Carbohydrate Polymers 207 (2019) 108–121

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Carbohydrate Polymers
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/carbpol

A comprehensive review of techniques for natural fibers as reinforcement in T

composites: Preparation, processing and characterization
⁎ ⁎ ⁎
Sanjay M.R.a, , Suchart Siengchina, , Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillaia, Mohammad Jawaidb, ,
Catalin Iulian Pruncuc,d, Anish Khane
a
Center of Innovation in Design and Engineering for Manufacturing, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, The Sirindhorn International Thai-German
Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
b
Department of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London, Exhibition Rd., London, UK
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Birmingham, UK
e
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Designing environmentally friendly materials from natural resources represents a great challenge in the last
Natural fiber decade. However, the lack of fundamental knowledge in the processing of the raw materials to fabricate the
Extraction method composites structure is still a major challenge for potential applications.
Chemical treatment Natural fibers extracted from plants are receiving more attention from researchers, scientists and academics
Surface treatment
due to their use in polymer composites and also their environmentally friendly nature and sustainability. The
Characterization
natural fiber features depend on the preparation and processing of the fibers. Natural plant fibers are extracted
either by mechanical retting, dew retting and/or water retting processes. The natural fibers characteristics could
be improved by suitable chemicals and surface treatments. This survey proposes a detailed review of the dif-
ferent types of retting processes, chemical and surface treatments and characterization techniques for natural
fibers. We summarize major findings from the literature and the treatment effects on the properties of the natural
fibers are being highlighted.

1. Introduction as byproducts. The commonly available natural fibers are jute, flax,
kenaf, hemp, ramie (extracted from bast), sisal, pineapple, palf (ex-
The high demand for environmentally friendly new materials makes tracted from leaf) cotton, kapok (extracted from seed), coir (extracted
the scientist develop materials from nature itself (Al-Oqla & Sapuan, from fruit), bamboo, elephant grass, (extracted from stalk) and etc.
2014; Alves et al., 2010). Composite materials based on en- (John & Thomas, 2008; Madhu et al., 2018; Thomas et al., 2015).
vironmentally friendly and renewable materials are increasingly used, Fig. 1 presents a general configuration of a natural fiber structure
to replace conventional materials formed from composites of synthetic and its microstructural organization covering the three main structural
materials that allows reducing the greenhouse gas emissions effect components, i.e. the cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin (Kabir, Wang,
(Sanjay et al., 2018; Väisänen, Das, & Tomppo, 2017). Natural fibers are Lau, & Cardona, 2012; Rong, Zhang, Liu, Yang, & Zeng, 2001). The
environmentally friendly materials employed as reinforcement for plant fiber consists of a primary cell at the peripheral and three sec-
making biocomposites, suitable for many industrial applications ondary walls at the interior and a lumen in the centre (Akil et al., 2011;
(Gowda et al., 2018; Neelamana, Thomas, & Parameswaranpillai, 2013; Mohanty et al., 2005). The main cell wall consists of cellulose crystal-
Siengchin, 2017). The plants from which the natural fibers are pro- line microfibril networks arranged in a disordered manner. In the sec-
duced might be characterized as primary and secondary subject to their ondary walls, the cellulose crystalline microfibrils are arranged heli-
application (Sanjay, Arpitha, Naik, Gopalakrishna, & Yogesha, 2016). cally, with the main direction of the fiber (Krassig, Cellulose-Structure,
The primary plants such as jute, hemp etc., are grown only for their & Reactivity, 1993). (Reproduced with permission from Elsevier, Li-
fibers, while the secondary plants such as banana, pineapple etc., are cense Number- 4443441230717)
cultivated for their fruits, and the fibers are produced from these plants The main conditions that affect the fibers quality are (i) growth of

⁎
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: mcemrs@gmail.com (S. M.R.), suchart.s.pe@tggs-bangkok.org (S. Siengchin), jawaid@upm.edu.my (M. Jawaid).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.11.083
Received 9 October 2018; Received in revised form 24 November 2018; Accepted 25 November 2018
Available online 26 November 2018
0144-8617/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. M.R. et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 207 (2019) 108–121

Fig. 1. Natural fiber structure and microstructural organization of the main three constituents of a natural fiber (Kabir et al., 2012).

Table 1
Advantages and disadvantages of natural fibers (Jawaid & Khalil, 2011; Sanjay & Siengchin, 2018; Sanjay et al., 2016; Saravana Bavan & Mohan Kumar,
2010).
Advantages Disadvantages

Low specific weight results in a higher specific strength and stiffness than glass Lower strength, especially impact strength
Renewable resources, production require little energy and low CO2 emission Variable quality, influence by weather
Production with low investment at low cost Poor moisture resistant which causes swelling of the fibers
Friendly processing, no wear of tools and no skin irritation Restricted maximum processing temperature
High electrical resistant Lower durability
Good thermal and acoustic insulating properties Poor fire resistant
Biodegradable Poor fiber/matrix adhesion
Thermal recycling is possible Price fluctuation by harvest results or agricultural politics

the plant (plant species, location of the crop and local climatic condi- Table 2
tions), (ii) harvest phase (age of the fibers, fiber thickness and adhesion Potential applications of natural fiberin various sectors (Ahmed, Balaji,
between fibers etc), and (iii) supply phase (method of transportation, Saravanakumar, Sanjay, & Senthamaraikannan, 2018; Puglia, Biagiotti, &
storage time and conditions) (Dittenber & GangaRao, 2012; Thakur & Kenny, 2005; Puttegowda et al., 2018; Sanjay & Siengchin, 2018; Sanjay et al.,
Thakur, 2014). Therefore, to obtain the best fibers quality, the above- 2016).
mentioned parameters should be optimized for each type of different Sector Application
fibers. There are several advantages of using natural fibers over other
Aerospace Tails, wings, propellers, helicopter fan blades
synthetic fibers such as glass fibers or carbon fibers. Some natural fibers
Automotive Door frames, door shutters, window frame, mirror casing
advantages are as follows : cost-effective, abundantly available, low Marine Boat hulls, fishing rods
specific weight, high specific resistance, high rigidity, renewable re- Building and Roofing sheets, bricks, furniture panels, storage tanks,
source, biodegradability, smaller energy consumption for production Construction pipelines
thus low CO2 emission, simple and environmentally friendly processing Sports & Ice skating boards, bicycle frames, baseball bats, tennis
leisure goods racket, fork, helmet, post-boxes
methods, excellent electrical resistance, good thermomechanical or/ Electronics Laptop and mobile cases, chip boards, projector and voltage
and relative high acoustic insulating features (Bledzki & Gassan, 1999; Appliances stabilizer cover
Jawaid & Khalil, 2011). Traditionally, natural fibers were employed in Others Pipes carrying coal dust, construction of weapons, textiles,
the manufacture of ropes, threads, fabrics, carpets, and cords (Reddy & industrial fans, paper and packaging
Yang, 2005; Sanjay & Siengchin, 2018; Sanjay et al., 2016). Recently,
these fibers were used in automotive sectors, goods packaging, low-cost
housing, other civil structures and paper industries (Holbery & mechanical extraction and chemical treatments have been introduced.
Houston, 2006; Siengchin, 2017). Table 1 shows some of the ad- In retting process, the existence of the bacteria and moisture in the
vantages and disadvantages of natural fibers and the potential appli- plants allows to break down large parts from cellular tissues and its
cations of natural fibers in various sectors are summarized in Table 2. adhesive substances that surrounds the fibers, enabling the separation
However, they are still very less exploited. To introduce natural fibers of individual fibers from the plant (Gurukarthik Babu, Princewinston,
in novel applications it is essential to recognize well its preparation and SenthamaraiKannan, Saravanakumar, & Sanjay, 2018; Hyness, Vignesh,
processing methods. Therefore, in this review, our effort was dedicated Senthamaraikannan, Saravanakumar, & Sanjay, 2018). The reaction
to investigating the methods of extraction of the fibers, chemical time must be carefully evaluated when using dew or water retting be-
treatments, surface treatments and characterization techniques. cause excessive retting can cause difficulties for the separation of in-
dividual fibers or may weaken the fiber strength (Manimaran,
Senthamaraikannan, Murugananthan, & Sanjay, 2018; Paridah, Basher,
2. Extraction methods SaifulAzry, & Ahmed, 2011).
In the dew retting method, the stems of the plants were cut and
The appropriate natural fibers extraction represents a major test evenly distributed in the fields, where the presence of bacteria, sun-
faced during the processing of plant fibers. The most common methods light, atmospheric air and dew causes break down of its cellular tissues
to separate the plant fibers are dew retting and water retting process. and adhesives substances that surrounds the fibers (Ahmed & Akhter,
Depending on the fiber category, these methods require approximately 2001; Antonov, Marek, Bjelkova, Smirous, & Fischer, 2007). Dew re-
14 to 28 days for the degradation of waxes, pectin, hemicellulose and tting is preferred in locations having heavy night dew and warm day.
lignin. To reduce long processing time, alternative methods such as

