing how the various characteristics of action film heroes reflect the elements that

American society in different eras believe a man needs to acquire in order to achieve the

utopian sense of masculinity.

1.4 Thesis

The Hollywood action hero has transformed from the epitome of the faultless man, a

lofty construct of traditional masculine standards in the late 1970s to a realistic

embodiment of the common American, presenting and reflecting masculinity as

perceived by different social groups in the 2000s.

3|Page
1.5: Research questions

1. What is the formula for action in contemporary Hollywood action film – what are his

attributes and what makes him appealing to the audience?

2. How has the representation of the male action hero changed since the late 1970s?

3. How do shifting representations of heroism in Hollywood action films register broader

cultural changes in how masculinity is perceived, especially in American society?

1.6: Methodology

This is a qualitative research combining both film and cultural studies. Current literature

and books on traditional viewpoints of masculinity and heroism, such as The Hero with

Thousand Faces, will be consulted to provide a strong foundation for the topic and allow

for analysis of trend developments and persisting characteristics of action heroes. The

concepts of masculinity that these scholars have provided will form the backbone for the

research.

Action movies from the 1970s to the 2000s will then be analyzed while an in-depth

research of the perception of masculinity in American society from the Reagan era to the

Bush administration will also be undertaken. I will then attempt to draw links between

the two, thus tying action film heroes to the larger social context of how masculinity has

been defined throughout the years.

4|Page
Books, scholarly articles and the films themselves will serve as the main source of

information while critical movie reviews will complement the research.

1.7 Delimitations

This paper will only focus on the metamorphosis of heroes in blockbuster action films,

from the late 1970s to 2000s. Heroines will NOT constitute part of this research. This

research also excludes the study of homosexual themes, such as the interpretation of

action heroes as being homophobic or supportive of gay rights.

1.8 Limitations

Masculinity is not only defined through the action film genre. This limits the research as I

will not be able to deliver a holistic investigation of masculinity. Being a Singaporean

student, I do not have personal experience of their culture and can only look at American

society through literature and media. Furthermore, due to possibly contradictory

perceptions of the authors, it would be difficult to establish the reliability of different

works without first-hand knowledge of American society.

5|Page
 Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Broad survey

Much of existing literature focuses on the construction of the male action hero in

Hollywood films as well as the ideological mechanisms that affect this manufacture of

heroic icons in various eras. Prominent scholars in this area, such as Susan Jeffords and

Elizabeth Abele, provide detailed accounts on how the hero is constructed and

reinvented, and touch on how different iconic heroes in different eras reflect the mindset,

values and desires of the general American populace.

The traditionalist view of heroism is also explored through the Hero with A Thousand

Faces, which expounds on the fundamental structure of a hero’s Monomyth1. This will be

used as the basis to analyze the action heroes in the following chapters.

2.2 Muscular physique of action heroes

The era of bodies began with the Reagan era (Jeffords, 1994: 24). In her film analysis,

Hard Bodies, Jeffords has described the 1980s as the age of consolidation of the hard-

body image of heroes that had emerged in the late 1970s. Similarly, John Orman (1992)

has stated the influence of Reagan’s "macho presidential style", which incorporated traits

of being "decisive, never wavering or uncertain," "strong and aggressive, not weak or

1
Joseph Campbell defined the trials and tribulations a man must face in his quest to become a true hero
as the Monomyth. The Monomyth, as Joseph Campbell stated is basically, a hero venturing forth from
the world of common day into a region of supernatural wonder – there he encounters fabulous forces and
a decisive victory is won, the hero then comes back from this mysterious adventure with the power to
bestow boons on his fellow man.
6|Page
passive," and never 'feminine' into the action hero of that time. According to Jeffords, the

"macho" presidential image and its cultural counterpart in the muscular Rambo is both

reflective of and instrumental to what was the Reagan administration’s increasingly

aggressive stand on foreign policy (Jeffords, 1994. 11-17). She found the evolution of the

Rambo image to be profound, from a homeless drifter fending off sheriff’s deputies and

weekend warriors in First Blood to a one-man killing machine defeating the Soviet army

in Afghanistan in Rambo III. This change, according to Jeffords, was explicitly symbolic

of the tough, uncompromising, "hard" American body crushing the "evil" Soviet

"empire" as defined by Reagan.

