Science Data Booklet

"The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing."

― Socrates

Manjunath.R
#16/1, 8th Main Road, Shivanagar, Rajajinagar, Bangalore560010, Karnataka, India
*Corresponding Author Email: manjunath5496@gmail.com
*Website: http://www.myw3schools.com/
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of

testable explanations and predictions about the nature. This booklet is designed to place

less emphasis on factual material and greater emphasis on the understanding and

application of scientific concepts and principles. This booklet has been designed in

recognition of the need for students to develop skills that will be of long term value in an

increasingly technological world rather than focusing on large quantities of factual

material which may have only short term relevance.

My brain is only a receiver, in the

Universe there is a core from which we
obtain knowledge, strength and
inspiration. I have not penetrated into
the secrets of this core, but I know that
it exists.

― Nikola Tesla
Laws of Exponents
 1n = 1

 0n = 0, for n > 0

 x1 = x

 x0 = 1

 x ½ = √𝑥

 x 1/n = √𝑥
n

1
 x−1 =
𝑥

 x m x n = xm+n

𝑥m
 = x m – n , if m > n
𝑥n

𝑥m
 = 1 , if m = n
𝑥n

𝑥m

1
n
= 𝑥 n – m , if m < n; x ∈ R, x ≠ 0
𝑥

 (x m) n = x mn

 (x y) n = x n y n
𝑥n
 (x / y) n = 𝑦 n

 x −n = 𝑥 n
1

 x m / n = n√𝑥 m

 (x m y n) p = x mp y np

1
 𝑥 mp
 (x m / y n) p =
𝑦 np

 If n is even, (−1) n = 1

 If n is odd, (−1) n = −1

Important Formulas in Algebra

 (a + b) 2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

 a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 − 2ab

 (a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2

 a2 + b2 = (a − b)2 + 2ab

 (a + b + c) 2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca)

 (a + b) 3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab (a + b)

 a3 + b3 = (a + b) 3 − 3ab (a + b)

 (a − b)3 = a3 − b3 − 3ab (a − b)

 a3 − b3 = (a − b) 3 + 3ab (a − b)

 a2 − b2 = (a + b) (a − b)

 a3 − b3 = (a − b) (a2 + ab + b2)

 a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 − ab + b2)

 a4 – b4 = (a2 – b2) (a2 + b2) = (a + b) (a + b) (a2 + b2)

 a4 + b4 = (a2 + b2) 2 – 2a2 b2 = (a2 + √2ab + b2) (a2 – √2ab + b2)

 a5 + b5 = (a + b) (a4 – a3b + a2b2 – ab3 + b4 )

 a5 – b5 = (a – b) (a4 + a3b + a2b2 + ab3 + b4)

 an − bn = (a − b) (an−1 + an−2 b + an−3 b2 + ··· + bn−1n−1)

2
  (a + b + c) 2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2 (ab + bc + ca)

 a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca)

If a + b + c = 0, then the above identity reduces to a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc

Roots of Quadratic Equation

For a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c where a ≠ 0, the roots will be given by the equation as:

−b ± √b 2 − 4ac
𝑥=
2a

 Δ = b2 − 4ac is called the discrimination

 For real and distinct roots, Δ > 0

 For real and coincident roots, Δ = 0

 For non-real roots, Δ < 0

 If α and β are the two roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c then,

−b
α+β= 𝑎

c
α×β=a

 If the roots of a quadratic equation are α and β, the equation will be (x − α) (x − β) = 0

TRIGONOMETRY FORMULAS

cos 2 ( x)  sin 2 ( x)  1 1  tan 2 ( x)  sec 2 ( x) cot 2 ( x)  1  csc 2 ( x)

cos( x  y )  cos( x) cos( y ) sin( x) sin( y ) tan( x)  tan( y )

tan( x  y ) 
sin( x  y )  sin( x) cos( y )  cos( x) sin( y ) 1  tan( x) tan( y)

3
 sin( 2 x)  2 sin( x) cos( x)
cos 2 ( x)  sin 2 ( x) c 2  a 2  b 2  2ab cos(C )
 sin( A) sin( B) sin(C )
cos( 2 x)  2 cos 2 ( x)  1  
1  2 sin 2 ( x) a b c

2 tan( x)
tan( 2 x) 
1  tan 2 ( x)

1  cos( 2 x)  x 1  cos( x)
sin 2 ( x)  cos   
2 2 2
1  cos( 2 x)  x 1  cos( x)
cos 2 ( x)  sin    
2 2 2
1  cos( 2 x)  x 1  cos( x)
tan 2 ( x)  tan    
1  cos( 2 x) 2 1  cos( x)

sin( x) sin( y )  12 [cosx  y   cos( x  y )]

cos( x) cos( y )  12 [cosx  y   cos( x  y )]
sin( x) cos( y )  12 [sin x  y   sin( x  y )]
cos( x) sin( y )  12 [sin x  y   sin( x  y )]

x y x y
sin( x)  sin( y )  2 sin   cos 
 2   2 
x y x y
sin( x)  sin( y )  2 sin   cos 
 2   2 
x y x y
cos( x)  cos( y )  2 cos  cos 
 2   2 
x y x y
cos( x)  cos( y )  2 sin   sin  
 2   2 
 sin(−x) = −sin(x)

 csc(−x) = −csc(x)

 cos(−x) = cos(x)

4
  sec(−x) = sec(x)

 tan(−x) = −tan(x)

 cot(−x) = −cot(x)

Pythagorean Theorem

c
a

a2 + b2 = c2

c = √a2 + b 2

a opposite
 sin α = =
c hypotenuse

b adjacent
 cos α = =
c hypotenuse

a opposite
 tan α = =
b adjacent

1
 cot α =
tan α

1
 sec α =
cos α

1
 cosec α =
sin α

 The length of the longest side can never be greater than the sum of the two other sides.

5
  The length of the shortest side can never be less than the positive difference of the other
two sides.
 A "Pythagorean Triple" is a set of positive integers, a, b and c that fits the rule:

a2 + b2 = c2

The smallest Pythagorean Triple is 3, 4 and 5.

Hyperbolic Functions

 sinh x = −sinh(−x)
 sech x = sech(−x)
 cosh x = cosh(−x)
 cosech x = −cosech(−x)
 tanh x = −tanh(−x)
 coth x = −coth(−x)
 cosh ix = cos x
 cos ix = cosh x
 sinh ix = i sin x
 sin ix = i sinh x
sinh 𝑥
 tanh x =
cosh 𝑥
cosh 𝑥
 coth x =
sinh 𝑥
1
 sech x =
cosh 𝑥
1
 cosech x =
sinh 𝑥

 cosh2 x − sinh2 x =1
1 𝑥2 𝑥4
 cosh x = 2 (ex + e−x) = 1 + + + …. valid for all x
2! 4!

6
 1 𝑥3 𝑥5
 sinh x = 2 (ex − e−x) = x + + + …. valid for all x
3! 5!

For large positive x:

𝑒𝑥
cosh x ≈ sinh x →
2

tanh x →1

For large negative x:

𝑒−𝑥
cosh x ≈ −sinh x → 2

tanh x → −1

Inverse functions

𝑥 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
 sinh −1 = ln ( ) for −∞ < x < ∞
𝑎 𝑎

𝑥 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
 cosh −1 = ln ( ) for x ≥ a
𝑎 𝑎
𝑥 1 𝑎+𝑥
 tanh −1 = ln ( ) for x2 < a2
𝑎 2 𝑎−𝑥
𝑥 1 𝑥+𝑎
 coth −1 = ln ( ) for x2 > a2
𝑎 2 𝑥−𝑎

𝑥 𝑎 𝑎2
 sech −1 = ln ( 𝑥 + √ 𝑥 2 − 1 ) for 0 < x ≤ a
𝑎

𝑥 𝑎 𝑎2
 cosech −1 = ln ( 𝑥 + √ 𝑥 2 + 1 ) for x ≠ 0
𝑎

Natural Number s

{1, 2, 3, 4 ...................}

Whole numbers

7
 {0, 1, 2, 3 .................... }

0 is neither positive nor negative

Integers

{.....–3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3….}

Type of Integers
 Non negative integers { 0, 1, 2, 3, ......... }

 Negative integers {. .......... –3, –2, –1}

 Non positive integers {. .......... –3, –2 –1, 0}

 Positive integers {1, 2, 3 .......... }

Rational Numbers
p
A number is called rational if it can be expressed in the form where p and q are integers (q>0).
q

Example:
4
= 1.3̅ = 1.333.........
3

Irrational numbers
p
A number is called irrational if it cannot be expressed in the form where p and q are integers
q
(q> 0).
Example:

√2 = 1.414..............

Real Numbers

8
 Real → Rational + Irrational

Prime Numbers
Numbers which are divisible by 1 or itself
{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13 ..........}
1 is not a prime. 2 is the smallest prime and the only even prime.

Composite Numbers
Numbers which are multiples of prime are called composite numbers
{4, 6, 8, 9 ...........}

Coprime
21 and 22 are coprime:
 The factors of 21 are 1, 3, 7 and 21
 The factors of 22 are 1, 2, 11 and 22
(The only common factor is 1)
But 21 and 24 are NOT coprime:
• The factors of 21 are 1, 3, 7 and 21
• The factors of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24
(The common factors are 1 and 3)

Twin primes
The prime numbers which having the difference of 2
e.g. (5, 3), (7, 5), (13, 11)............
1 is neither a prime nor a composite number

Order of Operations: PEMDAS

(Parentheses / Exponents / Multiply / Divide / Add / Subtract)

9
Euclid's Division Lemma: If two positive integers a and b, then there exists unique integers q

and r such that which satisfies the condition a = bq + r where 0 ≤ r ≤ b. If r = 0, then b is divisor

of a.

Coordinate Geometry

Any line can be represented by y = mx + b, where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. This is

called slope-intercept form.

Distance between two points ( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 )   x1  x2    y1  y2 

2 2

x x y y 
Midpoint of two points ( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 )   1 2 , 1 2 
 2 2 

(x2, y2)
y

(x1, y1)

𝑦2 −𝑦1
The slope of the line passing through the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is
𝑥2 −𝑥1

Differentiation Formulas

d n
1. ( x )  nx n 1
dx

d
2. (sin x)  cos x
dx

10
 d
3. (cos x)   sin x
dx

d
4. (tan x)  sec 2 x
dx

d
5. (cot x)   csc 2 x
dx

d
6. (sec x)  sec x tan x
dx

d
7. (csc x)   csc x cot x
dx

d x
8. (e )  e x
dx

d x
9. (a )  a x ln a
dx

d 1
10. (ln x ) 
dx x

d 1
11. ( Arc sin x) 
dx 1 x2

d 1
12. ( Arc tan x) 
dx 1 x2

d 1
13. ( Arc sec x) 
dx | x | x2 1

dy dy du
14.  
dx dx dx

15.
d
c  0
dx

16.
d
cu   c du
dx dx

11
17.
d
u  v  du  dv
dx dx dx

18.
d
uv  u dv  v du
dx dx dx

du dv
uv
d u 
19.    dx 2 dx
dx  v  v

20.
d
x   1
dx

Integration Formulas

1.  a dx  ax  C
x n 1
 x dx   C , n  1
n
2.
n 1

1
3.  x dx  ln x C

e dx  e x  C
x
4.

ax
 a dx  C
x
5.
ln a

6.  ln x dx  x ln x  x  C
7.  sin x dx   cos x  C
8.  cos x dx  sin x  C
9.  tan x dx  ln sec x  C or  ln cos x  C

10.  cot x dx  ln sin x  C

12
11.  sec x dx  ln sec x  tan x  C

12.  csc x dx  ln csc x  cot x  C   ln csc x  cot x  C

13.  sec 2 x d x  tan x  C

14.  sec x tan x dx  sec x  C

15.  csc 2 x dx   cot x  C

16.  csc x cot x dx   csc x  C

 tan x dx  tan x  x  C
2
17.

dx 1  x
18. a 2
x 2
 Arc tan    C
a a

dx  x
19.  a2  x2
 Arc sin    C
a

dx 1 x 1 a
20. x x2  a2

a
Arc sec  C  Arc cos  C
a a x

21.  u dv  uv   v du

HCF (Highest common factor)

 HCF (a, b) =1. Then a and b are co primes

 HCF (a, b) × LCM (a, b) = a × b

Vector Algebra

If i, j, k are orthonormal vectors and A = Axi + Ay j + Azk then |A|2 = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2.

13
  Scalar product
A ∙ B = |A| |B| cosθ where θ is the angle between the vectors.

Scalar multiplication is commutative: A ∙ B = B ∙ A.

 Vector product
A × B = n |A| |B| sinθ, where θ is the angle between the vectors and n is a unit vector
normal to the plane containing A and B in the direction for which A, B, n form a right-
handed set of axes.

Vector multiplication is not commutative: A×B = −B×A.

 Scalar triple product

A × B ∙ C = A ∙B × C

 Vector triple product

A × (B × C) = (A ∙ C) B − (A ∙ B) C
(A×B) × C = (A ∙ C) B − (B ∙ C) A

 Angles on the inside of any triangle add up to 180◦

 The length of one side of any triangle is always less than the sum

and more than the difference of the lengths of the other two sides.

 If two lines intersect, the sum of the resulting four angles equals

360.

Average formula:

14
 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ….+ 𝑎n
Let a1, a2, a3... an be a set of numbers, average =
n

Fractions formulas:

a c ad+bc
 + =
b d bd

a c ad−bc
 − =
b d bd

a c ac
 × =
b d bd

a c a d ad
 = × =
b d b c bc

a c
 = → ad = bc
b d

Geometry formulas:

Perimeter:

 Perimeter of a square: s + s + s + s

s: length of one side

 Perimeter of a rectangle: l + w + l + w

l: length

w: width

 Perimeter of a triangle: a + b + c

 a, b, and c: lengths of the 3 sides

Area:

15
  Area of a square: s × s

s: length of one side

 Area of a rectangle: l × w

l: length

w: width

b×h
 Area of a triangle:
2

b: length of base

h: length of height

h
 Area of a trapezoid: (b1 + b2) ×
2

b1 and b2: parallel sides or the bases

h: length of height

Volume:

 Volume of a cube: s × s × s

s: length of one side

 Volume of a box: l × w × h

l: length

w: width

h: height
4
 Volume of a sphere: 3 × π × r3

π: 3.14159265359

r: radius of sphere

16
  Volume of a triangular prism: area of triangle × height of the triangular prism

 Volume of a cylinder: π × r2 × h

r: radius of the circle of the base

h: height of the cylinder

Quadrilaterals

 The diagonals of a square bisect one another, forming four 90 degree angles

 The diagonals of a rhombus bisect one another, forming four 90 degree angles

 The perimeter of a rectangle is twice its height plus twice its length (or, the sum of all its

sides).

 The area of a parallelogram can be found multiplying base × height (the base always

forms a right angle with the height).

Circles:

Area = πr2

Circumference = 2πr

A circle has 360 degrees. An arc is the portion of the circumference of a circle in x degrees of the

circle.

