Chapter 6

Dams: Ecological Impacts and Management

Stefan Schmutz and Otto Moog

6.1 Introduction

Dam construction goes back in human history for more than 5000 years (e.g., Sadd
el-Kafara dam in Egypt for flood protection), but most of the world’s existing dams
have been built after the Second World War as consequence or basis of economic
development. Today, there are about 6000 existing or planned large hydropower dams
(>15 m height) worldwide (Zarfl et al. 2014) and an uncountable number of small
dams. For example, with more than 5000 mostly small hydropower plants, Austria is
one of the countries with the highest density of hydropower dams (about 6 dams per
100 km2, Wagner et al. 2015). Downstream flows are mainly altered by large dams,
e.g., there are 654 reservoirs with storage capacities
0.5 km3 (Lehner and Döll 2004).
Damming rivers currently stores the equivalent of 15% of global annual river runoff
(Likens 2010). As a result, 48% of rivers (expressed as river volume) globally are
moderately to severely impacted by either flow regulation, fragmentation, or both.
Besides flow, sediment transport is severely altered by dams. A total of approx-
imately 25–30% of pre-disturbance sediment flux is sequestered by modern
impoundments (Fig. 6.1).
Impacts might double should all planned dams be constructed by 2030 (Grill et al.
2015). This is especially so in areas with expanding economies and extensive
unexploited river reaches, such as China, which currently is building 130 major
dams in its Southwest (Lewis 2013) and has constructed more than half the new
dams built since 1950 worldwide (Wang and Chen 2010).
Unfortunately, there is no generally accepted descriptive nomenclature of dams.
The term “dam” is often applied to both the physical structure retaining the water and

S. Schmutz (*) · O. Moog

Institute of Hydrobiology and Aquatic Ecosystem Management, University of Natural
Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
e-mail: stefan.schmutz@boku.ac.at; otto.moog@boku.ac.at

© The Author(s) 2018 111

S. Schmutz, J. Sendzimir (eds.), Riverine Ecosystem Management, Aquatic Ecology
Series 8, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73250-3_6
 112

Fig. 6.1 Sediment trapping by large dams. GWSP Digital Water Atlas (Available online at http://atlas.gwsp.org)
S. Schmutz and O. Moog
6 Dams: Ecological Impacts and Management 113

the water so retained. For the purposes of this chapter, dam will be used solely to
describe the physical structure (e.g., weir), and the term “reservoir” will be used to
denote the artificially created water body. This leads to the following definition: “A
dam is a barrier to obstruct the flow of water and to create a reservoir.” Reservoirs are
also called “impoundments.” Reservoirs are built for specific community needs:
• Drinking, industrial, and cooling water supply
• Hydropower generation
• Agricultural irrigation
• River regulation and flood control
• Navigation
• Recreation and fisheries
Dams are among the most damaging human activities in river basins, deeply
modifying the physiography of watersheds. Reservoirs may look very much like
natural lakes; however, the operating regime determined by the purpose for which
the reservoirs were created may significantly alter their physicochemical character
and biological responses. The peculiar form of a reservoir, its location, and mode of
operation may cause considerable, actual variation of the basic limnological behav-
ior. Reservoirs undergo great changes in water quality during the early stages of their
formation until a new ecological balance becomes established (Straskraba et al.
1993). Reservoirs follow a succession of (1) physicochemical alteration, (2) modifi-
cation in the structure and dynamics of primary producers, and (3) changes in the
community of consumers, especially invertebrates and fish (Petts 1985). After that,
reservoirs may pass over into a kind of stability, but occurrence of floods, dam
operation, or other impacts may create new disturbances to the system.
Reservoirs not only affect the inundated river sections but also block upstream fish
migration (see Chap. 9) and downstream flow and sediment transport. The magnitude
of impact is strongly correlated with the location of the dam, size of reservoir (height
of dam, volume of reservoir), and water residence time. The average length of time
water remains within the boundaries of an aquatic system is one of the key parameters
controlling the system’s biogeochemical behavior. This time scale, which is generally
referred to as the water residence time, is fundamental for multiple and complex
processes in reservoirs (Rueda et al. 2006). Furthermore, the dam operation mode
determines the seasonal variation of stored water, water level fluctuations, sediment
capture and release, as well as daily and seasonal downstream flow patterns.
The main impacts associated with reservoirs are as follows:
• Interruption of river continuity (longitudinal and lateral, fish migration, sediment
and nutrient transport)
• Siltation of river bed and clogging of interstitial
• Homogenization of habitats
• Downstream river bed incision
• Alteration of river/groundwater exchange
• Downstream flow and water quality alteration
114 S. Schmutz and O. Moog

