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oth the Earth’s fresh water and salt water are home to thousands of species
B of plants and animals. Some water environments are dramatically more
productive than others. That means they have a larger total number or amount
of life forms compared with other water environments. For example, scientists
can compare the plant productivity of various water environments by measuring
how many grams of plant material a square metre of each environment produces
in a year. The table below shows the great difference in productivity between
warm, shallow water environments and cold, deep water environments.

Water Average Yearly Plant Productivity

Environment (g/m2)

Coral reef 2500

Estuary 1800
Lake 500
Continental shelf 360
Open ocean 125

Scientists also study the diversity of plants and animals to determine the
health of water environments such as streams and oceans. The disappearance of
even a small, seemingly insignificant species could indicate a change in the
water’s quantity or quality. That, in turn, could be a sign of more changes and
disappearances to come.
In this chapter, you will learn about the great variety of organisms that
inhabit Earth’s aquatic environments. You will also learn about how human
action can damage those environments and even complete water systems.

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FOLDABLES TM
Reading & Study
Skills

Make the following Foldable to take notes on

what you will learn in Chapter 12.

What You Will Learn STEP 1 Fold two sheets of

notebook paper in half
along the short axis.
In this chapter, you will
• identify various factors that affect STEP 2 Mark both folds 2.5 cm
productivity and species distribution in from the outer edges.
freshwater and saltwater environments (On notebook paper, the
• describe the ways in which human margins are marked 2.5
activities can alter the water cycle cm from the outer edges.)
• explain how water quality problems in STEP 3 On one of the folded
marine environments can affect all sheets, cut from the top
living things and bottom edge to the
marked spot on both sides.
STEP 4 On the second folded
Why It Is Important sheet, start at one of
the marked spots and
Knowing how human activities can affect the cut the fold between
quantity and quality of Earth’s water systems the marks.
will help you develop a better awareness of the
STEP 5 Roll the first sheet of
importance of protecting global water
paper into a long tube,
resources.
place it through the
large opening cut in
Skills You Will Use the second sheet, and open the tube so
that the folds of the first and second
sheet align.
In this chapter, you will
• evaluate the effect of human activities STEP 6 Fold the connected sheets in half along
on water quality and quantity the original fold line to form an 8 page
• measure the pH of water from different book. Give your book the title “Changes
in Water Quality and Quantity Can Affect
sources
Living Things.” Title every second page
• predict the effects of major changes in
of your book with
the oceans Changes in
a bullet point from Water Quality
• classify different types and sources of the “What You and Quantity
water pollution can Affect
Will Learn” list Living Things.
on this page.
Read and Write As you read this chapter,
fill your journal with notes and diagrams on the
appropriate page.

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12.1 Freshwater Environments

Scientists classify different freshwater environments by how the water moves. Rivers
and streams have fast-moving water. The water in lakes and ponds tends to move very
slowly. Wetlands and marshes are areas where shallow water remains unmoving for
much of the year. All of these environments support a wide variety of plant and
animal forms.

Key Terms
estuary

Figure 12.1 Salmon live their lives in oceans, but lay their eggs in the freshwater streams
where they were born.

Freshwater environments range from deep, glacier-fed lakes and fast-

moving streams to shallow, weedy bogs. Some animals spend their
entire life in the same body of fresh water. Others need both
freshwater and saltwater environments to survive. Salmon, for
Did You Know? example, spend most of their life swimming in the open ocean, but
What do you do if you are a fish return to freshwater rivers to spawn (Figure 12.1).
and the pond that is your home Plants and animals are found in all of these freshwater
dries up? You walk to a new
environments, but their variety and productivity depend on a number
pond, of course. That is just
of factors. Those factors include how far down into the water the
what a Southeast Asian fish, the
climbing perch, does. If its pond
sunlight reaches, what the nutrient content of the water is, how deep
dries up in the summer, a the water is, the speed at which the water is moving (if at all), and
climbing perch will flop, roll, and what the oxygen level of the water is. Some organisms, such as the
wriggle in search of another threespine stickleback fish, seem able to adapt to whatever mix of
body of fresh water. factors there happens to be. In fact, so good is the stickleback at
adaptation that even those living in the same type of freshwater
environment have developed differently from one another. On Haida
Gwaii (the Queen Charlotte Islands), for example, it is not unusual to
find that the kind of stickleback in one lake is very different from the
kind living in another lake nearby.
This section describes the variety of life that is found in lakes,
ponds, wetlands, rivers, streams, and estuaries.