𝑥
Arc length = × 2πr
360

𝑥
Area of sector = × πr2
360

Basic Identities

17
  a+0=a

 a + (−a) = 0

 (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

 a+b=b+a

 a − b = a + (−b)

 a*1=a

1
 a* =1 (a ≠ 0)
a

 a*0=0

 (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)

 a*b=b*a

 a (b + c) = ab + ac

a 1
 =a(b)
b

Negative exponents:

1
x −2 =
𝑥2

Negative bases:

(−2) 4 = −2 × −2 × −2 × −2 = 16

(−2) 5 = −2 × −2 × −2 × −2 × −2 = 32

Perfect Squares:

Perfect Square Factors

18
1 1 * 1

4 2 * 2

9 3 * 3

16 4 * 4

25 5 * 5

36 6 * 6

49 7 * 7

64 8 * 8

81 9 * 9

100 10 * 10

121 11 * 11

144 12 * 12

169 13 * 13

196 14 * 14

225 15 * 15

256 16 * 16

289 17 * 17

324 18 * 18

361 19 * 19

19
400 20 * 20

Inequalities:

 If w < x and x < y, then w < y.

 If a < b and c < d, then a + c < b + d. However, this does not hold for subtracting, multiplying, or
dividing.

Probabilities

Probability is a representation of the odds of something happening. A probability of 1 is

guaranteed to happen. A probability of 0 will never happen. 0.5 = there is a 50/50 chance the

event will occur.

number of desired outcomes

 Probability of an outcome happening =
total number of possible outcomes

Probability of two independent outcomes both happening is

Probability of event A * probability of event B

1 1
e.g., Event A has a probability of and event B has a probability of 8. The probability of both
4

1 1 1
events happening is: * = . There is a 1 in 32 chance of both events A and event B
4 8 32

happening.

Combinations

20
  Possible combinations = number of element A * number of element B * number of

element C….

e.g., In a cafeteria, there are 3 different dessert options, 2 different entree options, and 4 drink

options. How many different lunch combinations are possible, using one drink, one, dessert, and

one entree?

 The total combinations possible = 3 * 2 * 4 = 24

Fundamental Counting Principle:

If an event can happen in N ways, and another, independent event can happen in M ways, and

then both events together can happen in N × M ways.

Combinations:

n 𝑛!
Cr =
𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)!

5 5!
C3 = = 10
3! (2!)

Permutations:

n 𝑛!
Pr =
(𝑛−𝑟)!

Probability that event A will happen:

Number of outcomes where A occurs

P (A) =
Total number of outcomes

P (event happens) + P (event does not happen) = 1

21
Mutually exclusive events:
Two events are mutually exclusive if they can't happen together: P (A and B) = 0

Events A and B (if they are independent events):

P (A and B) = P (A) × P (B)

Events A or B:
A happens, B happens, or both A and B happen.
P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B) – P (A and B)

Events A and B (if A and B are dependent events):

P (A and B) = P (A) × P (B | A)
P (B | A) is the probability that B occurs given that A occurs.

Number of ways to follow a rule = number of ways to ignore the rule – number of ways to break the rule.

Percents:

percent
part = × whole
100

 mode = value in the list that appears most often

 median = middle value in the list

median of {3, 9, 10, 27, 50} = 10

9 + 10
median of {3, 9, 10, 27} = = 9.5
2

Range = Greatest value – least value

Polygons

22
  Total degrees = 180 (n −2) where n = number of sides
180 (𝑛−2)
 Average degrees per side =
𝑛

Distance, Rate, and Time

 Distance = Rate × Time

Distance
 Rate =
Time
Distance
 Time =
Rate
Total Distance Traveled
 Average speed =
Total Time

Standard deviation:

If you're given a set of n numbers a, b, c … with a mean m:

(a−m)2 + (b−m)2 + (c−m)2 + …

SD = √
n

Variance = SD2

Integer series

𝑛 (𝑛+1)
 1 + 2 + 3 + ….. + n =
2
𝑛 (𝑛+1) (2𝑛+1)
 12 + 22 + 32 + ….. + n2 =
6
𝑛2 (𝑛+1)2
 1 + 2 + 3 + ….. + n =
3 3 3 3
4

23
 𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)(3𝑛2 + 3𝑛−1)
 14+ 24 + 34 + ….. + n4 =
30

1 1 1
 1− + − + ….. = ln2
2 3 4

1 1 1 𝜋
 1− + − + ….. =
3 5 7 4

1 1 1 𝜋2
 1− + − + ….. =
4 9 16 6

𝑛 (𝑛+1) (𝑛+2) (𝑛+3)

 1.2.3 + 2.3.4+ … + n (n+1) (n+2) =
4

Arithmetic and Geometric progressions

𝑛
A.P. Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + … + [a + (n − 1) d] = 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]

1−𝑟 𝑛 𝑎
G.P. Sn = a + ar + ar2 + … + ar n −1 = a , (S∞ = 1− 𝑟 for |r| < 1)
1−𝑟

Convergence of series: the ratio test

𝑢𝑛+1
Sn = u1 + u2 + u3 + …..+ un converges as n → ∞ if lim | |<1
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛

Convergence of series: the comparison test

If each term in a series of positive terms is less than the corresponding term in a series known
to be convergent, then the given series is also convergent.

Power series with real variables

𝑥2 𝑥𝑛
 ex = 1 + x + + ….. + + …… valid for all x
2! 𝑛!

24
 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥𝑛
 ln(1+x) =x − + + …. + (−1) n+1 + …. valid for −1 < x ≤ 1
2 3 𝑛!

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
 cosx = = 1− + − 6! + …… valid for all values of x
2 2! 4!

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥5
 sinx = = x− + + …… valid for all values of x
2𝑖 3! 5!
1 2 π π
 tanx = x + 3
𝑥3 + 15
𝑥 5 + …. valid for − <x<2
2

𝑥3 𝑥5
 tan −1x = x − + − …. valid for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
3 5
1 𝑥3 1.3 𝑥 5
 sin −1x = x + + + …. valid for −1 < x < 1
2 3 2.4 5

Complex numbers

The complex number z = x + iy = r (cosθ + i sinθ) = r e , where i2 = −1 and n is an

i (θ+2nπ)

arbitrary integer.

The complex conjugate of z is z* = x − iy = r (cosθ − i sinθ) = re−iθ; zz* = |z|2 = x2 + y2

De Moivre's theorem
(cosθ + i sinθ) n = einθ = cos nθ + i sin nθ

Power series for complex variables

𝑧2 𝑧𝑛
ez = 1 + z + + …… + +… convergent for all finite z
2! 𝑛!

𝑧3 𝑧5
sin z = z − + − …… convergent for all finite z
3! 5!
𝑧2 𝑧4
cos z = 1 − + − …… convergent for all finite z
2! 4!
𝑧2 𝑧3
ln (1 + z) = z − + − …… principal value of ln(1 + z)
2 3

25
  Sum of first n odd numbers = n²

 Sum of first n even numbers = n (n + 1)

Profit, Loss and Discount

 Profit or Gain = Selling Price – Cost Price

Profit
 Profit % = ×100
Cost Price

100 + Profit %
 Selling Price = × Cost Price
100

100
 Cost Price = × Selling Price
100 + Profit %

 Loss = Cost Price – Selling Price

Loss
 Loss % = × 100
Cost Price

100− loss %
 Selling Price = × Cost Price
100

100
 Cost Price = × Selling Price
100− loss %

Marked Price−Selling Price

 Discount % = × 100
Marked Price

ab
 Effective Discount after successive discount of a% and b% is (a + b − ). Effective Discount when you
100
y
buy x goods and get y goods free is x + y × 100

LCM and HCF

 Product of two numbers = Their H. C. F. × Their L. C. M.

 LCM of Co-prime Numbers = Product of the Numbers

HCF of Numerator
 HCF of Fractions =
LCM of denominator

LCM of Numerator
 LCM of Fractions =
HCF of denominator

26
Percentages

y
 To find what percentage of x is y: × 100
x

S
 Increase N by S % = N( 1+ )
100

S
 Decrease N by S % = N (1− )
100

Time and Work

1
 If A can do a piece of work in n days, then A's 1 day's work =
𝑛

1
 If A's 1 day's work = 𝑛, then A can finish the work in n days.

 If A is thrice as good a workman as B, then:

Ratio of work done by A and B = 3 : 1

Ratio of times taken by A & B to finish a work = 1 : 3

Pipes and Cisterns

 If a pipe can fill a tank in 'x' hours and another pipe can empty the full tank in 'y' hours (where y > x), then
1 1
on opening both the pipes, the net part of the tank filled in 1 hour is ( x − y )

Time and Distance

 Suppose a man covers a distance at 'x' kmph and an equal distance at 'y' kmph, then average speed during
2xy
his whole journey is [ ] kmph
x+y

Trains

 Lengths of trains are 'x' km and 'y' km, moving at 'u' kmph and 'v' kmph (where u > v) in the same
x+y
direction, then the time taken y the over-taker train to cross the slower train is [ ] hrs
u−v

27
 x+y
 Time taken to cross each other is [ ] hrs
u+ v

 If two trains start at the same time from two points A and B towards each other and after crossing they take
a and b hours in reaching B and A respectively. Then, A's speed : B's speed = (√b : √a).

Boats and Streams

 If the speed of a boat in still water is u km/hr and the speed of the stream is v km/hr, then:

Speed downstream = (u + v) km/hr.

Speed upstream = (u − v) km/hr.

 If the speed downstream is a km/hr and the speed upstream is b km/hr, then:

1
Speed in still water = 2 (a + b) km/hr.
1
Rate of stream = 2 (a −b) km/hr.

Mixtures and Alligations

 Alligation: It is the rule that enables us to find the ratio in which two or more ingredients at the given price
must be mixed to produce a mixture of desired price.

 Mean Price: The cost of a unit quantity of the mixture is called the mean price.

 Rule of Alligation:

If two ingredients are mixed, then

Quantity of cheaper Cost Price of dearer – Mean Price

Quantity of dearer
= Mean price – Cost Price of cheaper

 Where a is the original quantity, b is the quantity that is replaced and n is the number of times the
replacement process is carried out, then

Quantity of original entity after n operation a−b

=( )n
Quantity of mixture a

Inequalities

If a > b and c > 0,

28
  a+c>b+c
 a−c>b−c
 ac > bc
a b
 >
c c

1 1
If a, b ≥ 0, then an > bn and < n, where n is positive.
an b

a+x a
 a < b and x > 0, then >
b+x b
a+x a
 a > b and x > 0, then <
b+x b

1. n (n+l)(2n+1) is always divisible by 6.

2. 32n leaves remainder = 1 when divided by 8

3. n3 + (n+1)3 + (n+2)3 is always divisible by 9

4. 102n+1 + 1 is always divisible by 11

5. n(n2-1) is always divisible by 6

6. n2+ n is always even

7. 23n-1 is always divisible by 7

8. 152n-1 +l is always divisible by 16

9. n3 + 2n is always divisible by 3

10. 34n – 43n is always divisible by 17

11. Product of n consecutive numbers is always divisible by n!

12. If n is a positive integer and p is a prime, then n p – n is divisible by p.

13. |x| = x if x ≥ 0 and |x| = – x if x ≤ 0.

14. Dividend = Quotient × Divisor + Remainder

15. A number is divisible by 2, if its unit’s place digit is 0, 2, 4, or 8

16. A number is divisible by 3, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3

17. A number is divisible by 4, if the number formed by its last two digits is

29
 divisible by 4

18. A number is divisible by 8, if the number formed by its last three digits is

divisible by 8

19. A number is divisible by 9, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9

20. If the population of a town is 'P' in a year, then its population after 'N'

R
years is P(1+ )N
100

21. If the population of a town is 'P' in a year, then its population 'N' years ago

R
is P /[(1+ )N]
100

22. The equality of two ratios is called a proportion. If a : b = c : d, we write

a : b :: c : d and we say that a, b, c, d are in proportion. In a proportion,

the first and fourth terms are known as extremes, while the second and third are

known as means.

23. Product of extremes = Product of means

24. Mean proportion between a and b is √ab

25. The compounded ratio of the ratios (a : b), (c : d), (e : f) is (ace : bdf)

26. a2 : b2 is a duplicate ratio of a : b

27. √a : √b is a sub-duplicate ration of a : b

28. a3 : b3 is a triplicate ratio of a : b

29. a1/3 : b1/3 is a sub-triplicate ratio of a : b

a c (a + b) (c + d)
30. If = , then, = , which is called the componendo.
b d b d

a c (a− b) (c− d)
31. If = , then, = , which is called the dividendo.
b d b d

a c (a + b) (c + d)
32. If = , then, = , which is called the componendo and dividendo.
b d (a − b) (c − d)

33. Variation: We say that x is directly proportional to y if x = ky for some

constant k and we write, x α y. Also, we say that x is inversely proportional to

k 1
y if x = for some constant k and we write x α
y y

34. The cost of articles is directly proportional to the number of articles.

35. The work done is directly proportional to the number of men working at it.

30
 n = m × 10P

If n = 12345:

12345 = 1.2345 × 104

 Any single digit number written (P −1) times is divisible by P, where P is a prime number >5.
 If log x = y, then antilog y = x.
 Logarithms to the base 10 are known as common logarithms.

Characteristic and Mantissa in Logarithms:

log10 15 = 1.176 = 1 + 0.176

Characteristic
Mantissa
(Integral part)
(Decimal part)

When the number is greater than 1 When the number is less than 1

log10 x = y log10 x = y

 log10 15 = 1.176 = 1 + 0.176

 log10 0.5 = − 0.301 = −1 + 0.699
 log10 250 = 2.397 = 2 + 0.397
 log10 0. 08 = − 1.096 = −2 + 0.904
 log10 4000 = 3.602 = 3 + 0.602
 log10 0.005 = − 2.3010 = −3 + 0.699
 log10 50000 = 4.698 = 4 + 0.698

31
Fermat's Last Theorem:

No 3 positive integers a, b and c satisfy the equation:

an + bn = cn for any integer value of n > 2.

Fermat's little theorem:

If p is a prime number and a is any integer not divisible by p, then p divides ap−1 −1.

Fraction Percentage Fraction Percentage

1 50% 1 11.11%
2 9
1 33.33% 1 10%
3 10
1 25% 1 9.09%
4 11
1 20% 1 8.33%
5 12
1 16.66% 1 7.69%
6 13
1 14.28% 1 7.14%
7 14
1 12.5% 1 6.66%
8 15

If N = (2) a (y) b (z) c where x, y, z are prime factors

 Number of even factors of N = (a) (b+1) (c+1)

 Number of odd factors of N = (b+1) (c+1)

Triangle inequality:

The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the length of the third side.