109
S. M.R. et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 207 (2019) 108–121

This process is economical and is widely used for the industrial pro- 3. Chemical treatments
duction of blast fibers. However, the most widely practised method is
water retting process, where bunches of stems plant were submerged in The natural fibers hydrophilic features and the polymer matrix
water (Bacci, Di Lonardo, Albanese, Mastromei, & Perito, 2011; Booth, hydrophobic characteristics are the main fundamental problems of
Goodman, Grishanov, & Harwood, 2004). The water can penetrate into using natural fibers as reinforcement for the polymer composites.
the central part of the stem and swells the internal cells, this results in However, by using a chemical treatment on the natural fibers allows
the bursting of the outer layer of the plants (Jankauskienė, Butkutė, reducing its fibers hydrophilic features (Bezazi et al., 2014; Li, Tabil, &
Gruzdevienė, Cesevičienė, & Fernando, 2015; Pickering, Li, Farrell, & Panigrahi, 2007; Mwaikambo & Ansell, 2002). The most important
Lay, 2007; Sisti, Totaro, Vannini, & Celli, 2018). For natural water re- chemical treatments used in order to reduce the hydrophilic char-
tting process, ponds, slow streams and rivers can be also utilized. Note acteristics of a natural fiber are presented as follows.
that, the water retting process generates low-quality fibers (Amaducci &
Gusovius, 2010; Lampke, Mishra, & Bismarck, 2005; Manimaran, 3.1. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) treatment
Senthamaraikannan, Sanjay, Marichelvam, & Jawaid, 2018, 2018c).
Also, water retting is a long-term process and potential of water con- The natural fibers treatment by NaOH is the most common. This
tamination prove this method to be less attractive for industrial appli- covers four different practices, such as 1) a constant concentration of
cations (Paridah et al., 2011; Ribeiro et al., 2015; Van der Werf & NaOH for a constant period of time (Reddy, Maheswari, Rajulu, &
Turunen, 2008). Guduri, 2009; Senthamaraikannan & Kathiresan, 2018;
On the other hand, the mechanical extraction process of fibers Shanmugasundaram, Rajendran, & Ramkumar, 2018), 2) using dif-
produces high-quality fibers with shorter retting time, however in re- ferent NaOH concentration for a constant period of time (Reddy,
spect to dew or water retting process this technique is more expensive Maheswari, Reddy, & Rajulu, 2009), 3) keeping a constant NaOH
(Paridah et al., 2011). A mechanical decorticator is presented in concentration for different time periods (Arthanarieswaran, Kumaravel,
Fig. 2(a). The mechanical decorticator consists of a series of compo- & Saravanakumar, 2015; Rajkumar, Manikandan, & Saravanakumar,
nents (i.e. rollers, beater and etc.). The space between these rollers is 3 2016; Reddy, Maheswari, Shukla, Song, & Rajulu, 2013) and 4) using
to 8 mm and has been maintained for the extraction of the fibers. The different NaOH concentrations for different time periods
outer layers of the fibers such as the gums and the stems skin are (Saravanakumar, Kumaravel, Nagarajan, & Moorthy, 2014). The second
eliminated by the continuous feeding of the fibers between the rotating and third practice methods are the most common treatments to de-
rollers. The decorticated fibers were repeatedly washed with water and termine the optimal conditions for natural fiber modification. At dif-
dried for 48 h in sunlight eliminating the water content from the fibers ferent NaOH concentrations with a constant period of time, the fibers
(Sathishkumar, Navaneethakrishnan, Shankar, & Rajasekar, 2013; should be treated with 2%–5% (w / v) NaOH solutions keeping the
Sreenivasan, Somasundaram, Ravindran, Manikandan, & temperature around 23 °C for a constant time, maintaining a proportion
Narayanasamy, 2011). of the liquor 20:1 that permits to eliminate hemicellulose and other
Recently, Bezazi, Belaadi, Bourchak, Scarpa, and Boba (2014), fatty materials. After this chemical practice the fibers are neutralized,
proposed two simple environmentally benign procedures for the ex- cleaned and dried (Liu et al., 2018; Reddy, Maheswari, Reddy et al.,
traction of Agave fibers. In the first method, the Agave leaves were 2009). At constant NaOH concentration with different time periods, the
buried at a depth around of 30–40 cm in the soil for three months natural fibers are treated in 5% (w / v) NaOH solution (generally 5% is
(Fig. 3a). In the second method, the fibers were submerged in a con- optimal for most natural fibers) varying the time (i.e. 15, 30, 45, 60, 75
tainer with water for around 10–13 days (Fig. 3b). The authors ob- and 90 min.) (Arthanarieswaran et al., 2015; Herlina Sari, Wardana,
served total biodegradation of the leaves from the matrix, allowing to Irawan, & Siswanto, 2018; Rajkumar et al., 2016). Later, the treated
separate the fibers. Table 3 presents a short summary of the extraction natural fibers are washed with deionized water, followed by the addi-
methods comparing different process, namely the dew, water retting tion of few drops of 0.1 N hydrochloric acid to remove the excess im-
and mechanical extraction process. purities (Reddy et al., 2013; Saravanakumar et al., 2014a; Sonnier,
Taguet, Ferry, & Lopez-Cuesta, 2018).

3.2. Acetic acid (CH₃COOH) treatment

The acetic acid solution (indicated as 5, 10 and 15% (w /v)) is used

to treat the fibers for 2 h in ambient temperature (23 °C) to remove
hemicellulose and other fatty materials from the surface of the fibers.
Later, it is used 0.1% (w / v) NaOH solution to neutralize the fibers,
followed by washing with water and then drying at 100 °C for 24 h
(Kommula et al., 2016).

3.3. Silane (SiH4) treatment

Silane is a multifunctional molecule that is used as a coupling agent

to modify the fiber surface (Asim, Jawaid, Abdan, & Ishak, 2016, 2018;
Atiqah, Jawaid, Ishak, & Sapuan, 2018; Sepe, Bollino, Boccarusso, &
Caputo, 2018). The vinyltrimethoxysilane and aminopropyl triethoxy
silane are the commonly used silanes in order to obtain reliable mod-
ification of natural fibers (Indira, Jyotishkumar, & Thomas, 2012;
Singha & Thakur, 2009; Singha et al., 2009). When is used silane
treatment, is required some amount of vinyltrimethoxysilane or ami-
nopropyl triethoxy silanes that is mixed with an ethanol water mixture
Fig. 2. (a). Schematic diagram of a mechanical decorticator (Sreenivasan et al., using the ratio (60:40). This solution is kept for 1 h and the pH is
2011). (Reproduced with permission from Elsevier, License Number- maintained at 4, by adding acetic acid. The fibers were immersed in the
4443450041307). above solution for 2 h, the treated fibers were later dried overnight at

110
S. M.R. et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 207 (2019) 108–121

Fig. 3. (a). Extraction of fibers from the ground when the plant is buried (Bezazi et al., 2014). (Reproduced with permission from Elsevier, License Number-
4443450240953) (b). leaves from water immersion (Bezazi et al., 2014). (Reproduced with permission from Elsevier, License Number- 4443450240953).

60 °C (Sreekala, Kumaran, & Thomas, 1997; Xie, Xiao, Militz, & Hao, indicates the use of seawater. Firstly, pH of the seawater and the sali-
2017; Zegaoui et al., 2018). nity need to be checked, later the fibers could be immersed in seawater
for up to 30 days. Finally, the fibers were washed with water and dried
3.4. Benzoyl peroxide (C14H10O4) treatment at ambient temperature (Leman, Sapuan, Azwan, Ahmad, & Maleque,
2008; Rashid, Leman, Jawaid, Ghazali, & Ishak, 2016; Sreekala et al.,
For benzoyl peroxide treatment the fibers were immersed in 6% 1997).
benzoyl peroxide in acetone for 30 min. The treated fibers were washed
and air dried for 24 h (Paul, Joseph, & Thomas, 1997; Saravanakumar,
3.8. Cellulose powder ((C6H10O5)n) treatment
Kumaravel, Nagarajan, & Moorthy, 2014).

The preparation of natural fibers with cellulose powder assume that

3.5. Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) treatment
the fibers are soaked separately in steel containers containing 2%–10%
of cellulose pulp. It is prepared within hot distilled water, for up to
For potassium permanganate treatment, the fibers were immersed
30 min. Later, the treated fibers were dried at 70 °C for 3 h (Indran, Raj,
in 0.5% potassium permanganate in acetone for 30 min. The treated
Daniel, & Saravanakumar, 2016).
fibers were washed and air dried for 24 h (Saravanakumar et al.,
2014b).
3.9. Polymer coating
3.6. Stearic acid ((CH3(CH2)16COOH)) treatment
Solution of polymer made from 12% mixture of A (i.e. 46% acrylic
For stearic acid treatment, a solution of 1% stearic acid in ethyl acid, 42% water, 8% styrene, 1.5% itaconic acid, and 2.5% alkyl di-
alcohol was used. This solution is later poured slowly into the natural phenyl oxide disulfonate (anionic surfactant)), 1% of B mixture (i.e.
fibers placed in the glass vessel with continuous stirring. The treated 7.5% sodium persulphate and 92.5% water), 1% of anionic surfactant
fibers were later dried at 80 °C for 45 min (Paul et al., 1997; and water 86% were mixed at 14,000 rpm, at circa 82 °C for 3 h. Later,
Saravanakumar et al., 2014b). the fibers are immersed in the mixed polymer solution for 30 min. In
this process, the carboxylic acid from a functional group of itaconic acid
3.7. Seawater treatment allows replacing the hydroxyl groups of natural fibers. Finally, the fi-
bers were filtered and then dried for 24 h at 60 °C (Hajiha, Sain, & Mei,
Another simple and economical method to modify natural fibers 2014).

Table 3
Comparison between water retting and mechanical extraction process.
Extraction Methods Dew Retting Water Retting Mechanical Extraction

Description Gathered samples plant stems are spread evenly on the Plant stems needs submersed in water (rivers, ponds, or tanks) Fibers hammering are separated
grassy fields, to receive a combined action of and checked periodically (microbial retting) with a hammer mill or/and
bacteria, sunlight, atmospheric air and dew decorticator
that causes break down of its cellular tissues and
adhesive substances that surrounds the fibers
Duration Two to three weeks, depending on the climatic 7–14 days Depending on production fibers
conditions
Advantages Common in areas The fibers produced are It produces large quantities of
in locations having heavy night dew and warm day and uniform and of higher quality short fibers in a short time
with limited water resources.
Disadvantages The obtained fibers are darker in colour and are of poor High cost, environmental concerns and inferior fibers quality, High cost and acceptable
quality. but better than fibers obtained through dew retting process. quality fibers
For dew retting process, the agricultural lands need to Requires high water
be occupied for several weeks, and also the obtained treatment maintenance
fibers are contaminated with soil and fungi.
Reference Ahmed & Akhter, 2001; Antonov et al., 2007; Bacci Amaducci & Gusovius, 2010; Lampke et al., 2005; Manimaran, Paridah et al., 2011;
et al., 2011; Booth et al., 2004; Jankauskienė et al., Senthamaraikannan et al., 2018, 2018c; Paridah et al., 2011; Sathishkumar et al., 2013;
2015; Paridah et al., 2011; Pickering et al., 2007; Sisti Sisti et al., 2018; Ribeiro et al., 2015; Van der Werf & Turunen, Sreenivasan et al., 2011
et al., 2018 2008