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12-1 Endangered Estuaries Find Out ACTIVITY

Cities do not usually grow in the middle of nowhere. 2. Brainstorm answers to the following questions:
Most are where they are because the location had (a) Why do you think estuaries are desirable
particular advantages for the first residents who places for human settlement?
camped there. Seven out of 10 of the world’s most
(b) Where is the nearest estuary to you? List the
populated cities are built on estuaries. Those cities
effects that nearby development is having, or
are Bombay (Mumbai), Buenos Aires, Calcutta
could have on the estuary.
(Kolkata), New York, Rio de Janeiro, Shanghai,
and Tokyo. What Did You Find Out?
What to Do 1. Summarize how estuaries can be damaged, and
what the long-term effects of that might be.
1. Working with a partner, use an atlas to identify
where all of these seven cities are located. Note 2. Suggest some ways that the health of estuaries
the names of the rivers and oceans near where the around the world might be protected.
cities are built.

Life in Lakes and Ponds

Much of the life in a lake or pond can be found near the shores,
where the water is shallow and there are many nutrients for the plants
and animals. Insects, plants with roots, and small fish are abundant in
this area. In the sunlit waters away from the shore are the small, free-
floating organisms called plankton (see section 11.2). There are two
types of plankton: phytoplankton (plant) and zooplankton (animal).
• Phytoplankton are plants that produce their nutrients through
photosynthesis.
• Zooplankton are tiny animals that eat other plankton for food.

Together, these types of plankton form the first link in the aquatic
food chain, providing food for everything from insects to fish. Lakes
and ponds are also home to a wide variety of amphibians, such as Figure 12.2 Northern Leopard frog
in a British Columbia pond
frogs (Figure 12.2) and salamanders, and larger fish in the deeper
areas of the water. As well, various mammals and birds may establish a
home base along lake or pond shorelines. Beaver and muskrat are two
common examples in British Columbia.
Lakes and ponds serve an important purpose in the water cycle by
catching and storing excess run-off. These bodies of fresh water also
benefit the environment in many ways, but especially by:
• providing a habitat (home) for a great variety of plants and
animals
• supporting rooted plants, which clean the water through natural
processes

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Life in Wetlands
One quarter of all the wetlands in the world are located in Canada.
For most of the last century, wetlands were considered simply breeding
Wetlands are found on the grounds for insect and other pests such as rodents. As a result, almost
edges of rivers, lakes, and 90 percent of the wetlands in some areas of British Columbia have
streams. They include bogs, been lost to industrial and urban residential development. It has only
marshes, fens, and estuaries. been in the past few decades that people have realized the important
Research the unique
role that wetlands play in the whole environment (Figure 12.3).
differences between these
Wetlands contribute to the environment in many ways:
various types of wetlands.
Start your search at • The vegetation acts as filters for removing pollutants from the water.
www.bcscience8.ca. • Wetlands hold a huge quantity of water, which helps prevent flooding.
• Many of the freshwater fish of British Columbia spawn in wetland
environments.
• A huge variety of wildlife makes wetlands their home, including
migratory birds such as snow geese.
• The thick vegetation of wetlands helps keep shorelines stable and
minimizes erosion.
• Many endangered species visit wetland areas as part of their life cycle.

Life in Rivers and Streams

The types of organisms found in the fast-moving waters of rivers
depend on the temperature of the water, its speed, and the amount
of sediment in the water (turbidity). Plants such as weeds, mosses, and
algae are common in rivers. A large number of insects are also found
on or in rivers, and many lay their eggs along the riverbed. In some
streams, the bottom is home for snails and worms. The fish in streams,
such as trout, pike, and catfish, feed off the smaller organisms (Figure
Figure 12.3 Urban development 12.4).
threatens many wetlands.