32
 c b

a
Properties of inequalities:

a+b>c Let x, y, and z be real numbers

a+c>b Addition property:

If x < y, then x + z < y + z

b+c>a
Subtraction property:

If x < y, then x − z < y – z

For a triangle with the side lengths: Multiplication property:
7, 9, 13 If x < y and z > 0, then xz < yz

If x < y and z < 0, then xz > yz

 The sum of 7 and 9 is 16 and 16 is greater than 13 Division property:
 The sum of 9 and 13 is 21 and 21 is greater than 7 x x
If x < y and z > 0, then <
 The sum of 7 and 13 is 20 and 20 is greater than 9 z y

x x
If x < y and z < 0, then >
z y
Modulus inequalities or Absolute value inequalities:
Transitive property:

If x < y and y < z, then x < z

 If |x| < a, then – a < x < a
 If |x| > a, then either x > a or x <−a
Comparison property:
 If |x – l| < a, then l – a < x < l + a If x = y + z and z > 0, then x > y
 If |x – l| > a, then either x > l + a or x < l – a.

33
Segment Addition Postulate:

AB BC

A B C

AC

If AB + BC = AC, then B is between A and C

Ceva's theorem:

AF BD CE
If FB × × = 1, then the line AD, CF, BE forms a concurrent point at O.
DC EA

 Decimal (Base 10) — Represent any number using 10 digits [0–9]

 Binary (Base 2) — Represent any number using 2 digits [0–1]

 Octal (Base 8) — Represent any number using 8 digits [0–7]

 Hexadecimal (Base 16) — Represent any number using 10 digits and 6 characters [0–9, A, B, C,

D, E, F]

34
 Decimal, hexadecimal, octal, and binary values

Decimal Hexadecimal Octal Binary

0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 10
3 3 3 11
4 4 4 100
5 5 5 101
6 6 6 110
7 7 7 111
8 8 10 1000
9 9 11 1001
10 A 12 1010
11 B 13 1011
12 C 14 1100
13 D 15 1101
14 E 16 1110
15 F 17 1111
16 10 20 10000
17 11 21 10001
18 12 22 10010
19 13 23 10011
20 14 24 10100
21 15 25 10101
22 16 26 10110
23 17 27 10111
24 18 30 11000
25 19 31 11001
26 1A 32 11010
27 1B 33 11011
28 1C 34 11100
29 1D 35 11101
30 1E 36 11110
31 1F 37 11111
32 20 40 100000
33 21 41 100001
34 22 42 100010
35 23 43 100011
36 24 44 100100

35
33
37 25 45 100101
38 26 46 100110
39 27 47 100111
40 28 50 101000
41 29 51 101001
42 2A 52 101010
43 2B 53 101011
44 2C 54 101100
45 2D 55 101101
46 2E 56 101110
47 2F 57 101111
48 30 60 110000
49 31 61 110001
50 32 62 110010
51 33 63 110011
52 34 64 110100
53 35 65 110101
54 36 66 110110
55 37 67 110111
56 38 70 111000
57 39 71 111001
58 3A 72 111010
59 3B 73 111011
60 3C 74 111100
61 3D 75 111101
62 3E 76 111110
63 3F 77 111111
64 40 100 1000000
65 41 101 1000001
66 42 102 1000010
67 43 103 1000011
68 44 104 1000100
69 45 105 1000101
70 46 106 1000110
71 47 107 1000111
72 48 110 1001000
73 49 111 1001001
74 4A 112 1001010
75 4B 113 1001011
76 4C 114 1001100

36
34
77 4D 115 1001101
78 4E 116 1001110
79 4F 117 1001111
80 50 120 1010000
81 51 121 1010001
82 52 122 1010010
83 53 123 1010011
84 54 124 1010100
85 55 125 1010101
86 56 126 1010110
87 57 127 1010111
88 58 130 1011000
89 59 131 1011001
90 5A 132 1011010
91 5B 133 1011011
92 5C 134 1011100
93 5D 135 1011101
94 5E 136 1011110
95 5F 137 1011111
96 60 140 1100000
97 61 141 1100001
98 62 142 1100010
99 63 143 1100011
100 64 144 1100100
101 65 145 1100101
102 66 146 1100110
103 67 147 1100111
104 68 150 1101000
105 69 151 1101001
106 6A 152 1101010
107 6B 153 1101011
108 6C 154 1101100
109 6D 155 1101101
110 6E 156 1101110
111 6F 157 1101111
112 70 160 1110000
113 71 161 1110001
114 72 162 1110010
115 73 163 1110011
116 74 164 1110100

37
35
117 75 165 1110101
118 76 166 1110110
119 77 167 1110111
120 78 170 1111000
121 79 171 1111001
122 7A 172 1111010
123 7B 173 1111011
124 7C 174 1111100
125 7D 175 1111101
126 7E 176 1111110
127 7F 177 1111111
128 80 200 10000000
129 81 201 10000001
130 82 202 10000010
131 83 203 10000011
132 84 204 10000100
133 85 205 10000101
134 86 206 10000110
135 87 207 10000111
136 88 210 10001000
137 89 211 10001001
138 8A 212 10001010
139 8B 213 10001011
140 8C 214 10001100
141 8D 215 10001101
142 8E 216 10001110
143 8F 217 10001111
144 90 220 10010000
145 91 221 10010001
146 92 222 10010010
147 93 223 10010011
148 94 224 10010100
149 95 225 10010101
150 96 226 10010110
151 97 227 10010111
152 98 230 10011000
153 99 231 10011001
154 9A 232 10011010
155 9B 233 10011011
156 9C 234 10011100

38
36
157 9D 235 10011101
158 9E 236 10011110
159 9F 237 10011111
160 A0 240 10100000
161 A1 241 10100001
162 A2 242 10100010
163 A3 243 10100011
164 A4 244 10100100
165 A5 245 10100101
166 A6 246 10100110
167 A7 247 10100111
168 A8 250 10101000
169 A9 251 10101001
170 AA 252 10101010
171 AB 253 10101011
172 AC 254 10101100
173 AD 255 10101101
174 AE 256 10101110
175 AF 257 10101111
176 B0 260 10110000
177 B1 261 10110001
178 B2 262 10110010
179 B3 263 10110011
180 B4 264 10110100
181 B5 265 10110101
182 B6 266 10110110
183 B7 267 10110111
184 B8 270 10111000
185 B9 271 10111001
186 BA 272 10111010
187 BB 273 10111011
188 BC 274 10111100
189 BD 275 10111101
190 BE 276 10111110
191 BF 277 10111111
192 C0 300 11000000
193 C1 301 11000001
194 C2 302 11000010
195 C3 303 11000011
196 C4 304 11000100

39
37
197 C5 305 11000101
198 C6 306 11000110
199 C7 307 11000111
200 C8 310 11001000
201 C9 311 11001001
202 CA 312 11001010
203 CB 313 11001011
204 CC 314 11001100
205 CD 315 11001101
206 CE 316 11001110
207 CF 317 11001111
208 D0 320 11010000
209 D1 321 11010001
210 D2 322 11010010
211 D3 323 11010011
212 D4 324 11010100
213 D5 325 11010101
214 D6 326 11010110
215 D7 327 11010111
216 D8 330 11011000
217 D9 331 11011001
218 DA 332 11011010
219 DB 333 11011011
220 DC 334 11011100
221 DD 335 11011101
222 DE 336 11011110
223 DF 337 11011111
224 E0 340 11100000
225 E1 341 11100001
226 E2 342 11100010
227 E3 343 11100011
228 E4 344 11100100
229 E5 345 11100101
230 E6 346 11100110
231 E7 347 11100111
232 E8 350 11101000
233 E9 351 11101001
234 EA 352 11101010
235 EB 353 11101011
236 EC 354 11101100

40
38
 237 ED 355 11101101
238 EE 356 11101110
239 EF 357 11101111
240 F0 360 11110000
241 F1 361 11110001
242 F2 362 11110010
243 F3 363 11110011
244 F4 364 11110100
245 F5 365 11110101
246 F6 366 11110110
247 F7 367 11110111
248 F8 370 11111000
249 F9 371 11111001
250 FA 372 11111010
251 FB 373 11111011
252 FC 374 11111100
253 FD 375 11111101
254 FE 376 11111110
255 FF 377 11111111

 Any prime number greater than 3 can be written as 6k±1.

 The product of 'n' consecutive natural numbers is always divisible by
n!
 Square of any natural number can be written in the form of 3n or 3n+1.
Also, square of any natural number can be written in the form of 4n or
4n+1.
 Any two digit number 'pq' can effectively be written as 10p + q and a
three digit number 'pqr' can effectively be written as 100p + 10q + r.
P (P+1)
 Number of ways N can be written as product of two factors = or if
2 2
P is even or odd respectively
 The number of ways in which a composite number can be resolved into two
co-prime factors is 2m-1, where m is the number of different prime
factors of the number.

41
39
 (x + a)(x + b) (x + c) = x3 + (a + b + c) x2 + (ab + bc + ac)x + abc

 (x – a)(x – b) (x – c) = x3 – (a + b + c) x2 + (ab + bc + ac)x – abc

 Arithmetic Mean = (a1 + a2 + a3 ….an) / n

n
 Geometric Mean = √a1 a2 … . . an

1 1 1
 Harmonic Mean = n / ( + + ...+ )
x1 x2 xn

 For two numbers a and b

(a + b)
AM =
2

GM = √ab

2ab
HM =
a+b

 AM ≥ GM ≥ HM is always true. They will be equal if all elements are equal to

each other. If there are just two values then GM2 = AM × HM
 Absolute Growth = Final Value – Initial Value
Final Value – Initial Value
 Growth rate for one year period = × 100
Initial Value
1
Final Value 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
 Compound Annual Growth Rate = (Initial Value ) − 1
Final Value – Initial Value
 Average Annual Growth Rate = × 100
Number of years

 Linear Races
Winner's distance = Length of race
Loser's distance = Winner's distance – (beat distance + start distance)
Winner's time = Loser's time – (beat time + start time)

Circular Races

42
40
 Two people are running on a circular track of length L with speeds a and b in
the same direction

L
Time for 1st meeting =
a−b
They meet at a – b distinct points (reduced ratio)
L L
Time for 1st meeting at the starting point = LCM ( a , b )

Two people are running on a circular track of length L with speeds a and b in
the opposite direction

L
Time for 1st meeting =
a+b
They meet at a + b distinct points (reduced ratio)
L L
Time for 1st meeting at the starting point = LCM ( a , b )

Three people are running on a circular track of length L with speeds a, b and c
in the same direction

L L
Time for 1st meeting = LCM ( , )
a−b a−c
L L L
Time for 1st meeting at the starting point = LCM ( a , b , )
c

 If a and b are positive quantities, then

a+b
≥ √ab
2

 If a, b, c, d are positive quantities, then

a b c d
+ + + ≥ 4
b c d a

a4 + b4 + c4 +d4 ≥ 4abcd

43
41
 1
 For any positive integer n, 2 ≤ (1+ )n ≤ 3
n
 (n!)2 ≥ nn
am + bm a+b
 > ( 2 )m [m ≤ 0 or m ≥ 1]
2
am + bm a+b
 < ( 2 )m [0 < m < 1]
2

 Simple Interest Formula

Simple interest = P × i × n

where:

P = principal amount
i = interest rate
n = term of the loan

 Compound Interest Formula

The formula for calculating compound interest in a year is:

Compound interest = [P (1 + i) n] − P

where:

P = principal amount
i = interest rate in percentage terms
n = number of compounding periods for a year

44
42
 1+ 𝑖
Total value with compound interest = [P ( ) nt] − P
n

where:
P = principal amount
i = interest rate in percentage terms
n = number of compounding periods per year
t = total number of years for the investment or loan

 The formulas for obtaining the future value (FV) and present value (PV) are as follows:

1+ 𝑖
FV = PV × ( ) nt
n

FV
PV = 1+ 𝑖 nt
( )
n

Theorems

 Mid Point Theorem: The line joining the midpoint of any two sides is parallel to the third side and is half
the length of the third side.
 Apollonius' Theorem:
A

B C
D

AB2 + AC2 = 2 (AD2 + BD2)

 Basic Proportionality Theorem:

45
43
 A

D E

B C

AD AE
If DE || BC, then =
DB EC

 Interior Angle Bisector Theorem:

A

D
B

AE BA
=
ED BD

 Right Angled Triangle:

A
∆ABC ≈ ∆ADB ≈ ∆BDC

D BD2 = AD × DC
AB × BC = BD × AC

C
B

46
44
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic:

Every integer greater than 1 can be factored uniquely into a product of prime numbers

For example:

4312 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 7 × 7 × 11

Euclid's lemma: If a prime number divides a product of two numbers, it must divide at least one
of the numbers.

Stewart's Theorem:

If a, b and c are the lengths of the sides of a triangle. If d is the length of the cevian of the side of
the length a. Suppose this cevian divides the side 'a' into 2 segments of the length m and n, where
m is adjacent to the side c and whereas n is adjacent to the side b, then

b2 m + c2 n = a (d2 + mn)

47
 The Square Root of 2 is Called "Pythagoras' Constant."

0 is the Only Number That Can't Be Represented In

Roman Numerals

0 is an Even Number

6 is the Smallest Perfect Number

The Number Pi (the ratio of the circumference to the diameter

of a circle) is Irrational

If we multiply a number by 9 and add all the digits of the new number together, the sum will always add
up to 9. For example:

