Final Report

Analysis and Comparison of various path loss prediction model
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Department of Electronics and Communication, Patel College of Science & Technology, Bhopal (MP) Page 1
1.1 Introduction to the topic

Since the mid 1990’s the cellular communications industry has witnessed rapid growth.
Wireless mobile communication networks have become much more pervasive than anyone
ever imagined when cellular concept was first developed. High quality and high capacity
network are in need today, estimating coverage accurately has become exceedingly
important. Therefore for more accurate design coverage of modern cellular networks,
measurement of signal strength must be taken into consideration, thus to provide efficient and
reliable coverage area[1]. In this clause the comparisons between the theoretical and
experimental propagation models are shown. The more commonly used propagation data for
mobile communications is Okumura’s measurements and this is recognized by the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
The cellular concept came into picture which made huge difference in solving the problem of
spectral congestion and user’s capacity. With no change in technological concept, it offered
high capacity with a limited spectrum allocation. The cellular concept is a system level idea
in which a single, high power transmitter is replaced with many low power transmitters. The
area serviced by a transmitter is called a cell. Thus each cell has one transmitter. This
transmitter is also called base station which provides coverage to only a small portion of the
service area[2]. Transmission between the base station and the mobile station do have some
power loss this loss is known as path loss and depends particularly on the carrier frequency,
antenna height and distance. The range for a given path loss is minimized at higher
frequencies. So more cells are required to cover a given area. Neighbour base stations close
are assigned different group of channels which reduces interference between the base
stations.
If the demand 10 increases for the service, the number of base stations may be increased, thus
providing additional capacity with no increase in radio spectrum. The advantage of cellular
system is that it can serve as many number of subscribers with only limited number of
channel by efficient channel reuse. Recently wireless communications have become a
necessity in public with continuously increasing number of mobile subscribers[3]. In order to
tend to the demands, cellular network operators must enhance their network capacity by
planning and building new base transmitter stations. While scheduling these plans, usually
radio propagation models are applied. By performing simulations calculated by propagation
models over the area of demand, the change in the network coverage can be predicted. The
more accurate the prediction model, easier it gets to develop the cellular network[4]. In
Turkey, both second and third generation networks are on air. In second generation networks,
the tolerance against interference is greater when compared to third generation networks.
Third generation networks are based on a new air interface called Wideband Code Division
Multiple Access (WCDMA). In WCDMA, all of the transmitters broadcast over the same
channel so this third generation networks are very vulnerable to interference [5]. In order to
prevent the transmitters to interfere each other, the overlapping of different base stations’
serving areas must be minimized. To achieve this, the radio network must be designed
carefully. At this point the accuracy of the propagation model used is vital[6]. The study
presented here focuses on the comparison of existing theoretical propagation models and their
applicability to the area of Izmir, the third largest city in Turkey.
From here on the paper is organized as follows: in Section II a general overview of the
selected theoretical propagation models is presented followed by a definition of the
approaches and conditions of the experimental work. The mechanisms behind
electromagnetic wave propagation are large it can generally be attributed to scattering,
diffraction and reflection. Because of multiple reflection from various objects, they travel
along different paths of varying lengths[7]. Most cellular radio systems operate in urban areas
where there is no direct line-of-sight path between the transmitter and receiver and where
presence of high rise buildings causes severe diffraction loss.
Having knowledge of the path loss versus distance characteristic of the scenarios at
hand, we can predict the likely maximum communication range between wireless sensor
nodes for any particular wireless sensor parameters, specifically the receiver sensitivity
and transmit power[8]. This will avoid having to go and repeat propagation tests if
nodes with different characteristics are deployed in the future. In addition the path
loss models can be used to perform estimates of the signal power to interference
power ratio. By investigating the path loss model, an effective wireless sensor
network (WSN) can be deployed to monitor and assess, for example, the leakage in local
water distribution networks or the deformation in tunnels.
Wireless communications is, by any measure, the fastest growing segment of the
communications industry. As such, it has captured the attention of the media and the
imagination of the public[9]. Cellular phones have experienced exponential growth over the
last decade, and this growth continues unabated worldwide, with more than a billion
worldwide cell phone users projected in the near future. Indeed, cellular phones have become
a critical business tool and part of everyday life in most developed countries, and are rapidly
supplanting antiquated wire line systems in many developing countries. In addition, wireless
local area networks are currently poised to supplement or replace wired networks in many
businesses and campuses. Many new applications, including wireless sensor networks,
automated highways and factories, smart homes and appliances, and remote telemedicine, are
emerging from research ideas to concrete systems[10].
1.2OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS:
The performance of wireless communication systems is mainly governed by the wireless

channel environment. As oppose d to the typically static and predictable characteristics of a
wired channel, the wireless channel is rather dynamic and unpredictable, which makes an
exact analysis of the wireless communication system often difficult[11]. In recent years,
optimization of the wireless communication system has become critical with the rapid growth
of mobile communication services and emerging broadband mobile Internet access services.
In fact, the understanding of wireless channels will lay the foundation for the development of
high performance and bandwidth-efficient wireless transmission technology.
Recently wireless communications have become a necessity in public with continuously

increasing number of mobile subscribers. In order to tend to the demands, cellular
network operators must enhance their network capacity by planning and building new
base transmitter stations. While scheduling these plans, usually radio propagation models
are applied. By performing simulations calculated by propagation models over the area
of demand, the change in the network coverage can be predicted. The more accurate
the prediction model, easier it gets to develop the cellular network. In Turkey, both second
and third generation networks are on air[12]. In second generation networks, the tolerance
against interference is greater when compared to third generation networks. Third
generation networks are based on a new air interface called Wideband Code Division
Multiple Access (WCDMA). In WCDMA, all of the transmitters broadcast over the
same channel so this third generation networks are very vulnerable to interference[13].
A unique characteristic in a wireless channel is a phenomenon called ‘fading,’ the variation

of the signal amplitude over time and frequency. In contrast with the additive noise as the
most common source o f signal degradation, fading is another source of signal degradation
that is characterized as a non-additive signal disturbance in the wireless channel. Fading may
either be due to multi path propagation, referred to as multi-path (induced) fading, or to
shadowing from obstacles that affect the propagation of a radio wave, referred to as shadow
fading. The fading phenomenon in the wireless communication channel was initially modeled
for HF (High Frequency, 3~30 MH z), UHF (Ultra HF, 300~3000 GHz), and SHF (Super
HF,3~30 GHz) bands in the 1950s and 1960s[14].
Currently, the most popular wireless channel models have been established for 800MH z to
2.5 GHz by extensive channel measurements in the field. These include the ITU-R standard
channel models specialized for a single-antenna communication system, typically referred to
as a SISO (Single Input Single Output) communication, over some frequency bands[15].
Mean while, spatial channel models for a multi-antenna communication system, referred to as
the MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) system, have been recently developed by the
various research and standardization activities such as IEEE 802, METRA Project, 3GPP/3G
PP2, and WINNER Projects, aiming at high-speed wireless transmission and diversity gain.
The fading phenomenon can be broadly classified into two different types: large-scale fading
and small-scale fading. Large-scale fading occurs as the mobile moves through a large
distance, for example, a distance of the order of cell size. It is cause d by path loss of signal
as a function of distance and shadowing by large objects such as buildings, intervening
terrains, and vegetation[16]. Shadowing is a slow fading process characterized by variation of
median path loss between the transmitter and receiver in fixed locations. In other words,
large-scale fading is characterized by average path loss and shadowing.
On the other hand, small-scale fading refers to rapid variation of signal levels due to the
constructive and destructive interference of multiple signal paths (multi- paths) when the
mobile station moves short distances. Depending on the relative extent of a multi path,
frequency selectivity of a channel is characterized (e.g., by frequency-selective or frequency
flat) for small-scaling fading[17]. Meanwhile, depending on the time variation in a channel
due to mobile speed (characterized by the Doppler spread), short-term fading can be
classified as either fast fading or slow fading.
Types of models:
1. General path loss model