Suggested Activity
Conduct an Investigation 12-2
on page 444

Figure 12.4 A river ecosystem

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A change in the variety or productivity of species in a river or

stream (in fact, in any water body) is always of interest to scientists.
By monitoring species populations and abundance, scientists can often
detect whether the change in the plants or animals is being caused by
a change in the quality or quantity of the water.
An example of this is salmon in the Nechako River, west of Prince
George, British Columbia. A few years ago, biologists were concerned
when they noticed that fewer salmon were returning to the river to
spawn. When the biologists investigated why this might be, they
discovered that the water temperature in the river was unusually
high. They soon learned why. The dam farther up the Nechako had
reduced the water level in the lower part of the river and this meant
that the shallower water was heating up in the Sun. Installation of a
cold water “spillway” along the river is expected to solve the problem.
The spillway will funnel cold water into the river, lowering the
temperature and making the habitat healthy again for salmon. Figure 12.6 Otters thrive in
British Columbia estuaries.
Life in Estuaries
An estuary is an area of land that builds up where a river meets
the ocean (Figure 12.5). Nutrients that come from the land, rivers,
and the ocean accumulate in estuaries. This makes estuaries ideal
environments for both plants and animals. The nutrients are
distributed throughout the estuaries by winds, currents, and tides.
The action of tides also flushes pollutants and debris out of estuaries.
Water in an estuary is “brackish,” meaning it is a mixture of fresh
and salt water.
In British Columbia, estuaries make up only 3 percent of the
coastline, but are used by 80 percent of the wildlife found on the
coast. Estuaries offer a unique habitat to a range of organisms, from
eel grass and trout to otters, owls, and herons (Figure 12.6).

Figure 12.5 An estuary is

located at the mouth of a river,
where fresh water meets salt
water.

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12-2 What Is the Best Way to Save This River?

Skill C h e c k Issue
• Predicting British Columbia has many rivers of all sizes. The rivers are home to an enormous
• Communicating variety of fish, plant, and other aquatic life. We use the rivers for drinking water,
• Evaluating information transportation, and recreation. Many of the major rivers of British Columbia are
becoming endangered, and have the potential to be spoiled forever. Increasing
• Working co-operatively
population is putting greater demands on how we use the rivers, and how we
affect their health.
In this investigation, you will analyze the problems associated with one
of British Columbia’s major rivers or river systems, and propose ideas to solve
the problems.

Background Information
The table on the next page shows the rivers identified by the Outdoor
Recreation Council of British Columbia as being the most endangered in the
province. The main threats to each river are also listed.

Identify and Analyze Alternatives

1. Working in groups of two or three, consult the table and choose the
endangered river closest to where you live.
2. Work co-operatively with your partners to conduct research about the river.
Consider the following questions:
(a) How is the river currently being used in your area?
(b) What ideas are planned for the river and the areas surrounding it?
(c) What effects might the
proposed plans have? Be
sure to consider
environmental and
economic (job) effects.
3. Complete a sketch map of the
portion of the river that you are
investigating.
4. For each issue affecting the
health of the river, propose an
alternative solution. Write up
your proposals. Be specific in
your description. Take into
account the amount of time
each solution would take, the
cost, and what you expect the
effects on the river to be.
Farming

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Conduct an INVESTIGATION
Decision-Making Focus

Endangered Rivers in British Columbia

River or System Threat to River
Fraser River • Removal of large amounts of gravel, affecting fish spawning
• Contamination from farming (manure, fertilizers)
• Sewage inflow
• Removal of large amounts of water, decreasing flow level
Taku River • Road and mine construction, leading to habitat loss
• Acid rock drainage, leading to poisoning of water
Greater Georgia • Urban development (construction), leading to habitat loss
Basin steelhead • Removal of large amounts of water, decreasing flow level
streams and increasing water temperature
Nicola and • Removal of large amounts of water, decreasing flow level
Coldwater Rivers and increasing water temperature
Chilliwack/ • Urban development, leading to habitat loss and increased Fraser River industry
Vedder Rivers run-off that results in silty water
• Removal of large amounts of gravel, affecting fish spawning
• Road construction, leading to habitat loss
Coquitlam River • Removal of large amounts of gravel, increasing erosion
• Urban development, leading to increased pollution and
increased run-off that results in silty water
Okanagan River • River course rerouting for irrigation
• Removal of large amounts of water, decreasing flow level and
increasing water temperature
• Urban development, leading to habitat loss
• Construction of dams and fishing weirs, changing flow level
Kettle River • Construction of dam (power project), causing changes in the
water level in river
Salmon River • Contamination from farming (manure, fertilizers)
(Langley) • Removal of water too rapidly, causing a drop in the water table
• Urban development
Goat River • Increased logging activity, leading to habitat loss
• Road construction, leading to habitat loss
Iskut River • Power project development, leading to habitat loss
• Road construction, leading to habitat loss
Columbia River • Construction of dams, changing water levels of river and
affecting salmon run W.A.C. Bennett Dam, Peace River

Evaluate
1. Do a critical evaluation of your proposals. Are they realistic? Are your ideas
wishful thinking, or could they really be carried out for a reasonable cost?
2. If you wanted to share your ideas publicly for protecting the river you
selected, whom would you have to contact? Make a list.