Jeffords’ dissection was highly influential, and her arguments have been echoed in many

later works by scholars on masculinity and film studies. For example, Frank P. Tomasulo

was highly receptive to Jefford’s ideas, stating how Jeffords is on solid ground by using

“the hyper-masculine and “hard bodies” of Sylvester Stallone to represent a national

mastery over foreign and domestic enemies”. Tomasulo also admired her analyses of The

Terminator, Lethal Weapon, and Robocop, finding them insightful in conveying “the

Reagan domestic policy through home front battles with lawlessness, terrorism,

disloyalty and deterioration of family” (Tomasulo, 1995:47)

Jeffords was also referenced by Abele who reaffirmed the idea that the zeroing in on how

the heroes’ sculpted physiques restored faith in American masculinity, with its intrinsic

strength shown in contrast to bureaucratic corruption. (Abele, 2002: 448) As such, it will

suffice to regard the period between late 70s to late 80s as the “heroes’ golden age”

7|Page
(Collura, 2000), in which the “presentation of the purity and naturalness of the hero’s

body” (Abele, 2002: 448) showed the flawless and perfect man, a man Americans have

searched for as a fatherly figure and role model.

2.3 “Hard bodies” – artificial and one-dimensional?

The “hard bodies”, however, was met with much disapproval from various scholars and

film critics when their former glory faded after what Collura refers to as the “heroes’

golden age”. For instance, Abele argues that the 1980s’ buffed male version of

masculinity is artificial, in contrast to the recent “post-feminist action films”, whose

protagonist’s struggles are more realistic and represents a more attainable version of

heroism. She backs up her arguments with examples such as Gattaca which present the

artificiality of heroes, in which the perfect man is shown to be “unnatural and literally, a

construction” while Vincent, the common man, prevails and becomes the true hero.

(Abele, 2002: 447)

However, her use of strong language which condemns all those heroes as non-natural and

one-dimensional could be an exaggeration as even “seemingly simple heroes such as

Rocky have an emotion layer to them, as his frustration and determination is something

the audience can empathize with” (Seger, 1990 : 34). The “hard bodies” were also

defended by Yvonne Tasker, who argued that while the over-developed body functioned

as “a hysterical image, a symptom of the male body in crisis”, it was also “a triumphal

assertion of a traditional masculinity”. (Tasker, 2004:109). Tasker understands that the

8|Page
portrayal of “hard bodies” is an utopian image which in fact makes them less masculine

as the extreme exaggeration exposes their insecurity about their own their own manhood.

However, she argues that men of that age were in identity crisis and during their pursuit

of manhood, looked towards the traditional notion that the perfect man must be tough and

muscular man; hence the overly-buffed action heroes were justified. Tasker opposes the

critics who dismiss the stable and unambiguous “hard bodies”, arguing that was that it is

a mistake to simply read the muscular hero as “a simplistic embodiment of reactionary

masculine identity”. (Tasker, 2004:109). Despite her censure that the “hard bodies” were

artificial, Abele found Tasker’s reading agreeable and comments that till today, most

action films still “follow the “hard bodies” traditions established in the Reagan years to

some extent”. However, she also states that in contemporary film, the heroic male body is

instead attacked to allow the real man to emerge (Abele, 2002: 448). All in all, by the end

of the Reagan regime and the advent of the 90s, the “hard bodies” may still be lingering

around but the influence it has once commanded is, without doubt, nothing but history.

2.4 Dual personalities – changing the “hard body” formula

Abele feels that while heroism in contemporary films is no longer represented by “hard

bodies”, it becomes a shell they fill in order to fulfill the heroic tasks. The hero is in fact,

the man inside that shell. This develops a dichotomy between the hero’s “constructed

identity” and his “natural identity”, “manifesting in the form of alter-egos” (Abele, 2002:

447). Jeffords also mirrors this idea in her analysis, borrowing Tim Burton’s Batman to

explain the separation between the “inner man” and the “outer man”, stating how it
9|Page
presented the idea of the divided idea of “external masculine strength and internal

goodness” (Jeffords, 1994: 96). Batman and Bruce Wayne are literally shown to be two

separate entities, which Jeffords shows through the two scenes in which the protagonist

utters his catchphrase “I’m batman”, the first “delivered confidently and strongly when

he was facing the criminals” yet when faced with his love and without his bat suit, “it was

rehearsed and hesitant”, only spoken when out of his love interest’s earshot. (Jeffords,

1994: 96) As such, Wayne is shown to be “isolated, vulnerable and uncertain”, yet when

he dons the costume, he transforms into another persona resembling that of Rambo,

becoming “confident, muscular, invulnerable, decisive and strong”. (Jeffords, 1994: 97)

Similarly, Abele also uses Die Hard to back up this idea of “revised masculinity”.

Though John McClane “appears to be another hard body” and is disregarded by Jeffords

and Tasker, Abele elucidated how the film “continually undercuts the omnipotence of

John’s body”, creating a hero which doubled as an everyday, imperfect guy who was

vulnerable to physical and emotional pain”. (Abele, 2002: 449) This display of emotional

vulnerability was a quality the “hard bodies” lacked, shifting “manhood away from the

“hard bodies” to manhood divided and troubled” - the hero “defeats enemies in a suit of

armour but a suit of armour nonetheless”. (Jeffords, 1994: 97). Such films revolutionized

the generic “hard body” formula, with the strapping body of the hero becoming nothing

more than a disposable shell for the purpose of intimidating and trouncing the hero’s

adversaries.