111
S. M.R. et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 207 (2019) 108–121

3.10. Bleaching 4. Surface treatments

For bleaching, natural fibers are being treated with Ca(ClO)2 (cal- The natural fibers require some surface treatments in order to im-
cium hypochlorite) for 45 min. The bleached fibers are then washed prove its surface performance (George, Sreekala, & Thomas, 2001;
with deionized water and then dried for 24 h at 80 °C in a vacuum oven Mohanty, Misra, & Drzal, 2001). The chemical treatments are aimed to
(Jayaramudu et al., 2011). reduce the hydrophilic nature of the fibers, but the surface treatments
may not only modify the fiber surface but also increase the fiber
strength which leads to improving the adhesion mechanisms between
3.11. Graft copolymerization
the fiber surface and the polymer matrix. Despite the importance of
surface treatment, there are a limited amount of approaches used to
In the graft copolymerization reaction, an initiator (KPS) in a small
tackle this challenge due to the lack of availability of surface treatment
amount together with the monomer (MMA) is used once the fiber is
equipment. This section explains the most commonly used surface
immersed in distilled water. The reaction parameters should be con-
treatments dedicated to the natural fibers and some beneficial effects on
trolled in order to obtain the optimum grafting percentage while
the fibers. Table 5 presents the surface treatments effects on natural
combining the parameters such as time, temperature, the volume of
fibers.
solvent, initiator and monomer concentration (Bledzki, Reihmane, &
Gassan, 1996; Malkapuram, Kumar, & Negi, 2009). The percentage
4.1. Plasma treatment
grafting could be calculated using the equation, (Pg) = {(Wg – W)/ W}
× 100 where ‘W’ is the weight of raw Grew (Mishra, Misra, Tripathy,
Plasma treatment has been successfully used to remove the im-
Nayak, & Mohanty, 2001; Thakur, Thakur, & Singha, 2013; Thakur,
purities on the surface of the natural fibers (Cruz & Fangueiro, 2016;
Thakur, & Gupta, 2014).
Shahidi, Wiener, & Ghoranneviss, 2013). Oliveira, Erkens, Fangueiro, &
Souto, 2012, provided a robust review regarding the modification of the
3.12. Isocyanate treatment banana surface fibers by treatment with atmospheric dielectric dis-
charge (DBD) plasma. A semi-industrial prototype machine from Softal
The treatment with isocyanate assumes that the natural fibers are Electronics GmbH was used to carry out the experiments in the ambient
prepared in a bottom flask having a round form that contains a certain conditions while using atmospheric pressure. A brief representation of
amount of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) and a small amount of a catalyst experimental DBD is shown in Fig. 4. On a paper frame, each fiber was
(dibutyltin dilaurate). The urethane derivative is added dropwise to placed parallel to another one, they were fixed on a cotton fabric for a
natural fibers containing a catalyst, with stirring. The reaction will be continuous flow treatment. After the plasma treatment, the paper frame
completed in 1 h, later urethane treated fibers were refluxed during 8 h is turned upside down for the treatment on the other side.
in acetone by a soxhlet apparatus. Distilled water is required in the final
step to treat the fibers while washing followed by drying at 80 °C in an 4.2. Vacuum ultraviolet irradiation treatment
oven (Bledzki et al., 1996; Malkapuram et al., 2009; Paul et al., 1997).
Among all chemical treatments, the most common chemical treat- Vacuum ultraviolet irradiation (VUV) is considered a relatively new
ment for natural fibers is NaOH, because it is an easy and feasible technique, widely accepted for removing impurities from the plant fiber
technique to treat huge quantity of fibers, very little work being pub- surface. In an interesting work, Kato et al., 1999, addresses the surface
lished on other chemical treatments. A summary of the chemical oxidation of fibers by UVU treatment. During the treatment, the fibers
treatments and its effects on the natural fibers is presented in Table 4. were placed in a chamber of stainless steel having a length of 140 mm

Table 4
The chemical treatments and its effects on the natural fibers.
Chemical Treatment Treatment effect References

NaOH treatment Remove the amorphous content, hemicellulose and lignin, which Arthanarieswaran et al., 2015; John & Thomas, 2008; Rajkumar et al.,
leads to fiber surface becoming rough. It is expected that such rough 2016; Reddy et al., 2013; Saravanakumar et al., 2014b;. Valadez-
surfaces promote a strong link of interfacial bond when the fibers and Gonzalez, Cervantes-Uc, Olayo, & Herrera-Franco, 1999; Wang,
the matrix composites are made of fibers as reinforcement Panigrahi, Tabil, & Crerar, 2007
Acetic acid treatment Acetic acid treatment enhances tensile properties and the initial Kabir et al., 2012; Kommula et al., 2016; Mohanty et al., 2005
degradation temperature of the fibers. Therefore, the acid surface
treatments will improve the performance when the fibers are used as
natural reinforcement for composites.
Silane treatment Improves the physicochemical properties of natural fibers Singha et al., 2009; Singha & Thakur, 2009; Sreekala et al., 1997
Benzoyl peroxide treatment It allows to enhances the adhesion mechanism between the natural Paul et al., 1997; Saravanakumar et al., 2014b
fiber and polymer matrix
Potassium permanganate Enhance the physicochemical properties through the removal of wax Paul et al., 2008; Rahman, Mallik, & Khan, 2007; Saravanakumar
treatment and other cementing materials et al., 2014b
Stearic acid treatment Provides superior physicochemical properties when compared to all Paul et al., 1997; Saravanakumar et al., 2014b
the above chemical treatments
Seawater treatment Removes the hemicellulose and generate pectin. This treatment leads Ishak, Leman, Sapuan, Salleh, & Misri, 2009; Leman et al., 2008;
to fibrillation of natural fibers similar to alkai treatment. Rashid et al., 2016; Sreekala et al., 1997
Cellulose powder treatment Provides a good wetting chemistry between the natural fibers and the Indran et al., 2016
matrix
Polymer Coating Helps to improve the compatibility between the natural fibers and its Hajiha et al., 2014
polymer matrix
Bleaching Permits to better control its thermal stability and/or the tensile Jayaramudu et al., 2011
properties of the natural fibers
Graft copolymerization Improve the swelling and its thermal properties Bledzki et al., 1996; Malkapuram et al., 2009; Mishra et al., 2001;
Thakur et al., 2013, 2014
Isocyanate treatment Significantly increases the mechanical properties and water Bledzki et al., 1996; Malkapuram et al., 2009; Paul et al., 1997
resistance of the natural fibers

112
S. M.R. et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 207 (2019) 108–121

Table 5
The surface treatments effects on natural fibers.
Surface Treatment Treatment effect References

Plasma treatment Surface etching improves the surface roughness of the plant fibers, resulting Cruz & Fangueiro, 2016; Maissel & Glang, 1970; Oliveira
in a better interface with the matrices through mechanical interlocking et al., 2012; Shahidi et al., 2013; Sinha and Panigrahi, 2009
Vacuum Ultraviolet Irradiation Improves the surface properties such as adhesion, wettability, tribiological Kato et al., 1999
treatment properties, fouling, barrier, insulation, dyeing, and biocompatibility
Ozone treatment Helps to maintain its mechanical properties Ali et al., 2018; Kato et al., 1999
Corona treatment Enhance the acidity and the basicity of surface of fibers Bataille, Dufourd, & Sapieha, 1994; Belgacem et al., 1995;
Uehara & Sakata, 1990
γ -Ray treatment Increase in strength of natural fiber with gamma radiation dose due to the Földváry et al., 2003; Khan, Haque, Al-Kafi, Alam, & Abedin,
intercross-linking between the neighbouring cellulose molecules 2006; Takacs et al., 1999; Tóth et al., 2003
Laser treatment Remove lignin content and increases structural properties of fibers Botaro, Dos Santos, Júnior, & Da Costa, 2001; Kolar et al.,
2000; Mizoguchi et al., 2000

4.4. Corona treatment

Belgacem, Czeremuszkin, Sapieha, & Gandini (1995), conducted

some experiments to observe the surface improvements of the cellulose
fibers using corona treatment. In the experimental set up was consisted
of two flat aluminium electrodes and a quartz plate as the dielectric
spacer. About 1 g of cellulose fiber was placed in the corona cell with
the cell volume of 5 cm3 and treated for 1 min with an applied potential
of 15 kV and frequency of 60 Hz at 25 °C with 50% relative humidity
(Uehara & Sakata, 1990).
Fig. 4. Schematic DBD Plasma treatment device for surface preparation
(Oliveira et al., 2012). (Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature, 4.5. γ -Ray treatment
License Number- 4443450601219).
Tóth, Borsa, and Takács (2003), explained the treatment of γ -ir-
radiation on cotton-cellulose. In this method, firstly the cotton cellulose
was treated with NaOH (1–6 mol dm−3) this is followed with TMAH
(1–3 mol dm−3). The treated fibers were neutralized and dried. In the
final stage, the fibers were post-processed with 5 kGy/h dose rate by a
Co60 γ source in open air (Földváry, Takács, & Wojnarovits, 2003;
Takacs et al., 1999).

4.6. Laser treatment

Mizoguchi et al. (2000), conducted laser surface treatment on cel-

lulose fibers by excimer laser irradiation system. Three types of excimer
lasers (i.e. ArF (193 nm), KrF (248 nm) and XeCl (308 nm) were used
Fig. 5. Measurement of fiber diameter by an optical microscope (Sample Image
for irradiation. The Lambda-Physik LPX210i (of ArF and KrF laser) and
for reference).
Lambda-Physik EMG102MSC (of XeCl laser) were used for fiber treat-
ment at ambient condition. The pulse width consists of 20 ns of ArF,
and diameter of 35 mm. High energy radiations below 200 nm were 23 ns of KrF and 14 ns of XeCl depending on the type of the laser, the
used for irradiation. The experiments are performed at room tempera- frequency used is 1 Hz. Ne gas was used as a buffer gas. A concavo-
ture with an applied pressure of 2.5 Torr. The Xe KsR-2A8 was used as convex lens is used to obtain good focus on the laser beam that permits
the source lamp equipped with MgF2 window, 30 mm away from a to adjust the laser fluence. The fluence is measured using a joulemeter
sample holder. The photodiode measures an intensity of 3 × 1015 and an oscilloscope. The sample is placed in the sample holder between
photons/(s cm2) when irradiated with radiations of 147 nm. the concave-convex lens and joule meter. The area of irradiation is
0.24–1.20 cm2. The influence of irradiation fluence (100–500 mJ/cm2)
and the pulses number (0–100) on the fiber surface structure could be
4.3. Ozone treatment analysed.