2. Okumura/Hata Model
3. IEEE 802.16d Model
1.3 INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY
In wireless communication the losses occurred in between transmitter and receiver is known
as propagation path loss. Path loss is the unwanted reduction in power single which is
transmitted. We measure this path loss in different area like rural, urban, and suburban
with the help of propagation path loss models. Wireless communications provide high-
speed high-quality information exchange between portable devices located anywhere in the
world. These models can be broadly categorized into three types; empirical, deterministic and
stochastic. Empirical models are those based on observations and measurements alone. These
models are mainly used to predict the path loss, but models that predict rain-fade and multi path
have also been proposed[18].
The deterministic models make use of the laws governing electromagnetic wave
propagation to determine the received signal power at a particular location. Deterministic
models often require a complete 3-D map of the propagation environment. An example of a
deterministic model is a ray tracing model. Stochastic models, on the other hand, model the
environment as a series of random variables[19]. These models are the least accurate but
require the least information about the environment and use much less processing power to
generate predictions. Empirical models can be split into two subcategories namely, time
dispersive and non-time dispersive.
Having knowledge of the path loss versus distance characteristic of the scenarios at
hand, we can predict the likely maximum communication range between wireless sensor
nodes for any particular wireless sensor parameters, specifically the receiver sensitivity and
transmit power. This will avoid having to go and repeat propagation tests if nodes with
different characteristics are deployed in the future. In addition the path loss models can
be used to perform estimates of the signal power to interference power ratio. By
investigating the path loss model, an effective wireless sensor network (WSN) can be
deployed to monitor and assess, for example, the leakage in local water distribution
networks or the deformation in tunnels[20].
Wireless communications is, by any measure, the fastest growing segment of the
communications industry. As such, it has captured the attention of the media and the
imagination of the public. Cellular phones have experienced exponential growth over the last
decade, and this growth continues unabated worldwide, with more than a billion worldwide cell
phone users projected in the near future. Indeed, cellular phones have become a critical
business tool and part of everyday life in most developed countries, and are rapidly supplanting
antiquated wire line systems in many developing countries. In addition, wireless local area
networks are currently poised to supplement or replace wired networks in many businesses and
campuses[7]. Many new applications, including wireless sensor networks, automated highways
and factories, smart homes and appliances, and remote telemedicine, are emerging from
research ideas to concrete systems.
The explosive growth of wireless systems coupled with the proliferation of laptop and
palmtop computers indicate a bright future for wireless networks, both as stand-alone systems
and as part of the larger networking infrastructure. However, many technical challenges remain
in designing robust wireless networks that deliver the performance necessary to support
emerging applications. In this introductory chapter we will briefly review the history of
wireless networks, from the smoke signals of the Pre-industrial age to the cellular, satellite, and
other wireless networks of today[9]. We then discuss the wireless vision in more detail,
including the technical challenges that must be overcome to make this vision a reality. We will
also describe the current wireless systems in operation today as well as emerging systems and
standards. The huge gap between the performance of current systems and the vision for future
systems indicates that much research remains to be done to make the wireless vision a reality.
The vision of wireless communications supporting information exchange between people or

devices is the communications frontier of the next century[11]. This vision will allow people to
operate a virtual office anywhere in the world using a small handheld device - with seamless
telephone, modem, fax, and computer communications. Wireless networks will also be used to
connect together palmtop, laptop, and desktop computers anywhere within an office building or
campus, as well as from the corner cafe. In the home these networks will enable a new class of
intelligent home electronics that can interact with each other and with the Internet in addition to
providing connectivity between computers, phones, and security/monitoring systems. Such
smart homes can also help the elderly and disabled with assisted living, patient monitoring, and
emergency response.
Video teleconferencing will take place between buildings that are blocks or continents apart,
and these conferences can include travellers as well, from the salesperson who missed his plane
connection to the CEO off sailing in the Caribbean. Wireless video will be used to create
remote classrooms, remote training facilities, and remote hospitals anywhere in the world.
Wireless sensors have an enormous range of both commercial and military applications.
Commercial applications include monitoring of fire hazards, hazardous waste sites, stress and
strain in buildings and bridges, or carbon dioxide movement and the spread of chemicals and
gasses at a disaster site[12]. These wireless sensors will self-configure into a network to
process and interpret sensor measurements and then convey this information to a centralized
control location. Military applications include identification and tracking of enemy targets,
detection of chemical and biological attacks, and the support of unmanned robotic vehicles.
Finally, wireless networks enable distributed control systems, with remote devices, sensors, and
actuators linked together via wireless communication channels. Such networks are imperative
for coordinating unmanned mobile units and greatly reduce maintenance and reconfiguration
costs over distributed control systems with wired communication links, for example in factory
automation.
The wireless radio channel poses a severe challenge as a medium for reliable high-speed
communication. It is not only susceptible to noise, interference, and other channel
impediments, but these impediments change over time in unpredictable ways due to user
movement. In this chapter we will characterize the variation in received signal power over
distance due to path loss and shadowing. Path loss is caused by dissipation of the power
radiated by the transmitter as well as effects of the propagation channel. Path loss models
generally assume that path loss is the same at a given transmit-receive distance1. Shadowing is
caused by obstacles between the transmitter and receiver that absorb power. When the obstacle
absorbs all the power, the signal is blocked[5].
Variation due to path loss occurs over very large distances(100-1000 meters), whereas
variation due to shadowing occurs over distances proportional to the length of the obstructing
object (10-100 meters in outdoor environments and less in indoor environments). Since
variations due to path loss and shadowing occur over relatively large distances, this variation is
sometimes referred to as large-scale propagation effects or local mean attenuation. Chapter 3
will deal with variation due to the constructive and destructive addition of multi path signal
components[8]. Variation due to multi path occurs over very short distances, on the order of the
signal wavelength, so these variations are sometimes referred to as small-scale propagation
effects or multi path fading.
After a brief introduction and description of our signal model, we present the simplest model
for signal propagation: free space path loss. A signal propagating between two points with no
attenuation or reflection follows the free space propagation law. We then describe ray tracing
propagation models. These models are used to approximate wave propagation according to
Maxwell’s equations, and are accurate models when the number of multi path components is
small and the physical environment is known. Ray tracing models depend heavily on the
geometry and dielectric properties of the region through which the signal propagates. We
therefore also present some simple generic models with a few parameters that are commonly
used in practice for system analysis and “back-of-the-envelope” system design[3]. When the
number of multi path components is large, or the geometry and dielectric properties of the
propagation environment are unknown, statistical models must be used.
The path loss is the difference (in dB) between the transmitted power and the received power.
It represents signal level attenuation caused by free space propagation, reflection, diffraction
and scattering. It is necessary to calculate link budget.
Figure 1.1 Path-Loss Definition

The performance o f wireless communication systems is mainly governed by the wireless
channel environment. As oppose d to the typically static and predictable characteristics of a
wired channel, the wireless channel is rather dynamic and unpredictable, which makes an exact
analysis of the wireless communication system often difficult[15]. In recent years, optimization
of the wireless communication system has become critical with the rapid growth of mobile
communication services and emerging broadband mobile Internet access services. In fact, the
understanding of wireless channels will lay the foundation for the development of high
performance and bandwidth-efficient wireless transmission technology.
In wireless communication, radio propagation refers to the behaviour of radio waves when
they are propagated from transmitter to receiver. In the course of propagation, radio waves are
mainly affected by three different modes of physical phenomena: reflection, diffraction, and
scattering [1,2][19]. Reflection is the physical phenomenon that occur s when a propagating
electromagnetic wave impinges upon an object with very large dimensions compare d to the
wavelength, for example, surface of the earth and building. It forces the transmit sign al power
lobe reflected back to its origin rather than being passed all the way along the path to the
receiver. Diffraction refers to various phenomena that occur when the radio path between the
transmitter and receiver is obstructed b y a surface with sharp irregularities or small openings.
It appears as a bending of waves around the small obstacles and spreading out of waves past
small openings.
The secondary waves generated by diffraction are useful for establishing a path between the
transmitter and receiver, even when a line-of-sight path is not present. Scattering is the physical
phenomenon that forces the radiation of an electromagnetic wave to deviate from a straight
path by one or more local obstacles, with small dimensions compared to the wavelength. Those
obstacles that induce scattering, such as foliage, street signs, and lamp posts, are referred to as
the scatters[12]. In other words, the propagation of a radio wave is a complicated and less
predictable process that is governed by reflection, diffraction, and scattering, whose intensity
varies with different environment s at different instances.
A unique characteristic in a wireless channel is a phenomenon called ‘fading,’ the variation

