UNIT-1

INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

Written By:
Aftab Ahmad

Reviewed By:
Dr. Rizwan Akram Rana
Introduction
Statistics is a broad subject with applications in vast variety of fields. The word
“statistics” is derived from the Latin word “Status”, which means a political state.
Statistics is a branch of knowledge that deals with facts and figures. The term statistics
refers to a set of methods and rules for organizing, summarizing, and interpreting
information. It is a way of getting information from data.

Statistics

Data Information

We can say that Statistics is a science of collecting, organizing, interpreting and reporting
data. It is a group of methods which are used for collecting, displaying, analyzing, and
drawing conclusions from the data.
In other words, statistics is a methodology which a researcher uses for collecting and
interpreting data and drawing conclusion from collected data (Anderson & Sclove, 1974;
Agresti & Finlay, 1997).

Statistical data can be used to answer the questions like:

 What kind and how much data we need to collect?
 How should we organize and summarize the data?
 How can we analyze the data and draw conclusion from it?
 How can we assess the strength of the conclusion and evaluate their uncertainty?
Above discussion lead us to the conclusion that statistics provides methods for:
i) Design: Planning and carrying out research studies.
ii) Description: Summarizing and exploring data.
iii) Inferences: Making predictions and generalization about phenomena represented by
the data.

Objectives of Unit
After reading this unit the students will be able to:
1. demonstrate basic understanding of statistics.
2. know the characteristics of statistics.
3. explain the functions of statistics.
4. Enlist the characteristics of statistics.
5. tell the importance and limitations of statistics.
6. briefly explain the application of statistics in educational research.
7. distinguish between descriptive and inferential statistics.
8. describe variables and its types.
9. distinguish between the levels of measurement.
10. identify various statistical notations.

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1.1 Functions of Statistics
Functions of Statistics are summarized under following headings.
i) To present facts in a definite form
Daily we encounter millions of pieces of information which are often vague,
indefinite and unclear. When such pieces of information undergo certain statistical
techniques and are represented in the form of tables or figures, they represent
things in a perspective which is easy to comprehend. For example, when we say
that some students out of 1000 who appeared for B. Ed examination were declared
successful. This statement is not giving as much information. But when we say that
900 students out of 1000 who appeared for B. Ed examination were declared
successful; and after using certain statistical techniques we conclude that “90% of
B. Ed. students were successful”; now the sentence becomes more clear and
meaningful.

ii) To simplify unmanageable and complex data

In our daily life and in research also, we often get large amount of information. To
get a clear picture, statistics helps us either by simplifying such information by
taking few figures to serve as a representative sample or by taking average to give a
bird’s eye view of the large masses. Complex data may be simplified by presenting
them in the form of a tables, graphs or diagrams, or representing it through an
average etc.

iii) To use techniques for making comparisons

Often in research things become more clear and significant when they are
compared with others of the same type. The comparison between two different
groups is courtesy of certain statistical techniques, such as average, coefficients,
rates, ratios, etc.

iv) To enlarge individual experience

As an individual our knowledge is limited to what we can observe and see; and
that is a very small part of the ocean of knowledge. Statistics extends our
knowledge and experiences by presenting various conclusions and results, based on
numerical investigations. For example, we daily listen and also have general
impression that the cost of living has increased. But to know to what extent the
increase has occurred, and how far the rise in prices have affected different income
groups, it would be necessary to have a comparison of the rise in prices of articles
consumed.

v) To provide guidance in the formulation of policies

Statistics enable us to make correct decisions, whether they are taken by a
businessman or government. In fact statistics is a great servant of business in
management, government. Statistical methods are employed in industry in tackling
the problem of standardization of products. Large industries maintain a separate

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 department for statistical intelligence or statistical bureau, the work of which is to
collect, compare and coordinate figures for formulating future policies of the firm
regarding production and sales.

vi) To enable measurement of the magnitude of a phenomenon

Statistics enables us to measure the magnitude of a phenomenon under
investigation. Estimate of the population of a country or the quantity of wheat, rice
and other agricultural commodities produced in the country during any year are
examples of such phenomena.