Ozone or oxygen-fluorine gas has been used successfully to improve 5. Characterization methods
the surface of the natural fiberssurface. In one of the important works
by Kato et al. (1999), explained in detail the process that allows gen- This section is dedicated to presents the most useful characteriza-
erating surface oxidation on the cellulose fibers using an ozone treat- tion methods for the natural fibers. The characterization methods are
ment method. This method assumes that the cellulose nonwoven form very essential in order to select the natural fibers suitable as re-
of fabrics are exposed to ozone gas at 20 °C, while the flow rate is set as inforcement for polymer composites.
50 L/h. The time of exposure varies from 5 min to 9 h. An ozone gen-
erator type O-Z-2 from Nippon Ozone Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan was used 5.1. Density measurement
to generate ozone, the machine was operated at a voltage of 100 V. The
fibers that are treated are washed thoroughly using distilled water in Firstly, for measuring the density of the fibers, the fibers require
order to remove any ozone adsorbed on the fiber surface, later on being drying for 48 h in a non-hygroscopic desiccator that contains calcium
vacuum dried for 24 h at 60 °C. chloride (Varma, Krishnan, & Krishnamoorthy, 1989). Later, the fiber is

113
S. M.R. et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 207 (2019) 108–121

Fig. 6. (a). Natural fiber characterization by XRD (Sample Image for reference). (b). Details obtained when is analysed a natural fiber sample using FTIR (Sample
Image for reference).

impregnated in toluene for 2 h to eliminate the existence of micro- 2018; Sathishkumar et al., 2013). The density of natural fiber (ρ) is
bubbles from the fibers. The fibers were cut to a length of 5–10 mm and
kept into the pycnometer (Beakou, Ntenga, Lepetit, Ateba, & Ayina,
calculated by formula; ρ = ( m2 − m1
(m3 − m1)(m 4 − m2) ) ρ , where m , m
T 1 2, m3, and
m4 are the mass of the empty pycnometer (kg), pycnometer filled with
2008; Manimaran, Senthamaraikannan, Senthamaraikannan et al., chopped fibers (kg), pycnometer filled with toluene (kg), and

114
S. M.R. et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 207 (2019) 108–121

Table 6 major components that form the natural plant fibers cell walls. As a
FTIR peak positions and corresponding chemical stretching mode vibrations on result, a chemical measurement of a fiber composition is required.
the natural fiber (Alawar, Hamed, & Al-Kaabi, 2009; Arthanarieswaran et al., Beakou et al. adopted the method of Kurshner and Hoffer to measure
2015; De Rosa, Kenny, Puglia, Santulli, & Sarasini, 2010; He, Tang, & Wang, the cellulose content. The crushing and extraction of the fiber are made
2007; Jayaramudu, Guduri, & Rajulu, 2010; Le Troedec et al., 2008; Li, Li, Zou,
by dichloromethane and later treated with 95% nitric acid solution and
Zhou, & Lian, 2014; Maepa et al., 2015; Pandey, 1999; Tserki, Zafeiropoulos,
a mixture of ethanol. After the fibers treatment, the cellulose is gen-
Simon, & Panayiotou, 2005).
erated in an insoluble fraction (Beakou et al., 2008). Goering (1970) has
Wave number (cm−1) Allocations proposed to estimate the hemicellulose contents, of the fibers, by a
neutral detergent fiber approach. In this method, the fiber is prepared
3700 – 3500 OeH stretching of α-cellulose
3500 – 3300 NeH stretching (Amine) by refluxing the fiber in a solution of 10 ml that contain cold neutral
3500 NeH stretching (Amide) detergent solution plus some sodium sulfite (the percentage depends on
3100 – 3000 C]CeH stretching the amount of fiber) for 1 h. The mixture is filtered through a sintered
2960 – 2850 CeH stretching glass crucible (G-2), later the residue require washing using hot distilled
2590 – 2540 SeH stretching
1740 – 1720 C]O stretching of hemicelluloses
water and potentially ethanol (Agu et al., 2014). Lignin is usually cal-
1685–1655 & 1600 α, β – unsaturated stretching culated using the APPITA method P11s-78 (Pulp, 1978; Ververis,
1680 – 1650 N]O stretching Georghiou, Christodoulakis, Santas, & Santas, 2004), the TAPPI method
1650 – 1630 OH (Absorbed water) is used to record the ash content (Tappi, 1993; Ververis et al., 2004),
1600 C]O stretching (Amide)
while the wax content is determined by the Conrad method (Conrad,
1,600,158,015,001,450 C]C stretching
1450 – 1400 CH2 Symmetric bending 1944; Marsh, Barker, Kerr, & Butler, 1950).
1567,1380 NO2 stretching
Above 1500 C]O,NH2,NH,C]C,C]N functional group stretching 5.5. Anatomy study
Below 1500 Single bonds and bending vibrations
1395–1385 t-butyl stretching
1365 CH bending (deformation) Anatomy investigations permits to obtain hierarchical structure
1350–1260 CeO stretching details of the natural fibers (such as size, fiber bundles, fiber cells in
1150 – 1070 CeOeC stretching fiber bundle, data of primary and secondary cell walls, and its cell
1050–1020 Symmetric CeOH stretching of lignin
chemical compositions) through optical microscope or by using SEM
815 – 750 NeO stretching
800–600 CeS stretching
measurements (Belouadah, Ati, & Rokbi, 2015; Saravanakumar,
770 – 735 CeC deformation Kumaravel, Nagarajan, Sudhakar, & Baskaran, 2013).
520 – 420 SeS stretching
5.6. X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) analysis

pycnometer filled with chopped fibers and toluene solution (kg) re-
XRD is a non-destructive and rapid analytical technique that is
spectively (McNulty & Kennedy, 1982; Rao & Rao, 2007; Truong,
mainly used to identify the crystallographic structure, and chemical
Zhong, Boyko, & Alcock, 2009).
composition of natural fibers (Liu & Hu, 2008; Madhu et al., 2018;
Mannan, 1993). The X-ray diffraction allows the natural fibers (pro-
5.2. Diameter measurement cessed) to be scanned in a 2θ range, varying from 10° to 50°. The
spectrum acquired from the measurements, corresponding to a given
In practice, the measurement of the diameter of the natural fibers is fiber (plotted in Fig. 6a), shows the diffraction peaks of the amorphous
made using a digital micrometre or by a microscope (OM and SEM). and crystalline regions. From the obtained X-ray diffractogram, the
The use of a digital micrometre (Beakou et al., 2008) permits mea- crystallinity index (CI) is calculated by the formula;
surements with an accuracy of 0.001 mm, otherwise, measurements by
an air wedge ( ± 0.001 mm) (Balaji & Nagarajan, 2017) is another (
CI = 1 −
IAM
I000 ) × 100 % where I
00 and IAM is the intensity of crystalline
alternative technique. phase, and the amorphous phase respectively (Segal, Creely, Martin, &
Conrad, 1959). The crystallite size (CS) could be calculated using the
0.89λ
5.2.1. Optical microscope (OM) equation; CS000 = β cos θ , where β is the full-width at half-maximum of
000
It is well recognized the difficulty of measuring with precision the the peak, while θ is the Bragg angle (Seki, Sarikanat, Sever, &
diameter of the natural fiber, because the fibers have an irregular shape Durmuşkahya, 2013).
and its thickness can vary. The natural fiber may form as numerous
numbers of elements (i.e. fibers) surrounded by lignin and hemi- 5.7. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
celluloses, therefore their cross section is not circular. Fig. 5 is pre-
sented as a common option to measure an individual fiber bundle FTIR is considered a non-destructive analysis that can provide
diameter by an optical microscope image analyser. The fiber (for con- quantitatively and of course qualitative details of the natural fibers. An
sistency 5–10 samples were evaluated) is measured on 3–4 locations infrared absorption spectrum is obtained from chemical compositions
along its length and the average diameter is considered (Asim et al., of the natural fibers. FTIR spectra obtained from the natural fibers is
2016; Kabir, Wang, Lau, & Cardona, 2013). principally observed in the range of 400–4000 cm−1 frequency (Madhu
et al., 2018; Manimaran, Senthamaraikannan, Senthamaraikannan
5.3. Fiber fineness test et al., 2018). Some information gathered from an analysed sample are
presented in Fig. 6b. Table 6 provides the details of peak positions and
By following the guidelines of ASTM D1577 standard is possible to its corresponding chemical stretching mode vibrations on the natural
obtain details of the fibers quality. This practice requires at least 10–20 fiber.
samples of fiber (length of 200–300 mm) to be evaluated for con-
sistency (Rwawiire & Tomkova, 2015). 5.8. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)

5.4. Chemical analysis TGA method permits to measure the thermal performance of the
fibers when the weight of material changes. The physical and its che-
Cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and some lignin are considered as mical properties can be measured as a function of increasing

115
S. M.R. et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 207 (2019) 108–121

Fig. 7. SEM micrographs of a natural fiber (Sample Images for reference).

temperature while keeping a constant heating rate. The changes in mass images (e. g. in Fig. 7) of the fibers when scanning by an electron beam
during the measurement is evaluated by a thermal analyser. This focused across the surface and detecting the secondary or backscattered
method requires that the natural fibers are exposed to nitrogen gas electronic signal. The sample used on the SEM analysis requires to be
while using a flow rate of ca. 20 ml/min. The natural fiber powder is covered with some amount of thin gold layer in order to prevent the
placed in an alumina pan to measure the temperature of the thermo- potential accumulation of the electrical charges once analysis
couple. The increase in the temperature is made by increasing the (Manimaran, Senthamaraikannan, Senthamaraikannan et al., 2018,
heating rates in steps from a given value of 10 °C/min over a range of 2018b, 2018c; Madhu et al., 2018).
temperature (from room temperature to 1000 °C) (Manimaran,
Senthamaraikannan et al., 2018, 2018c; Saravanakumar et al., 2013). 5.11. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) analysis