of the signal amplitude over time and frequency. In contrast with the additive noise as the most
common source o f signal degradation, fading is another source of signal degradation that is
characterized as a non-additive signal disturbance in the wireless channel. Fading may either be
due to multi path propagation, referred to as multi-path (induced) fading, or to shadowing from
obstacles that affect the propagation of a radio wave, referred to as shadow fading.
The fading phenomenon in the wireless communication channel was initially modeled for HF
(High Frequency, 3~30 MHz), UHF (Ultra HF, 300~3000 GHz), and SHF (Super HF,3~30
GHz) bands in the 1950s and 1960s. Currently, the most popular wireless channel models have
been established for 800MHz to 2.5 GHz by extensive channel measurements in the field.
These include the ITU-R standard channel models specialized for a sing le-antenna
communication system, typically referred to as a SISO (Single Input Single Output)
communication, over some frequency bands.
Mean while, spatial channel models for a multi-antenna communication system, referred to as
the MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output ) system, have been recently developed by the
various research and standardization activities such as IEEE 802, METRA Project,
3GPP/3GPP2, and WINNER Projects, aiming at high-speed wireless transmission and diversity
gain. The fading phenomenon can be broadly classified into two different types: large-scale
fading and small-scale fading . Large-scale fading occurs as the mobile moves through a large
distance, for example, a distance of the order of cell size [11]. It is cause d by path loss of
signal as a function of distance and shadowing by large objects such as buildings, intervening
terrains, and vegetation. Shadowing is a slow fading process characterized by variation of
median path loss between the transmitter and receiver in fixed locations. In other words, large-
scale fading is characterized by average path loss and shadowing. On the other hand, small-
scale fading refers to rapid variation of signal levels due to the constructive and destructive
interference of multiple signal paths (multi-paths) when the mobile station moves short
distances. Depending on the relative extent of a multi path, frequency selectivity of a channel is
characterized (e.g., by frequency-selective or frequency flat) for small-scaling fading.
Meanwhile, depending on the time variation in a channel due to mobile speed (characterized by
the Doppler spread), short-term fading can be classified as either fast fading or slow fading.
Chapter 2
LITERATURE
REVIEW
“Comparison of Path Loss Prediction Models and Field Measurements for Cellular
Networks in Turkey”.
Cellular network design for a specific area requires precise knowledge of the propagation
characteristics of the radio channel in that area. This paper discusses the applicability of
some well known theoretical models to the specific conditions in Izmir, Turkey. Three path
loss models were used to predict the path loss in three different frequency bands. Advanced
Okumura-Hata, Advanced Walfisch-Ikegami and Algorithm 9999 were used to predict the
path loss in certain areas of Izmir, Turkey. The simulation results were compared to real
signal strength measurements obtained from live GSM and WCDMA cellular networks and it
was concluded that Algorithm 9999 performs best in the dense urban, urban and suburban
environments of Izmir.
“Multipath Delay Measurements and Modeling for Inter floor Wireless

Communications”
This paper presents a comprehensive three-dimensional (3-D) ray-tracing model for interfloor
wireless communication systems, and measurements of power delay profiles in a typical two-
floor environment. The model takes into account all possible reflections/transmissions
between/through walls, floors and ceilings including possible scattering from nearby
buildings, as well as diffractions from corners and edges of building structures, and also
subsequent reflections/transmissions from such diffracted signals.
Propagation paths involving successive diffractions at the edges of window frames at

different floors of the building and their subsequent reflections/transmissions from such
diffracted signals are also included. The model is based on a uniform theory of diffraction
(UTD) formulation, multiple image and 3-D ray launching concepts to include all the major
propagation paths. Comparisons between results from theoretical models and measurements
have shown good agreement for power delay profiles, root-mean-square (rms) delay spreads
and signal path loss.
“Prediction of Received Signal Power and Propagation Path Loss in Open/Rural

Environments using modified Free-Space Loss and Hata Models”
This paper describes a modification of the Free-Space and Hata formulae for the prediction of
received signal power, PR and propagation path loss, L , in two Cellular Mobile Radio
Systems (CMRS), in the Northern Nigeria. Measurements of P s were taken with a Cellular
Mobile Radio test receiver (Sagem OT 160), in some selected open/rural environments, when
the receiver was being moved away from the base stations along the propagation paths. L P R
s were then obtained from values of m easured P s using an appropriate expression. A close
comparison of measurement values and computed values from the Free-Space and Hata
formulae revealed that direct application of these formulae is inappropriate for the prediction
of these parameters in the region of investigation, as computed values fell short significantly
from the corresponding measured values. Consequently, some correction factors have been
introduced to both models and these have produced results which closely matched the
measured values.
“A Hata Based Model Utilizing Terrain Roughness Correction Formula”
This paper proposes a new terrain based formula to correct propagation loss model originally
proposed by Hata for the 900 MHz band. This formula consists of an estimator of the
standard deviation (s) along the measuring path in west of Amman city, Jordan. The estimator
is calculated by a quadratic regression formula to reflect terrain roughness of the path taken.
This estimator is used as a correction factor added to the urban formula proposed by Hata, for
both urban and open areas categories. It is reported that the new estimator has less RMSE by
an amount of 2.60 dB and 2.78 Db compared to Hata model for urban and open areas,
respectively. Such an outcome illustrates the need for a terrain based correction formula in
any accurate propagation model.
“Effect Of Path Loss Model On Received Signal: Using Greater Accra, Ghana As Case
Study”
Globalization has been greatly supported by wireless applications and as a result, African
countries have connectivity to other parts of the world through satellite for instance. On a
national level, wireless applications have proved to be invaluable where mobile services can
be the means by which lives can be saved. In a developing country such as Ghana, mobile
services are used not only in entrepreneurial activities, but al'e a means for enhancing the
quality of life. Whereas wireless transmitters and receivers can be designed based on
specifications, the structures of buildings considering parameters such as height and slopes of
roofs vary considerably from place to place.
It therefore becomes imperative to evaluate the propagation through the radio space
particularly in places where such differences are observed in close proximity. This paper
presents a study of propagation in the Greater Accra region of Ghana where some sections
have structures of relatively similar heights close to al'eas where building heights greatly
vary. The study is done employing the Rata-Okumura model which is widely used in
telecommunications industry, particularly in West Africa. A comparative study on path loss
between Rata-Okumura model, and measurement data using the received power obtained
from Base station in a Code Division Multiple Access-2000 (CDMA2000®) cellular network
in Ghana has been carried out.
The analysis shows that Rata-OIwmura pl'ediction for suburban area (University of Ghana)
response achieved is close to the measurement plot. Rata-Okumura prediction models applied
in urban (medium city) and rural (open) areas for the selected areas such as Osu and Tema
respectively in Greater Accra (GA) region show a little agreement. Osu and Tema are each
more densely populated and have buildings that have more variation in height than the
suburban area of University of Ghana.
“A measurement-based path loss model for wireless links in mobile ad-hoc networks
(MANET) operating in the VHF and UHF band”
For the development of future mobile to-mobile communication systems, realistic channel
models are required. Available models are aiming at broadcasting applications using high
antenna towers and are therefore not applicable for mobileto-mobile applications like mobile
ad-hoc networks (MANET). In this paper, measurements of the path loss using car-mounted
receiver and transmitter antennas are presented. Based on the measurement results, a new
path loss model is proposed. It is shown that this model provides a more realistic prediction
of the path loss for MANET systems in the VHF and UHF band than the widely used
Okumura Hata model.
“Empirical Correction of the Okumura-Hata Model for the 900 MHz band in Egypt”
This paper studies the performance of the Okumura-Hata model in the 900 MHz band. The
results of several measurement campaigns carried out in different regions of Egypt show
significan t errors in the Okumura Hata model. The paper, hence, introduces correction to the
Okumura-Hata model that suits the Egyptian 900 MHz cellular environment. The correction
is evaluated empirically by fitting the received field strength to the corrected model in
different terrains. The paper, also, gives better categorization for the different regions in
Egypt in terms of the topography and the morphology. The study of the RMSE (root-mean-
square error) shows that the error has been decreased from an average value of 65 dBµV/m to
an average value of 9 dBµV/m.
Location estimation using RSS measurements with unknown path loss exponents The
location of a mobile station (MS) in a cellular network can be estimated using received signal
strength (RSS) measurements that are available from control channels of nearby base
stations. Most of the recent RSS-based location estimation methods that are available in the
literature rely on the rather unrealistic assumption that signal propagation characteristics are
known and independent of time variations and the environment.
In this paper, we propose an RSS-based location estimation technique, so-called multiple path
loss exponent algorithm (RSS-MPLE), which jointly estimates the propagation parameters
and the MS position. The RSS-MPLE method incorporates antenna radiation pattern
information into the signal model and determines the maximum likelihood estimate of
unknown parameters by employing the Levenberg-Marquardt method. The accuracy of the