2.5 Duty and purpose vs. family and love

10 | P a g e
According to Abele, action heroes “epitomize the qualities of the successful American

male” – “a man with his eye firmly on the goal” (Abele, 2002: 447). From this, Abele

discusses the hero’s sense of duty, questioning whether the idea of “a man’s gotta do

what a man’s gotta do” remains applicable in contemporary action cinema. She states that

the hero’s total identification with his duty often involves the internalization of external

authority and the construction of a heroic identity with which he recognizes. In most

cases, the hero “relinquishes his identity in service to the society, accepting society’s

more rigidly constructed identity as his own” (Abele, 2002: 447). Akin to the idea of dual

personalities, “this dynamic constructed heroic identity” takes precedence over the

“natural identity”, illustrated in “frequent situations where a more everyday hero is

begged, often by a woman, to put himself and his desires first, the hero replies, ‘I’m a

cop’” (Abele, 2002: 447). Such scenarios question whether the hero should deceive

himself and those who love him in order to serve the obligations of his job.

This conflict between duty and family is demonstrated in Die Hard in which John’s

relationship with his family is disrupted by his sense of duty and in Innerspace’s

stereotypical “hard bodies” hero learning from his seemingly less masculine partners to

become more of a man by “understanding the transformations that he must make to be a

husband and father” (Abele, 2002: 449). These films does not simply “glorify the figure

of the American hero”, but “demand more from the hero than the annihilation of the

villain” in which “the final victory” celebrates “the true union of the hero with his love,

surrounded by friends who more than make up in integrity what they lack in physical

perfection” (Abele, 2002: 450). The “Monomyth” of the action hero is extended beyond

11 | P a g e
saving the world - the hero must not only accomplish his missions but through the

process of doing so, realize the importance of his friends and family.

2.7 Conclusion and missing gap in literature

From my research, there is more than sufficient evidence to show that the action hero has

indeed evolved to become more complex and relevant to the common man. However,

scholarly reviews have not truly moved away from the “hard bodies” phenomenon.

Contemporary action icons such as Matt Damon, Tom Cruise, Johnny Depp are not

sufficiently discussed while the evolution of action heroes from the moral standpoint has

also largely neglected. Thus, analyzing action movies of the 2000s and how they convey

the broader cultural changes in American society will constitute the main part of my

research in the later chapters. Furthermore, current literature only looks at the

development of hero himself and neglects the many other essentials of the film such as

the heroes’ allies, nemesis and love interests. Thus, later research would also shift the

focus of analysis from the hero himself to other elements of the films to give a more

wholesome picture of the evolution of action films.

Chapter 3 – Discussion and Analysis

3.1 Dissecting the “hard bodies” phenomenon

12 | P a g e
3.1 .1 The simple “hard bodies”

“Hard bodies” were once considered the staple of Hollywood action films during the

Reagan era of cinema (1980s – 1990s), yet its influence has largely diminished in

Hollywood today. The appeal of the “hard bodies” mainly lies in its simplicity and the

clear-cut moral messages the heroic narrative conveys to the audience. In the Rocky

series, the protagonist was the typical underdog, who through hard work and

perseverance, managed to make it as a world class fighter. This follows the typical rag-to-

riches American dream of the unsophisticated common man, who hopes that by doing

his best, he would be able to rise above the odds pitted against him and fulfill his

ambition or in Rocky’s words, “he took his best shot and became champ’. Throughout the

whole Rocky franchise, there is a running cliché of Rocky facing a stronger opponent in

each installment, followed by Rocky’s vigorous training routine and then his eventual

victory over his adversary. Rocky is depicted as humble and big-hearted while his

enemies petty and arrogant, a reflection on how common Americans viewed themselves

in comparison with those in the higher social classes.

Other action films of the Reagan era were similarly characterized by such simple themes

that were inculcated into the masses, be it patriotism in Rambo or the fight for survival in

Terminator. These action films have about as much complexity as morality plays,

forever abiding by the same generic formula - the hero vanquishes his diabolical foe with

panache, restores order in society, and then takes his well-deserved seat at the pinnacle of

a patriarchal status hierarchy. The protagonists are driven by simple motives with their

eventual success is often a direct result of their strength and perseverance, paralleling the

belief of common Americans that they will reap what they sow.