6.2 Transforming Rivers to Reservoirs

River damming is a process so drastic that it results in the creation of a completely new
ecosystem (Baxter 1977). Therefore, the occurrence of environmental impacts is
inherent with any impoundment due to fundamental change of the hydrology and
morphology of the river. Flow represents the main force behind freshwater ecosystems,
and it is responsible for geohydrological structure, matter and energy fluxes, system
productivity, and distribution and function of biota (Poff et al. 1997). As a consequence,
the alteration of natural flow regimes and morphodynamic patterns has far-reaching
impacts (see Chaps. 3 and 4), including production, biodiversity, and changes in
functions and services provided by aquatic ecosystems (Nilsson et al. 2005).
Reservoirs differ from natural lakes with respect to hydrological, limnological, and
ecological dynamics. Depending on the size and shape of the reservoir, a longitudinal
hydrological gradient may develop from the dam (lentic or lacustrine zone) to upstream
reaches (riverine zone), showing intermediate characteristics in middle stretches (tran-
sition zone, with lentic and lotic features) (Kimmel and Groeger 1984). While fluvial
characteristics are maintained to some extent in small reservoirs, e.g., run-of-the-river
hydropower plants, lentic conditions prevail in large storage reservoirs (Fig. 6.2).
Coarse sediments settle within the riverine section of the reservoir, while fine
sediments (sand, silt) and particulate organic matter (POM) are deposited in the
lacustrine zone (Fig. 6.2, Table 6.1). Soon after the reservoir is filled, patterns of
thermal/chemical stratification intensify progressively in the water column, and
eutrophication may occur due to upstream matter input, decay, and nutrient release
from the flooded organic matter (vegetation, litter, and soil) or from pollution.
Reservoirs are much more susceptible to eutrophication that rivers due to the higher
self-purification capacity of running waters. Consequently, water quality may dete-
riorate in reservoirs (e.g., thermal stress, low dissolved oxygen, acidification),
especially close to the bottom (Agostinho et al. 2008). Depending on a reservoir’s
characteristics, anoxic water or sediment layers may evolve as a consequence of
stratification, deposition, and decomposition of organic material. Stratification (ther-
mocline, light conditions, etc.) changes production (autotrophic, heterotrophic) and
the entire food chain (Fig. 6.2).
Dams are often associated with lateral dams or levees, disconnecting the reservoir
hydrologically from the floodplains. This results in limited or abandoned inundation
and reduced interchange with the groundwater and lowers chances of recolonization,
both lateral and longitudinal. As a result, the new ecosystem is colonized by those
species that inhabited the original river and are able to adapt to the new conditions
(Agostinho et al. 2008). Nonmigratory, eurytopic species dominate the lacustrine
zone of reservoirs because they usually have less complex requirements with regard
to life-cycle dynamics. Migratory and rheophilic species experience declines in the
reservoir due to the lentic environment, spatial fragmentation imposed by the dam,
and the loss of critical habitats (e.g., spawning habitats in free-flowing river
stretches). Consequently, lentic fish replace lotic species and dominate the reservoir
fish communities (Zhong and Power 1996). In terms of richness, fish species tend to
remain in environments that preserve the original fluvial characteristics or in those
6 Dams: Ecological Impacts and Management 115

Small Dimension L a rg e

width

Zones
In-
flow Riverine
Transition

Dam
Lacustrine

DMM
DOM
PMM
POM
BA,FU
In-
flow

Dam
Predominant
characteristic or Riverine Lacustrine
process
Dime n sio n n a rro w a n d sh a llo w wid e a n d d e e p
Flo w fa st slo w
S e d ime n t co a rse fin e
V e rtica l stra tif ica tio n no ye s
milky (glacial rivers)
Turbidity and light clear (temperate rivers) clearing effect and higher availability of light
turbid (tropical rivers)
high concentration,
Nutrient fluxes low concentration, maintained by inner cycling
maintained by river transport
Source of organic
a llo ch to n o u s a u to ch to n ou s
matter
Oxygen oxigenated facultative anoxic deep layer
P la n kto n n o n e -fe w fe w-a b u n d a nt
Rh e o p h ilic f ish abundant none
In d iff e re n t fish fe w fe w
Mig ra to ry fish abundant n o n e -fe w
low (headwaters)
Fish diversity low-medium
high (lowland rivers)