proposed method is further examined by deriving the Cramer-Rao bound. The performance
of the RSS-MPLE algorithm is evaluated for various scenarios via simulation results which
confirm that the proposed scheme provides a practical position estimator that is not only
accurate but also robust against the variations in the signal propagation characteristics.
Characterization of path loss and absorption for a wireless radio frequency link between an
in-body endoscopy capsule and a receiver outside the body Physical-layer characterization is
important for design of in-to-out body communication for wireless body area networks
(WBANs).
This paper numerically investigates the path loss and absorption of an in-to-out body radio
frequency (RF) wireless link between an endoscopy capsule and a receiver outside the body
using a 3D electromagnetic solver. A spiral antenna in the endoscopy capsule is tuned to
operate in the Medical Implant Communication Service (MICS) band at 402 MHz,
accounting for the properties of the human body. The influence of misalignment, rotation of
the capsule, and three different human models are investigated. Semi-empirical path loss
models for various homogeneous tissues and 3D realistic human body models are provided
for manufacturers to evaluate the performance of in-body to out-body WBAN systems. The
specific absorption rate (SAR) in homogeneous and heterogeneous body models is
characterized and compliance is investigated.
“A Study on path loss Analysis for GSM Mobile Networks for Urban, Rural and Sub-
Urban regions of Karnataka state”
To establish any mobile network system, the basic task is to foresee the coverage of the
proposed system in general. Many such different approaches have been developed, over the
past, to predict coverage using what are known as propagation models. In this paper,
measurement based path loss example and shadowing parameters are applied on path loss
models. Here, the measurements are carried out in urban, rural and suburban areas
considering non-line-of-sight terrains with low elevation antennas for the transceiver (Tx) and
receiver (Rx). The impact of multipath are more emphasized in the rural context. This causes
higher probability of RF signal errors. On the basis of observation and with the help of
clutter, we can present models which give better understanding for urban, rural and suburban
regions in Karnataka state at 940 MHz GSM frequency.
“Location estimation using RSS measurements with unknown path loss exponents”
The location of a mobile station (MS) in a cellular network can be estimated using received
signal strength (RSS) measurements that are available from control channels of nearby base
stations. Most of the recent RSS-based location estimation methods that are available in the
literature rely on the rather unrealistic assumption that signal propagation characteristics are
known and independent of time variations and the environment. In this paper, we propose an
RSS-based location estimation technique, so-called multiple path loss exponent algorithm
(RSS-MPLE), which jointly estimates the propagation parameters and the MS position. The
RSS-MPLE method incorporates antenna radiation pattern information into the signal model
and determines the maximum likelihood estimate of unknown parameters by employing the
Levenberg-Marquardt method. The accuracy of the proposed method is further examined by
deriving the Cramer-Rao bound. The performance of the RSS-MPLE algorithm is evaluated
for various scenarios via simulation results which confirm that the proposed scheme provides
a practical position estimator that is not only accurate but also robust against the variations in
the signal propagation characteristics.
“Characterization of path loss and absorption for a wireless radio frequency link
between an in-body endoscopy capsule and a receiver outside the body”
Physical-layer characterization is important for design of in-to-out body communication for

wireless body area networks (WBANs). This paper numerically investigates the path loss and
absorption of an in-to-out body radio frequency (RF) wireless link between an endoscopy
capsule and a receiver outside the body using a 3D electromagnetic solver. A spiral antenna
in the endoscopy capsule is tuned to operate in the Medical Implant Communication Service
(MICS) band at 402 MHz, accounting for the properties of the human body. The influence of
misalignment, rotation of the capsule, and three different human models are investigated.
Semi-empirical path loss models for various homogeneous tissues and 3D realistic human
body models are provided for manufacturers to evaluate the performance of in-body to out-
body WBAN systems. The specific absorption rate (SAR) in homogeneous and
heterogeneous body models is characterized and compliance is investigated.
Chapter 3
WIRELESS
COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM
3.1 HISTORY OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
Next-generation cellular services are slated to provide wireless data in addition to voice,
which will provide stiff competition to these data-only services. The introduction of wired
Ethernet technology in the 1970’s steered many commercial companies away from radio-
based networking. Ethernet’s 10 Mbps data rate far exceeded anything available using radio,
and companies did not mind running cables within and between their facilities to take
advantage of these high rates[1]. In 1985 the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
enabled the commercial development of wireless LANs by authorizing the public use of the
Industrial, Scientific, and Medical(ISM) frequency bands for wireless LAN products.
The ISM band was very attractive to wireless LAN vendors since they did not need to obtain
an FCC license to operate in this band. However, the wireless LAN systems could not
interfere with the primary ISM band users, which forced them to use a low power profile and
an inefficient signalling scheme. Moreover, the interference from primary users within this
frequency band was quite high. As a result these initial LAN systems had very poor
performance in terms of data rates and coverage[2]. This poor performance, coupled with
concerns about security, lack of standardization, and high cost (the first network adaptors
listed for $1,400 as compared to a few hundred dollars for a wired Ethernet card) resulted in
weak sales for these initial LAN systems. Few of these systems were actually used for data
networking: they were relegated to low-tech applications like inventory control.
The current generation of wireless LANS, based on the IEEE 802.11b and 802.11astandards,
have better performance, although the data rates are still relatively low (effective data rates on
the order of 2 Mbps for 802.11b and around 10 Mbps for 802.11a) and the coverage area is
still small(100-500 feet). Wired Ethernets today offer data rates of 100 Mbps, and the
performance gap between wired and wireless LANs is likely to increase over time without
additional spectrum allocation. Despite the big data rate differences, wireless LANs are
becoming the preferred Internet access method in many homes, offices, and campus
environments due to their convenience and freedom from wires[3]. However, most wireless
LANs support applications that are not bandwidth-intensive (email, file transfer, web
browsing) and typically have only one user at a time accessing the system.
The challenge for wide spread wireless LAN acceptance and use will be for the wireless
technology to support many users simultaneously, especially if bandwidth-intensive
applications become more prevalent. By far the most successful application of wireless
networking has been the cellular telephone system. Cellular telephones are projected to have a
billion subscribers worldwide within the next few years[5]. The convergence of radio and
telephony began in 1915, when wireless voice transmission between New York and San
Francisco was first established. In 1946 public mobile telephone service was introduced in 25
cities across the United States. These initial systems used a central transmitter to cover an
entire metropolitan area.
This inefficient use of the radio spectrum coupled with the state of radio technology at that
time severely limited the system capacity: thirty years after the introduction of mobile
telephone service the New York system could only support 543 users. A solution to this
capacity problem emerged during the 50’s and 60’s when researchers at AT&T Bell
Laboratories developed the cellular concept [10]. Cellular systems exploit the fact that the
power of a transmitted signal falls off with distance.
Thus, the same frequency channel can be allocated to users at spatially-separate locations
with minimal interference between the users. Using this premise, a cellular system divides a
geographical area into adjacent, non-overlapping, “cells”. Different channel sets are assigned
to each cell, and cells that are assigned the same channel set are spaced far enough apart so
that interference between the mobiles in these cells is small. Each cell has a centralized
transmitter and receiver (called a base station) that communicates with the mobile units in that
cell, both for control purposes and as a call relay[7].
All base stations have high-bandwidth connections to a mobile telephone switching office
(MTSO), which is itself connected to the public-switched telephone network (PSTN). The
handoff of mobile units crossing cell boundaries is typically handled by the MTSO, although
in current systems some of this functionality is handled by the base stations and/or mobile
units. The original cellular system design was finalized in the late 60’s.
However, due to regulatory delays from the FCC, the system was not deployed until the early
80’s, by which time much of the original technology was out-of-date. The explosive growth of
the cellular industry took most everyone by surprise, especially the original inventors at
AT&T, since AT&T basically abandoned the cellular business by the early 80’s to focus on
fiber optic networks. The first analog cellular system deployed in Chicago in 1983was already
saturated by 1984, at which point the FCC increased the cellular spectral allocation from
40MHz to 50 MHz. As more and more cities became saturated with demand, the development
of digital cellular technology for increased capacity and better performance became
essential[8].
The second generation of cellular systems are digital. In addition to voice communication,
these systems provide email, voice mail, and paging services. Unfortunately, the great market
potential for cellular phones led to a proliferation of digital cellular standards. Today there are
three different digital cellular phone standards in the U.S. alone, and other standards in Europe
and Japan, none of which are compatible[9]. The fact that different cities have different
incompatible standards makes roaming throughout the U.S. using one digital cellular phone
impossible. Most cellular phones today are dual-mode: they incorporate one of the digital
standards along with the old analog standard, since only the analog standard provides
universal coverage throughout the U.S.
Radio paging systems are another example of an extremely successful wireless data network,
with 50million subscribers in the U.S. alone[10]. However, their popularity is starting to wane
with the widespread penetration and competitive cost of cellular telephone systems. Paging
systems allow coverage over very wide areas by simultaneously broadcasting the pager
message at high power from multiple base stations or satellites. These systems have been
around for many years. Early radio paging systems were analog 1 bit messages signalling a
user that someone was trying to reach him or her.
These systems required callbackover the regular telephone system to obtain the phone number
of the paging party. Recent advances now allow a short digital message, including a phone
number and brief text, to be sent to the pages as well. In paging systems most of the
complexity is built into the transmitters, so that pager receivers are small, lightweight, and
have a long battery life. The network protocols are also very simple since broadcasting a
message over all base stations requires no routing or handoff. The spectral inefficiency of
these simultaneous broadcasts is compensated by limiting each message to be very short.
Paging systems continue to evolve to expand their capabilities beyond very low-rate one-way
communication.
Current systems are attempting to implement “answer-back” capability, i.e. two-way