13 | P a g e
3.1.2 The powerful “hard bodies”

Another enduring appeal of these heroes was the boundless power and fortitude their

magnificent body symbolized. In Rocky, the muscular body represents the undying spirit;

Rocky’s body is repeatedly pounded by his enemy, yet he perseveres till the end

regardless of the turmoil his body took. The source of the heroes’ omnipotence lies in

their spectacular physique which commanded both fear and respect, the very emblem of

the ideal Reaganite man. The heroes are able to prevail over any odds with nothing but

sheer power, as evidenced in the classic Commando or Rambo battle sequences, where

the hero would charge into masses of enemies as a one-man killing machine, demolish

his enemies within seconds and emerge from the battle unscathed. These larger-than-life

heroes are portrayed as demigods, their superhuman powers affirmed by a memorable

line from Rambo, “God has mercy. He (Rambo) doesn’t”. The extravagant and violent

battle sequences not only serve to keep the audiences at the edge of their seats but also

transform the “hard body” into the symbol of justice and invulnerability in minds of the

American populace, subconsciously instilling the idea that masculinity is measured in

muscles2.

In the case of Rambo, other than the invincibility of the hero’s body, the vivid battle scars

on Rambo’s burly body also capture viewers’ imagination. The American populace felt

that they have endured much hardship during the disastrous presidency of Jimmy Carter

and Rambo’s scars (they evoked numerous painful flashbacks to Rambo’s torment during

2
In fact, there was a hike in gym memberships during the early 1980s as men began to train their bodies in
order to present themselves as masculine and powerful. For more information, refer to American
Masculinities: A Historical Encyclopedia

14 | P a g e
the Vietnam War) attested to this victimized mindset. Rambo’s triumph over the corrupt

and feeble deputies after escaping from their clutches was explicitly symbolic of

America‘s resurrection from the ashes of Carter’s weak presidency, reestablishing herself

into the strong and powerful nation that the conservative Ronald Reagan had promised.

Furthermore, Rambo’s victory over tyranny in Afghanistan in the sequel also urged

Americans to look fast the failure of the Vietnam War and towards a future in which

America would be restored to her rightful position in the global arena, spreading her

time-honored ideologies of liberty and democracy in the never-ending crusade to end

oppression in the world.

Henceforth, the “hard body” was of great appeal to men and women alike; men who

wanted the return of America to her superpower status saw the powerful body as the

foundation on which traditional masculine values could be reinstated while women found

security in that that forbidding and macho exterior, satisfying their desire to find a man

they could depend upon at all times.

3.2 Heroes of the new millennium

3.2.1 Mastery of physique to mastery of skill

The action hero of today has moved away from masculinity performed through physique

to mastery of skill and weapons. In Lethal Weapon and Mission Impossible, rather than

baring their bodies and charging headfirst into the enemy, the action heroes prefer to
15 | P a g e
outmaneuver their adversaries tactically while guns and gadgets are also favored over

brute force. The heroes’ bodies are no longer the focus of the film as more screen time is

used to showcase how the heroes employ sophisticated technology or their specialized

skills to conquer their enemies. Perhaps the best example to illustrate this would be the

chase scene from The Bourne Ultimatum where Jason Bourne master-plans his client’s

escape over a mobile phone, confounding a whole division of trained CIA agents. Jason’s

quick wits and brilliant manipulation of the geography were duly displayed as he weaves

his client in and out the crowd by providing the client with specific step-by-step

instructions over the phone, successfully evading all the CIA agents. Guided by the motto

of “get the job done, keep it simple”, the heroes are precise and minimalistic when

dealing with their adversaries, deviating away from the flashy and brutish methods of the

“hard bodies”.

“The geek will inherit the world” is another major theme depicted in action films such as

the Brother Grimm and Independence day. In Independence Day, Captain Steven Hiller

(Will Smith) is helpless against the aliens despite his big guns and big muscles. It was

rather the computer virus his geeky sidekick created that truly weakened the aliens’

defenses, thereby allowing Steven to crush them with ease. Similarly, in the Brothers

Grimm, the heroes are two run of the mill brothers who are ordinary in every way other

than possessing remarkable knowledge of myths and a knack for setting traps. However,

it is exactly these skills that enable them to defeat their brawny but brainless foes in the

end.

With the end of the Reagan Doctrine and Cold War, Americans no longer feel that their

status as the most powerful nation is being contested. Therefore, being more secure with
16 | P a g e
their masculinity, a resourceful and sharp mind is deemed as being more practical and

thus valued over the flashy body. The actions films do not lose their appeal as every man

would gawk over the shiny toys and gadgets while the battle of wits are shot in

adrenaline-pumping sequences that are no less exciting than the carnage of gory fight

scenes. The choice of brains over brawns in these action films attest to the Americans’

new interpretation of masculinity - more 'manhood' is required to abide by thought-out

principles rather than blindly rushing into a problem and expect to conquer it with brute

force.

3.2.2 The Sensitive Male and alter-egos

The emotional action hero of this day and age is an improvement from his original

precedent formulated in the late 1980s such that the dichotomy between the hero and his

alter-ego becomes largely blurred. In Spiderman, some distinct characteristics still

separate geeky and weak Peter Parker from the confident and athletic Spiderman.