8 × 9 = 72

7+2=9

4 × 9 = 36

3+6=9

48
Number Square Cube Square Root Cubic Root

1 1 1 1.000 1.000

2 4 8 1.414 1.260

3 9 27 1.732 1.442

4 16 64 2.000 1.587

5 25 125 2.236 1.710

6 36 216 2.449 1.817

7 49 343 2.646 1.913

8 64 512 2.828 2.000

9 81 729 3.000 2.080

10 100 1000 3.162 2.154

11 121 1331 3.317 2.224

12 144 1728 3.464 2.289

13 169 2197 3.606 2.351

14 196 2744 3.742 2.410

15 225 3375 3.873 2.466

16 256 4096 4.000 2.520

17 289 4913 4.123 2.571

18 324 5832 4.243 2.621

19 361 6859 4.359 2.668

20 400 8000 4.472 2.714

21 441 9261 4.583 2.759

22 484 10648 4.690 2.802

23 529 12167 4.796 2.844

24 576 13824 4.899 2.884

25 625 15625 5.000 2.924

26 676 17576 5.099 2.962

49
27 729 19683 5.196 3.000

28 784 21952 5.292 3.037

29 841 24389 5.385 3.072

30 900 27000 5.477 3.107

31 961 29791 5.568 3.141

32 1024 32768 5.657 3.175

33 1089 35937 5.745 3.208

34 1156 39304 5.831 3.240

35 1225 42875 5.916 3.271

36 1296 46656 6.000 3.302

37 1369 50653 6.083 3.332

38 1444 54872 6.164 3.362

39 1521 59319 6.245 3.391

40 1600 64000 6.325 3.420

41 1681 68921 6.403 3.448

42 1764 74088 6.481 3.476

43 1849 79507 6.557 3.503

44 1936 85184 6.633 3.530

45 2025 91125 6.708 3.557

46 2116 97336 6.782 3.583

47 2209 103823 6.856 3.609

48 2304 110592 6.928 3.634

49 2401 117649 7.000 3.659

50 2500 125000 7.071 3.684

51 2601 132651 7.141 3.708

52 2704 140608 7.211 3.733

53 2809 148877 7.280 3.756

50
54 2916 157464 7.348 3.780

55 3025 166375 7.416 3.803

56 3136 175616 7.483 3.826

57 3249 185193 7.550 3.849

58 3364 195112 7.616 3.871

59 3481 205379 7.681 3.893

60 3600 216000 7.746 3.915

61 3721 226981 7.810 3.936

62 3844 238328 7.874 3.958

63 3969 250047 7.937 3.979

64 4096 262144 8.000 4.000

65 4225 274625 8.062 4.021

66 4356 287496 8.124 4.041

67 4489 300763 8.185 4.062

68 4624 314432 8.246 4.082

69 4761 328509 8.307 4.102

70 4900 343000 8.367 4.121

71 5041 357911 8.426 4.141

72 5184 373248 8.485 4.160

73 5329 389017 8.544 4.179

74 5476 405224 8.602 4.198

75 5625 421875 8.660 4.217

76 5776 438976 8.718 4.236

77 5929 456533 8.775 4.254

78 6084 474552 8.832 4.273

79 6241 493039 8.888 4.291

80 6400 512000 8.944 4.309

51
 81 6561 531441 9.000 4.327

82 6724 551368 9.055 4.344

83 6889 571787 9.110 4.362

84 7056 592704 9.165 4.380

85 7225 614125 9.220 4.397

86 7396 636056 9.274 4.414

87 7569 658503 9.327 4.431

88 7744 681472 9.381 4.448

89 7921 704969 9.434 4.465

90 8100 729000 9.487 4.481

91 8281 753571 9.539 4.498

92 8464 778688 9.592 4.514

93 8649 804357 9.644 4.531

94 8836 830584 9.695 4.547

95 9025 857375 9.747 4.563

96 9216 884736 9.798 4.579

97 9409 912673 9.849 4.595

98 9604 941192 9.899 4.610

99 9801 970299 9.950 4.626

100 10000 1000000 10.000 4.642

Logarithm Table

x log10 x log2 x loge x

0 undefined undefined undefined

52
0.0001 −4 −13.287712 −9.210340

0.001 −3 −9.965784 −6.907755

0.01 −2 −6.643856 −4.605170

0.1 −1 −3.321928 −2.302585

1 0 0 0

2 0.301030 1 0.693147

3 0.477121 1.584963 1.098612

4 0.602060 2 1.386294

5 0.698970 2.321928 1.609438

6 0.778151 2.584963 1.791759

7 0.845098 2.807355 1.945910

8 0.903090 3 2.079442

9 0.954243 3.169925 2.197225

10 1 3.321928 2.302585

20 1.301030 4.321928 2.995732

30 1.477121 4.906891 3.401197

40 1.602060 5.321928 3.688879

50 1.698970 5.643856 3.912023

53
 60 1.778151 5.906991 4.094345

70 1.845098 6.129283 4.248495

80 1.903090 6.321928 4.382027

90 1.954243 6.491853 4.499810

100 2 6.643856 4.605170

200 2.301030 7.643856 5.298317

300 2.477121 8.228819 5.703782

400 2.602060 8.643856 5.991465

500 2.698970 8.965784 6.214608

600 2.778151 9.228819 6.396930

700 2.845098 9.451211 6.551080

800 2.903090 9.643856 6.684612

900 2.954243 9.813781 6.802395

1000 3 9.965784 6.907755

10000 4 13.287712 9.210340

1 is Not a Prime Number

Six Weeks = 10! Seconds

10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 3,628,800 seconds = 60,480 minutes = 1,008 hours = 42 days = 6 weeks

54
 Multiplication Table

× 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

3 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36

4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48

5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

6 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72

7 0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84

8 0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96

9 0 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108

10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

11 0 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110 121 132

12 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144

13 + 53 +33 = 153

163 + 503 +333 = 165033

1663 + 5003 +3333 = 166500333

16663 + 50003 +33333 = 166650003333

55
 1×8+1=9
12 × 8 + 2 = 98
123 × 8 + 3 = 987
1234 × 8 + 4 = 9876
12345 × 8 + 5 = 98765
123456 × 8 + 6 = 987654
1234567 × 8 + 7 = 9876543
12345678 × 8 + 8 = 98765432
123456789 × 8 + 9 = 987654321

Metric Units of Measurement

Prefix Name Prefix Symbol Value

yotta Y 1024 Septillion
zetta Z 1021 Sextillion
exa E 1018 Quintillion
peta P 1015 Quadrillion
tera T 1012 Trillion
giga G 109 Billion
mega M 106 Million
kilo k 103 Thousand
hecto h 102 Hundred
deka da 101 Ten
100 One
deci d 10−1 Tenth
centi c 10−2 Hundredth
milli m 10−3 Thousandth
micro μ 10−6 Millionth

56
nano n 10−9 Billionth
pico p 10−12 Trillionth
femto f 10−15 Quadrillionth
atto a 10−18 Quintillionth
zepto z 10−21 Sextillionth
yocto y 10−24 Septillionth

From 0 to 1000, the only number that has the letter "a" in it is "one thousand".

Units of Length

10 millimeter (mm) 1 centimeter (cm)

10 centimeter 1 decimeter (dm) = 100 millimeters

10 decimeter 1 meter (m) = 1000 millimeters

10 meter 1 decameter (dam)

10 decameter 1 hectometer (hm) = 100 meters

10 hectometer 1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters

The numbers on opposite sides of a dice always add up to seven

Units of Area

100 square millimeter (mm2) 1 square centimeter (cm2)

100 square centimeter 1 square decimeter (dm2)

100 square decimeter 1 square meter (m2)

100 square meter 1 square decameter (dam2) = 1 are

100 square decameter 1 square hectometer (hm2) = 1 hectare (ha)

100 square hectometer 1 square kilometer (km2)

57
Units of Liquid Volume

10 milliliters (mL) 1 centiliter (cL)

10 centiliters 1 deciliter (dL) = 100 milliliters

10 deciliters 1 liter = 1000 milliliters

10 liters 1 decaliter (daL)

10 decaliter 1 hectoliter (hL) = 100 liters

10 hectoliters 1 kiloliter (kL) = 1000 liters

The number 0.999999….. is exactly equal to 1

Units of Volume

1000 cubic millimeter (mm3) 1 cubic centimeter (cm3)

1000 cubic centimeter 1 cubic decimeter (dm3)

1 000 000 cubic millimeter

1000 cubic decimeter 1 cubic meter (m3)

1 000 000 cubic centimeter

1 000 000 000 cubic millimeter

Dividing by zero once put a US Navy Warship out of action

Units of Mass

10 milligrams (mg) 1 centigram (cg)

10 centigrams 1 decigram (dg) = 100 milligrams

10 decigrams 1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams

10 grams 1 dekagram (dag)

10 decagrams 1 hectogram (hg) = 100 grams

10 hectograms 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams

1000 kilograms 1 megagram (Mg) or 1 metric ton (t)

58
Physical constants

Symbol Quantity Value

c speed of light in vacuum 299792458 m⋅s−1

h Planck constant 6.62607015×10−34 J⋅Hz−1

ℏ reduced Planck constant 1.054571817...×10−34 J⋅s

G Newtonian constant of gravitation 6.67430(15)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2

1 vacuum electric permittivity 8.8541878128(13)×10−12 F⋅m−1

ε0 =
μ0 c2

μ0 vacuum magnetic permeability 1.25663706212(19)×10−6 N⋅A−2

Z0 = μ0c characteristic impedance of vacuum 376.730313668(57) Ω

e elementary charge 1.602176634×10−19 C

ΔυCs hyperfine transition frequency 9192631770 Hz

of 133Cs

NA Avogadro constant 6.02214076×1023 mol−1

kB Boltzmann constant 1.380649×10−23 J⋅K−1

2e2 conductance quantum 7.748091729...×10−5 S

G0 =
h

59
 2e Josephson constant 483597.8484...×109 Hz⋅V−1
KJ =
h

1 Coulomb constant 8.9875517923(14)×109 kg⋅m3⋅s−2⋅C−2

4πε0

h von Klitzing constant 25812.80745... Ω

RK =
e2

h magnetic flux quantum 2.067833848...×10−15 Wb

Φ0 =
2e

1 inverse conductance quantum 12906.40372... Ω

G0

eℏ Bohr magneton 9.2740100783(28)×10−24 J⋅T−1

μB =
2me

eℏ nuclear magneton 5.0507837461(15)×10−27 J⋅T−1

μN =
2mp

e2 fine-structure constant 7.2973525693(11)×10−3

α=
4πε0 ℏc

α−1 inverse fine-structure constant 137.035999084(21)

me electron mass 9.1093837015(28)×10−31 kg

mp proton mass 1.67262192369(51)×10−27 kg

mn neutron mass 1.67492749804(95)×10−27 kg

ℏ Bohr radius 5.29177210903(80)×10−11 m

a0 =
αme c

60
 e2 classical electron radius 2.8179403262(13)×10−15 m
re =
4πε0 me c2

ge electron g-factor −2.00231930436256(35)

GF / (ℏc)3 Fermi coupling constant 1.1663787(6)×10−5 GeV−2

Eh = 2R∞ hc Hartree energy 4.3597447222071(85)×10−18 J

h quantum of circulation 3.6369475516(11)×10−4 m2⋅s−1

2me

α2 me c Rydberg constant 10973731.568160(21) m−1

R∞=
2h

8πr2e Thomson cross section 6.6524587321(60)×10−29 m2

σe =
3

mW W-to-Z mass ratio 0.88153(17)

mZ

m weak mixing angle 0.22290(30)

sin2θW = 1 – ( mW ) 2
Z

mu = 1Da atomic mass constant 1.66053906660(50)×10−27 kg

F=NAe Faraday constant 96485.33212... C⋅mol−1

R = NAkB molar gas constant 8.314462618... J⋅mol−1⋅K−1

Mu = M (12C) /12 molar mass constant 0.99999999965(30)×10−3 kg⋅mol−1

π2 k4B Stefan–Boltzmann constant 5.670374419...×10−8 W⋅m−2⋅K−4

σ=
60ℏ3 c2

61
 c1 = 2πhc2 first radiation constant 3.741771852...×10−16 W⋅m2

c1 first radiation constant for spectral 1.191042972...×10−16 W⋅m2⋅sr−1

c1L =
π radiance

M (12C) = NA m (12C) molar mass of carbon-12 11.9999999958(36)×10−3 kg⋅mol−1

NAh molar Planck constant 3.990312712...×10−10 J⋅Hz−1⋅mol−1

hc second radiation constant 1.438776877...×10−2 m⋅K

c2 =
kB

b Wien wavelength displacement law 2.897771955...×10−3 m⋅K

constant

b' Wien frequency displacement law 5.878925757...×1010 Hz⋅K−1

constant

bentropy Wien entropy displacement law 3.002916077...×10−3 m⋅K

constant

111111111 × 111111111 = 12345678987654321

i = √−1
Euler's identity:

eiπ +1 = 0

Euler's number − the base of natural logarithms

62
 Planetary Fact Sheet
Data about the planets of our solar system (Planetary facts taken from NASA's Planetary Fact Sheet−Metric).

Distance
Mass Diameter Length from Mean Number
Density Gravity
Name of day Sun te mp e ra t ure of
(1024 kg) (km)
(kg/m3 ) (m/s2 )
(hours) (°C) moons
(106 km)

Mercury 0.330 4,879 5427 3.7 4222.6 57.9 167 0

Venus 4.87 12,104 5243 8.9 2802.0 108.2 464 0

Earth 5.97 12,756 5514 9.8 24.0 149.6 15 1

Terrestrial planets

Mars 0.642 6,792 3933 3.7 24.7 227.9 −65 2

Jupiter 1898 142,984 1326 23.1 9.9 778.6 −110 67

Gas
Saturn 568 120,536 687 9.0 10.7 1433.5 −140 62
giants
Jovian
planets Uranus 86.8 51,118 1271 8.7 17.2 2872.5 −195 27
Ice
giants Neptune 102 49,528 1638 11.0 16.1 4495.1 −200 14

Dwarf planets Pluto 0.0146 2,370 2095 0.7 153.3 5906.4 −225 5

Sun Reference Data

Diameter: 1.4 million km Age: 4.5 billion years

(870,000 miles)
Mass: 330,000 × Earth Distance from Earth: 149.6 million km (93 million miles)
Density: 1.41 (water =1) Distance to Nearest Star: 4.3 light years
Solar Wind Speed: 3 million km/hr. Luminosity: 390 billion billion megawatts
Solar Cycle: 8 - 11 years Temperature at surface: 5,500 oC (9,932 oF)
Temperature at Core: 14 million oC Temperature of Sunspots: 4,000 oC (7,232 oF)
(22.5 million oF)
Rotation Period at Equator: 25 Earth days Rotation Period at Poles: 35 Earth days

63
Mercury and Venus are the only 2 planets in our solar system that have no moons.

The hottest planet in our solar system is Venus.

Enceladus − one of Saturn's smaller moons, reflects 90% of the Solar radiation.

A light-year is the distance covered by light in a single year.

The Milky Way galaxy is 105,700 light-years wide.

The Sun weighs about 330,000 times more than Earth.

Footprints left on the Moon won't disappear as there is no wind.

The Sun makes a full rotation once every 25 – 35 days.

Earth is the only planet not named after a God.

Pluto is smaller than the United States.

64
 He is like the fox, who effaces his tracks in the sand with his tail.

{Describing the writing style of famous mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss}

― Niels Henrik Abel

There are more volcanoes on Venus than any other

planet in our solar system.

Neptune's moon [Triton] orbits the planet backwards.

65
 There are more stars in space than there are grains of sand in the world.

Neptune takes nearly 165 Earth years to make one orbit of the Sun.

Pluto's largest moon [Charon] is half the size of Pluto.

A day on Pluto is lasts for 153.6 hours long.

Any free-moving liquid in outer space will shape itself into a sphere.

Only 5% of the universe is visible from Earth.

Light travels from the Sun to the Earth in less than 10 minutes.

The Earth's rotation is slowing slightly as time goes on.

There are three main types of galaxies:

 elliptical
 spiral
There are approximately 100 thousand
 irregular
million stars in the Milky Way.