Fig. 6.2 Schematic representation of longitudinal reservoir zones and associated key processes, (a)
plan view and (b) longitudinal profile; DMM dissolved mineral matter, DOM dissolved organic
matter, PMM particulate mineral matter, POM particulate organic matter, BA bacteria, FU fungi
(adapted after Herzig 1984; Kimmel and Groeger 1984)
116 S. Schmutz and O. Moog

Table 6.1 Sedimentation of river sediments as a function of flow velocity and associated domi-
nating benthic invertebrate community (modified after Jungwirth et al. 2006)
Flow velocity Sedimentation Benthic invertebrate community
<20 cm s1 Sedimentation of organic matter and silt Oligochaeta (Tubifex), Pisidia,
Diptera (Chironomidae)
25–50 cm s1 Sedimentation of sand Due to instability less favorable for
benthic invertebrates
60–90 cm s1 Movement of fine gravel and sand, Increased diversity of (rheophilic)
sedimentation of medium-sized gravel benthic invertebrates
120–170 cm s1 Sedimentation of coarse gravel High diversity of (rheophilic and
movement of medium-sized gravel rheobiont) benthic invertebrates
>170 cm s1 Movement of coarse gravel Rheophilic organisms

with relatively high habitat heterogeneity, i.e., tributaries and lotic stretches
upstream, and it is common to find a gradient of decreasing fish diversity toward
dams. If coldwater streams are dammed, the warmer water in reservoirs might favor
species adapter to warmer temperatures, resulting in a so-called potamalization
effect, i.e., a shift from rhithral to potamal communities (Jungwirth et al. 2003).
Fine sediment deposition in the reservoir leads to clogging of the river bottom (see
Chap. 8). This affects aquatic communities of the hyporheic interstitial (Ward et al.
1998), resulting in depauperated fauna dominated by few species (e.g., chironomids,
Table 6.1). As a consequence, the ecological status of reservoirs, in particular within
the lacustrine section, is often classified as poor or bad (sensu EU Water Framework
Directive, Ofenböck et al. 2011, Fig. 6.3).
While the energy and matter fluxes in the riverine section are based on allochthonous
matter input, the energy fluxes of the lacustrine section are also triggered by photosyn-
thesis and inner cycling. Allochthonous organic matter (DOM, dissolved organic matter;
POM, particulate organic) is directly taken up by consumers or indirectly via detritus
decomposed by bacteria and fungi. Besides water residence time, mineral components
(DMM, dissolved mineral matter) and light conditions (PMM, particulate mineral
matter; POM) regulate algal growth and overall productivity in the lacustrine section
(see Fig. 6.2 and Herzig 1984).
In all three zones of the reservoir, biodiversity is highest in the littoral environment
as a result of the greater availability and heterogeneity of feeding resources, shelter, and
habitats (Agostinho et al. 2008). However, the littoral may be exposed to water level
fluctuations, causing frequent stress events to fauna and flora. High magnitude and
frequency of water level fluctuations creates “dead zones” along the reservoir shores.

Whenever rivers are turned into reservoirs, the former fluvial habitat is widely
lost. The new lentic ecosystem resembles lake-type systems, but, depending
on type and dam operation, reservoirs are disturbed by artificial water level
fluctuations, drawdowns, and floods. Consequently, dammed rivers are hybrid
systems that lose their lotic but gain only partly lacustrine functions.
6 Dams: Ecological Impacts and Management 117

100
R² = 0.726
90
% fine sediments 80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Multi-metric index

Fig. 6.3 Response of macroinvertebrate communities to increased proportion of fine sediments

(akal/psammal/pelal) in three impounded streams (Austria) expressed as multimetric index
(1 ¼ high ecological status, 0 ¼ bad ecological status; adapted from Ofenböck et al. 2011)