However, there is a strong sense of co-relation between hero and man and as the

franchise advances, Peter Parker manages to reconcile with his alter-ego and the two

identities almost seems to merge together. This is exemplified in the film when Peter’s

personal life becomes riddled with complications – losing his job, estranged from his love

interest; Spiderman begins to lose his powers. He reaches an identity crisis and becomes

nothing more than an average teenager, frustrated and confused with the immense

responsibility that comes with being a hero. It is only when he resolves the complications

in his life do his powers return and he comes back even stronger than before, fueled by a

enhanced understanding of his heroic purpose – with great power comes great

responsibility. From this, it could be seen that only with the reconciliation of the hero
17 | P a g e
and his alter-ego can the two different identities augment each other and transform the

hero into a better man.

Similarly, in Superman Returns, Superman is no longer the impenetrable symbol of

masculinity from the old franchise in the late 1970s but appears as more of a troubled

man who is torn between love and duty. The man of steel can survive a bullet to his eye

but when faced with rejection by the love of his life, he suffers from an emotional

breakdown. The sturdy exterior is in fact inhabited by a man plagued by a sense of lonely

melancholy, hoping to discover his place in a world of strangers. His eventual triumph is

not marked by the downfall of his archenemy, Lex Luthor but by Earth’s recognition of

Superman as their saviour and his own identification with Earth as his home planet.

These action heroes show that the ability to embrace your feelings is a masculine trait,

highlighting how that the hero is comfortable and secure with his manhood such that

displaying his gentler side would not undermine his masculinity. The struggles of the

hero is fundamentally the struggles of the common man, a man who has to juggle

between work and personal life, a man yearning to be loved and accepted by others.

Such heroes debunk the traditional notion that being in touch with one’s feelings is a sign

of weakness for men. In fact, these heroes become more masculine because they are

comfortable with their sexuality, showing that it takes more courage to reveal insecurities

than to hide them, more strength to relate to people than to dominate them.

18 | P a g e
3.2.3 The maverick

At first glance, the maverick appear more as a Hippie3 than a hero, their feral and wild

nature being an absolute deviation from that of the conventionally virtuous action hero,

often leaving them to be classified as rogues or even anti-heroes. Prominent figures

known for portraying this archetype include Johnny Depp (Pirates of the Caribbean) and

Will Smith (Bad Boys, Hancock, Men in Black). The mavericks are unconcerned with

how others judge them and often do not consider the consequences of their actions,

leading them to seem irresponsible and impulsive. However, it is ultimately this brash

nature combined with their wits that often enable them to elude capture or bring down

their enemies. Captain Jack Sparrow of Pirates of the Caribbean is an excellent example;

Jack seems ludicrous and tipsy on the surface, but under that goofy exterior actually lies a

master-tactician, who chooses his battles wisely and is able to react spontaneously albeit

recklessly to overcome any obstacle, often putting his own life on the line in order to get

out of sticky situations.

The mavericks also possess a certain child-like quality that appeal to the teenage market.

The thrill-seeking Hancock and Jack Sparrow often appear to be immature and perform

various antics to attract attention. Many other action hero archetypes exhibit the maverick

vein, such as Spiderman swinging through the city, playing with his powers like a kid

with a new toy. These adolescent characteristics, combined with their short attention

span, represent the passionate and enthusiastic teenager who seeks to be recognized by

3
An American subculture that bascially advocates rebellion against the social norms and enjoyment of
life. Refer to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippie to more information.
19 | P a g e
the world. Through the course of the film, the mavericks would eventually come to terms

with their adulthood, becoming more mature and responsible but at the same time still

retain their fun-loving and adventurous nature.

Such heroes actually reveal the hidden desire in the common American to break free of

the shackles of society and the assimilation of the Hippie subculture into the mainstream

interpretation of masculinity. Disgusted by their conformist attitude towards life, the

working-class Americans feel that they are sold out to the system and continually

question their purpose in life, a parallel to how Captain Jack sold his soul to Davy Jones

and his constant hunt for treasure. Analogous to Jack Sparrow’s final liberation from his

bondage in Pirates of the Caribbean: at World’s End, the treasure that Americans have

been persistently searching for is in fact freedom. Masculinity is thus defined as a man

rebelling against the social norms in order to live out his life in his desired manner,

finding a balance between work and fun by embracing his inner child while recognizing

his innate maturity.

3.3 Moral universes

3.3.1 The morally ambiguous

Many heroes of contemporary action cinema are no longer as politically correct as the

“hard body” archetype of the 1980s, with the lines between right and wrong becoming
20 | P a g e
more blurred and hazy. This is especially true in the case of the mavericks, whose

unpredictable personality and disregard of common ethics often putting their morality in

question. They usually do more harm than good and the consequences of their brash

actions are not only disastrous for themselves but also their comrades. For example, in

Rush Hour, James Carter’s erratic behavior spell trouble for himself and often implicates

his buddy, Lee, whereas in Hancock, the hero, in his attempts to subdue criminals,

rampages through the city, resulting in property destruction up to millions while his hot

temper and hostile attitude causes him to antagonize the very people he tries to protect.