66
 Essential Amino Acids Nonessential Amino Acids

These cannot be synthesized or produced by These are produced or synthesized by our

the body and are required from food bodies and are not taken up as food
supplements supplements

 Leucine  Arginine
 Isoleucine  Alanine
 Histidine  Aspartic acid
 Lysine  Asparagine
 Methionine  Cysteine
 Threonine  Glutamine
 Phenylalanine  Glutamic acid
 Tryptophan  Proline
 Valine  Glycine
 Serine
 Tyrosine

Conditional Amino Acids

These are usually not essential but in times of illness and stress − may become essential

 Cysteine
 Arginine
 Tyrosine
 Glutamine
 Ornithine
 Glycine
 Serine
 Proline

67
Common Amino Acids

Name Abbr. Molecular Weight Molecular Formula

Alanine Ala A 89.10 C3H7NO2

Arginine Arg R 174.20 C6H14N4O2

Asparagine Asn N 132.12 C4H8N2O3

Aspartic acid Asp D 133.11 C4H7NO4

Cysteine Cys C 121.16 C3H7NO2S

Glutamic acid Glu E 147.13 C5H9NO4

Glutamine Gln Q 146.15 C5H10N2O3

Glycine Gly G 75.07 C2H5NO2

Histidine His H 155.16 C6H9N3O2

Hydroxyproline Hyp O 131.13 C5H9NO3

Isoleucine Ile I 131.18 C6H13NO2

Leucine Leu L 131.18 C6H13NO2

Lysine Lys K 146.19 C6H14N2O2

Methionine Met M 149.21 C5H11NO2S

Phenylalanine Phe F 165.19 C9H11NO2

Proline Pro P 115.13 C5H9NO2

Pyroglutamatic Glp U 139.11 C5H7NO3

Serine Ser S 105.09 C3H7NO3

Threonine Thr T 119.12 C4H9NO3

Tryptophan Trp W 204.23 C11H12N2O2

Tyrosine Tyr Y 181.19 C9H11NO3

Valine Val V 117.15 C5H11NO2

68
82
 With our naked eye, we can see 3 – 7 different galaxies from Earth.

The closest galaxy to us is the Andromeda Galaxy – it's estimated

at 2.5 million light-years away.

The distance between the Sun and Earth is defined as an Astronomical Unit.

On Venus, it snows metal and rains sulfuric acid.

Space is completely silent.

Astronauts can grow approximately two inches in height when in space.

The first artificial satellite in space was called Sputnik

Exoplanets are planets that orbit around other stars.

The center of the Milky Way smells like rum and

tastes like raspberries.

69
Particles and their Properties

Particle name Mass (MeV/c2) Average lifetime (s)

Leptons

Electron 0.511 Stable

Electron neutrino ≈0 Stable

Muon 105.7 2.20×10−6

Muon neutrino ≈0 Stable

Tau 1784 <4×10−13

Tau neutrino ≈0 Stable

Hadrons

Proton 938.3 Stable

Neutron 939.6 920

Lambda 1115.6 2.6×10−10

Sigma 1189.4 0.80×10−10

Xi 1315 2.9×10−10

Omega 1672 0.82×10−10

Pion 139.6 2.60×10−8

π-Zero 135.0 0.83×10−16

Kaon 493.7 1.24×10−8

k-Short 497.6 0.89×10−10

k-Long 497.6 5.2×10−8

J/ψ 3100 7.1×10−21

Upsilon 9460 1.2×10−20

70
83
 Composition of Earth's Atmosphere

Nitrogen 78.1%

Oxygen 20.9%

Argon 0.9%

Carbon dioxide, Methane, Rare (inert) gases 0.1%

Base Planck units

Name Dimension Expression Value (SI units)

Planck length Length (L) 1.616255(18)×10−35 m

ћ𝐺
𝑙𝑃 = √
𝑐3

Planck mass Mass (M) 2.176435(24)×10−8 kg

ћ𝑐
𝑚𝑃 = √
𝐺

Planck time Time (T) 5.391247(60)×10−44 s

ћ𝐺
𝑡𝑃 = √
𝑐5

Planck temperature Temperature (θ) 1.416785(16)×1032 K

ћ𝑐 5
𝑇𝑃 = √ 2
𝐺𝑘 𝐵

Planck charge Electric charge (Q) 𝑞𝑃 = √4𝜋𝜀0 ћ𝑐 1.875545956(41)×10 C

−18

71
84
Abundances of the Elements in the Earth's Crust

Element Appro×imate % by weight

O×ygen 46.6

Silicon 27.7

Aluminum 8.1

Iron 5.0

Calcium 3.6

Sodium 2.8

Potassium 2.6

Magnesium 2.1

All others 1.5

Element Abundance in the Solar System

Element Symbol Mass Number A Mass fraction in Atom fraction in

parts per million parts per million

Hydrogen-1 H 1 705700 909964

Helium-4 He 4 275200 88714

O×ygen-16 O 16 5920 477

Carbon-12 C 12 3032 326

Nitrogen-14 N 14 1105 102

Neon-20 Ne 20 1548 100

Silicon-28 Si 28 653 30

Magnesium-24 Mg 24 513 28

Iron-56 Fe 56 1169 27

Sulfur-32 S 32 396 16

72
85
 Helium-3 He 3 35 15

Hydrogen-2 H 2 23 15

Neon-22 Ne 22 208 12

Magnesium-26 Mg 26 79 4

Carbon-13 C 13 37 4

Magnesium-25 Mg 25 69 4

Aluminum-27 Al 27 58 3

Argon-36 Ar 36 77 3

Calcium-40 Ca 40 60 2

Sodium-23 Na 23 33 2

Iron-54 Fe 54 72 2

Silicon-29 Si 29 34 2

Nickel-58 Ni 58 49 1

Silicon-30 Si 30 23 1

Iron-57 Fe 57 28 1

Composition of the Sun

Element Abundance Abundance

(percentage of total number of atoms) (percentage of total mass)
Hydrogen 91.2 71.0

Helium 8.7 27.1

O×ygen 0.078 0.97

Carbon 0.043 0.40

Nitrogen 0.0088 0.096

Silicon 0.0045 0.099

Magnesium 0.0038 0.076

Neon 0.0035 0.058

73
86
Iron 0.0030 0.14

Sulfur 0.0015 0.040

Speed of Sound

Gases
Material v (m/s)
Hydrogen (0°C) 1286
Helium (0°C) 972
Air (20°C) 343
Air (0°C) 331
Liquids at 25°C
Material v (m/s)
Glycerol 1904
Sea water 1533
Water 1493
Mercury 1450
Kerosene 1324
Methyl alcohol 1143
Carbon tetrachloride 926
Solids
Material v (m/s)
Diamond 12000
Pyre× glass 5640
Iron 5130
Aluminum 5100
Brass 4700
Copper 3560
Gold 3240
Lucite 2680
Lead 1322
Rubber 1600

74
87
 Our moon is moving away from Earth at a rate of 4 cm per year.

Pluto is named after the Roman god of the underworld.

The first living mammal to go into space was a dog named "Laika" from Russia.

Saturn is the only planet that could float in water.

A sunset on Mars is blue.

Astronauts can grow approximately two inches in height when in space.

The Earth weighs about 81 times more than the Moon

Asteroids are the byproducts of formations in the solar

system, more than 4 billion years ago.

75
Molecule Bond Energy (kJ/mol)

H—H 432

H—F 565

H—Cl 427

H—Br 363

H—I 295

C—H 413

C—C 347

C—N 305

C—O 358

C—F 485

C—Cl 339

C—Br 276

C—I 240.

C—S 259

N—H 391

N—N 160.

N—F 272

N—Cl 200.

N—Br 243

N—O 201

O—H 467

O—O 146

O—F 190.

O—Cl 203

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88
O—I 234

F—F 154

F—Cl 253

F—Br 237

Cl—Cl 239

Cl—Br 218

Br—Br 193

I—I 149

I—Cl 208

I—Br 175

S—H 347

S—F 327

S—Cl 253

S—Br 218

S—S 266

Si—Si 340

Si—H 393

Si—C 360

Si—O 452

C=C 614

C≡C 839

O=O 495

C=O 799

C≡O 1072

N=O 607

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 N=N 418

N≡N 941

C≡N 891

C=N 615

Electron Affinities of the Main-Group Elements

Electron Affinities in kJ/mole

IA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA

Period 1 H

-73

Period 2 Li B C N O F

-60 -27 -122 0 -141 -328

Period 3 Na Al Si P S Cl

-53 -44 -134 -72 -200 -349

Period 4 K Ga Ge As Se Br

-48 -30 -120 -77 -195 -325

Period 5 Rb In Sn Sb Te I

-47 -30 -121 -101 -190 -295

Period 6 Cs Tl Pb Bi Po At

-45 -30 -110 -110 -180 -270

Work function of elements (eV)

Ag 4.26 – 4.74 Al 4.06 – 4.26 As 3.75

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90
Au 5.10 – 5.47 B ~4.45 Ba 2.52 – 2.70

Be 4.98 Bi 4.31 C ~5

Ca 2.87 Cd 4.08 Ce 2.9

Co 5 Cr 4.5 Cs 1.95

Cu 4.53 – 5.10 Eu 2.5 Fe: 4.67 – 4.81

Ga 4.32 Gd 2.90 Hf 3.90

Hg 4.475 In 4.09 Ir 5.00 – 5.67

K 2.29 La 3.5 Li 2.9

Lu ~3.3 Mg 3.66 Mn 4.1

Mo 4.36 – 4.95 Na 2.36 Nb 3.95 – 4.87

Nd 3.2 Ni 5.04 – 5.35 Os 5.93

Pb 4.25 Pd 5.22 – 5.60 Pt 5.12 – 5.93

Rb 2.261 Re 4.72 Rh 4.98

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91
 Ru 4.71 Sb 4.55 – 4.70 Sc 3.5

Se 5.9 Si 4.60 – 4.85 Sm 2.7

Sn 4.42 Sr ~2.59 Ta 4.00 – 4.80

Tb 3.00 Te 4.95 Th 3.4

Ti 4.33 Tl ~3.84 U 3.63 – 3.90

V 4.3 W 4.32 – 5.22 Y 3.1

Yb 2.60 Zn 3.63 – 4.9 Zr 4.05

Fermi Energies, Fermi Temperatures, and Fermi Velocities

Element Fermi Energy Fermi Temperature Fermi Velocity

eV 104 K 106 m/s
Li 4.74 5.51 1.29
Na 3.24 3.77 1.07
K 2.12 2.46 0.86
Rb 1.85 2.15 0.81
Cs 1.59 1.84 0.75
Cu 7.00 8.16 1.57
Ag 5.49 6.38 1.39
Au 5.53 6.42 1.40
Be 14.3 16.6 2.25
Mg 7.08 8.23 1.58

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Ca 4.69 5.44 1.28
Sr 3.93 4.57 1.18
Ba 3.64 4.23 1.13
Nb 5.32 6.18 1.37
Fe 11.1 13.0 1.98
Mn 10.9 12.7 1.96
Zn 9.47 11.0 1.83
Cd 7.47 8.68 1.62
Hg 7.13 8.29 1.58
Al 11.7 13.6 2.03
Ga 10.4 12.1 1.92
In 8.63 10.0 1.74
Tl 8.15 9.46 1.69
Sn 10.2 11.8 1.90
Pb 9.47 11.0 1.83
Bi 9.90 11.5 1.87
Sb 10.9 12.7 1.96

Radioactive Nuclide Half-Life (years)

50 V 6.0×1015

Nd
144 2.4×1015

Hf
174 2.0×1015

Pt
192 1×1015

In
115 6.0×1014

Gd
152 1.08×1014

Te
123 1.2×1013

Pt
190 6.9×1011

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93
138 La 1.12×1011

147 Sm 1.06×1011

87Rb 4.88×1010
187 Re 4.3×1010

176 Lu 3.5×1010
232 Th 1.40×1010

238 U 4.47×109

40 K 1.25×109

235 U 7.04×810

244 Pu 8.2×107

146 Sm 7.0×107
205 Pb 3.0×107

236 U 2.39×107

129 I 1.7×107

247 Cm 1.60×107

182 Hf 9.0×106
107 Pd 7×106

53Mn 3.7×106

135 Cs 3.0×106

97Tc 2.6×106

237 Np 2.14×106

150 Gd 2.1×106

10Be 1.6×106

93Zr 1.5.0×106

98Tc 1.5×106

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 153Dy 1×106

 Standard Electrode Potentials in Aqueous Solution at 25°C

Cathode (Reduction) Standard Potential

Half-Reaction E° (volts)

Li+(aq) + e- → Li(s) -3.04

K+(aq) + e- → K(s) -2.92

Ca2+(aq) + 2e- → Ca(s) -2.76

Na+(aq) + e- → Na(s) -2.71

Mg2+(aq) + 2e- → Mg(s) -2.38

Al3+(aq) + 3e- → Al(s) -1.66

2H2O(l) + 2e- → H2(g) + 2OH-(aq) -0.83

Zn2+(aq) + 2e- → Zn(s) -0.76

Cr3+(aq) + 3e- → Cr(s) -0.74

Fe2+(aq) + 2e- → Fe(s) -0.41

Cd2+(aq) + 2e- → Cd(s) -0.40

Ni2+(aq) + 2e- → Ni(s) -0.23

Sn2+(aq) + 2e- → Sn(s) -0.14

Pb2+(aq) + 2e- → Pb(s) -0.13

Fe3+(aq) + 3e- → Fe(s) -0.04

2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2(g) 0.00

Sn4+(aq) + 2e- → Sn2+(aq) 0.15

Cu2+(aq) + e- → Cu+(aq) 0.16

ClO4-(aq) + H2O(l) + 2e- → ClO3-(aq) + 2OH-(aq) 0.17

AgCl(s) + e- → Ag(s) + Cl-(aq) 0.22

Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s) 0.34

ClO3-(aq) + H2O(l) + 2e- → ClO2-(aq) + 2OH-(aq) 0.35

IO-(aq) + H2O(l) + 2e- → I-(aq) + 2OH-(aq) 0.49

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Cu+(aq) + e- → Cu(s) 0.52

I2(s) + 2e- → 2I-(aq) 0.54

ClO2-(aq) + H2O(l) + 2e- → ClO-(aq) + 2OH-(aq) 0.59

Fe3+(aq) + e- → Fe2+(aq) 0.77

Hg22+(aq) + 2e- → 2Hg(l) 0.80

Ag+(aq) + e- → Ag(s) 0.80

Hg2+(aq) + 2e- → Hg(l) 0.85

ClO-(aq) + H2O(l) + 2e- → Cl-(aq) + 2OH-(aq) 0.90

2Hg2+(aq) + 2e- → Hg22+(aq) 0.90

NO3-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 3e- → NO(g) + 2H2O(l) 0.96

Br2(l) + 2e- → 2Br-(aq) 1.07

O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e- → 2H2O(l) 1.23

Cr2O72-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e- → 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l) 1.33

Cl2(g) + 2e- → 2Cl-(aq) 1.36

Ce4+(aq) + e- → Ce3+(aq) 1.44

MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e- → Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) 1.49

H2O2(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e- → 2H2O(l) 1.78

Co3+(aq) + e- → Co2+(aq) 1.82

S2O82-(aq) + 2e- → 2SO42-(aq) 2.01

O3(g) + 2H+(aq) + 2e- → O2(g) + H2O(l) 2.07

F2(g) + 2e- → 2F-(aq) 2.87

 Astronomy Data

1 light-year = 9.47 × 1015 m

1 AU (astronomical unit) = 1.50 × 1011 m

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 Distilled Water at Room Temperature (25°C) and Standard Pressure (101.325 kPa)