1.2 Characteristics of Statistics

Following are the characteristics of statistics.
i) Statistics consists of aggregate facts
The facts which can be studied in relation to time, place or frequency can be called
statistics. A single isolated and unconnected fact or figure is not statistics because
we cannot study it in relation to other facts and figures. Only aggregate of facts e.g.
academic achievement of the students, I.Q. of a group of students, weight of
students in a class, profit of a firm etc. are called statistics.

ii) Multiple causes affect Statistics

A phenomena may be affected by so many factors. We cannot study the effects of
one factor on the phenomena only by ignoring others. To have a true picture we
will have to study the effects of all factors on the phenomena separately as well as
collectively, because effects of the factors can change with change of place, time or
situation. For example, we can say that result of class X in board examination does
not depend on any single factor but collectively on standard of teachers, teaching
methods, teaching aids, practical’s performance of students, standard of question
papers, environment of the examination hall, exam supervisory staff and standard
of evaluation of answers after the examination.

iii) Data should be numerically expressed, enumerated of estimated

Data to be called statistics should be numerically expressed so that counting or
measurement of data can be made possible. It means that the data or the fact must
be in quantitative form as achievement scores 60, 50, 85, 78, and 91 out of 100. If
it is not in quantitative form it should be quantified.

iv) Statistics are enumerated or estimated according to reasonable

standard of accuracy
For a clear picture of the phenomena under investigation, it should be researched
using reasonable standard of accuracy depending upon the nature and purpose of
collection of data. Data collection should be free from personal prejudices and
biases. Biased and personally prejudiced data leads to inaccurate conclusion.

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v) Statistics are collected in a Systematic Manner
In order to have reasonable standard of accuracy statistics/data must be collected in
a very systematic manner. Any rough and haphazard method of collection will not
be desirable for that may lead to improper and wrong conclusion.

vi) Statistics for a Pre-determined Purpose

Before collection of data, investigator/researcher must have a purpose and then
should collect data accordingly. Data collected without any purpose is of no use.
Suppose we want to know intelligence of a section of people, we must collect data
relating to I.O. level and data relating to income, attitude and interest level of that
group of people will be of no use. Without having a clear idea about the purpose
we will not be in a position to distinguish between necessary data and unnecessary
data or relevant data and irrelevant data.

vii) Statistics are Capable of being placed in Relation to each other

Statistics is a method for the purpose of comparison etc. It must be capable of
being compared; otherwise, it will lose much of its significance. Comparison can
be made only if the data are homogeneous. Data on memory test can be compared
with I.Q. It is with the use of comparison only that we can illustrate changes which
may relate to time, place, frequency or any other character, and statistical devices
are used for this purpose.

1.3 Importance and Scope of Statistics

Statistics is important in our daily life. We live in the information world and much of this
information is determined mathematically with the help of statistics. It means statistics
keeps us informed about day to day happening. Importance of statistics in our daily life is
discussed under following headings.
i) Every day we watch weather forecasting. It is possible due to some computer
models based on statistical concepts. These models compare prior weather with the
current weather and predict future weather.
ii) Statistics is frequently used by the researchers. They use statistical techniques to
collect relevant data. Otherwise there may be loss of money, time and other
resources.
iii) In business market statistics play a greater role. Statistical techniques are the key of
how traders and businessmen invest and make money. Also, in industry, these tools
are used in quality testing. Production managers are always interested to find out
whether the product is confirming the specification or not. He uses statistical tools
like inspection plan, control chart etc.
iv) Statistics also has a big role in the medical field. Before any drugs prescribed,
pharmacists show statistically valid rate of effectiveness. Similarly statistics is
behind all other medical studies. Doctors predict diseases on the bases of statistical
concepts.

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v) Print and electronic media use statistical tools to make predictions of winner of
elections and coming government.
vi) Statistics has widely been used in psychology and education to determine the
reliability and validity to a test, factor analysis etc.
vii) Apart from above statistics has a wide application in marketing, production,
finance, banking, investment, purchase, accounting and management control.

1.4 Limitations of Statistics

The science of Statistics has following limitations:
i) The use of statistics is limited to numerical studies
We cannot apply statistical techniques to all type of phenomena. These techniques
can only be applied to the phenomena that are capable of being quantitatively
measured and numerically expressed. For example, the health, intelligence,
honesty, efficacy etc. cannot be quantitatively measured, and thus are unsuitable for
statistical study. In order to apply statistical techniques to these constructs, first we
will have to quantify them.

ii) Statistical techniques deal with population or aggregate of individuals

rather than with individuals
For example, when we say that the average height of a Pakistani is 1 meter and 80
centimeters, we mean to shows the height not of an individual but as found by the
study of all individuals living in Pakistan.

iii) Statistics relies on estimation and approximations

Statistical techniques are not exact laws like mathematical or chemical laws. They
are derived by taking a majority of cases and are not true for every individual. Thus
the statistical inferences are uncertain.

iv) Statistical results might lead to fallacious conclusions

Statistical results are represented by figures, which are liable to be manipulated.
Also the data placed in the hands of an expert may lead to fallacious results
because figures may be stated without their context or may be applied to a fact
other than the one to which they really relate. An interesting example is a survey
made some years ago which reported that 33% of all the girl students at John
Hopkins University had married University teachers. Whereas the University had
only three girls student at that time and one of them married to a teacher.