Captain Jack takes it even a step further by crossing, threatening and manipulating his

own friends purposefully in order to realize his personal goals or as he justifies it, for “the

greater scheme of things”.

Nevertheless, these heroes are shown to house a heart of gold buried under all that layers

of perceived wickedness. James Carter and Captain Jack will always arrive in the nick of

time to save their friends even though they are often the ones to plunge them into hot

water in the first place. Hancock seems as though he could not be bothered with the

civilian but in real fact, he always had their interests in heart, willing to even sacrifice

himself to rescue them. Likewise, Captain Jack forgoes his chance at fulfilling his life-

long dream of immorality in order to save the dying Will Turner. Henceforth, it would

suffice to say that the sensitive side of these mavericks is only fleshed out when they are

faced with moral dilemmas, bringing out the good man within. Following this line of

argument, the Mavericks are essentially decent men whose fiercely wild and rapacious

nature becomes their undoing, as illustrated by an amusing dialogue from Pirates of the

21 | P a g e
Caribbean 2 in which Captain Jack is told that he is in fact a “good man” and he replies,

that “all evidence points to the contrary”.

The same could be said for American’s ambivalent relationship with rebel figures such as

Goths and Hippies because they threaten the status quo and challenge societal

institutions. Hence, they are often misconstrued as dangerously antisocial renegades and

marginalized by society. The mavericks glorify rebel masculinity, urging people to look

beyond the social stereotypes and seek to understand the rebels. Through this, they would

discover that the rebels are in fact civilized men who merely express themselves

differently and consequently accept the rebels as they are.

3.3.2 Self-constructed moral universe

Some heroes not only refuse to follow the conservative moral guidelines but choose to

create their own justifications for their actions. These heroes, such as Batman from

Batman begins or Leonard Shelby from Memento, create their own ethical principles

from which their vigilante heroics take roots from.

Batman, after witnessing the deaths of his own parents, becomes disillusioned with the

social justice system and believes that the crime-ridden Gotham needs an avant-garde

vigilante to rescue its citizens from the filth and vice of the city. He terrorizes his

criminals into submission and cleans Gotham’s streets without adhering to the law, even

illegally building an amoured tank to fight crime. However, he does create his own set of

rules so that he would not turn into the criminals that he abhors, vowing never to

endanger the life of any civilian. Although he disregards the laws, he sets his own beliefs

in stone and never breaks them no matter how great the temptation or dire the situation is.

22 | P a g e
For instance, in the Dark Knight, even when the maniacal Joker leaves himself totally

vulnerable and taunts Batman to run him over, he chooses to crash his own bike rather

than to kill the crazed criminal.

Leonard Shelby is a more extreme example as he suffers from retrograde amnesia and

places all his trust in his own distorted memory and self-created notes. He is ceaselessly

tormented by the pain of the fresh memory of his wife’s death and becomes obsessed

with exacting revenge on his wife’s murderer. However, unable to remember that he has

already hunted the murderer down, Leonard lives in a web of lies and deception he

weaves for himself in order to create a purpose to fuel his life, as expressed in his

soliloquy, “I have to believe that my actions still have meaning, even if I can't remember

them.”

Batman and Leonard are both traumatized by their former experiences and their only

salvation is to constantly motivate themselves with a self-constructed purpose for life so

they can heal from their psychological scars. The catalyst that pushes the heroes to pursue

their own sense of justice is their personal belief that they can do a better job than the

incompetent law enforcement system. While the jurisdiction system in Gotham city is

highly corrupted, Leonard is surrounded by people who want to manipulate him for their

own interests. Against the backdrop of an ugly world filled with uglier people, these

heroes are forced to trust only themselves and thus create their own set of moral

principles. Their psyche is an indication of a more general malaise and cynicism that

surrounds the Americans. Disillusioned with bureaucratic corruption, many Americans

feel that a true man must be firm with his principles, relying on his own courage and

capability to make a difference in the world.

23 | P a g e
3.3.3 Making the right choice

According to Joseph Campbell, the hero is what his choices make him4. In 300 and

Braveheart, the protagonists choose to die rather than to submit to their enemies as they

see self-sacrifice as the key to fulfilling their heroic destiny. In dying, their beliefs of

liberty and honour are immortalized and they live on forever in the hearts of their people,

consequently accomplishing their heroic purpose.