Volume Mass Density

1.0 mL or 1.0 cm3 1.0 g 1.0 g/cm3

1.0 L or 1.0 dm3 1.0 kg 1.0 kg/dm3

 Melting and Boiling points of Selected Compounds

Compound Formula Boiling Point Melting Point

pentane CH3(CH2)3CH3 36ºC –130ºC

hexane CH3(CH2)4CH3 69ºC –95ºC

heptane CH3(CH2)5CH3 98ºC –91ºC

octane CH3(CH2)6CH3 126ºC –57ºC

nonane CH3(CH2)7CH3 151ºC –54ºC

decane CH3(CH2)8CH3 174ºC –30ºC

tetramethylbutane (CH3)3C-C(CH3)3 106ºC +100ºC

 Flame Colour of Elements

Element Symbol Colour

barium Ba yellowish-green

calcium Ca yellowish red

cesium Cs violet

copper Cu blue to green

lead Pb blue-white

lithium Li red

potassium K violet

rubidium Rb violet

sodium Na yellow

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 strontium Sr scarlet red

 Prefixes for Molecular Compounds

1 = mono- 6 = hexa-

2 = di- 7 = hepta-

3 = tri- 8 = octa-

4 = tetra- 9 = ennea- (nona-)

5 = penta- 10 = deca-

 Properties of alkanes

Alkane Formula Boiling point [°C] Melting point [°C] Density [kg/m3]

(at 20 °C)

Methane CH4 -162 −182 0.656 (gas)

Ethane C2H6 −89 −183 1.26 (gas)

Propane C3H8 −42 −188 2.01 (gas)

Butane C4H10 0 −138 2.48 (gas)

Pentane C5H12 36 −130 626 (liquid)

Hexane C6H14 69 −95 659 (liquid)

Heptane C7H16 98 −91 684 (liquid)

Octane C8H18 126 −57 703 (liquid)

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 Nonane C9H20 151 −54 718 (liquid)

Decane C10H22 174 −30 730 (liquid)

Undecane C11H24 196 −26 740 (liquid)

Dodecane C12H26 216 −10 749 (liquid)

Tridecane C13H28 235 -5.4 756 (liquid)

Tetradecane C14H30 253 5.9 763 (liquid)

Pentadecane C15H32 270 10 769 (liquid)

Hexadecane C16H34 287 18 773 (liquid)

Heptadecane C17H36 303 22 777 (solid)

Octadecane C18H38 317 28 781 (solid)

Nonadecane C19H40 330 32 785 (solid)

Icosane C20H42 343 37 789 (solid)

Triacontane C30H62 450 66 810 (solid)

Tetracontane C40H82 525 82 817 (solid)

Pentacontane C50H102 575 91 824 (solid)

Hexacontane C60H122 625 100 829 (solid)

Heptacontane C70H142 653 109 869 (solid)

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 Quantity Unit Name Symbol Definition

Time minute min 1min = 60s

hour h 1h = 3,600s

day d 1d = 86,400s

year (annum) a 1a = 31,557,600s

Area hectare ha 1ha = 10,000 m2

Volume litre L 1L = 1,000 cm3

Mass metric ton or tonne t 1t = 1,000 kg = 1 Mg

Pressure standard atmosphere atm 1atm = 101.325 kPa

 Color of Transition Metal Ions in Aqueous Solution

Transition Metal Ion Color

Co2+ pink

Cu2+ blue-green

Fe2+ olive green

Ni2+ bright green

Fe3+ brown to yellow

CrO42- orange

Cr2O72- yellow

Ti3+ purple

Cr3+ violet

Mn2+ pale pink

Zn2+ colorless

 DNA Nitrogen Bases

Nitrogen Base Abbreviation

adenine A

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88
 cytosine C

guanine G

thymine T

 Acid–Base Indicators at 25°C

Colour Change as
Indicator pH Range pH Increases

methyl violet 0.0 – 1.6 yellow to blue

thymol blue 1.2 – 2.8 red to yellow

thymol blue 8.0 – 9.6 yellow to blue

orange IV 1.4 – 2.8 red to yellow

methyl orange 3.2 – 4.4 red to yellow

bromocresol green 3.8 – 5.4 yellow to blue

litmus 4.5 – 8.3 red to blue

methyl red 4.8 – 6.0 red to yellow

chlorophenol red 5.2 – 6.8 yellow to red

bromothymol blue 6.0 – 7.6 yellow to blue

phenol red 6.6 – 8.0 yellow to red

phenolphthalein 8.2 – 10.0 colourless to pink

thymolphthalein 9.4 – 10.6 colourless to blue

alizarin yellow R 10.1 – 12.0 yellow to red

indigo carmine 11.4 – 13.0 blue to yellow

1,3,5–trinitrobenzene 12.0 – 14.0 colourless to orange

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  Activity Series for 1.0 mol/L Solution at 25 °C and 101.325 kPa

Reduction Half-Reaction

Au (aq) + 3 e–  Au(s)
3+

Hg2+(aq) + 2 e–  Hg(l)

Ag+(aq) + e–  Ag(s)
2+ –
Cu (aq) + 2 e  Cu(s)

2 H+(aq) + 2 e–  H2(g)

Pb2+(aq) + 2 e–  Pb(s)
Increasing strength of Sn2+(aq) + 2 e–  Sn(s)
reactant as an oxidizing
Ni2+(aq) + 2 e–  Ni(s) Increasing strength of
agent
reactant as a reducing
Cd2+(aq) + 2 e–  Cd(s)
agent
Fe2+(aq) + 2 e–  Fe(s)
2+ –
Zn (aq) + 2 e  Zn(s)

Cr2+(aq) + 2 e–  Cr(s)

Al3+(aq) + 3 e–  Al(s)
2+ –
Mg (aq) + 2 e  Mg(s)

Na+(aq) + e–  Na(s)
2+ –
Ca (aq) + 2 e  Ca(s)
+ –
Li (aq) + e  Li(s)

 Symbols in Chemical Equations

Symbol Meaning

+ used to separate one reactant or product from another

→ used to separate the reactants from the products - it is pronounced

"yields" or "produces" when the equation is read

↔ used when the reaction can proceed in both directions - this is

called an equilibrium arrow and will be used later in the course

(g) indicates that the substance is in a gaseous state

↑ an alternative way of representing a substance in a gaseous state

(s) indicates that the substance is in a solid state

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 ↓ an alternative way of representing a substance in a solid state

(aq) indicates that the substance is dissolved in water - the aq comes

from aqueous

∆ indicates that heat is applied to make the reaction proceed

→

(l) indicates that the substance is in a liquid state

ℎ𝑣 The reaction undergoes photolysis (catalyzed with light/radiation)

→

𝐹𝑒(𝑠) Catalyzed by iron (solid).

→

4𝑜 𝐶 The reaction occurs at 4°C

→

 Geological time scale

Era Period Epoch Plant and Animal

Development
Cenozoic Quaternary Holocene (.01) Humans develop
Pleistocene (1.8)
Tertiary Pliocene (5.3)
Miocene (23.8)
Oligocene (33.7) "Age of mammals"
Eocene (54.8)
Paleocene (65.0)

Extinction of dinosaurs and

many other species.
Mesozoic Cretaceous (144) "Age of Reptiles" First flowering plants
Jurassic (206)
Triassic (248)

First birds

Dinosaurs dominant.
Paleozoic Permian (290) "Age of Extinction of trilobites and many
Carboniferous: Amphibians" other marine animals
Pennyslvanian (323)
Carboniferous:

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 Mississippian (354)

First reptiles

Large coal swamps

Large Amphibians abundant.

Devonian (417) "Age of Fishes" First insect fossils
Silurian (443)

Fishes dominant

First land plants

Ordovician (490) "Age of First fishes
Cambrian (540) Invertebrates"

Trilobites dominant

First organisms with shells

Precambrian - comprises about 88% of geologic time (4500) First multicelled organisms

First one-celled organisms

Origin of Earth

prefix number of carbons alkyl group

meth- 1 methyl

eth- 2 ethyl

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 prop- 3 propyl

but- 4 butyl

pent- 5 pentyl

hex- 6 hexyl

hept- 7 heptyl

oct- 8 octyl

non- 9 nonyl

dec- 10 decyl

 The suffix associated with various functional groups

Functional group suffix

alkane -ane

alkene -ene

alkyne -yne

alcohol -ol

aldehyde -al

ketone -one

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 carboxylic acid -oic acid

ester -oate

 Heat Capacities of Selected Substances at 1 atm and 25°C

Specific Heat Capacity

Substance (J/g°C)

air 1.012

aluminum 0.89

argon 0.5203

copper 0.385

granite 0.790

graphite 0.710

helium 5.1932

iron 0.450

lead 0.129

lithium 3.58

mercury 0.14

methanol 2.14

sodium 1.228

steel 0.466

titanium 0.523

water (ice, O°C) 2.09

water 4.184

water (steam, 100°C) 2.03

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  Thermodynamic Properties of Selected Compounds

Compound Melting Point Boiling Point Heat of Fusion Heat of

(°C) (°C) (kJ/mol) Vaporization
(kJ/mol)
water 0.00 100.00 6.01 40.66
hexane –95.35 68.73 13.08 28.85
ethanol –114.14 78.29 4.93 38.56
methanol –97.53 64.6 3.22 35.21
toluene –94.95 110.63 6.64 33.18

 Standard Heats of Formation of Selected Compounds at 25°C

Compound Standard heat of formation

(kJ/mol)

ammonia –45.9

benzene +49.1

butane –125.7

calcium carbonate –1207.6

calcium hydroxide –985.2

carbon dioxide –393.5

carbon monoxide –110.5

ethane –84.0

ethanoic acid (acetic acid) –484.3

ethanol –277.6

ethene (ethylene) +52.4

ethyne (acetylene) +227.4

glucose –1273.3

hydrogen sulfide –20.6

methane –74.6

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 methanol –239.2

nitrogen dioxide +33.2

nitrogen monoxide +91.3

octane –250.1

pentane –173.5

propane –103.8

sucrose –2226.1

sulfur dioxide –296.8

sulfur trioxide –395.7

water (liquid) –285.8

water (gas) –241.8

Note:

Negative sign (–) denotes exothermic change.

Positive sign (+) denotes endothermic change.

1.00 kilowatt hour = 1.00 kW.h = 3.60 × 106 J

 Elements for Radioactive Dating

Radioisotope Final Decay Nuclide Approximate Half-Life

(Parent Nuclide) (annum—a)

carbon-14 nitrogen-14 5.73 × 103

potassium-40 argon-40 1.26 × 109

rubidium-87 strontium-87 4.88 × 1010

uranium-235 lead-207 7.04 × 108

uranium-238 lead-206 4.47 × 109

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 Types of Reactions

Formation (Synthesis)

element + element → compound

Decomposition

compound → element + element

Single Replacement

compound + element → new compound + new element

Double Replacement

compound + compound → new compound + new compound

Complete Hydrocarbon Combustion

hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

Addition

alkene or alkyne + excess hydrogen → alkane

alkene or alkyne + halogen → halogenated hydrocarbon

Cracking

large hydrocarbon → small hydrocarbons

Polymerization

monomer + monomer → polymer

Esterification

alcohol + carboxylic acid → ester + water

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97
 Table of Polyatomic Ions

Name Formula

ammonium NH4+

nitrite NO2−

nitrate NO3−

sulfite SO32−

sulfate SO42−

hydrogen sulfate HSO4−

(bisulfate)

thiosulfate S2O32−

oxalate C2O42−

hydroxide OH−

phosphite PO33−

phosphate PO43−

hydrogen phosphate HPO42−

dihydrogen H2PO4−

phosphate

perchlorate ClO4−

chlorate ClO3−

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 chlorite ClO2−

hypochlorite ClO−

bromate BrO3−

iodate IO3−

acetate CH3COO−

acetate C2H3O2−

carbonate CO32−

hydrogen carbonate HCO3−

(bicarbonate)

chromate CrO42−

dichromate Cr2O72−

permanganate MnO4−

peroxide O22−

cyanide CN−

cyanate OCN−

thiocyanate SCN−

 Standard index of refraction measurements taken at the "yellow doublet" sodium D line with a

wavelength of 589 nm

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 MATERIAL INDEX OF REFRACTION STATE

Vacuum 1 (by definition)

Helium 1.000036 Gas (0°C and 1 atm)

Hydrogen 1.000132 Gas (0°C and 1 atm)

Air 1.000277 Gas (at STP*)

Air 1.000293 Gas (0°C and 1 atm)

Carbon Dioxide 1.001 Gas (0°C and 1 atm)

Liquid Helium 1.025 Liquid (at -270°C)

Water Ice 1.31 Solid (at 0°C)

Water 1.330 Liquid (at 20°C)

Acetone 1.36 Liquid (at 20°C)

Ethanol 1.361 Liquid (at 20°C)

Kerosene 1.39 Liquid (at 20°C)

Corn Oil 1.47 Liquid (at 20°C)

Glycerol 1.4729 Liquid (at 20°C)

Acrylic Glass 1.490–1.492 Solid (at 20°C)

Benzene 1.501 Liquid (at 20°C)

Crown Glass (pure) 1.50–1.54 Solid (at 20°C)

Plate Glass (window glass) 1.52 Solid (at 20°C)

Sodium Chloride (table salt) 1.544 Solid (at 20°C)

Amber 1.55 Solid (at 20°C)

Polycabonate 1.60 Solid (at 20°C)

Flint Glass (pure) 1.60–1.62 Solid (at 20°C)

Bromine 1.661 Liquid (at 20°C)

Sapphire 1.762–1.778 Solid (at 20°C)

Cubic Zirconia 2.15–2.18 Solid (at 20°C)

Diamond 2.417 Solid (at 20°C)

Silicon 3.42–3.48 Solid (at 20°C)

Germanium 4.05–4.01 Solid (at 20°C)

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 STP is defined as a temperature of 273.15 K (0 °C, 32 °F) and an absolute pressure of

exactly 105 Pa (100 kPa, 1 bar).