5.9. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis The TEM micrographs give precisely diameter of the fibers. Even the
minute details of the fibers could be analysed by TEM micrographs. The
The analysis is performed by using a DSC machine. Approximately transverse dimensions of various sublayers that forms a cell wall could
2–3 g of natural fiber powder is placed and sealed in aluminium pans. be analysed by TEM micrographs (Beakou et al., 2008). However, these
An imposed heating rate of 10 °C/min is required, conditions that are methods require a stringent process of sample preparation. Initially, the
obtained while heated in an inert N2 atmosphere that starts from room fibers are boiled twice with excessive 1% NaOH solution, for 3 h. The
temperature to the melting peak of the fibers. The melting peak (⊗H) fibers were then treated with 0.05 mol/L HCl solution and washed with
and Tg are determined as standard (Chand & Joshi, 2010; Rwawiire & water. Later, the fibers are placed in distilled water, over 4 h, to pro-
Tomkova, 2015). duce a sample that permits carefully examination of the fibers structure
in TEM (Liu, Han, Huang, & Zhang, 2009).
5.10. Scanning Electron microscope (SEM) analysis
5.12. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis (EDX)
The morphology of a fracture surface produced from the composites
and fibers are analysed by SEM to determine the ability of the fiber to The EDX requires an analytical approach to explore the chemical
act as a good reinforcement. SEM provides detailed high-resolution composition generated by fibers surface. This method allows detecting

116
S. M.R. et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 207 (2019) 108–121

Fig. 8. (a). Image sample obtained by EDX of a natural fiber. Detail of a natural fiber image acquired by AFM. b) 3D characterization and c) 2D profile (Sample
Images for reference).

the major chemical compositions of fiber including C and O along with 5.13. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) analysis
Na, Al, Si, Mg. However, it cannot detect H, which represents the major
constituents of natural fibers (Ali, 2016; Rashid et al., 2016). Fig. 8a. The AFM technique allows obtaining measurements of the surface
presents a sample image obtained by EDX. profile with a resolution up to the subnanometer level. This method
requires only some amount of sample preparation (i.e. cleaning). AFM

117
S. M.R. et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 207 (2019) 108–121

measures the attractive and/or repulsive forces existing between the tip the splitting of the fiber bundles. The surface treatments of the natural
of a cantilever and the fiber. Therefore, AFM can measure directly the fibers represent a very challenge topic for the research community
forces that dominate the adhesion phenomena (Balnois, Busnel, Baley, mainly because of the effective use of the natural fibers in polymer
& Grohens, 2007; Sghaier, Chaabouni, Msahli, & Sakli, 2012). In this composites for various applications. Further, the fibre-reinforced
method, a sharp tip cantilever requires scanning over the fiber. The polymer composites performances are largely dependent on the mate-
repulsive forces produced when the cantilever tip touch the fiber allows rial reinforcement properties and its behaviour. It concluded that che-
to deflect the cantilever. With the help of a laser beam and a photodiode mical and surface treatments can enhance the physicomechanical and
detector, the amount of cantilever deflection can be identified and thermochemical properties of the natural fibers. An appropriate method
monitored. The roughness parameters obtained by this measurement of characterization of natural fibers permits to create a novel sustain-
are, the average roughness (Ra), the root mean square roughness (Rq) able composite material dedicated for industrial applications.
the maximum peak to valley height (Rt) the average absolute height
roughness of 10 points (Rz), the asymmetry (Rsk)and the kurtosis (Rku). 7. Future prospectives
The AFM can provide a characterization of the fiber surface on the 3-D
dimension (Senthamaraikannan, Saravanakumar, Arthanarieswaran, & Composite materials made from particularly natural fibers are per-
Sugumaran, 2016). Fig. 8(b) & (c). shows a sample image captured by spective materials in which case a reinforcing material is based on
AFM analysis. natural and renewable resources. Due of its environmentally friendly
and sustainable nature, the natural fibers can be used for creating new
5.14. Single fiber tensile test composites structure that offers new technology and commercial pro-
spects for different sectors, for instance, aerospace, automotive, and
The natural fibers tensile properties are driven by three main factors electronics industries. These composites can also be used as construc-
such as test parameters /conditions, type of plant fiber, and the fiber tion and building materials, which enhances environmental concerns
dimensions (thickness, width, and length) on the cross-section (Bezazi that can also result in the depletion and reduction of forest wood re-
et al., 2014). The fibers should be tested under tensile loading by fol- sources. Future research on possible ways of improving quality of nat-
lowing the ASTM C1557-03 and/or ASTM D 3822–07 standards using ural fibers leading key changes in material properties and their sub-
universal test machine at an operating speed of 0.5 mm/min. In order to sequent potential future applications in several composite based
obtain a higher precision, it is recommended to perform the test with a industries is also desirable. Overall, the present review article will give
servo-electric tensile machine with a 5 kN load cell or less. The fiber a substantial understanding of the processing techniques of commonly
samples need some preparation before testing. Each fiber edge requires used natural fibers, considered as a robust database for sustainable
fixing using epoxy resin and then bonded on a classical stiff paper growth towards producing the best fiber composites materials.
frame. On the testing machine, the samples should be clamped on a
mechanical grip. Once the sample is placed on mechanical grips, the Acknowledgements
edge of the paper frame is carefully cut into two parts (Bourahli, 2017;
Fiore, Valenza, & Di Bella, 2011; Maache, Bezazi, Amroune, Scarpa, & This research was partly supported by the King Mongkut's
Dufresne, 2017). University of Technology North Bangkok through the PostDoc Program
It is well known that very few researchers have also applied other (Grant No. KMUTNB-61-Post-001 and KMUTNB-62-KNOW-37).
less practical characterization techniques to investigate the natural fi-
bers surface characteristics such as the nuclear magnetic resonance References
spectroscopy (NMR) analysis (Borchani, Carrot, & Jaziri, 2015; Chadlia,
2010; Reddy et al., 2014), inverse gas chromatography(IGC) (Heng, Agu, C. V., Njoku, O. U., Chilaka, F. C., Agbiogwu, D., Iloabuchi, K. V., & Ukazu, B.
Pearse, Thielmann, Lampke, & Bismarck, 2007), and X-Ray photoelec- (2014). Physicochemical properties of lignocellulosic biofibres from South Eastern
Nigeria: Their suitability for biocomposite technology. African Journal of
tron spectroscopy (XPS) (Sarikanat, Seki, Sever, & Durmuşkahya, 2014; Biotechnology, 13(20), 2050–2057.
Seki et al., 2013). Ahmed, Z., & Akhter, F. (2001). Jute retting: An overview. OnLine Journal of Biological
Sciences, 1(7), 685–688.
Ahmed, M. J., Balaji, M. S., Saravanakumar, S. S., Sanjay, M. R., & Senthamaraikannan, P.
6. Conclusion (2018). Characterization of Areva javanica fiber–A possible replacement for synthetic
acrylic fiber in the disc brake pad. Journal of Industrial Textiles p.1528083718779446.
Global warming, environmental concerns and the new technology Akil, H., Omar, M. F., Mazuki, A. A. M., Safiee, S. Z. A. M., Ishak, Z. M., & Bakar, A. A.
(2011). Kenaf fiber reinforced composites: A review. Materials & Design, 32(8-9),
requirements have fortified scientists to produce novel materials such
4107–4121.
as natural fiber composites. The use of bio-materials from local re- Alawar, A., Hamed, A. M., & Al-Kaabi, K. (2009). Characterization of treated date palm
sources for polymer composites which increases the environmental tree fiber as composite reinforcement. Composites Part B: Engineering, 40(7), 601–606.
Ali, M. (2016). Microstructure, thermal analysis and acoustic characteristics of Calotropis
awareness and reduce the unsustainable consumption of synthetic
procera (Apple of sodom) fibers. Journal of Natural Fibers, 13(3), 343–352.
materials, as well as the cost of natural fiber is very little compared to Ali, A., Shaker, K., Nawab, Y., Jabbar, M., Hussain, T., Militky, J., et al. (2018).
other synthetic materials. This review was devoted to generating a ro- Hydrophobic treatment of natural fibers and their composites—A review. Journal of
bust understanding of the preparation and processing methods of nat- Industrial Textile, 47(8), 2153–2183.
Al-Oqla, F. M., & Sapuan, S. M. (2014). Natural fiber reinforced polymer composites in
ural fibers. The findings presented can be used to create novel polymer industrial applications: Feasibility of date palm fibers for sustainable automotive
composites structure. It was highlighted the importance of selection industry. Journal of Cleaner Production, 66, 347–354.
suitable retting method that plays a crucial role. By applying proper Alves, C., Silva, A. J., Reis, L. G., Freitas, M., Rodrigues, L. B., & Alves, D. E. (2010).
Ecodesign of automotive components making use of natural jute fiber composites.
chemical treatments on the natural fibers will be possible to obtain Journal of Cleaner Production, 18(4), 313–327.
better surface characteristics that allow to reduce the hydrophilic ten- Amaducci, S., & Gusovius, H. J. (2010). Hemp–cultivation, extraction and processing.
dency and permits improving the compatibility between the fibers and Industrial applications of natural fibres structure, properties and technical applications.
Chichester, West Sussex, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd109–134.
its material matrix. Among all chemical treatments studied, alkali Antonov, V., Marek, J., Bjelkova, M., Smirous, P., & Fischer, H. (2007). Easily available
treatment is an easy, economical and a very effective technique for enzymes as natural retting agents. Biotechnology Journal, 2(3), 342–346.
treatment of a huge quantity of fibers. It was noted as well as that the Arthanarieswaran, V. P., Kumaravel, A., & Saravanakumar, S. S. (2015). Physico-chemical
properties of alkali-treated Acacia leucophloea fibers. International Journal of Polymer
alkaline solution may react with the OH groups, made of fibers, and Analysis and Characterization, 20(8), 704–713.
helps in increases the hydrophobicity of the fibers, resulting in better Asim, M., Jawaid, M., Abdan, K., & Ishak, M. R. (2016). Effect of alkali and silane
fiber reinforcement for polymer composites. Moreover, the alkaline treatments on mechanical and fibre-matrix bond strength of kenaf and pineapple leaf
fibres. Journal of Biological Engineering, 13(3), 426–435.
treatment potentially leads to an unexpected mechanism that generates