communication[11]. This requires a major change in the pager design, since it must now
transmit signals in addition to receiving them, and the transmission distances can be quite
large. Recently many of the major paging companies have teamed up with the palmtop
computer makers to incorporate paging functions into these devices [2]. This development
indicates that short messaging without additional functionality is no longer competitive given
other wireless communication options[12]. Commercial satellite communication systems are
now emerging as another major component of the wireless communications infrastructure.
Satellite systems can provide broadcast services over very wide areas, and are also necessary
to fill the coverage gap between high-density user locations.
Satellite mobile communication systems follow the same basic principle as cellular systems,
except that the cell base stations are now satellites orbiting the earth. Satellite systems are
typically characterized by the height of the satellite orbit, low-earth orbit (LEOs at roughly
2000 Km. altitude), medium-earth orbit (MEO sat roughly 9000 Km. altitude), or
geosynchronous orbit (GEOs at roughly 40,000 Km. altitude). The geosynchronous orbits are
seen as stationary from the earth, whereas the satellites with other orbits have their coverage
area change over time[13]. The disadvantage of high altitude orbits is that it takes a great deal
of power to reach the satellite, and the propagation delay is typically too large for delay-
constrained applications like voice.
However, satellites at these orbits tend to have larger coverage areas, so fewer satellites (and
dollars) are necessary to provide wide-area or global coverage. The concept of using
geosynchronous satellites for communications was first suggested by the science fiction writer
Arthur C. Clarke in 1945[14]. However, the first deployed satellites, the Soviet Union’s
Sputnik in 1957 and the Nasa/Bell Laboratories’ Echo-1 in 1960, were not geosynchronous
due to the difficultyof of lifting a satellite into such a high orbit. The first GEO satellite was
launched by Hughes and Nasa in1963 and from then until recently GEOs dominated both
commercial and government satellite systems.
The trend in current satellite systems is to use lower orbits so that lightweight handheld
devices can communicate with the satellite [15]. Inmarsat is the most well-known GEO
satellite system today, but most new systems use LEO orbits. These LEOs provide global
coverage but the link rates remain low due to power and bandwidth constraints. These systems
allow calls anytime and anywhere using a single communications device.
The services provided by satellite systems include voice, paging, and messaging services, all
at fairly low data rates [3, 4]. The LEO satellite systems that have been deployed are not
experiencing the growth they had anticipated, and one of the first systems (Iridium) was forced
into bankruptcy and went out of business. A natural area for satellite systems is broadcast
entertainment. Direct broadcast satellites operate in the 12 GHz frequency band. These
systems offer hundreds of TV channels and are major competitors to cable. Satellite-delivered
digital radio is an emerging application in the 2.3 GHz frequency band. These systems offer
digital audio broadcasts nationwide at near-CD quality. Digital audio broadcasting is also
quite popular in Europe[16].
3.2WIRELESS VISION
The vision of wireless communications supporting information exchange between people or

devices is the communications frontier of the next century. This vision will allow people to
operate a virtual office anywhere in the world using a small handheld device - with seamless
telephone, modem, fax, and computer communications. Wireless networks will also be used to
connect together palmtop, laptop, and desktop computers anywhere within an office building
or campus, as well as from the corner cafe. In the home these networks will enable a new class
of intelligent home electronics that can interact with each other and with the Internet in
addition to providing connectivity between computers, phones, and security/monitoring
systems[17]. Such smart homes can also help the elderly and disabled with assisted living,
patient monitoring, and emergency response.
Video teleconferencing will take place between buildings that are blocks or continents apart,
and these conferences can include travellers as well, from the salesperson who missed his
plane connection to the CEO off sailing in the Caribbean. Wireless video will be used to create
remote classrooms, remote training facilities, and remote hospitals anywhere in the world[18].
Wireless sensors have an enormous range of both commercial and military applications.
Commercial applications include monitoring of fire hazards, hazardous waste sites, stress and
strain in buildings and bridges, or carbon dioxide movement and the spread of chemicals and
gasses at a disaster site.
These wireless sensors will self-configure into a network to process and interpret sensor
measurements and then convey this information to a centralized control location. Military
applications include identification and tracking of enemy targets, detection of chemical and
biological attacks, and the support of unmanned robotic vehicles. Finally, wireless networks
enable distributed control systems, with remote devices, sensors, and actuators linked together
via wireless communication channels. Such networks are imperative for coordinating
unmanned mobile units and greatly reduce maintenance and reconfiguration costs over
distributed control systems with wired communication links, for example in factory
automation. The various applications described above are all components of the wireless
vision. So what, exactly, is wireless communications?
There are many different ways to segment this complex topic into different applications,
systems, or coverage regions. Wireless applications include voice, Internet access, web
browsing, paging and short messaging, subscriber information services, file transfer, video
teleconferencing, sensing, and distributed control. Systems include cellular telephone systems,
wireless LANs, wide-area wireless data systems, satellite systems, and ad hoc wireless
networks. Coverage regions include in-building, campus, city, regional, and global. The
question of how best to characterize wireless communications along these various segments
has resulted in considerable fragmentation in the industry, as evidenced by the many different
wireless products, standards, and services being offered or proposed. One reason for this
fragmentation is that different wireless applications have different requirements[20].
Voice systems have relatively low data rate requirements (around 20 Kbps) and can tolerate a
fairly high probability of bit error (bit error rates, or BERs, of around 10− 3), but the total
delay must be less than 100msec or it becomes noticeable to the end user. On the other hand,
data systems typically require much higher data rates (1-100 Mbps) and very small BERs (the
target BER is 10−8 and all bits received in error must be retransmitted) but do not have a fixed
delay requirement. Real-time video systems have high data rate requirements coupled with the
same delay constraints as voice systems, while paging and short messaging have very low data
rate requirements and no delay constraints.
These diverse requirements for different applications make it difficult to build one wireless
system that can satisfy all these requirements simultaneously. Wired networks are moving
towards integrating the diverse requirements of different systems using a single protocol (e.g.
ATM or SONET)[13]. This integration requires that the most stringent requirements for all
applications be met simultaneously. While this is possible on wired networks, with data rates
on the order of Gbps and BERs on the order of 10−12,itisnotpossibleonwireless networks,
which have much lower data rates and higher BERs. Therefore, at least in the near future,
wireless systems will continue to be fragmented, with different protocols tailored to support
the requirements of different applications.
Chapter 4
METHODOLOGY AND
PROPOSED METHOD
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB
MATLAB is a high-level technical computing language and interactive environment for

algorithm development, data visualization, data analysis, and numeric computation. You
can use MATLAB in a wide range of applications, including signal and image
processing, communications, control design, test and measurement, financial modeling
and analysis, and computational biology. Add-on toolboxes (collections of special-
purpose MATLAB functions, available separately) extend the MATLAB environment to
solve particular classes of problems in these application areas.
MATLAB provides a number of features for documenting and sharing your work. You
can integrate your MATLAB code with other languages and applications, and distribute
your MATLAB algorithms and applications. [5]
4.1.1 Features include:
 High-level language for technical computing