 Solubility Products for Selected Ionic Substances at 25°C

Solid Color Ksp Solid Color Ksp

Acetates Iodides

Ca(O2CCH3)2·3H2O white 4 × 10−3 Hg2I2 yellow 5.2 × 10−29

Bromides PbI2 yellow 9.8 × 10−9

AgBr off-white 5.35 × 10−13 Oxalates

Hg2Br2 yellow 6.40 × 10−23 Ag2C2O4 white 5.40 × 10−12

Carbonates MgC2O4·2H2O white 4.83 × 10−6

CaCO3 white 3.36 × 10−9 PbC2O4 white 4.8 × 10−10

PbCO3 white 7.40 × 10−14 Phosphates

Chlorides Ag3PO4 white 8.89 × 10−17

AgCl white 1.77 × 10−10 Sr3(PO4)2 white 4.0 × 10−28

Hg2Cl2 white 1.43 × 10−18 FePO4·2H2O pink 9.91 × 10−16

PbCl2 white 1.70 × 10−5 Sulfates

Chromates Ag2SO4 white 1.20 × 10−5

CaCrO4 yellow 7.1 × 10−4 BaSO4 white 1.08 × 10−10

PbCrO4 yellow 2.8 × 10−13 PbSO4 white 2.53 × 10−8

Fluorides Sulfides

BaF2 white 1.84 × 10−7 Ag2S black 6.3 × 10−50

PbF2 white 3.3 × 10−8 CdS yellow 8.0 × 10−27

Hydroxides PbS black 8.0 × 10−28

Ca(OH)2 white 5.02 × 10−6 ZnS white 1.6 × 10−24

Cu(OH)2 pale blue 1 × 10−14

Mn(OH)2 light pink 1.9 × 10−13

Cr(OH)3 gray-green 6.3 × 10−31

Fe(OH)3 rust red 2.79 × 10−39

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 20 Amino Acids In Human Protein:

Table of DNA Base Triplets, RNA Codons and Anticodons

Amino Acid DNA Base Triplets M-RNA Codons T-RNA Anticodons

alanine CGA, CGG, CGT, CGC GCU, GCC, GCA, GCG CGA, CGG, CGU, CGC

arginine GCA, GCG, GCT, GCC CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG GCA, GCG, GCU, GCC

TCT, TCC AGA, AGG UCU, UCC

asparagine TTA, TTG AAU, AAC UUA, UUG

aspartate CTA, CTG GAU, GAC CUA, CUG

cysteine ACA, ACG UGU, UGC ACA, ACG

glutamate CTT, CTC GAA, GAG CUU, CUC

glutamine GTT, GTC CAA, CAG GUU, GUC

glycine CCA, CCG, CCT, CCC GGU, GGC, GGA, GGG CCA, CCG, CCU, CCC

histidine GTA, GTG CAU, CAC GUA, GUG

isoleucine TAA, TAG, TAT AUU, AUC, AUA UAA, UAG, UAU

leucine AAT, AAC, GAA, GAG UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC AAU, AAC, GAA, GAG

GAT, GAC CUA, CUG GAU, GAC

lysine TTT, TTC AAA, AAG UUU, UUC

methionine TAC AUG UAC

phenylalanine AAA, AAG UUU, UUC AAA, AAG

proline GGA, GGG, GGT, GGC CCU, CCC, CCA, CCG GGA, GGG, GGU, GGC

serine AGA, AGG, AGT, AGC UCU, UCC, UCA, UCG AGA, AGG, AGU, AGC

TCA, TCG AGU, AGC UCA, UCG

Stop ATG, ATT, ACT UAA, UAG, UGA AUG, AUU, ACU

threonine TGA, TGG, TGT, TGC ACU, ACC, ACA, ACG UGA, UGG, UGU, UGC

tryptophan ACC UGG ACC

tyrosine ATA, ATG UAU, UAC AUA, AUG

valine CAA, CAG, CAT, CAC GUU, GUC, GUA, GUG CAA, CAG, CAU, CAC

102
114
Element Symbol Relative atomic mass Density (g / cm3) Date of Discovery
Actinium Ac 227 10·1 1899
Aluminium Al 27 2·70 1825
Americium Am 243 13·7 1944
Antimony Sb 122 6·68 Ancient
Argon Ar 40 0·0018 1894
Arsenic As 75 5·78 ~1250
Astatine At 210 unknown 1940
Barium Ba 137·5 3·62 1808
Berkelium Bk 247 14·8 1949
Beryllium Be 9 1·85 1798
Bismuth Bi 209 9·79 1753
Boron B 11 2·47 1808
Bromine Br 80 3·12 1826
Cadmium Cd 112·5 8·69 1817
Calcium Ca 40 1·54 1808
Californium Cf 251 unknown 1950
Carbon C 12 * Prehistoric
Cerium Ce 140 6·77 1803
Caesium Cs 133 1·93 1860
Chlorine Cl 35·5 0·0032 1774
Chromium Cr 52 7·15 1797
Cobalt Co 59 8·86 1739
Copper Cu 63·5 8·96 Ancient
Curium Cm 247 13·3 1944
Dysprosium Dy 162·5 8·55 1886
Einsteinium Es 252 unknown 1952
Erbium Er 167·5 9·07 1843
Europium Eu 152 5·24 1896
Fluorine F 19 0·0017 1886
Francium Fr 223 unknown 1939
Gadolinium Gd 157 7·90 1880
Gallium Ga 69·5 5·91 1875
Germanium Ge 72·5 5·32 1886
Gold Au 197 19·3 Ancient
Hafnium Hf 178·5 13·3 1923
Helium He 4 0·0002 1868
Holmium Ho 165 8·80 1879
Hydrogen H 1 0·00009 1766
Indium In 115 7·31 1863
Iodine I 127 4·95 1811
Iridium Ir 192 22·5 1803
Iron Fe 56 7·87 Ancient
Krypton Kr 84 0·0037 1898
Lanthanum La 139 6·15 1839
Lead Pb 207 11·3 Ancient
Lithium Li 7 0·53 1817

103
115
Lutetium Lu 175 9·84 1907
Magnesium Mg 24·5 1·74 1808
Manganese Mn 55 7·47 1774
Mercury Hg 200·5 13·5 Ancient
Molybdenum Mo 96 10·2 1778
Neodymium Nd 144 7·01 1885
Neon Ne 20 0·0009 1898
Neptunium Np 237 20·2 1940
Nickel Ni 58·5 8·90 1751
Niobium Nb 93 8·57 1801
Nitrogen N 14 0.0013 1772
Osmium Os 190 22·6 1803
Oxygen O 16 0·0014 1774
Palladium Pd 106·5 12·0 1803
Phosphorus P 31 1·82 1669
Platinum Pt 195 21·5 1735
Plutonium Pu 244 19·7 1941
Polonium Po 209 9·20 1898
Potassium K 39 0·89 1807
Praseodymium Pr 141 6·77 1885
Promethium Pm 145 7·26 1944
Protactinium Pa 231 15·4 1913
Radium Ra 226 5·00 1898
Radon Rn 222 0·0097 1900
Rhenium Re 186 20·8 1925
Rhodium Rh 103 12·4 1803
Rubidium Rb 85·5 1·53 1861
Ruthenium Ru 101 12·1 1844
Samarium Sm 150·5 7·52 1853
Scandium Sc 45 2·99 1879
Selenium Se 79 4·81 1817
Silicon Si 28 2·33 1824
Silver Ag 108 10·5 Ancient
Sodium Na 23 0·97 1807
Strontium Sr 87·5 2·64 1790
Sulfur S 32 2·09 Ancient
Tantalum Ta 181 16·4 1802
Technetium Tc 98 11 1937
Tellurium Te 127·5 6·25 1782
Terbium Tb 159 8·23 1843
Thallium Tl 204·5 11·8 1861
Thorium Th 232 11·7 1828
Thulium Tm 169 9·32 1879
Tin Sn 118·5 7·26 Ancient
Titanium Ti 48 4·51 1791
Tungsten W 184 19·3 1783
Uranium U 238 19·1 1789
Vanadium V 51 6·00 1801

104
116
 Xenon Xe 131·5 0·0059 1898
Ytterbium Yb 173 6·90 1878
Yttrium Y 89 4·47 1789
Zinc Zn 65·5 7·14 Ancient
Zirconium Zr 91 6·52 1789

 Solubilities of Selected Compounds in Water

vs means very (a solubility greater than 10 gl−1)

soluble
s means soluble (a solubility of between 1 and 10 gl−1)

i means insoluble (a solubility of less than 1 gl−1)

− no data

bromide carbonate chloride iodide nitrate phosphate sulfate oxide hydroxide

aluminium vs − vs vs vs i vs i i

ammonium vs vs vs vs vs vs vs − −

barium vs i vs vs vs i i vs vs

calcium vs i vs vs vs i s s s

copper(II) vs i vs − vs i vs i i

iron(II) vs i vs vs vs i vs i i

iron(III) vs − vs − vs i vs i i

lead(II) s i s i vs i i i i

lithium vs vs vs vs vs i vs vs vs

magnesium vs i vs vs vs i vs i i

nickel vs i vs vs vs i vs i i

potassium vs vs vs vs vs vs vs vs vs

silver i i i i vs i s i −

sodium vs vs vs vs vs vs vs vs vs

tin(II) vs i vs s − i vs i i

zinc vs i vs vs vs i vs i i

105
117
Bond Bond length (pm) Bond energy (kJ/mol)
H−H 74 436
C−C 154 348
N−N 145 170
O−O 148 145
F−F 142 158
Cl−Cl 199 243
Br−Br 228 193
I−I 267 151
C−C 154 348
C−N 147 308
C−O 143 360
C−S 182 272
C−F 135 488
C−Cl 177 330
C−Br 194 288
C−I 214 216
H−C 109 413
H−N 101 391
H−O 96 366
H−F 92 568
H−Cl 127 432
H−Br 141 366
H−I 161 298
C−C 154 348
C=C 134 614
C≡C 120 839
O−O 148 145
O=O 121 498
N−N 145 170
N≡N 110 945

106
118
 We cannot taste anything without saliva.

 Blue is the color of liquid oxygen.

 Every hydrogen atom in our body is likely 13.5 billion years old because they
were created at the birth of the universe.

Gallium has a melting point of 29.76 degrees centigrade and can

melt on the palm of our hand.

If we pour a handful of salt into a glass of

water, the water level will go down

When we freeze seawater or saltwater, we get freshwater ice.

More than 78% of human brain consists of water.

The rarest naturally-occurring element in the Earth's crust is astatine

107
  Spectrochemical series

Ligands can be arranged in a spectrochemical series according to the energy difference they produce between
the two sets of d-orbitals in an octahedral complex.

2−
I − < Br− < S < Cl− < F− < OH− < H2O < SCN− < NH3 < CN− ≈ CO

 Values of the ionization constant of water

Temperature (oC) Kw value

0 0.113 × 10−14

5 0.185 × 10−14

10 0.292 × 10−14

15 0.453 × 10−14

20 0.684 × 10−14

25 1.00 × 10−14

30 1.47 × 10−14

35 2.09 × 10−14

40 2.92 × 10−14

45 4.02 × 10−14

50 5.43 × 10−14

55 7.24 × 10−14

60 9.55 × 10−14

65 12.4 × 10−14

70 15.9 × 10−14

75 20.1 × 10−14

80 25.2 × 10−14

85 31.3 × 10−14

90 38.3 × 10−14

95 46.6 × 10−14

100 56.0 × 10−14

108
119
 Specific Gravity of Liquids

Liquid Temperature kg/m3

1,1,2-Trichlorotrifluoroethane 25 °C 1564.00
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 20 °C 1454.00
1,4-Dioxane 20 °C 1033.60
2-Methoxyethanol 20 °C 964.60
Acetic Acid 25 °C 1049.10
Acetone 25 °C 784.58
Acetonitrile 20 °C 782.20
Alcohol, ethyl 25 °C 785.06
Alcohol, methyl 25 °C 786.51
Alcohol, propyl 25 °C 799.96
Ammonia (aqua) 25 °C 823.35
Analine 25 °C 1018.93
Automobile oils 15 °C 880 - 940
Beer (varies) 10 °C 1010
Benzene 25 °C 873.81
Benzil 25 °C 1079.64
Brine 15 °C 1230
Bromine 25 °C 3120.40
Butyric Acid 20 °C 959
Butane 25 °C 599.09
n-Butyl Acetate 20 °C 879.60
n-Butyl Alcohol 20 °C 809.70
n-Butyl Chloride 20 °C 886.20
Caproic acid 25 °C 921.06
Carbolic acid 15 °C 956.30
Carbon disulfide 25 °C 1260.97
Carbon tetrachloride 25 °C 1584.39
Carene 25 °C 856.99
Castor oil 25 °C 956.14
Chloride 25 °C 1559.88
Chlorobenzene 20 °C 1105.80
Chloroform 20 °C 1489.20
Chloroform 25 °C 1464.73
Citric acid 25 °C 1659.51
Coconut oil 15 °C 924.27
Cotton seed oil 15 °C 925.87
Cresol 25 °C 1023.58
Creosote 15 °C 1066.83

109
120
Crude oil, 48° API 60 °F 790
Crude oil, 40° API 60 °F 825
Crude oil, 35.6° API 60 °F 847
Crude oil, 32.6° API 60 °F 862
Crude oil, California 60 °F 915
Crude oil, Mexican 60 °F 973
Crude oil, Texas 60 °F 873
Cumene 25 °C 860.19
Cyclohexane 20 °C 778.50
Cyclopentane 20 °C 745.40
Decane 25 °C 726.28
Diesel fuel oil 20 to 60 15 °C 820 - 950
Diethyl ether 20 °C 714
o-Dichlorobenzene 20 °C 1305.80
Dichloromethane 20 °C 1326.00
Diethylene glycol 15 °C 1120
Dichloromethane 20 °C 1326.00
Dimethyl Acetamide 20 °C 941.50
N,N-Dimethylformamide 20 °C 948.70
Dimethyl Sulfoxide 20 °C 1100.40
Dodecane 25 °C 754.63
Ethane -89 °C 570.26
Ether 25 °C 72.72
Ethylamine 16 °C 680.78

Ethyl Acetate 20 °C 900.60

Ethyl Alcohol 20 °C 789.20
Ethyl Ether 20 °C 713.30
Ethylene Dichloride 20 °C 1253.00
Ethylene glycol 25 °C 1096.78
Fluorine refrigerant R-12 25 °C 1310.95
Formaldehyde 45 °C 812.14
Formic acid 10% concentration 20 °C 1025
Formic acid 80% concentration 20 °C 1221
Freon - 11 21 °C 1490
Freon - 21 21 °C 1370
Fuel oil 60 °F 890.13
Furan 25 °C 1416.03
Furforol 25 °C 1154.93
Gasoline, natural 60 °F 711.22
Gasoline, Vehicle 60 °F 737.22

110
121
Gas oils 60 °F 890
Glucose 60 °F 1350 - 1440
Glycerin 25 °C 1259.37
Glyme 20 °C 869.10
Glycerol 25 °C 1126.10
Heptane 25 °C 679.50
Hexane 25 °C 654.83
Hexanol 25 °C 810.53
Hexene 25 °C 671.17
Hydrazine 25 °C 794.52
Iodine 25 °C 4927.28
Ionene 25 °C 932.27
Isobutyl Alcohol 20 °C 801.60
Iso-Octane 20 °C 691.90
Isopropyl Alcohol 20 °C 785.40
Isopropyl Myristate 20 °C 853.20
Kerosene 60 °F 817.15
Linolenic Acid 25 °C 898.64
Linseed oil 25 °C 929.07
Methane -164 °C 464.54
Methanol 20 °C 791.30
Methyl Isoamyl Ketone 20 °C 888.00
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone 20 °C 800.80
Methyl n-Propyl Ketone 20 °C 808.20
Methyl t-Butyl Ether 20 °C 740.50
N-Methylpyrrolidone 20 °C 1030.40
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK) 20 °C 804.90
MEK 25 °C 802.52
Milk 15 °C 1020 - 1050
Naphtha 15 °C 664.77
Naphtha, wood 25 °C 959.51
Napthalene 25 °C 820.15
Ocimene 25 °C 797.72
Octane 15 °C 917.86
Olive oil 20 °C 800 - 920
Oxygen (liquid) -183 °C 1140
Palmitic Acid 25 °C 850.58
Pentane 20 °C 626.20
Pentane 25 °C 624.82
Petroleum Ether 20 °C 640.00

111
122
Petrol, natural 60 °F 711.22
Petrol, Vehicle 60 °F 737.22
Phenol 25 °C 1072.28
Phosgene 0 °C 1377.59
Phytadiene 25 °C 823.35
Pinene 25 °C 856.99
Propane -40 °C 583.07
Propane, R-290 25 °C 493.53
Propanol 25 °C 804.13
Propylene Carbonate 20 °C 1200.60
Propylene 25 °C 514.35
n-Propyl Alcohol 20 °C 803.70
Propylene glycol 25 °C 965.27
Pyridine 25 °C 978.73
Pyrrole 25 °C 965.91
Rape seed oil 20 °C 920
Resorcinol 25 °C 1268.66
Rosin oil 15 °C 980
Sabiname 25 °C 812.14
Sea water 25 °C 1025.18
Silane 25 °C 717.63
Sodium Hydroxide (caustic soda) 15 °C 1250
Sorbaldehyde 25 °C 895.43
Soya bean oil 15 °C 924 - 928
Stearic Acid 25 °C 890.63
Sulphuric Acid 95% conc. 20 °C 1839
Sugar solution 68 brix 15 °C 1338
Sunflower oil 20 °C 920
Styrene 25 °C 903.44
Terpinene 25 °C 847.38
Tetrahydrofuran 20 °C 888.00
Toluene 20 °C 866.90
Toluene 25 °C 862.27
Triethylamine 20 °C 727.60
Trifluoroacetic Acid 20 °C 1489.00
Turpentine 25 °C 868.20
Water, pure 4 °C 1000.00
Water, sea 77 °F 1021.98
Whale oil 15 °C 925
o-Xylene 20 °C 880.20

112
123
Bromine and mercury are the only elements that can stay liquid at room

temperature.