118
S. M.R. et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 207 (2019) 108–121

Asim, M., Paridah, M. T., Saba, N., Jawaid, M., Alothman, O. Y., Nasir, M., et al. (2018). Herlina Sari, N., Wardana, I. N. G., Irawan, Y. S., & Siswanto, E. (2018). Characterization
Thermal, physical properties and flammability of silane treated kenaf/pineapple leaf of the chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of NaOH-treated natural cel-
fibres phenolic hybrid composites. Composite Structures, 202, 1330–1338. lulosic fibers from corn husks. Journal of Natural Fibers, 15(4), 545–558.
Atiqah, A., Jawaid, M., Ishak, M. R., & Sapuan, S. M. (2018). Effect of alkali and silane Holbery, J., & Houston, D. (2006). Natural-fiber-reinforced polymer composites in au-
treatments on mechanical and interfacial bonding strength of sugar palm fibers with tomotive applications. Jom, 58(11), 80–86.
thermoplastic polyurethane. Journal of Natural Fibers, 15(2), 251–261. Hyness, N. R. J., Vignesh, N. J., Senthamaraikannan, P., Saravanakumar, S. S., & Sanjay,
Bacci, L., Di Lonardo, S., Albanese, L., Mastromei, G., & Perito, B. (2011). Effect of dif- M. R. (2018). Characterization of new natural cellulosic fiber from Heteropogon
ferent extraction methods on fiber quality of nettle (Urtica dioica L.). Textile Research contortus plant. Journal of Natural Fibers, 15(1), 146–153.
Journal, 81(8), 827–837. Indira, K. N., Jyotishkumar, P., & Thomas, S. (2012). Thermal stability and degradation of
Balaji, A. N., & Nagarajan, K. J. (2017). Characterization of alkali treated and untreated banana fibre/PF composites fabricated by RTM. Fibers and Polymers, 13(10),
new cellulosic fiber from Saharan aloe vera cactus leaves. Carbohydrate Polymers, 1319–1325.
174, 200–208. Indran, S., Raj, R. E., Daniel, B. S. S., & Saravanakumar, S. S. (2016). Cellulose powder
Balnois, E., Busnel, F., Baley, C., & Grohens, Y. (2007). An AFM study of the effect of treatment on Cissus quadrangularis stem fiber-reinforcement in unsaturated polyester
chemical treatments on the surface microstructure and adhesion properties of flax matrix composites. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 35(3), 212–227.
fibres. Composite Interfaces, 14(7-9), 715–731. Ishak, M., Leman, Z., Sapuan, S. M., Salleh, M. Y., & Misri, S. (2009). The effect of sea
Bataille, P., Dufourd, M., & Sapieha, S. (1994). Copolymerization of styrene on to cellu- water treatment on the impact and flexural strength of sugar palm fibre reinforced
lose activated by corona. Polymer International, 34(4), 387–391. epoxy composites. International Journal of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, 4(3),
Beakou, A., Ntenga, R., Lepetit, J., Ateba, J. A., & Ayina, L. O. (2008). Physico-chemical 316–320.
and microstructural characterization of “Rhectophyllum camerunense” plant fiber. Jankauskienė, Z., Butkutė, B., Gruzdevienė, E., Cesevičienė, J., & Fernando, A. L. (2015).
Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 39(1), 67–74. Chemical composition and physical properties of dew-and water-retted hemp fibers.
Belgacem, M. N., Czeremuszkin, G., Sapieha, S., & Gandini, A. (1995). Surface char- Industrial Crops and Products, 75, 206–211.
acterization of cellulose fibres by XPS and inverse gas chromatography. Cellular, 2(3), Jawaid, M., & Khalil, H. P. S. (2011). Cellulosic/synthetic fibre reinforced polymer hybrid
145–157. composites: A review. Carbohydrate Polymers, 86(1), 1–18.
Belouadah, Z., Ati, A., & Rokbi, M. (2015). Characterization of new natural cellulosic fiber Jayaramudu, J., Guduri, B. R., & Rajulu, A. V. (2010). Characterization of new natural
from Lygeum spartum L. Carbohydrate Polymers, 134, 429–437. cellulosic fabric Grewia tilifolia. Carbohydrate Polymers, 79(4), 847–851.
Bezazi, A., Belaadi, A., Bourchak, M., Scarpa, F., & Boba, K. (2014). Novel extraction Jayaramudu, J., Maity, A., Sadiku, E. R., Guduri, B. R., Rajulu, A. V., Ramana, C. V., et al.
techniques, chemical and mechanical characterisation of Agave americana L. natural (2011). Structure and properties of new natural cellulose fabrics from Cordia di-
fibres. Composites Part B: Engineering, 66, 194–203. chotoma. Carbohydrate Polymers, 86(4), 1623–1629.
Bledzki, A. K., & Gassan, J. (1999). Composites reinforced with cellulose based fibres. John, M. J., & Thomas, S. (2008). Biofibres and biocomposites. Carbohydrate Polymers,
Progress in Polymer Science, 24(2), 221–274. 71(3), 343–364.
Bledzki, A. K., Reihmane, S., & Gassan, J. (1996). Properties and modification methods Kabir, M. M., Wang, H., Lau, K. T., & Cardona, F. (2012). Chemical treatments on plant-
for vegetable fibers for natural fiber composites. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, based natural fibre reinforced polymer composites: An overview. Composites Part B:
59(8), 1329–1336. Engineering, 43(7), 2883–2892.
Booth, I., Goodman, A. M., Grishanov, S. A., & Harwood, R. J. (2004). A mechanical Kabir, M. M., Wang, H., Lau, K. T., & Cardona, F. (2013). Tensile properties of chemically
investigation of the retting process in dew‐retted hemp (Cannabis sativa). The Annals treated hemp fibres as reinforcement for composites. Composites Part B: Engineering,
of Applied Biology, 145(1), 51–58. 53, 362–368.
Borchani, K. E., Carrot, C., & Jaziri, M. (2015). Untreated and alkali treated fibers from Kato, K., Vasilets, V. N., Fursa, M. N., Meguro, M., Ikada, Y., & Nakamae, K. (1999).
Alfa stem: Effect of alkali treatment on structural, morphological and thermal fea- Surface oxidation of cellulose fibers by vacuum ultraviolet irradiation. Journal of
tures. Cellular, 22(3), 1577–1589. Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry, 37(3), 357–361.
Botaro, V. R., Dos Santos, C. G., Júnior, G. A., & Da Costa, A. R. (2001). Chemical Khan, M. A., Haque, N., Al-Kafi, A., Alam, M. N., & Abedin, M. Z. (2006). Jute reinforced
modification of lignocellulosic materials by irradiation with Nd-YAG pulsed laser. polymer composite by gamma radiation: Effect of surface treatment with UV radia-
Applied Surface Science, 183(1-2), 120–125. tion. Polymer-Plastics Technology and Engineering, 45(5), 607–613.
Bourahli, M. E. H. (2017). Uni-and bimodal Weibull distribution for analysing the tensile Kolar, J., Strlic, M., Müller-Hess, D., Gruber, A., Troschke, K., Pentzien, S., et al. (2000).
strength of Diss fibers. Journal of Natural Fibers, 1–10. Near-UV and visible pulsed laser interaction with paper. Journal of Cultural Heritage,
Chadlia, A. (2010). Chemical modification of Posidonia with cyclic anhydrides: Effect on 1, S221–S224.
thermal stability. Carbohydrate Research, 345(2), 264–269. Kommula, V. P., Reddy, K. O., Shukla, M., Marwala, T., Reddy, E. S., & Rajulu, A. V.
Chand, N., & Joshi, R. (2010). Analysis of mechanical, thermal, and dynamic mechanical (2016). Extraction, modification, and characterization of natural ligno-cellulosic fiber
behaviors of different polymer-coated sisal fibers. Journal of Natural Fibers, 7(2), strands from napier grass. International Journal of Polymer Analysis and
100–110. Characterization, 21(1), 18–28.
Conrad, C. M. (1944). Determination of wax in cotton fiber a new alcohol extraction Krassig, H. A., Cellulose-Structure, A., & Reactivity, G. (1993). Breach science publisher.
method. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Analytical Edition, 16(12), 745–748. New York..
Cruz, J., & Fangueiro, R. (2016). Surface modification of natural fibers: A review. Procedia Lampke, T., Mishra, S., & Bismarck, A. (2005). Plant fibers as reinforcement for green
Engineering, 155, 285–288. composites. In natural fibers, biopolymers, and biocomposites. CRC Press52–128.
De Rosa, I. M., Kenny, J. M., Puglia, D., Santulli, C., & Sarasini, F. (2010). Morphological, Le Troedec, M., Sedan, D., Peyratout, C., Bonnet, J. P., Smith, A., Guinebretiere, R., et al.
thermal and mechanical characterization of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) fibres as (2008). Influence of various chemical treatments on the composition and structure of
potential reinforcement in polymer composites. Composites Science and Technology, hemp fibres. Composites Part A, Applied Science and Manufacturing, 39(3), 514–522.
70(1), 116–122. Leman, Z., Sapuan, S. M., Azwan, M., Ahmad, M. M. H. M., & Maleque, M. A. (2008). The
Dittenber, D. B., & GangaRao, H. V. (2012). Critical review of recent publications on use effect of environmental treatments on fiber surface properties and tensile strength of
of natural composites in infrastructure. Composites Part A, Applied Science and sugar palm fiber-reinforced epoxy composites. Polymer-Plastics Technology and
Manufacturing, 43(8), 1419–1429. Engineering, 47(6), 606–612.
Fiore, V., Valenza, A., & Di Bella, G. (2011). Artichoke (Cynara cardunculus L.) fibres as Li, X., Tabil, L. G., & Panigrahi, S. (2007). Chemical treatments of natural fiber for use in
potential reinforcement of composite structures. Composites Science and Technology, natural fiber-reinforced composites: A review. Journal of Polymers and the
71(8), 1138–1144. Environment, 15(1), 25–33.
Földváry, C. M., Takács, E., & Wojnarovits, L. (2003). Effect of high-energy radiation and Li, Y., Li, G., Zou, Y., Zhou, Q., & Lian, X. (2014). Preparation and characterization of
alkali treatment on the properties of cellulose. Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 67(3- cellulose nanofibers from partly mercerized cotton by mixed acid hydrolysis.
4), 505–508. Cellulose, 21(1), 301–309.
George, J., Sreekala, M. S., & Thomas, S. (2001). A review on interface modification and Liu, Y., & Hu, H. (2008). X-ray diffraction study of bamboo fibers treated with NaOH.
characterization of natural fiber reinforced plastic composites. Polymer Engineering & Fibers and Polymers, 9(6), 735–739.
Science, 41(9), 1471–1485. Liu, D., Han, G., Huang, J., & Zhang, Y. (2009). Composition and structure study of
Goering, H. K. (1970). Forage fiber analysis. Apparatus, reagents, procedures and some natural Nelumbo nucifera fiber. Carbohydrate Polymers, 75(1), 39–43.
applications. Agric Handbook, 379, 20. Liu, Y., Ma, Y., Yu, J., Zhuang, J., Wu, S., & Tong, J. (2018). Development and char-
Gowda, T. Y., Sanjay, M. R., Bhat, K. S., Madhu, P., Senthamaraikannan, P., & Yogesha, B. acterization of alkali treated abaca fiber reinforced friction composites. Composite
(2018). Polymer matrix-natural fiber composites: An overview. Cogent Engineering, Interfaces, 1–16.
5(1), 1446667. Maache, M., Bezazi, A., Amroune, S., Scarpa, F., & Dufresne, A. (2017). Characterization
Gurukarthik Babu, B., Princewinston, D., SenthamaraiKannan, P., Saravanakumar, S. S., & of a novel natural cellulosic fiber from Juncus effusus L. Carbohydrate Polymers, 171,
Sanjay, M. R. (2018). Study on characterization and physicochemical properties of 163–172.
new natural fiber from Phaseolus vulgaris. Journal of Natural Fibers, 1–8. Madhu, P., Sanjay, M. R., Senthamaraikannan, P., Pradeep, S., Saravanakumar, S. S., &
Hajiha, H., Sain, M., & Mei, L. H. (2014). Modification and characterization of hemp and Yogesha, B. (2018). A review on synthesis and characterization of commercially
sisal fibers. Journal of Natural Fibers, 11(2), 144–168. available natural fibers: Part-II. Journal of Natural Fibers, 1–13.
He, J. X., Tang, Y., & Wang, S. Y. (2007). Differences in morphological characteristics of Maepa, C. E., Jayaramudu, J., Okonkwo, J. O., Ray, S. S., Sadiku, E. R., & Ramontja, J.
bamboo fibres and other natural cellulose fibres: Studies on X-ray diffraction, solid (2015). Extraction and characterization of natural cellulose fibers from maize tassel.
state 13C-CP/MAS NMR, and second derivative FTIR spectroscopy data. Iranian International Journal of Polymer Analysis and Characterization, 20(2), 99–109.
Polymer Journal, 807–818. Maissel, L.I., Glang, R., 1970. Handbook of thin film technology. New York: McGraw-Hill,
Heng, J. Y., Pearse, D. F., Thielmann, F., Lampke, T., & Bismarck, A. (2007). Methods to 1970, edited by Maissel, Leon I.; Glang, Reinhard.
determine surface energies of natural fibres: A review. Composite Interfaces, 14(7-9), Malkapuram, R., Kumar, V., & Negi, Y. S. (2009). Recent development in natural fiber
581–604. reinforced polypropylene composites. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites,