1.5 Application of Statistics in Educational Research

Statistics is of vital importance in educational research. It does not include measurement
of problems such as construction of indices or the scoring of items on a questionnaire.
Rather, it involves a manipulation of numbers under the assumption that certain
requirements have been met in the measurement procedure. Statistics practically seems to

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work at the analysis stage of the research process when data have been collected. It does
not mean that social scientists can plan and carry out entire research projects without any
knowledge of statistics. Planning and carrying out research project and trying to analyze
data without using statistical techniques will carry away from the objectives of the study.

Statistics enters in the process right from the beginning of the research when whole plan
for the research, selection of design, population, sample, analysis tools and techniques
etc., is prepared.

1.6 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

Researchers use a variety of statistical procedures to organize and interpret data. These
procedures can be classified into two categories – Descriptive Statistics and Inferential
Statistics. The starting point for dealing with a collection of data is to organize, display, and
summarize it effectively. It is the major objective of descriptive statistics. Descriptive
Statistics, as the name implies, describes the data. Descriptive statistics consist of methods
for organizing and summarizing information. These are statistical procedures that are used
to organize, summarize, and simplify data. In these techniques raw scores are taken and
undergone some statistical techniques to obtain more manageable form. These techniques
allow the researcher to describe large amount of information or scores in a few indices such
as mean, median, standard deviation etc. When these indices are calculated for a sample,
they are called statistics; and when they are calculated from entire population, they are
called parameters (Fraenkel, Wallen, & Hyun, 2012). Descriptive statistics organizes scores
in the form of a table or a graph. It is especially useful when the researcher finds it
necessary to handle interrelationship among more than two variables.

Only summarizing and organizing data is not the whole purpose of a researcher. He often
wishes to make inferences about a population based on data he has obtained from a
sample. For this purpose, he uses inferential statistics. Inferential Statistics are techniques
that allow a researcher to study samples and then make generalizations about the
populations from which they are selected.

Population of a research study is typically too large and it is difficult for a researcher to
observe each individual. Therefore a sample is selected. By analyzing the results obtained
from a sample, a researcher hopes to make general conclusion about the population. One
problem with using sample is that a sample provides only limited information about the
population. To address this problem is the notion that the sample should be representative
of the population. That is, the general characteristics of the sample should be consistent
with the characteristics of the population.

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1.7 Variable
A variable is something that is likely to vary or something that is subject to variation. We
can also say that a variable is a quantity that can assume any of a set of values. In other
words, we can say that a variable is a characteristic that varies from one person or thing
to another. It is a characteristic, number or quantity that increases or decreases over time
or takes different value in different situations; or in more precise words, it is a condition
or quality that can differ from one case to another. We often measure or count it.
A variable may also be called a data item. Examples of variables for human are height,
weight, age, number of siblings, business income and expenses, country of birth, capital
expenditure, marital status, eye color, gender, class grades, and vehicle type, etc.

The variables that yield numerical information/measurement are called quantitative or

numerical variable and the variable that yield non-numerical information or measurement
are called qualitative or categorical variable. In the above example, first seven are the
examples of quantitative variable and last five are the examples of categorical variables.

Quantitative variables can further be classified as either discrete or continuous. A discrete

variable consists of separate, indivisible categories/values. No values can exist between
two neighboring categories/values – for example, seven dots or eight dots – no other
value can be observed in between them. These variables are commonly restricted to
whole countable numbers – for example, the number of children in a family or the
number of students attending the class. If anyone observes a class attending from day to
day, he may find 30 students one day and 29 students the next day. A discrete variable
may also consist of observations that differ qualitatively. For example, a psychologist
observing patients may classify some as having panic disorders, others as having
dissociative disorders, and some as having psychotic disorders. The type of disorder is a
discrete variable because there are distinct and finite categories that can be observed.