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Salmon Fishing’s Long History

in British Columbia
For as long as humans have been in British Columbia,
the rivers and ocean have provided them with food. One
of the main sources of food for coastal people has been
salmon. Every year, after wandering the North Pacific
Ocean for three or four years, millions of sockeye, chum,
chinook, pink, and coho salmon swim back to the British
Columbia streams where they were born.
Salmon fishing is a multimillion dollar industry
today in the province. Fishing is called a “sustainable
industry.” If overfishing (catching too many fish) is not
allowed to happen, then population numbers will stay
steady. Through conservation efforts and the co-
operation of everyone who fishes, the resource will The number of fish caught using those early
continue to be renewed. technologies was most likely in the hundreds. Modern-
First Nations have been practising salmon day trawlers use many electronic technologies, and
conservation for thousands of years. Salmon is an can now catch as many as several thousand fish in a
especially important fish to them, spiritually and as a single day. The average commercial trawler will hold
traditional food. A common Sto:lo saying is “Our bones 40 000 kg of fish. The risks of overfishing, pollution,
are made of salmon.” First Nations people developed and climate change may all affect the future of salmon
many different methods to catch the fish efficiently populations in British Columbia, and will test whether
while still ensuring the supply would not disappear. It fishing can remain a sustainable industry.
is a delicate balance to maintain, but First Nations
fishers learned that if too many salmon were caught,
not enough would return to spawn; and if too few
Questions
were caught, people would go hungry. 1. Where do British Columbia’s salmon spend
From studying fish behaviour for generations, First most of their lives?
Nations people invented specific methods for catching 2. What balance did First Nations have to maintain
particular fish in different locations. The Nootka in order to keep the salmon resource stable?
people, for example, created a range of specially
designed harpoons for locations such as shallow 3. One of the effects of global climate change
streams, deep rivers, slow-running rivers, and rivers could be an increase in the temperature of
with rapids. They also made lures and hooks to catch river waters. Biologists believe water
only specific fish (many modern designs are still temperature plays an important role in the
modelled after these). Other early First Nations fishing migration of salmon. How might a drop in the
technologies included traps made of bark baskets and number of salmon returning to British
weirs made of wood and stone for trapping fish. A Columbia’s rivers affect the traditional First
current example of such a weir is shown above. Nations food fishery?

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Checking Concepts 10. What would happen if plankton were

removed from lake and pond environments?
1. What main characteristic do scientists use to
11. What would happen if British Columbia’s
classify different freshwater environments?
wetlands were to suddenly disappear?
2. In addition to how much oxygen and
12. What changes do wetlands and estuaries
nutrient content a body of freshwater has,
in British Columbia go through between
what three other factors affect its variety
summer and winter?
and productivity?
13. How do tides affect estuaries?
3. Name the two types of plankton and what
14. How does the water cycle contribute to the
each name means.
health of freshwater environments?
4. What role does plankton play in lake and
pond environments?
5. (a) What are wetlands?
(b) What value do the wetlands have?
6. Canada is home to what percentage of the
P ause and R eflect
world’s wetlands?
From what you have learned about estuaries
7. Describe what an estuary is.
in this section, how do you think activities
8. Why does more fresh water flow into such as residential development (building
wetlands and estuaries in the spring than in houses), commercial shipping (transporting
the summer? goods by boat), and recreation (sport
fishing and hunting) can harm estuaries?
Understanding Key Ideas Write down your ideas under three headings:
9. River and lake environments are different Effects of Residential Development,
Effects of Commercial Shipping, and
from each other. Copy the Venn diagram
Effects of Recreation.
below into your notebook and then
complete it by listing the characteristics
that are different between the two
environments, as well as those characteristics
that they share.

lake river
environment environment

Chapter 12 Changes in water quantity and quality can affect living things. • MHR 447