119
S. M.R. et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 207 (2019) 108–121

28(10), 1169–1189. Reddy, K. O., Maheswari, C. U., Reddy, D. J. P., & Rajulu, A. V. (2009). Thermal prop-
Manimaran, P., Sanjay, M. R., Senthamaraikannan, P., Jawaid, M., Saravanakumar, S. S., erties of Napier grass fibers. Materials Letters, 63(27), 2390–2392.
& George, R. (2018). Synthesis and characterization of cellulosic fiber from red ba- Ribeiro, A., Pochart, P., Day, A., Mennuni, S., Bono, P., Baret, J. L., et al. (2015).
nana peduncle as reinforcement for potential applications. Journal of Natural Fibers, Microbial diversity observed during hemp retting. Applied Microbiology and
1–13. Biotechnology, 99(10), 4471–4484.
Manimaran, P., Senthamaraikannan, P., Sanjay, M. R., Marichelvam, M. K., & Jawaid, M. Rong, M. Z., Zhang, M. Q., Liu, Y., Yang, G. C., & Zeng, H. M. (2001). The effect of fiber
(2018). Study on characterization of Furcraea foetida new natural fiber as composite treatment on the mechanical properties of unidirectional sisal-reinforced epoxy
reinforcement for lightweight applications. Carbohydrate Polymers, 181, 650–658. composites. Composites Science and Technology, 61(10), 1437–1447.
Manimaran, P., Senthamaraikannan, P., Murugananthan, K., & Sanjay, M. R. (2018). Rwawiire, S., & Tomkova, B. (2015). Morphological, thermal, and mechanical char-
Physicochemical properties of new cellulosic fibers from Azadirachta indica plant. acterization of Sansevieria trifasciata fibers. Journal of Natural Fibers, 12(3), 201–210.
Journal of Natural Fibers, 15(1), 29–38. Sanjay, M. R., & Siengchin, S. (2018). Natural fibers as perspective materials. KMUTNB:
Mannan, K. M. (1993). X-ray diffraction study of jute fibres treated with NaOH and liquid International Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 11, 233.
anhydrous ammonia. Polymer, 34(12), 2485–2487. Sanjay, M. R., Arpitha, G. R., Naik, L. L., Gopalakrishna, K., & Yogesha, B. (2016).
Marsh, P. B., Barker, H. D., Kerr, T., & Butler, M. L. (1950). Wax content as related to Applications of natural fibers and its composites: An overview. Natural Resources,
surface area of cotton fibers. Textile Research Journal, 20(5), 288–297. 7(03), 108.
McNulty, P. B., & Kennedy, S. (1982). Density measurements of grass by toluene dis- Sanjay, M. R., Madhu, P., Jawaid, M., Senthamaraikannan, P., Senthil, S., & Pradeep, S.
placement and air comparison pycnometry. Irish Journal of Agricultural Research, (2018). Characterization and properties of natural fiber polymer composites: A
75–83. comprehensive review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 172, 566–581.
Mishra, S., Misra, M., Tripathy, S. S., Nayak, S. K., & Mohanty, A. K. (2001). Graft co- Saravana Bavan, D., & Mohan Kumar, G. C. (2010). Potential use of natural fiber com-
polymerization of acrylonitrile on chemically modified sisal fibers. Macromolecular posite materials in India. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 29(24),
Materials and Engineering, 286(2), 107–113. 3600–3613.
Mizoguchi, K., Ishikawa, M., Ohkubo, S., Yamamoto, A., Ouchi, A., Sakuragi, M., et al. Saravanakumar, S. S., Kumaravel, A., Nagarajan, T., Sudhakar, P., & Baskaran, R. (2013).
(2000). Laser surface treatment of regenerated cellulose fiber. Composite Interfaces, Characterization of a novel natural cellulosic fiber from Prosopis juliflora bark.
7(5-6), 497–509. Carbohydrate Polymers, 92(2), 1928–1933.
Mohanty, A. K., Misra, M., & Drzal, L. T. (2001). Surface modifications of natural fibers Saravanakumar, S. S., Kumaravel, A., Nagarajan, T., & Moorthy, I. G. (2014a).
and performance of the resulting biocomposites: An overview. Compos. Interf. 8(5), Investigation of physico-chemical properties of alkali-treated Prosopis juliflora fibers.
313–343. International Journal of Polymer Analysis and Characterization, 19(4), 309–317.
Mohanty, A. K., Misra, M., Drzal, L. T., Selke, S. E., Harte, B. R., & Hinrichsen, G. (2005). Saravanakumar, S. S., Kumaravel, A., Nagarajan, T., & Moorthy, I. G. (2014b). Effect of
Natural fibers, biopolymers, and biocomposites: An introduction. Natural fibers, biopoly- chemical treatments on physicochemical properties of Prosopis juliflora fibers.
mers and biocomposites. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis. International Journal of Polymer Analysis and Characterization, 19(5), 383–390.
Mwaikambo, L. Y., & Ansell, M. P. (2002). Chemical modification of hemp, sisal, jute, and Sarikanat, M., Seki, Y., Sever, K., & Durmuşkahya, C. (2014). Determination of properties
kapok fibers by alkalization. Journal of Applied Polymer Science Applied Polymer of Althaea officinalis L.(Marshmallow) fibres as a potential plant fibre in polymeric
Symposium, 84(12), 2222–2234. composite materials. Composites Part B: Engineering, 57, 180–186.
Neelamana, I. K., Thomas, S., & Parameswaranpillai, J. (2013). Characteristics of banana Sathishkumar, T. P., Navaneethakrishnan, P., Shankar, S., & Rajasekar, R. (2013).
fibers and banana fiber reinforced phenol formaldehyde composites-macroscale to Characterization of new cellulose sansevieria ehrenbergii fibers for polymer com-
nanoscale. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 130, 1239–1246. posites. Composite Interfaces, 20(8), 575–593.
Oliveira, F. R., Erkens, L., Fangueiro, R., & Souto, A. P. (2012). Surface modification of Segal, L., Creely, J. J., Martin, A. E., Jr, & Conrad, C. M. (1959). An empirical method for
banana fibers by DBD plasma treatment. Plasma Chemistry and Plasma Processing, estimating the degree of crystallinity of native cellulose using the X-ray dif-
32(2), 259–273. fractometer. Textile Research Journal, 29(10), 786–794.
Pandey, K. K. (1999). A study of chemical structure of soft and hardwood and wood Seki, Y., Sarikanat, M., Sever, K., & Durmuşkahya, C. (2013). Extraction and properties of
polymers by FTIR spectroscopy. Journal of Applied Polymer Science Applied Polymer Ferula communis (chakshir) fibers as novel reinforcement for composites materials.
Symposium, 71(12), 1969–1975. Composites Part B: Engineering, 44(1), 517–523.
Paridah, M. T., Basher, A. B., SaifulAzry, S., & Ahmed, Z. (2011). Retting process of some Senthamaraikannan, P., & Kathiresan, M. (2018). Characterization of raw and alkali
bast plant fibres and its effect on fibre quality: A review. BioResources, 6(4), treated new natural cellulosic fiber from Coccinia grandis. L. Carbohydrate Polymers,
5260–5281. 186, 332–343.
Paul, A., Joseph, K., & Thomas, S. (1997). Effect of surface treatments on the electrical Senthamaraikannan, P., Saravanakumar, S. S., Arthanarieswaran, V. P., & Sugumaran, P.
properties of low-density polyethylene composites reinforced with short sisal fibers. (2016). Physico-chemical properties of new cellulosic fibers from the bark of Acacia
Composites Science and Technology, 57(1), 67–79. planifrons. International Journal of Polymer Analysis and Characterization, 21(3),
Paul, S. A., Boudenne, A., Ibos, L., Candau, Y., Joseph, K., & Thomas, S. (2008). Effect of 207–213.
fiber loading and chemical treatments on thermophysical properties of banana fiber/ Sepe, R., Bollino, F., Boccarusso, L., & Caputo, F. (2018). Influence of chemical treatments
polypropylene commingled composite materials. Composites Part A, Applied Science on mechanical properties of hemp fiber reinforced composites. Composites Part B:
and Manufacturing, 39(9), 1582–1588. Engineering, 133, 210–217.
Pickering, K. L., Li, Y., Farrell, R. L., & Lay, M. (2007). Interfacial modification of hemp Sghaier, A. E. O. B., Chaabouni, Y., Msahli, S., & Sakli, F. (2012). Morphological and
fiber reinforced composites using fungal and alkali treatment. Journal of Biobased crystalline characterization of NaOH and NaOCl treated Agave americana L. fiber.
Materials and Bioenergy, 1(1), 109–117. Industrial Crops and Products, 36(1), 257–266.
Puglia, D., Biagiotti, J., & Kenny, J. M. (2005). A review on natural fibre-based Shahidi, S., Wiener, J., & Ghoranneviss, M. (2013). . Surface modification methods for
composites—Part II: Application of natural reinforcements in composite materials for improving the dyeability of textile fabrics. in Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing.
automotive industry. Journal of Natural Fibers, 1(3), 23–65. InTech.
Pulp, A. (1978). Paper industry technical association. Klason lignin in wood and pulp. Appita Shanmugasundaram, N., Rajendran, I., & Ramkumar, T. (2018). Characterization of un-
Standard P11s. treated and alkali treated new cellulosic fiber from an Areca palm leaf stalk as po-
Puttegowda, M., Sanjay, M. R., Jawaid, M., Shivanna, P., Basavegowda, Y., & Saba, N. tential reinforcement in polymer composites. Carbohydrate Polymers, 195, 566–575.
(2018). Potential of natural/synthetic hybrid composites for aerospace applications. Siengchin, S., 2017. Editorial corner–a personal view Potential use of’green’composites in
In Sustainable Composites for Aerospace Applications, 315–351. automotive applications. eXPR. Poly. Let. 11(8), 600-600.
Rahman, M. M., Mallik, A. K., & Khan, M. A. (2007). Influences of various surface pre- Sinha, E., & Panigrahi, S. (2009). Effect of plasma treatment on structure, wettability of
treatments on the mechanical and degradable properties of photografted oil palm jute fiber and flexural strength of its composite. Journal of Composite Materials,
fibers. Journal of Applied Polymer Science Applied Polymer Symposium, 105(5), 43(17), 1791–1802.
3077–3086. Singha, A. S., & Thakur, V. K. (2009). Synthesis and characterizations of silane treated
Rajkumar, R., Manikandan, A., & Saravanakumar, S. S. (2016). Physicochemical prop- Grewia optiva fibers. International Journal of Polymer Analysis and Characterization,
erties of alkali-treated new cellulosic fiber from cotton shell. International Journal of 14(4), 301–321.
Polymer Analysis and Characterization, 21(4), 359–364. Singha, A. S., Thakur, V. K., Mehta, I. K., Shama, A., Khanna, A. J., Rana, R. K., et al.
Rao, K. M. M., & Rao, K. M. (2007). Extraction and tensile properties of natural fibers: (2009). Surface-modified Hibiscus sabdariffa fibers: Physicochemical, thermal, and
Vakka, date and bamboo. Composite Structures, 77(3), 288–295. morphological properties evaluation. International Journal of Polymer Analysis and
Rashid, B., Leman, Z., Jawaid, M., Ghazali, M. J., & Ishak, M. R. (2016). Physicochemical Characterization, 14(8), 695–711.
and thermal properties of lignocellulosic fiber from sugar palm fibers: Effect of Sisti, L., Totaro, G., Vannini, M., & Celli, A. (2018). Retting process as a pretreatment of
treatment. Cellular, 23(5), 2905–2916. natural fibers for the development of polymer composites. In lignocellulosic composite
Reddy, N., & Yang, Y. (2005). Properties and potential applications of natural cellulose materials. Cham: Springer97–135.
fibers from cornhusks. Green Chemistry, 7(4), 190–195. Sonnier, R., Taguet, A., Ferry, L., & Lopez-Cuesta, J. M. (2018). Flame retardancy of natural
Reddy, K. O., Maheswari, C. U., Shukla, M., Song, J. I., & Rajulu, A. V. (2013). Tensile and fibers reinforced composites. In towards bio-based flame retardant polymers. Cham:
structural characterization of alkali treated Borassus fruit fine fibers. Composites Part Springer73–98.
B Engineering, 44(1), 433–438. Sreekala, M. S., Kumaran, M. G., & Thomas, S. (1997). Oil palm fibers: Morphology,
Reddy, K. O., Ashok, B., Reddy, K. R. N., Feng, Y. E., Zhang, J., & Rajulu, A. V. (2014). chemical composition, surface modification, and mechanical properties. Journal of
Extraction and characterization of novel lignocellulosic fibers from Thespesia lampas Applied Polymer Science, 66(5), 821–835.
plant. International Journal of Polymer Analysis and Characterization, 19(1), 48–61. Sreenivasan, V. S., Somasundaram, S., Ravindran, D., Manikandan, V., & Narayanasamy,
Reddy, K. O., Maheswari, C. U., Rajulu, A. V., & Guduri, B. R. (2009). Thermal de- R. (2011). Microstructural, physico-chemical and mechanical characterisation of
gradation parameters and tensile properties of Borassus flabellifer fruit fiber re- Sansevieria cylindrica fibres–an exploratory investigation. Materials & Design, 32(1),
inforcement. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 28(18), 2297–2301. 453–461.