On the other hand, variables such as time, height, and weight are not limited to a fixed set
of separate, indivisible categories. They are divisible in an infinite number of fractional
parts. Such variables are called continuous variables. For example, a researcher is
measuring the amount of time required to solve a particular mental arithmetic problem.
He can measure time in hours, minutes, seconds, or fractions of seconds

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 Variable

Categorical
Numeric

Discrete Nominal

Continuous Ordinal
.
1.8 Level of Measurement
There are two basic types of variables – quantitative and categorical. Each uses different
type of analysis and measurement, requiring the use of different type of measurement
scale. A scale of a variable gives certain structure to the variable and also defines the
meaning of the variable. There are four types of measurement scales: nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio.
Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is the simplest form of measurement researchers can use. The word
nominal means “having to do with names.” Measurements made on this scale involve
merely naming things. It consists of a set of categories that have different names. Such
measurements label and categorize observations but do not make quantitative distinctions
between them. For example, if we wish to know the sex of a person responding to the
questionnaire, we would measure it on nominal scale consisting of two categories (male
or female). A researcher observing the behavior of a group of infant monkeys might
categorize responses as playing, grooming, feeding, acting aggressively or showing
submissiveness. As the researcher merely gives names to each category so, this is a
nominal scale of measurement. The nominal scale consists of qualitative distinctions.
Although, a nominal scale consists of qualitative differences, yet it does not provide any
information about quantitative differences between individuals. Numerical values like 0
and 1 are merely used as code for nominal categories when entering data into computer
programs.

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Ordinal Scale
In ordinal scale of measurement, the categories that make up the scale not only have
separate names but also are ranked in terms of magnitude. This scale consists of a set of
categories that are organized in an ordered sequence. For example, a manager of a
company is asked to rank employees in term of how well they perform their duties. The
collected data will tell us who the manager considers the best worker, the second best,
and so on. The data may reveal that the worker, who is ranked second, is viewed as doing
better work than the worker who is ranked third. However, we can get no information
about the amount that the workers differ in job performance, i.e. we cannot get the
answer of the question “How much better?” Thus, an ordinal scale provides us
information about the direction of difference between two measurements, but it does not
reveal the magnitude of the difference.

Interval Scale
An interval scale possesses all the characteristics of an ordinal scale, with additional
feature that the categories form a series of intervals that are exactly of the same size. This
additional information makes it possible to compute distances between values on an
interval scale. For example, on a ruler 1-inch interval is the same size at every location on
the ruler. Similarly 4-inch distance is exactly the same size no matter where it is
measured on the ruler. Similarly, the distance between the scores of 70 and 80 is
considered to be the same as the distance between scores of 80 and 90. For all practical
purposes these numbers can undergo arithmetic operations to be transformed into
meaningful results. Interval scale answers the question “How much better?” or “How
much is the difference?” But there is no intrinsic zero, or starting point. The zero point on
the interval scale does not indicate a total absence of what is being measured. For
example, 0o (zero degree) on the Celsius or Fahrenheit scale does not indicate no
temperature.

Ratio Scale
A ratio scale has all the characteristics of an interval scale but adds an absolute zero
point. It means on a ratio scale a value of zero indicates complete absence of the variable
being measured. Advantage of absolute zero is that a ratio of numbers on scale reflects
ratio of magnitude for the variable being measured. We can say that one measurement is
three times larger than another, or one score is only half as large as another. Thus, ratio
scale not only enables us to measure the difference between two individuals, but also to
describe the difference in terms of ratios.

1.9 The Scientific Method

There are many disciplines ranging from medicine and astrophysics to agriculture,
zoology and social sciences, where scientists a process called scientific method is used to
advance their knowledge and understanding.

Scientific method is a process for explaining the world we see. It is a process used to
validate observations while minimizing observer bias. This method is a series of steps

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that lead to answers that accurately describe the things we observe. Its goal is to conduct
research in a fair, unbiased and repeatable manner.

Scientific method is a tool for: (a) forming and framing questions, (b) collecting
information to answer those questions, and (c) revising old and developing new questions.

The scientific method is not the only way, but the best-known way to discover how and
why the world works. It is not a formula. It is a process with a manner of sequential steps
designed to create an explainable outcome that increases our knowledge base. The
process is as follows:
i) Ask a question
Asking a question is the first step of scientific method. Good questions come from
careful observations. Our senses are a good source of observation. Sometime
certain instruments like a microscope or a telescope are also used. These
instruments extend the range of senses. During the observation many questions
come in the mind. These questions derive the scientific method.

ii) Define the Problem

The question raised during the observation led to state a problem.

iii) Forming a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a clear statement of what one expect to be the answer of the question.
A hypothesis represents the best educated guess based on the one’s observation and
what he already knows. A good hypothesis is testable. It provides some specifics that
lead to method of testing. The hypothesis can also lead to predictions.