Sediment trapping by reservoirs is well recognized, with the extent to which

sediments are trapped dependent on the morphology of the impoundment, the
characteristics (grain size) of the inflowing sediments, the hydrodynamics within
the impoundment, and the operating regime of the dam. Smaller impoundments have
lower rates as compared to the larger reservoirs. Sediment trapping is cumulative,
but as coarser material is trapped in upstream impoundments, the actual trapping
rates in downstream impoundments may decline, due to the finer nature of the
influent sediment load. This preferential trapping can also lead to nutrients being
trapped in different proportions as compared to sediments, due to nutrients’ affinity
for the finer-grained sediments (Koehnken 2014).
As an example, the dam cascade at the Lancang River (upper Mekong) has the
potential to trap most of the sediments (Kummu and Varis 2007, Fig. 6.4). Recent
monitoring results suggest that suspended sediment loads in the lower Mekong basin
(downstream of China) are now in the range of 44% compared with the historic
values (~70 Mt/year compared with ~160 Mt/year; Koehnken 2014).

6.3 Downstream Effects

Although investigated less, downstream impacts are equally or even more damaging
to aquatic fauna, given that impoundments affect primarily water flow dynamics,
i.e., the main force working in fluvial ecosystems. Impoundments redistribute river
discharge in space and time, affecting several hydrological attributes, e.g., flood
period, intensity, amplitude, duration, frequency, and, consequently, the structure,
dynamics, and functioning of ecosystems located downstream (see Chap. 4). In
118 S. Schmutz and O. Moog

Fig. 6.4 Average theoretical sediment trapping efficiency of reservoirs of the Lancang (Upper
Mekong) Cascade in China (Kummu and Varis 2007) (reproduced from Geomorphology, 85/3–4,
2007, Matti Kummu, Olli Varis, Sediment-related impacts due to upstream reservoir trapping, the
lower Mekong river, pp. 275–293, with permission from Elsevier. © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights
reserved)

addition to flow regulation, other important alterations inevitably follow dam con-
struction, such as blockage of migration routes for some fish species and the
retention of sediments and nutrients upstream—a process that decreases turbidity
as well as nutrient load and suspended material. This last phenomenon imposes
limitations on biological productivity in areas downstream, reducing the fertility of
wetlands, and affecting their carrying capacity. The loss of fertilizing services of the
flood pulse has been documented in several systems worldwide (WCD 2000).
In case of downstream floodplains, negative effects of flow regulation are still
more pronounced. The structure and functioning of such ecosystems rely on the
alternation of extreme events, e.g., flood and drought (Junk et al. 1989), a dynamic
pulsing that disappears with impoundment, because dams usually decrease maxi-
mum discharges (absence of seasonal flood pulses) and stabilize or increase mini-
mum discharges. Consequently, hydrological connectivity among environments is
considerably modified in space and time. The redistribution of the flooding regime
has several direct and indirect effects on fish populations. The decrease in connec-
tivity between the river and lateral floodplain affects riparian communities and
reshapes other environments and interface zones that provide important habitats
for fish, especially nurseries. In the absence of floods, even if adults successfully
reproduce in tributaries, eggs, larvae, and young fish drifting downstream have
limited access to lateral habitats, and population recruitment is negatively affected
(Agostinho et al. 2008).
6 Dams: Ecological Impacts and Management 119

Fig. 6.5 Alteration of 30 000

discharge as a result of
upstream damming in the 25 000
Volga River (adapted from 1900-1958
Górski et al. 2012)

Discharge [m3s-1]
20 000

15 000

10 000

1961-1984
5 000

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Month

Fig. 6.6 Post-damming 800

commercial fisheries catch
decline in the Volga River
Fisheries catch [tons]

(adapted from Górski et al. 600

2012)

400 floodplains

200

main river
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year

In 1960, the Volgograd hydropower dam, the last dam of the Volga–Kama
cascade, was completed. After damming, annual maximum peak discharges have
decreased, minimum discharges increased, but average discharges remained similar
to pre-damming conditions (Fig. 6.5). Moreover, because of riverbed incision of
over 1.5 m, a higher discharge is needed to reach bank-full level and to inundate
floodplains, which is the largest floodplain in Europe (length 300 km, width 20 km).
Commercial fish catches severely decreased after damming, both in the main channel
and in the floodplain lakes (Fig. 6.6).
If the continuity of sediment transport is interrupted by dams or removal of
sediment from the channel by gravel mining, the flow may become sediment starved
(hungry water) and prone to erode the channel bed and banks, producing channel
incision (downcutting), coarsening of bed material, and loss of habitat for litophilic
species (Kondolf 1997; Fig. 6.7). Riverbed incision reduces the connectivity to
floodplain habitats. Together with reduced flood flows (e.g., due to storage) the
dimension and quality of floodplain habitats is reduced, affecting the productivity of
the entire river-floodplain system. Also, further downstream, lack of sediment may
cause habitat degradation due to erosion of river deltas or coastal shores.
120 S. Schmutz and O. Moog