120
S. M.R. et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 207 (2019) 108–121

Takacs, E., Wojnárovits, L., Borsa, J., Földváry, C., Hargittai, P., & Zöld, O. (1999). Effect from beech wood. Journal of Applied Polymer Science Applied Polymer Symposium,
of γ-irradiation on cotton-cellulose. Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 55(5-6), 41(7-8), 1695–1706.
663–666. Väisänen, T., Das, O., & Tomppo, L. (2017). A review on new bio-based constituents for
Tappi, T. (1993). Ash in wood, pulp, paper and paperboard: Combustion at 525 C. TAPPI test natural fiber-polymer composites. Journal of Cleaner Production, 149, 582–596.
methods T, 211. Valadez-Gonzalez, A., Cervantes-Uc, J. M., Olayo, R., & Herrera-Franco, P. J. (1999).
Thakur, V. K., & Thakur, M. K. (2014). Processing and characterization of natural cel- Chemical modification of henequen fibers with an organosilane coupling agent.
lulose fibers/thermoset polymer composites. Carbohydrate Polymers, 109, 102–117. Composites Part B: Engineering, 30(3), 321–331.
Thakur, V. K., Thakur, M. K., & Singha, A. S. (2013). Free radical–induced graft copo- Van der Werf, H. M., & Turunen, L. (2008). The environmental impacts of the production
lymerization onto natural fibers. International Journal of Polymer Analysis and of hemp and flax textile yarn. Industrial Crops and Products, 27(1), 1–10.
Characterization, 18(6), 430–438. Varma, I. K., Krishnan, S. A., & Krishnamoorthy, S. (1989). Effect of chemical treatment
Thakur, V. K., Thakur, M. K., & Gupta, R. K. (2014). Graft copolymers of natural fibers for on density and crystallinity of jute fibers. Textile Research Journal, 59(6), 368–370.
green composites. Carbohydrate Polymers, 104, 87–93. Ververis, C., Georghiou, K., Christodoulakis, N., Santas, P., & Santas, R. (2004). Fiber
Thomas, M. G., Abraham, E., Jyotishkumar, P., Maria, H. J., Pothen, L. A., & Thomas, S. dimensions, lignin and cellulose content of various plant materials and their suit-
(2015). Nanocelluloses from jute fibers and their nanocomposites with natural ability for paper production. Industrial Crops and Products, 19(3), 245–254.
rubber: Preparation and characterization. International Journal of Biological Wang, B., Panigrahi, S., Tabil, L., & Crerar, W. (2007). Pre-treatment of flax fibers for use
Macromolecules, 81, 768–777. in rotationally molded biocomposites. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites,
Tóth, T., Borsa, J., & Takács, E. (2003). Effect of preswelling on radiation degradation of 26(5), 447–463.
cotton cellulose. Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 67(3-4), 513–515. Xie, Y., Xiao, Z., Militz, H., & Hao, X. (2017). Silane coupling agents used in natural fiber/
Truong, M., Zhong, W., Boyko, S., & Alcock, M. (2009). A comparative study on natural plastic composites. Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials,
fibre density measurement. Journal of the Textile Institute, 100(6), 525–529. Functionalization, 4, 407.
Tserki, V., Zafeiropoulos, N. E., Simon, F., & Panayiotou, C. (2005). A study of the effect Zegaoui, A., Ma, R., Dayo, A. Q., Derradji, M., Wang, J., Liu, W., et al. (2018).
of acetylation and propionylation surface treatments on natural fibres. Composites Morphological, mechanical and thermal properties of cyanate ester/benzoxazine
Part A, Applied Science and Manufacturing, 36(8), 1110–1118. resin composites reinforced by silane treated natural hemp fibers. Chinese Journal of
Uehara, T., & Sakata, I. (1990). Effect of corona discharge treatment on cellulose prepared Chemical Engineering, 26(5), 1219–1228.

121