 Development environment for managing code, files, and data
 Interactive tools for iterative exploration, design, and problem solving
 Mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis, filtering,
optimization and numerical integration
 2-D and 3-D graphics functions for visualizing data
 Tools for building custom graphical user interfaces
4.1.2 Introduction to M-Function Programming:
One of the most powerful features of the Image processing Toolbox is its transparent
access to the MATLAB programming environment. As will become evident shortly,
MATLAB function programming is flexible and particularly easy to learn.
M-FILES: So-called M-files in MATLAB can be scripts that simply execute a series of
MATLAB statements, or they can be functions that can accept arguments and can
produce one or more outputs. The focus of this section is n M-file functions. These
functions extend the capabilities of MATLAB to address specific user-defined
applications. M-files are created using a text editor and are stored with a name of the
form filename.m, such as average.m and filter.m. The components of a function M-file
are
 The function definition line
 The H1 line
 Help text
 The function body
 Comments
The function definition line has the form function [outputs] = name(inputs) For example,
a function to compute the sum and product (two different outputs) of two images would
have the form funciton [s,p] = sumprod(f,g) Where f, and g are the input images, s is the
sum image, and p is the product image. The name sumprod is arbitrarily defined, but the
word function always appears on the left, in the form shown. Note that the output
arguments are enclosed by square brackets and the inputs are enclosed by parentheses. If
the function has a single output argument, it is acceptable to list the argument without
brackets. If the single output argument, it is acceptable to list the argument without
brackets. If the function has no output, only the word function is used, without brackets
or equal sign. Function names must begin with a letter, and the remaining characters can
be any combination of letters, numbers, and underscores. No spaces are allowed.
MATLAB distinguishes function names up to 63 characters long. [5] Additional
characters are ignored. Functions can be called at the command prompt;
For example,
>>[s,p] = sumprod(f,g);
Or they can be used as elements of other functions, in which case they become sub
functions. As noted in the previous paragraph, if the output has a single argument, it is
acceptable to write it without the brackets, as in
>> y = sum(x)
The H1 line is the first text line. It is a single comment line that follows the function
definition line. There can be no blank lines or leading spaces between the H1 line and the
function definition line. An example of an H1 line is
% SUMPROD computes the sum and products of two images.
4.2 SCOPE OF WORK

Cellular network design for a specific area requires precise knowledge of the
propagation characteristics of the radio channel in that area. This paper discusses
the applicability of some well known theoretical models to the specific conditions
like area considerations, environmental conditions, etc. Three path loss models were
used to predict the path loss at various frequencies. Free-space path-loss (PL) model,
log-distance, log-normal PL model, Okumura/Hata Model and IEEE802.16d models
were used to predict the path loss in certain areas like urban, sub-urban and open area.
The simulation results were compared to real signal strength measurements
obtained from cellular networks.
4.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Wireless communication is the fastest growing segment of the wireless industry. As
such, it has captured the attention of the media and imagination of the public.
The vision of the wireless network communications supporting information
exchange between people or devices is the communications frontier of the next few
decades and much of it already exists in some form. However, many technical challenges
remain in designing of wireless networks that deliver the performance necessary to
support emerging applications. This thesis analyses the comparison of three different
models with calculating path loss for urban and highway. In addition, calculate the
received signal strength (RSS) of base station with noise and without noise for the
same area. We approach this problem by doing comparative study of different
types of path loss models. And using these models we can measure the RSS which
helps to deciding the handover. The basic characterization of the propagation of the
wireless channel can be described as large-scale and small-scale fading. Large-scale
fading deals with spatial characteristics of the channels. Basic propagation models
indicate that average received signal strength (RSS) power decreases logarithmically
with distance.
4.4 Propagation Models types

1. Free space propagation
2. Plane earth propagation
4.4.1 Free space propagation

The wave is not reflected or absorbed in free space propagation model. The ideal
propagation radiates in all directions from transmitting source and propagating to an infinite
distance with no degradation. Attenuation occurs due to spreading of power over greater
areas. Power flux is calculated by,
Pd = Pt / 4π d ² (4.1)
Where Pt is transmitted power

Pd is power at distance d from antenna.
The power is spread over an ever-expanding sphere if radiating elements generates a fixed
power. As the sphere expands the energy will be spread more thinly. The power received can
be calculated from the antenna if a receiver antenna is placed in power flux density at a point
of a given distance from the from the radiation.
To calculate the effective antenna aperture and received power the formulas are shown in
equation. The amount of power captured by the antenna at the required distance d, depends
on the effective aperture of the antenna and the power flux density at the receiving element.
There are mainly three factors by which the actual power received depends upon by the
antenna: (a) the aperture of receiving antenna (b) the power flux density (c) and the
wavelength of received signal.
For isotropic antenna effective area is given by,
Ae = λ ² / 4π (4.2)
Power received is given by,

Pr = Pd × Ae = Pt ×λ ² /(4π) (4.3)
Path loss is,

Lp = Power transmitted (Pt ) - Power received (Pr ) (4.4)
Now substituting equation (3) in equation (4) we get,

Lp (dB) = 20 log10 (4π ) + 20 log10 (d) - 20 log10 (λ ) (4.5)
Then substituting (λ (in km) = 0.3 / f (in MHz)) and rationalizing the equation produces the
generic free space path loss formula,
Lp (dB) = 32.5 + 20 log10 (d) + 20 log10 ( f ) (4.6)
4.4.2. Plane earth propagation model:
The affects of propagation model on ground is not considered for the free space propagation
model. Some of the power will be reflected due to the presence of ground and then received
by the receiver when a radio wave propagates over ground. The free space propagation model
is modified and referred to as the ‘Plain-Earth’ propagation model by determining the effect
of the reflected power[7]. Thus this model suits better for the true characteristics of radio
wave propagation over ground. This model computes the received signal to be the sum of a
direct signal which reflected from a smooth, flat earth. The relevant input parameters include,
the length of the path, the antenna heights, the operating frequency and the reflection
coefficient of the earth. The coefficient will vary according to the type of terrain either water,
wet ground, desert etc. For this the path loss equation is given by,
Lpe = 40log10 (d) - 20log10 (h1) - 20log10 (h2 ) (4.7)
Here, d is the path length in meter h1 and h2 are the antenna heights at the base station and
the mobile, respectively. The plane earth model in not appropriate for mobile GSM systems
as it does not consider the reflections from buildings, multiple propagation or diffraction
effects. Furthermore, if the mobile height changes (as it will in practice) then the predicted
path loss will also be changed.
4.5 Radio Propagation Models
Radio propagation models have a wide area of use from television broadcast to microwave
links. The abundance and variety of radio propagation models is based on the fact that they
were designed for different scenarios. Each of them has different limitations, most important
operating frequency and transmitter-receiver distance. A propagation model aims to represent
certain specifications that change with the environment at hand. Also, their characteristics
tend to change in accordance with the system that they will be applied for. For example, a
change over distance of hundred meters in a television broadcast may not have a great effect
in the way of coverage, but in a cellular network it would be quite a different situation [2]. So
the radio propagation model which will be used must be chosen carefully regarding both the
system it is used for and the physical specifics of the terrain it is applied to. In general, the
radio propagation models can be divided into two major categories, which are empirical
models and deterministic models. Selected propagation methods, are briefly discussed below.
Since the major objective of this work is to investigate their applicability in a specific area
and due to limited space, further details of the underplaying algorithms are not discussed in
the thesis but are given in the list of references.
4.5.1. Empirical
Empirical radio propagation models are based on measurement data rather than
mathematically expressed environment. These models are well suited for the areas which the
measurements were performed, but usually needs to be adapted for different places.
1) Okumura Model: The Okumura Model is one of the earliest radio propagation models
suggested, based on signal strength measurements. Okumura studied the reduction in power
density over distance in the Tokyo area. This model is completely statistical 2011
International Conference on Selected Topics in Mobile and Wireless Networking (iCOST)
978-1so its result are presented as curves instead of specific formulas.
2) Okumura-Hata Model: In order to apply Okumura’s studies to an area different than

Tokyo, Hata extended the Okumura model, deriving formulas from Okumura’s curves [4].
Most of the radio propagation models used today are extensions to Okumura-Hata model.
The Okumura-Hata model is well suited for large cells where the transmitter is higher than
the receiver and the surrounding buildings. The Okumura-Hata model is not suitable for path
loss calculations above 1500 MHz. COST 231 group extended Hata’s studies to cover a more
elaborated range of frequencies. COST 231 extension on the Okumura-Hata made this model
more suitable to use in cellular networks. COST 231-Hata model can be used in higher
frequencies such as 1800 MHz [2]. In order to reflect the specific physical conditions in more
detail further extensions are suggested to improve the COST 231-Hata and Okumura-Hata
models. One of the latest models suggested is Algorithm 9999, a Okumura-Hata based
propagation model developed by Ericsson [2]. In this model, radio propagation environment
is taken into account by using the area of demands digital map. Furthermore, Algorithm 9999
includes tuning parameters which make the model easily adaptable to different application
scenarios.
4.5.2 Deterministic Models