Water level (m.a.sl.)

Year

Fig. 6.7 Riverbed incision of the Danube River downstream of the Austrian hydropower cascade
in the years 1950–2003 expressed as low water level (m.a.sl. meter above sea level) at river
1894.7 km (gauging station Wildungsmauer, Reckendorfer et al. 2005) (© Reckendorfer,
W. et al. 2005. The Integrated River Engineering Project for the free-flowing Danube in the
Austrian Alluvial Zone National Park: contradictory goals and mutual solutions Archiv für
Hydrobiologie, Supplementband “Large Rivers”, 155: 613–630, www.schweizerbart.de/series/
archiv_Suppl, reproduced with permission from Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung)

6.4 Other Downstream Impacts

Downstream segments are also subjected to other impacts related to dam operation
and water quality of released water. The operation of hydroelectric impoundments
tends to follow demands for electricity, creating variable flow regimes. Such irreg-
ular discharges called hydropeaking intensify erosive processes downstream and can
caused drift and stranding of fish and macroinvertebrates (see Chap. 5).
Downstream release of poor-quality water by turbines and spillways also creates
unfavorable conditions, e.g., anoxic hypolimnic water and altered water tempera-
tures. For example, below the Xinanjiang and Danjiangkou dams, spawning of fish
was delayed 20–60 days by lower water temperatures (Zhong and Power 1996).
Spillflow at high dams may cause oversaturation of oxygen creating the so-called gas
bubble disease in fish.

6.5 Mitigation Measures

Reservoirs impose system shifts on running waters, making restoration in the sense
of reestablishing pre-damming conditions impossible. Hence, any attempt to
improve the ecological condition can be regarded as a mitigation effort to reduce
but not to remove the impacts. This is definitely true for the reservoir itself where
mitigation measures have to take into account the new boundary conditions of the
lacustrine environment. Therefore, mitigation measures mainly focus on the habitat
6 Dams: Ecological Impacts and Management 121

Fig. 6.8 Mitigation measures proposed for Danube reservoirs for improving connectivity and habitat
(Jungwirth et al. 2005) (© Jungwirth, M et al. (2005). Leitbild-specific measures for the rehabilitation
of the heavily modified Austrian Danube River. Archiv für Hydrobiologie, Supplementband “Large
Rivers”, 155: 17–36, www.schweizerbart.de/series/archiv_Suppl, reproduced with permission from
Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung)

improvements of the riverine section of reservoirs (head section) and on river

sections located up- and downstream of the reservoir (Fig. 6.8). Focus is given to
the reestablishment of longitudinal continuity by enabling fish migration through
fish passes (see Chap. 9). Downstream mitigation measures involve environmental
flow regulations (see Chaps. 4 and 5) and sediment transport by targeted sediment
management (see Chap. 8).

6.5.1 Reestablishing Longitudinal Continuity

A common restoration measure for dams is the implementation of fish passes to

enable upstream fish passage (for more details on fish passage, see Chap. 9). While
fish passes have proven to be effective to pass fish across dams when constructed
according to the requirements of migrating species, their role in effectively
maintaining populations in dam cascades is still unclear. Even highly efficient fish
passes may not be able to pass enough fish upstream when fish have to negotiate
multiple dams.
Some studies suggest that ladders are problematic in fish conservation as they
lead fish into ecological traps (Pelicice and Agostinho 2008; Pelicice et al. 2015).
Migratory fishes travel long distances during the reproductive season in search of
habitats suitable for spawning and the development of young. The movement is
122 S. Schmutz and O. Moog