However, this traditionalistic perspective on heroism has been challenged by many

contemporary action films. In The Dark Knight, Batman does not even bother to present

himself as a hero, instead choosing to look at the bigger picture. He chooses to forsake

his honour for Gotham’s well-being, shouldering the blame for Harvey Dent’s crimes so

that Gotham’s dream for a brighter future will not be shattered. In the case of Spiderman

and Hancock, despite being denounced by the very people they protect, the heroes still

press on with their own brand of vigilante heroism. The hero’s choice to carry out his

duty in spite of his unpopularity usually stems from some sort of epiphany through the

course of the movie, causing the hero to realize that the world needs a savior, even if the

people do not want one. As The Dark Knight suggests, “You either die a hero or live long

enough to see yourself become the villain”, these heroes choose the latter and continue to

don the amour of justice as they believe that mankind need their help, whether they like

it or not. These heroes deconstruct traditional concept of self-sacrifice, redefining what it

means to be a selfless hero, perpetuating the idea that a true man should not only be

willing to die for his beliefs but also have the courage to live for them.

4
Refer to the hero’s Momomyth in The hero with a thousand faces
24 | P a g e
3.4 Sex appeal vs fatherly figure

3.4.1 “Hard bodies” as fathers

It is evident that “hard bodies” no longer enjoy the appeal to women that they once had.

With the defining characteristics of the “hard body” archetype being emulated by males

of Generation X5, “hard bodies” are too reminiscent of their fathers and thus lose their

5
Cohort of individuals born during the 1965s to 1980s, for more information, refers to Generation X: Tales
for an Accelerated Culture.
25 | P a g e
sexual appeal6 for Generation Y7. This idea of “hard bodies” transforming into fatherly

figures is further reinforced in films such as Kindergarten Cop, the Kid and more

recently, The Pacifier and The Game Plan, in which the once formidable symbol of

incomparable power transform into the nurturing family man.

Taking a closer look the action film, a common trend in various action hero archetypes

can be observed – the man behind the hero is usually a “hard body”. In Gangs of New

York, Amsterdam’s father, Priest Vallon, is dignified, valiant and respected among his

fellow man, the classic exemplar of a “hard body” hero. While brief, Vallon’s heroic

screen presence is powerful enough to leave an indelible mark in the minds of both the

audience and Amsterdam. Sixteen years after his father’s death, Amsterdam is shown to

be the living shadow of his father, his whole life revolving around his desire to become

the man his father was. Likewise, in Superman Returns, Superman is closely guided by

the wisdom of his deceased father, and a poignant scene in which Superman passes on

these teachings (You will make my strength your own. See my life through your own

eyes, as your life will be seen through mine. The son becomes the father, and the father

the son) to his son serves as a powerful closure to the father-son relationship. This idea of

the “hard bodies” as a fatherly figure is crystallized in Rocky Balboa in which Rocky

encounters his mid-life crisis, enters a tournament and for the first time ever, loses his

final fight. Nevertheless, he is celebrated as the victor when he passes his qualities of

6
According to Sigmund Freud, because of pressure from social taboos, people tend to see no erotic
interest not only from parents, and any persons resembling them.

7
Cohort of individuals born during 1980-1994 , for more information, refer to What Comes Next After
Generation X

26 | P a g e
determination and perseverance not only to his younger opponent but also to a whole new

generation of young American.

The “hard bodies” are shown to play the role of fathers and mentors in modern action

cinema, a model that the action heroes of today often emulate in their pursuit of self-

perfection. When the “hard bodies” impart their attributes and qualities to their disciples,

contemporary action heroes assume the power and strength of their predecessors,

allowing the ideas and virtues “hard bodies” have come to represent to continue living

through the action heroes of today. This draws a parallel to young Americans of

Generation Y aspiring to live up to their fathers’ expectations or even how the Bush and

Clinton administration looks up to Ronald Reagan8 as their role model.

3.4.2 The new heartthrobs

The raw barbaric power once represented by the muscular body is now manifested in the

sexy mavericks. Johnny Depp was named the most desirable man of 20039 after his

portrayal of the sexually and morally ambiguous Captain Jack Sparrow in Pirates of the

Caribbean, outshining his co-star Orlando Bloom, who played the conventional self-

righteous hero. Similarly, after his various portrayals of reckless and restless heroes, be it

the rebellious cob in bad boys or the daredevil pilot in Independence day, Will Smith has

also been transformed into a sex symbol. Women find the wild streak in these mavericks

irresistible, demonstrated in how Mary Jane was smitten with Spiderman after their

8
Reagan received the highest approval ratings in 40 years after his 2 terms in office ,placing him on par
with great presidents such as Abraham Lincoln and George Washington.

9
Poll from the People’s Magazine
27 | P a g e
romantic upside-down kiss in the rain and Elizabeth infatuation with Captain Jack’s

enigmatic and eccentric personality. The popularity of the mavericks indicates that

women today are not merely satisfied by a hot body, but also requires their men to be

endowed with charisma, wits and a multi-layered personality.