Deterministic models are based on theoretical analysis and unlike empirical models;
deterministic models can be applied to various scenarios without much additional adaptation
required. Deterministic radio propagation models usually use physical parameters related to
the propagation environment like building heights, width of streets, etc. The accuracy of these
parameters used is vital in deterministic models.
1) Walfisch-Bertoni Model: The Walfisch-Bertoni Model is the fist radio propagation model
which takes the signal diffraction at the roof tops into account [6]. In this model it is assumed
that the transmitter is higher than the receiver and it can not be seen from street level view.
This model considers that the diffracted waves will follow multiple paths to the receiver and
calculates multiple forward diffraction losses.
2) COST 231 Walfisch-Ikegami Model (Advanced Walfisch-Ikegami) : In cellular networks

the cell radius is usually about a few hundred meters. While performing predictions in dense,
highly populated areas, the radio propagation model must be able to calculate the path loss
for small cells. COST 231 proposes COST 231 Walfisch-Ikegami model, which is a
combination of Walfisch-Bertoni and Ikegami models [6]. This model uses the theoretical
approach of Walfisch-Bertoni model for the scenarios where the transmitter is higher than the
street level. The model uses measurement based data in cases where the transmitter height is
lower than the buildings. Also there is a line of sight component included in this model.
3) Advanced Walfisch-Ikegami Model: the Advanced Walfisch-Ikegami model is based on

similar principles as the COST 231 Walfisch-Ikegami model. However this model uses a
digital map of the area of demand to calculate effective transmitter and receiver heights [2].
Building separation distances, width of streets, building heights are also supplied by the
digital map. Higher resolution maps make the propagation model more accurate. This model
is well suited for dense urban environments.
4.6 EMPIRICAL PROPAGATION MODELS
Okumura and hata are among the two empirical propagation models. The two basic
propagation models are free space loss and plane earth loss would be requiring detailed
knowledge of the location and constitutive parameters of building, terrain feature, every tree
and terrain feature in the area to be covered. It is too complex to be practical and would be
providing an unnecessary amount of detail therefore appropriate way of accounting for these
complex effects is by an empirical model. There are many empirical prediction models like,
Cost 231 – Hata model, Okumura – Hata model, Sakagami- Kuboi model, Cost 231 Walfisch
– Ikegami model.
4.6.1. Okumura Model :

Okumura Model is the most widely used radio frequency propagation model for predicting
the behaviour of cellular transmission in urban area. This is based on measurement carried
out by Y. Okumura in 1960.It is used for a frequency range of 150MHz to 1500MHz The
Okumura model takes note of three terrains /environment: Open area: defined as Open space,
no tall trees or building in path. Suburb area: defined as Villages, highway scattered with
trees and houses, some obstacles near the mobile Urban area: defined as large settlement with
high building having two or more storeys, or big villages having buildings close to each other
and huge trees (Built up city or large town with large buildings and houses) Okumura used
the urban area as a standard model and introduced correction factors for application of the
model to other categories. The empirical path loss formula devised by Okumura, expressed in
terms of dB at carrier frequency.It is wholly based on measured data and no analytical
explanation among the simplest & best for in terms of path loss accuracy in cluttered mobile
environment.
However It suffers from disadvantages of slow response to rapid terrain changes ,common std
deviations between predicted & measured path loss 10dB - 14dB. It is widely used for urban
areas, useful for Frequencies ranging from 150MHz-1920MHz Frequencies can be
extrapolated to 3GHz Distances from 1km to 100km Base station antenna heights from
30m-1000m.Okumura developed a set of curves in urban areas with quasi-smooth terrain
effective antenna height: Base station hte = 200m Mobile: hre = 3m Gives median
attenuation relative to free space (Amu) Developed from extensive measurements using
vertical Omni-directional antennas at base and mobile Measurements plotted against

frequency.
4.6.2 Estimating path loss using Okumura Model
1. determine free space loss, Amu(f,d), between points of interest
2. add Amu(f,d) and correction factors to account for terrain
L50(dB)= LF + Amu(f,d) – G(hte) – G(hre) – GAREA

L50 = 50% value of propagation path loss (median)
LF = free space propagation loss
Amu(f,d) = median attenuation relative to free space
G(hte) = base station antenna height gain factor
G(hre) = mobile antenna height gain factor
GAREA = gain due to environment
Amu(f,d) & GAREA have been plotted for wide range of frequencies,
Where Antenna gain varies at rate of 20dB per decade or 10dB per decade
Model corrected for
• h = terrain undulation height
• isolated ridge height
• average terrain slope
• mixed land/sea parameter
4.6.3. Hata propagation model :
This model empirically formulates Okumura model by utilizing the graphical information
retrieved by Okumura. Just like in the Okumura model, the applicable frequency range for the
Okumura-Hata model is also 150 to 1500MHz, provides three separate formulae for each
type of environment, namely: Urban area, Suburban areas and open area. It’s main features
are as follows,
 Most famous model: Okumura-Hata
 Okumura made extensive measurements
 Hata transformed Okumura’s plots to an empirical model
 Valid for 150-1500 MHz
 Model takes the effect of
 Transmitter height hb in m
 receiver height hm in m
 frequency fc in MHz
 Distance d in km
Equation is given by
Lp = A + B log10(d) for urban area

A + B log10(d) − C for suburban area
A + B log10(d) − D for open area
where
A = 69.55 + 26.16 log10(fc) − 13.82 log10(hb) − a(hm)
B = 44.9 − 6.55 log10(hb)
C = 5.4 + 2 [log10(fc/28)]2
D = 40.94 + 4.78 [log10(fc)]2
− 19.33 log10(fc)
• Okumura and Hata’s model is in terms of
– carrier frequency 150 _ fc _ 1000 (MHz)

– BS antenna height 30 _ hb _ 200 (m)
– MS antenna height 1 _ hm _ 10 (m)
– distance 1 _ d _ 20 (km) between the BS and MS.
• The model is known to be accurate to within 1 dB for distances ranging

from 1 to 20 km.
Chapter 5
SIMULATION AND
RESULT ANALYSIS
5.1 Introduction to Simulation Software

Here, We have used MATLAB simulation software for various simulations of our results.
“MATrix LABoratory” is a tool for numerical computation and visualization. The basic data
element is a matrix, so if you need a program that manipulates array-based data it is generally
fast to write and run in MATLAB unless you have very large arrays or lots of computations.
The MATLAB is high-performance language for technical computing integrates
computation, visualization and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems
and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical use include
 Math and computation

 Algorithm development
 Data Acquisition
 Modeling, simulation and prototyping
 Data analysis, exploration and visualization
 Scientific and engineering graphics
 Application development including graphical user building
MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array tat does not require
dimensioning. It allows you to solve many technical computing problems, especially those
with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program
in a scalar non interactive language such as C or Fortran.
The name MATLAB stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB was originally written to
provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK and EISPACK projects.
Today, MATLAB engines incorporate the LAPACK and BLAS libraries, embedding the
state of art in software for matrix computation.
MATLAB has evolved over a period of years with input from many users.In university
environments, it is the standard instructional tool for introductory and advanced courses in
mathematics, engineering and science. In industry, MATLAB is the tool of choice for high
productivity research, development and analysis.
MATLAB features a family of add-on application-specific solutions called toolboxes. Very

important to most users of MATLAB, toolbox allow you to learn and apply specialized
technology. Toolboxes are comprehensive of MATLAB functions that extend the MATLAB
environment to solve particular classes of problems. You can add on toolboxes for signal
processing, control systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic, wavelets, simulation and many
other areas.
The MATLAB system consists of these main parts
Desktop Tools and Development Environment
This part of MATLAB is the set of tools and facilities that help you use and become more
productive with MATLAB functions and files. Many of these tools are graphical user
interfaces. It includes: the MATLAB desktop and Command Window, an editor and
debugger, a code analyzer and browsers for viewing help, the work space and folders.
Mathematical Function Library
This library is a vast collection of computational algorithm ranging from elementary