mostly upstream and, in case of dams, often supported by fish passes. After
spawning adults migrate back to their downstream habitats in main rivers. Eggs
and/or larvae are then carried downstream by currents but are not further propagated
downstream of reservoirs. This leads to lack of recruitment for riverine fish
populations downstream of the dams.
Reservoirs themselves often provide unsuitable habitats for juvenile fish and
finally represent ecological traps. Four conditions are required to characterize a
fish passage/reservoir system as an ecological trap (Pelicice and Agostinho 2008):
(1) attractive forces leading fish to ascend the passage; (2) unidirectional migratory
movements (upstream); (3) the environment above the passage has poor conditions
for fish recruitment, e.g., the absence of spawning grounds and nursery areas; and
(4) the environment below the passage has a proper structure for recruitment. When
these conditions exist, individuals move to poor-quality habitats, fitness is reduced,
and populations are threatened. Based on current and proposed river regulation
scenarios, it is concluded that conservation of migratory fish will be much more
complicated than previously believed (Pelicice et al. 2015).

6.5.2 Sediment Management

The overarching goal of sediment management should be to make dams transparent

to sediment transport as much as possible. Management options include sediment
flushing, sediment bypass, and sediment augmentation downstream of reservoirs
(Kondolf et al. 2014). Some general guidance relating the size, water inflows and
sediment inflows, and applicable mitigation measures was developed by Basson and
Rooseboom (1997), who identified a relationship between the capacity of reservoirs
and the mean annual water and sediment inflows and appropriate mitigation mea-
sures (Fig. 6.9):
Sediment sluicing: The aim of sediment sluicing is to maintain sediment in
suspension and move it through the impoundment prior to deposition. Sediment
sluicing typically involves a reduction in the water level in the impoundment by
opening gates when sediment concentrations are elevated. Turbidity venting is
similar to sediment sluicing but uses low level gates or deep sluices to enable
sediment laden water to “flow” along the bottom of the reservoir to the toe of
the dam.
For sediment flushing, reservoir levels are reduced to pre-impoundment levels,
enabling the “river” to erode deposited sediments. At least twice the mean annual
flow is required.
Bypass structures, whether they are tunnels, constructed canals, or existing river
channels, can be used to pass high sediment-bearing water and bedload around an
impoundment, thus decreasing the trapping of sediment. An advantage is that the
seasonality of sediment delivery to the downstream river is maintained (e.g., Lake
Miwa, Japan).
6 Dams: Ecological Impacts and Management 123

Fig. 6.9 Reservoir management options depending on storage capacity, mean annual runoff, and
mean annual sediment load (based on Basson and Rooseboom 1997 and adapted from Kimbrel et al.
2014). Kw is the ratio between reservoir storage capacity and mean annual runoff, and a ratio of >1
means that the reservoir can store more than the mean annual runoff. Kt is the ratio between
reservoir storage and mean annual sediment yield. A ratio of 100 means that the mean annual
sediment yield can be stored over 100 years until the reservoir is filled (without flushing)

Reintroduction of dredged material: Approaches for reintroducing excavated or

recovered material back into the downstream channel are implemented at Danube
River downstream of Vienna, Austria, and Rhine River at Iffezheim, Germany.
Most reservoirs have a capacity mean annual flow ratio of between 0.2 and 3 and
a life span of 50–2000 years when considering reservoir sedimentation. When the
capacity mean annual flow ratio is less than 0.03, sediment sluicing or flushing
should be carried out during floods and through large bottom outlets, preferably with
free outflow conditions. Flushing is a sustainable operation and a long-term equilib-
rium storage capacity can be reached. Seasonal flushing for ca. 2 months per year
could be used in regions where the hydrology is less variable with capacity mean
annual flow ratio up to 0.2. When capacity mean annual flow ratios are, however,
larger than 0.2, not enough excess water is available for flushing, and the typical
operational model is storage operation. Density current venting can be practiced at
these reservoirs as well as dredging to recover lost storage capacity (Basson 2004).
Reservoir flushing is an important mitigation measure for sediment remobilization
and, thus, the restoration of natural sediment dynamics, including the formation of type-
specific habitats. Nevertheless, reservoir flushing is also associated with immediate
negative effects on physicochemical conditions, e.g., turbidity, oxygen deficiency, and
hydropeaking, impacting fish directly, e.g., increased drift, gill, and skin injuries, stress,
and fish kills, and indirectly, e.g., reduced food supply caused by increased drift and
124 S. Schmutz and O. Moog