The emotional hero is also highly sought after by women as well although they do not

emanate testosterone like the “hard bodies” nor can they sweep women off their feet like

the mavericks. Nevertheless, they are to capture a women’s heart as their feminine nature

allows them to understand a woman’s feelings. In Superman returns, Lois Lane is

unmoved by the glamour of Superman’s heroics and only when Superman opens up and

engage Lois in a heartfelt conversation does she fall in love with him. For Spiderman,

while Mary Jane is impressed by the amazing Spiderman, she is truly enamored with

Peter Parker who genuinely understands and cares for her. The sensitive male shows that

devotion and dedication is instrumental to sustaining a long-term relationship and that

every man can capture a women’s heart as long as he is willing to commit himself to her.

The action hero, be it in the 1970s or 2000s, have always been the jewel of women’s

eyes. The qualities of the action hero such strength, charm, sophistication and devotion

are traits that men want and women want to see in their men. Women want to be swept

off their feet, brought on romantic escapades and their men to open up their emotional

faculties to them. Therefore, contemporary action cinema is still the avenue through

which a woman’s fantasies can be gratified, satisfying her hidden dreams and desires.

28 | P a g e
 Chapter 4 – Conclusion

The action hero is an ideal representation of masculinity, a model that enables us to

understand how societal perceptions of masculinity evolve from era to era. Several key

motifs include how the action hero in 1980s personifies the lofty American dream of the

working class, consolidating traditional American values while the contemporary action

hero reflects Generation Y’s varying perspectives on and definitions of masculinity. The

“hard body” hero is perceived as the epitome of the perfect man, exaggerated and

stretched beyond the reach of common Americans, thereby creating a gulf between the

audience and the hero. On the other hand, the contemporary hero is shown to possess

numerous character flaws, allowing the audience to identify with the moral dilemmas and

difficulties the hero is faced with. This is mainly due to political changes in both America

and the global arena since the late 1970s. While the pressure Cold War united Americans
29 | P a g e
to become the powerful and aggressive “hard body” to counter the external threat of

communism, the more stable political scene after the 1990s allowed the action hero to be

deconstructed and reshaped for more diverse interpretations of masculinity.

Action heroes of today are no longer depicted as herculean and utopian figures but the

embodiment of the struggles and desires of the common man, perpetuating the belief that

anyone can rise to the occasion and be a hero. The action hero may have toned down in

physique but remains sexy by stepping up in his emotional department while openly

exhibiting his magnetic personality through his actions. The masculinity of these new

action heroes is not accentuated through their body but rather their abilities, emotion and

beliefs. Looking at their “hard bodies” counterparts as idyllic role models, these

imperfect heroes strive to bring out the best in themselves. By augmenting their own

skills and character with the qualities of perseverance and valor from the “hard bodies”,

contemporary action heroes are shown to be just as unstoppable and powerful as the

“hard bodies” when they are driven to do so. Their journey of self-discovery and

masculine development allows them to reveal the man they can be, rather than the man

they already are.

Recently, with action films such as Spiderman, The Dark Knight and Ironman breaking

box-office records across the globe, it is evident that action hero is experiencing a

paradigm shift towards superheroes. After the traumatic experience of 9/11 and faced

with the increasing threat of terrorism, Americans once again look towards the larger-

than-life heroes to protect them. Although these formidable heroes are, without doubt,

superhuman, the ordinary predicaments they struggle with, ranging from teenage angst to

mid-life crisis, humanize them, setting them apart from the “hard bodies”. The
30 | P a g e
construction of a generic formula for superheroes has already been set in motion and it is

highly likely that the superhero archetype will soon dominate action cinema, possibly

even surpassing the influence the “hard bodies” had enjoyed in their prime.

Bibliography
Print

Abele, E. (2002). “Assuming a true identity: re-/de- constructing Hollywood Heroes”,

Journal of American & Comparative Cultures, Volume 25, pp 447 – 452

Beynon, J. (2002). Masculinities and Culture. Buckingham, Philadelphia: Open

University Press.

Campbell, J (1940). The Hero with a thousand faces. Los Angeles, Calif : New York,
N.Y.

Jeffords, S (1994). Hard Bodies: Hollywood Masculinity in the Reagan Era. New

Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University

Seger, L (1990). Creating unforgettable characters. New York : Henry Holt

Savran, D (1998), Taking It Like a Man: White Masculinity, Masochism, and

Contemporary American Culture, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Tomasulo, F. P. (1995). “Review of Hard Bodies”: Hollywood Masculinity in the Reagan

Era by Susan Jeffords Film Quarterly, Vol. 49, No. 1, pp. 47-49

31 | P a g e
Tasker, Y (1993). Spectacular Bodies: Gender, Genre and the Action Cinema London,
Routledge

Wills,G (2000). Reagan’s America, New York: Penguin.

32 | P a g e