functions like sum, sine, cosine and complex arithmetic to more sophisticated function like
matrix inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions and fast fourier transforms
The Language
The MATLAB language is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements,
functions, data structures, input/output and object oriented programming features. It allows
both “programming in the small” to rapidly create quick programs you do not intend to reuse.
You can also do “programming in the large” to create complex application programs intended
for reuse.
Graphics
MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as well as
annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high level functions for two-dimensional and
three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation and presentation graphics.
It also includes low-level function that allow you to fully customize the appearance of
graphics as well as to build complete graphical user interface on your MATLAB applications.
External Interfaces
The external interfaces library allow you to write C and Fortran programs that interact with
MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB(dynamic linking),for
calling MATLAB as a computational engine and for reading and writing MAT-files.
Plotting Process
The MATLAB environment provides a wide variety of techniques to display data

graphically. Interactive tools enable you to manipulate graphs to achieve results that reveal
the most information about your data. You can also annotate and print graphs for
presentations or export graphs to standard graphics formats for presentation in web browsers
or the media.The process of visualizing data typically involves a series of operations. This
section provides a “big picture” view of the plotting process and contains link to sections that
have examples and specific details about performing each operation.
Exploring Data
After you create a graph, you can extract specific information about data, such as the numeric
value of a peak in a plot, the average value of a series of a data or you can perform data
fitting. You can also identify individual graph observation with Data tip and Data brushing
tools and trace them back to their data sources in MATLAB workspace.
5.2 Results and Discussions
Here, We have simulated results for 1. Free space Model, 2. Hata Model and 3. IEEE Model.
Results of various Models would be discussed as follows.
5.2.1. Free Space Model
Fig 5.1 Free space model
Here, we have simulated the results using MATLAB for various values of Gt and Gr for free
space and it is clear from the above simulation that it gives minimum path loss for the Gt=1
and Gr=1 for the same distance as compared to others values of Gt and Gr. Here, path loss is
measured in decibel and distance is measured in meters.
Fig. 5.2 Free space model
In this Grpah we have simulated the various results for various values of n and it is clear that
as value of n increases from 2 to 4 to 6 path loss is also increased thus it gives the best result
for n=2.
Fig 5.3 Free space model
Here, We have simulated results for various paths and compared with each other. From the
above graph it is clear that there are so many variations in the path loss and it is rapidly
changing as distance changes for all of the three paths.
5.2.2. Hata Model
Fig. 5.4 Hata Model
Here we have simulated the result for hata model for the various channels like urban,
suburban and open area channel. It is clear from the results that there is minimum path loss
for the open area as compared to urban and sub urban area for hata model.
5.2.3. IEEE Model
Fig .5.5 IEEE Model
Here, We have simulated the results for IEEE model for ht=30 m and hr=2m and
hr=10m.Here height of transmitter antenna is fixed for both the cases and height of receiver
antenna varies for both the cases.It is clear from the figure that as height of antenna increases
path loss decreases and thus it provides the better result for hr=10 as compared to hr=2.
Chapter 6
CONCLUSION AND
FUTURE SCOPE
6.1 CONCLUSION:-
In this thesis we aim to adopt a propagation model for Rourkela in which we examine
the applicability of Okumura-hata model in Rourkela in GSM frequency band. We
accomplish the investigation in variation in path loss between the measured and predicted
values Through MATLAB graph was plotted between path loss verses distance. The mean
square error (MSE) Was calculated between measured path loss values and those predicted
on basis of Okumura-hata model for a sub-urban area
6.2 FUTURE SCOPE:-

 In future this exercise can also be done to various path loss models.
 It may be possible that in future there are other path loss models define so at that time
it is very essential to compare them.
 It is also required by comparing them to improve efficiency.
 In practical among these which one is not physible hen by removing their practical
difficulties it should be improved.
REFERENCES
REFERENCES:-
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in multipath indoor environments," Progress In Electromagnetics Research, Vol. 91, 1-
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[6] Seow, C. and S. Tan, "Localization of omnidirectional mobile device in multipath
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indoor environment," IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference, 177-
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(MOBIQUITOUS04), 14-23, 2004. doi:10.1109/MOBIQ.2004.1331706.
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[16] ]Urban Area Radio Propagation Measurements at 955 and 1845 MHz for Small and
Micro Cells”, IEEE GLOBECOM ’91, 1991 P. E. Morgensen, P. Eggers, C. Jensen
and J. B. Andersen.
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[18] The influence of propagation in a live GSM network”, Journal of electrical
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[19] ]“Path loss model for densely Arboreous Citie in Amazon region”: pp-1- 3. Josiane, C.
R., Simone, G. C. F., Herminio, S.G and Gervasio P. S. C .
[20] Fundamentals of WiMAX Understanding Broadband Wireless Networking. Prentice
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APPENDIX
APPENDIX – 1
List of Publications
(i) Anand J. Bavarva, Prof. Mayur N. Parmar, Prof. Hemant Soni; “Analysis and comparison of
various path loss prediction models”;International Journal of Engineering
Development and Research; Volume 3, Issue 4, 2015;ISSN:2321-9939.
(ii) Anand J. Bavarva, Prof. Ashutosh Dave, Prof. Hemant Soni Prof. Abhimanu Singh;
“MATLAB Simulation based various path loss Prediction model”;International
Research Journal of Engineering and Technology; Volume 2, Issue 8, Nov 2015; e-
ISSN: 2395-0056, p-ISSN: 2395-0072.
APPENDIX – 2
Simulation Tools
 MATLAB Version 7.11.0.584 ( R2010b )
 Operating System: Microsoft Windows XP (service pack 2)
 Java VM Version: Java 1.6.0_17-b04 with Sun Microsoft Inc. Java HotSpot™ Client
Windows XP
 Adobe acrobat distiller Version 10.0.1434
 PC with Pentium 3 processor or equivalent
 400 MB free hard disk space
 256 MB of RAM
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Analysis and Comparison of various path loss prediction model

1.1 Introduction to the topic

1.2OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS:

The performance of wireless communication systems is mainly governed by the wireless

Recently wireless communications have become a necessity in public with continuously

A unique characteristic in a wireless channel is a phenomenon called ‘fading,’ the variation

1. General path loss model

1.3 INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

The vision of wireless communications supporting information exchange between people or

Figure 1.1 Path-Loss Definition

A unique characteristic in a wireless channel is a phenomenon called ‘fading,’ the variation

“Multipath Delay Measurements and Modeling for Inter floor Wireless

Propagation paths involving successive diffractions at the edges of window frames at

“Prediction of Received Signal Power and Propagation Path Loss in Open/Rural

“A Hata Based Model Utilizing Terrain Roughness Correction Formula”

unknown parameters by employing the Levenberg-Marquardt method. The accuracy of the

Physical-layer characterization is important for design of in-to-out body communication for

3.1 HISTORY OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

Current systems are attempting to implement “answer-back” capability, i.e. two-way

The vision of wireless communications supporting information exchange between people or

4.1 INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB

MATLAB is a high-level technical computing language and interactive environment for

4.1.1 Features include:

 High-level language for technical computing

4.1.2 Introduction to M-Function Programming:

 The function definition line

 The function body

% SUMPROD computes the sum and products of two images.

4.2 SCOPE OF WORK

4.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

4.4 Propagation Models types

2. Plane earth propagation

4.4.1 Free space propagation

Where Pt is transmitted power

Power received is given by,

Path loss is,

Now substituting equation (3) in equation (4) we get,

4.4.2. Plane earth propagation model:

Lpe = 40log10 (d) - 20log10 (h1) - 20log10 (h2 ) (4.7)

4.5 Radio Propagation Models

2) Okumura-Hata Model: In order to apply Okumura’s studies to an area different than

4.5.2 Deterministic Models

2) COST 231 Walfisch-Ikegami Model (Advanced Walfisch-Ikegami) : In cellular networks

3) Advanced Walfisch-Ikegami Model: the Advanced Walfisch-Ikegami model is based on

4.6 EMPIRICAL PROPAGATION MODELS

4.6.1. Okumura Model :

vertical Omni-directional antennas at base and mobile Measurements plotted against

4.6.2 Estimating path loss using Okumura Model

1. determine free space loss, Amu(f,d), between points of interest

2. add Amu(f,d) and correction factors to account for terrain

L50(dB)= LF + Amu(f,d) – G(hte) – G(hre) – GAREA

• h = terrain undulation height

• isolated ridge height

• average terrain slope

• mixed land/sea parameter

4.6.3. Hata propagation model :

 Most famous model: Okumura-Hata

 Okumura made extensive measurements

 Hata transformed Okumura’s plots to an empirical model