loss of benthic invertebrates, reduced growth, and lost habitats due to sedimentation
(Henley et al. 2000; Crosa et al. 2009; Kemp et al. 2011; Jones et al. 2012).
Aquatic organisms have evolved with the dynamics of natural levels of
total suspended solids (TSS). The natural level of TSS highly depends on the
geo-hydromorphological conditions in the catchment and can be highly variable.
The highest natural TSS peaks occur during floods and may affect fish. However,
healthy ecosystems are usually able to compensate these effects in the long run.
Reservoir flushing can cause TSS concentrations much higher than the natural
background concentration and can result, depending on concentration level and
duration, in stress or complete elimination of the fish stock.
Newcombe and Jensen (1996) classified the effects of reservoir flushing as (1) lethal
effect (high-to-low mortality, high-to-medium habitat degradation), (2) lethal and para-
lethal effects (high predatory pressure, prolonged hatching of larvae), (3) sublethal
effects (reduction of growth, fitness and feeding, disturbed homing effect, physiologic
stress, elevated breath frequency), and (4) behavioral effects (emigration, active/passive
drift). While behavioral effects are mainly reversible and limited to the duration of
exposure, physiologic changes have a more chronic character.
The intensity of impacts depends mainly on the concentration and duration of
exposure, but also the size and texture of particles, water temperature, and chemical
and physical conditions. Furthermore, toxic substances, acclimatization, and other
stressors and their interaction are considered as relevant. For example, the release
and decay of organic matter and resulting oxygen depletion may lead to suffocation
of fish and benthic invertebrates. The “ranked effects model” is a tool for quantifying
negative effects of suspended solids on fish (Newcombe and Jensen 1996). On the
basis of duration (h) and concentration (mg/l) of exposure, a so-called severity of ill
index (SEV) is calculated whereby several models are used depending on the species
and age class. The resulting index ranges from 0 (no changes in behavior) to
14 (80–100% mortality).

6.5.3 Habitat Improvements in Reservoirs

Mitigation measures generally comprise “instream structures” such as gravel bars,

islands, etc., “lateral widenings” of the cross profiles in riverine sections of impound-
ments, creating artificial habitats in lacustrine section, and “bypass systems” within
the alluvial floodplains (Fig. 6.8, Jungwirth et al. 2005).
Due to raised water tables and sedimentation in the impoundments, the drastic
loss of originally typical instream structures (gravel bars and islands) strongly affects
reproduction and young-of-the-year habitats of the rheophilic fish community. Since
the head sections of reservoirs still offer relatively high hydromorphological dynam-
ics, river-type-specific rehabilitation can most likely be achieved here. The best way
to recreate near-natural gravel bars and islands is to induce natural formation by
lateral widenings of the cross profiles. Further rehabilitation measures comprise
removing the embankments, reconnecting the former floodplains including aban-
doned arms, or forming new side arms (Fig. 6.8).
6 Dams: Ecological Impacts and Management 125

Fig. 6.10 Example of a bypass system, a near-natural channel to circumvent the impoundment,
implemented at hydropower station Ottensheim-Wilhering, Danube, Austria (15 km long, discharge
2.5–20 m3/s, adapted after http://www.life-netzwerk-donau.at, accessed 1.10.2016)

The lacustrine sections of reservoir sections are ecologically heavily degraded

due to the loss of fluvial dynamics and intensive sedimentation of fine substrate.
Establishing new gravel habitats would soon fail because of strong aggradation with
fine sediments during high flow periods. Nevertheless, the construction of artificial,
stabilized silt or sand islands at hydraulically appropriate zones along the embank-
ments can provide valuable habitats for various species (Fig. 6.8, for more details for
habitat improvements in reservoirs, see Chap. 24).
Bypass systems are designed to connect adjoining impoundments within alluvial
floodplains and represent innovative solutions for enhancing longitudinal and lateral
connectivity of the fragmented environment as well as for substituting lost fluvial
habitat. Depending on the local situation and the ecological objectives, the bypass
systems can be established by connecting existing floodplain water bodies or by
constructing new artificial channels. The flow of the bypass system should mimic
pre-damming flow hydrographs to enable dynamic hydromorphological processes
(Fig. 6.10).

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