iv) Conducting the Experiment / Testing the Hypothesis

After forming the hypothesis, it is tested. There are different methods to test a
hypothesis. The most familiar method is to conduct an experiment.

v) Analyzing the Results

After the experiment (or whatever method is used to test a hypothesis), all
information, that are gathered, are analyzed. Tables and graphs are used in this step
to organize the data.

vi) Drawing Conclusions

On the basis of analysis, it is concluded whether or not the results support the
hypothesis. If, in case, hypothesis is not supported by the data, the researcher checks
for errors. Sometime he may have to reject the hypothesis and make a new one.

vii) Communicate the Results

After any scientific investigation, results should be communicated to let others
know the new piece of knowledge.

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1.10 Statistical Notations
Commonly used statistical notations are given in the following table.

Sr. Notation/ Used for

No Symbol
1 P Population proportion
2 p Sample proportion
3 X Set of population elements
4 x Set of sample elements
5 N Population size (Number of elements in the population)
6 n Sample size (Number of elements in the sample)
7 µ (mew) Population mean
8 x Sample mean
9 σ (Sigma) Standard deviation of the population
10 s Standard deviation of the sample
11 σ2 Variance of the population
12 s2 Variance of the sample
13 ρ or ƍ (rho) Population correlation coefficient based on all the elements of
the population (Spearman’s rank order correlation)
14 r Sample correlation coefficient based on all the elements of the
sample
15 B0 The intercept constant in a population regression line
16 b0 The intercept constant in a sample regression line
17 B1 The regression coefficient (the slope)in a population regression
line
18 b1 The regression coefficient (the slope)in a sample regression line
19 R2 Coefficient of determination
20 sb1 Standard error of the slope of a regression line
21 H0 Null hypothesis
22 H1 or Ha Alternate hypothesis
23 p Probability value
24 α (alpha) Level of significance
25 β (beta) Probability of committing a Type II error
26 Z or z Standardized score or z-score
27 ∑ Summation, used to compute sum over a range of values
28 ∑X Sum of a set of n observations. Thus ∑X = X1 + X2 + X3 + … +
Xn
29 χ2 Chi-square statistics
30 Var(X) Variance of random variable X
31 SD(X) Standard deviation of random variable X
32 M Mean of the sample
33 SE Standard error of a statistic

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 34 ME Margin of error
35 DF or Df Degree of freedom
36 Q1 Lower/first quartile (25% of population are below this value)
37 Q2 Median/second quartile (50% of population are below this
value, also median of the sample)
38 Q3 Upper/third quartile (75% of population are below this value)
39 IQR Inter-quartile range (Q3 – Q1)
40 X~ Distribution of random variable X
41 N (µ,σ2) Normal distribution / Gaussian distribution
42 U (a, b) Uniform distribution (equal probability in range a, b)
43 gamma (c, λ) Gamma distribution
44 χ2 (k) Chi-square distribution
45 Bin (n, p) Binomial distribution
46 F (k1, k2) F distribution
47 Poisson (λ) Poisson distribution

1.11 Self-Assessment Questions

Q. 1 What do you understand by statistics?
Q.2 What are the characteristics of statistics?
Q. 3 Explain the functions of statistics.
Q. 4 Write down the characteristics of statistics.
Q. 5 Why is statistics important for educational research? Also state its limitations.
Q. 6 How will you apply statistics in educational research?
Q. 7 How will you distinguish descriptive statistics from inferential statistics?
Q. 8 What is a variable? Also write its types.
Q. 9 Briefly state the levels of measurement.

1.12 Activities
1. Diagrammatically show how “data” becomes “information”.
2. Make a list of the questions that can be answered using statistics.
3. Make a list of the “functions of statistics”.
4. Think and write down any two characteristics not given in the unit.
5. Make a diagram to show the types of variables.
6. Draw a hierarchy of levels of measurement.
7. Make a list of the steps of scientific method.

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1.13 Bibliography
Agresti, A. & Finlay, B. (1997). Statistical Methods for Social Sciences, (3rd Ed. ).
Prentice Hall.

Anderson, T. W., & Sclove, S. L. (1974). Introductory Statistical Analysis, Finland:

Houghton Mifflin Company.

Dietz, T., and Kalof, L. (2009). Introduction to Social Statistics. UK: Wiley-Blackwell

Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2012). How to Design and Evaluate in
Education. (8th Ed.) McGraw-Hill, New York

Gravetter, F. J., & Wallnau, L. B. (2002). Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral
Sciences (4th Ed.). Wadsworth, California, USA.

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