 DNA is a flame retardant

 There is about 250 g of table salt (NaCl) in an average adult human body.

Air becomes liquid at −190°C

Frogs don't drink water because they can

absorb it through their skin

Helium and Hydrogen account for 98% of all matter.

The chemical elements are organized in order of their

increasing atomic numbers.

Mars is red because of iron oxide

113
 Molecular formula Compound name
Ac2O3 Actinium(III) oxide
AgBF4 Silver tetrafluoroborate
AgBr silver bromide
AgBrO silver hypobromite
AgBrO2 silver bromite
AgBrO3 silver bromate
AgBrO4 silver perbromate
AgCl silver chloride
AgCl3Cu2 dicopper silver trichloride
AgClO3 silver chlorate
AgClO4 silver perchlorate
AgCN silver cyanide
AgCNO silver fulminate
AgF silver fluoride
AgF2 silver(II) fluoride
AgI silver iodide
AgIO silver hypoiodite
AgIO2 silver iodite
AgIO3 silver iodate
AgIO4 silver periodate
AgMnO4 silver permanganate
AgN3 silver azide
AgNO3 silver nitrate
AgO silver monoxide
AgONC silver cyanate
AgPF6 silver hexafluorophosphate
AgSNC silver thiocyanate
Ag2C2 silver acetylide
Ag2CO3 silver(I) carbonate
Ag2C2O4 silver oxalate
Ag2Cl2 silver(II) dichloride
Ag2CrO4 silver chromate
Ag2Cr2O7 silver dichromate
Ag2F silver subfluoride
Ag2MoO4 silver molybdate
Ag2O silver(I) oxide
Ag2S silver sulfide
Ag2SO4 silver sulfate
Ag2Se silver selenide

114
124
Ag2SeO3 silver selenite
Ag2SeO4 silver selenate
Ag2Te silver(I) telluride
Ag3Br2 silver dibromide
Ag3Br3 silver tribromide
Ag3Cl3 silver(III) trichloride
Ag3I3 silver(III) triiodide
Ag3PO4 silver phosphate
AlBO aluminium boron oxide
AlBO3 aluminium borate
AlBr aluminium monobromide
AlBr3 aluminium tribromide
AlCl aluminium monochloride
AlClF aluminium chloride fluoride
AlCl2<F aluminium chloride fluoride
AlClO aluminium chloride oxide
AlCl2H Dichloroalumane
AlCl3 aluminium chloride
AlCl2F aluminium chloride fluoride
AlCl3 aluminium trichloride
AlCl4Cs aluminium caesium tetrachloride
AlCl4K potassium tetrachloroaluminate
AlCl4Na sodium tetrachloroaluminate
AlCl4Rb aluminium rubidium tetrachloride
AlCl6K3 potassium hexachloroaluminate
AlCl6Na3 sodium hexachloroaluminate
AlF aluminium monofluoride
AlFO aluminium monofluoride monoxide
AlF2 aluminium difluoride
AlF2O aluminium difluoride oxide
AlF3 aluminium trifluoride
AlF4K potassium tetrafluoroaluminate
AlF4Li lithium tetrafluoroaluminate
AlF6K3 potassium hexafluoraluminate
AlF6Li3 lithium hexafluoroaluminate
AlF6Na3 cryolite
AlGaInP aluminium-gallium-indium phosphide
Al(OH)3 aluminium hydroxide
AlI aluminium monoiodide
AlI3 aluminium triiodide

115
125
AlLiO2 lithium aluminate
AlN aluminium nitride
Al(NO2)3 aluminium nitrite
Al(NO3)3 aluminium nitrate
AlNaO2 sodium aluminate
AlO aluminium monoxide
AlOSi aluminium silicon monoxide
AlO2 Aluminium(IV) oxide
AlP aluminium monophosphide
AlPO4 aluminium phosphate
AlTe aluminium monotelluride
AlTe2 monoaluminium ditelluride
Al2BeO4 beryllium aluminium oxide
Al2Br6 dialuminium hexabromide
Al2(CO3)3 aluminium carbonate
Al2Cl9K3 potassium aluminium chloride
Al2CoO4 cobalt blue
Al2F6 aluminium fluoride
Al2I6 aluminium iodide
Al2MgO4 magnesium aluminium oxide
Al2O dialuminium monoxide
Al2O2 dialuminium dioxide
Al2O3 aluminium oxide
Al2O5Si aluminium silicate
Al2O5Si aluminium silicate
Al2O5Si andalusite
Al2O7Si2 aluminium silicate
Al2S dialuminium monosulfide
Al2S3 aluminium sulfide
Al2(SO4)3 aluminium sulphate
Al2Se dialuminium selenide
Al2Si2O5(OH)4 kaolin
Al2Te dialuminium telluride
Al3F14Na5 chiolite
Al4C3 aluminium carbide
Al6BeO10 beryllium aluminium oxide
Al6O13Si2 mullite
ArClF argon chloride fluoride
ArClH argon chloride hydride
ArFH argon fluoride hydride

116
126
AsBrO arsenic oxybromide
AsBr3 arsenic tribromide
AsClO arsenic monoxide monochloride
AsCl3 arsenic trichloride
AsCl3O arsenic oxychloride
AsCl4F arsenic tetrachloride fluoride
AsF3 arsenic trifluoride
AsF5 arsenic pentafluoride
AsH3 arsine
AsI3 arsenic triiodide
AsO arsenic monoxide
AsO2 arsenic dioxide
AsP arsenic monophosphide
AsP3 arsenic triphosphide
AsTl thallium arsenide
As2I4 arsenic diiodide
As2O3 arsenic trioxide
As2P2 arsenic diphosphide
As2O5 arsenic pentoxide
As2S4 arsenic tetrasulfide
As2S5 arsenic pentasulfide
As2Se arsenic hemiselenide
As2Se3 arsenic triselenide
As2Se5 arsenic pentaselenide
As3O4 arsenic tetraoxide
As3P arsenic(III) phosphide
As4O3 tetraarsenic trioxide
As4O5 tetraarsenic pentaoxide
As4S3 tetraarsenic trisulfide
As4S4 tetraarsenic tetrasulfide
AuBO gold monoboride monoxide
AuBr gold bromide
AuBr3 gold tribromide
AuCN gold cyanide
AuCl gold chloride
AuCl3 gold trichloride
AuF3 gold trifluoride
AuI gold iodide
AuI3 gold(III) iodide
Au(OH)3 gold hydroxide

117
127
AuTe gold telluride
Au2O3 gold trioxide
Au2S gold sulfide
Au2S3 gold trisulfide
Au2(SeO4)3 gold triselenate
Au2Se3 gold triselenide
BAs boron arsenide
BAsO4 boron(III) arsenate
BBr3 boron tribromide
BCl3 boron trichloride
BF3 boron trifluoride
BI3 boron iodide
BN boron nitride
c(NO2)3 boron nitrite
B(NO3)3 boron nitrate
B(OH)3 boric acid
BP boron(III) phosphide
BPO4 boron(III) orthophosphate
B2Cl4 boron chloride
B2F4 Diboron tetrafluoride
B2H6 boron hydride
B2O3 boron(III) oxide
B2S3 boron sulfide
B2Se3 boron selenide
B3N3H6 borazine
B4C boron carbide
Ba(AlO2)2 barium aluminate
Ba(AsO3)2 barium arsenite
Ba(AsO4)2 barium arsenate
BaB6 barium hexaboride
Ba(BrO3)2·H2O barium bromate monohydrate
Ba(BrO3)2·2H2O barium bromate dihydrate
BaBr2 barium bromide
Ba(BrO)2 barium hypobromite
Ba(BrO2)2 barium bromite
Ba(BrO3)2 barium bromate
Ba(BrO4)2 barium perbromate
Ba(CHO2)2 barium formate
Ba(C2H3O2)2 barium acetate
Ba(CN)2 barium cyanide

118
128
BaHfO3 barium hafnate
BaHgI4 barium tetraiodomercurate(II)
Ba(HS)2 barium hydrosulfide
BaI2 barium iodide
Ba(IO)2 barium hypoiodite
Ba(IO2)2 barium iodite
Ba(IO3)2 barium iodate
Ba(IO4)2 barium periodate
BaK2(CrO4)2 barium potassium chromate
BaMnO4 barium manganate
Ba(MnO4)2 barium permanganate
BaMoO4 barium molybdate
BaN6 barium azide
Ba(NO2)2 barium nitrite
Ba(NO3)2 barium nitrate
Ba(NbO3)2 barium niobate
BaNb2O6 barium metaniobate
BaO barium oxide
Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxide
baryta
BaO2 barium peroxide
Ba(PO3)2 barium metaphosphate
BaS barium sulfide
Ba(SCN)2 barium thiocyanate
BaS2O3 barium thiosulfate
BaSiF6 barium hexafluorosilicate
BaSO3 barium sulfite
BaSO4 barium sulfate
barite
BaSe barium selenide
Ba(SeCN)2 barium selenocyanate
BaSeO3 barium selenite
BaSeO4 barium selenate
BaSiO3 barium metasilicate
BaSi2 barium silicide
BaSi2O5 barium disilicate
BaSnO3 barium stannate
BaTeO3 barium tellurite
BaTeO4·3H2O barium tellurate trihydrate
BaTiO3 barium titanate
barium metatitanate

119
129
BaU2O7 barium uranium oxide
BaWO4 barium tungstate
BaZrO3 barium zirconate
Ba2Na(NbO3)5 barium sodium niobate
Ba2P2O7 barium pyrophosphate
Ba2V2O7 barium pyrovanadate
Ba2XeO6 barium perxenate
Ba3(CrO4)2 barium chromate(V)
Ba3N2 barium nitride
Ba3(PO4)2 barium orthophosphate
Ba3(VO4)2 barium orthovandate
BeB2 beryllium boride
Be(BH4)2 beryllium borohydride
BeBr2 beryllium bromide
Be(CHO2)2 beryllium formate
BeCO3 beryllium carbonate
Be(C2H3O2)2 beryllium acetate
Be(C5H7O2)2 beryllium acetylacetonate
BeCl2 beryllium chloride
Be(ClO)2 beryllium hypochlorite
Be(ClO3)2 beryllium chlorate
Be(ClO4)2 beryllium perchlorate
BeF2 beryllium fluoride
BeI2 beryllium iodide
Be(NO2)2 beryllium nitrite
Be(NO3)2 beryllium nitrate
BeO beryllium oxide
bromellite
Be(OH)2 beryllium hydroxide
BeS beryllium sulfide
BeSO3 beryllium sulfite
BeSO4 beryllium sulfate
Be2C beryllium carbide
Be3Al2(SiO3)6 beryl
Be3N2 beryllium nitride
BiBO3 bismuth(III) orthoborate
BiBr3 bismuth(III) bromide
Bi(C2H3O2)3 bismuth(III) acetate
BiC6H5O7 bismuth(III) citrate
BiCl3 bismuth(III) chloride
BiF3 bismuth(III) fluoride

120
130
BiI3 bismuth(III) iodide
Bi(NO3)3·5H2O bismuth(III) nitrate pentahydrate
BiOCl bismuth(III) oxychloride
BiOI bismuth(III) oxyiodide
(BiO)2CO3 bismuth oxycarbonate
BiPO4 bismuth(III) orthophosphate
Bi(VO3)5 bismuth(III) metavanadate
Bi2Se3 bismuth(III) selenide
bismuth selenide
Bi2(MoO4)3 bismuth(III) molybdate
Bi2O3 bismuth(III) oxide
Bi2S3 bismuth(III) sulfide
bismuthinite
Bi2Se3 bismuth(III) selenide
BrCl bromine chloride
BrCl3 bromine trichloride
BrCl5 bromine pentachloride
BrF bromine monofluoride
bromine fluoride
BrF3 bromine trifluoride
BrF5 bromine pentafluoride
BrO3− bromate ion
Br2 bromine
Br2O5 dibromine pentoxide
CCl2F2 dichlorodifluoromethane
freon-12
CCl4 carbon tetrachloride
tetrachloromethane
C(CN)4 tetracyanomethane
CFCl3 freon-11
CFCl2CF2Cl freon-13
CHCl3 chloroform
trichloromethane
methyl trichloride
CHClF2 chlorodifluoromethane
CH(CN)3 cyanoform
CHO2− formate ion
CH2CHCHCH2 1,3-butadiene
CH2CO ketene
CH2CHOH ethenol
CH2ClCOOH chloroacetic acid

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CH2Cl2 dichloromethane
CH2ClF chlorofluoromethane
CH2(CN)2 malononitrile
CH2O formaldehyde
CH2(OH)2 methanediol
CH2OHCH2OH ethylene glycol
CH3CCH propyne
CH3CdCH3 dimethylcadmium
CH3CHCHCH3 2-butene
CH3CHCH2 propene
CH3CHO acetaldehyde
CH3CH2Br bromoethane
CH3CH2CH2CH2OH butan-1-ol
CH3CH2CH2OH 1-propanol
propan-1-ol
CH3CH2CONH2 propanamide
CH3CH2COOH propionic acid
CH3CH2OCH2CH3 diethyl ether
ethoxyethane
CH3CH2OH ethanol
CH3(CH2)16COOH stearic acid
CH3CN acetonitrile
CH3COCH3 acetone
CH3COOCH3 methyl acetate
CH3COCl acetyl chloride
CH3CONH2 acetamide
ethanamide
CH3COO− acetate ion
CH3COOCHCH2 vinyl acetate
CH3COOCH2C6H5 benzyl acetate
CH3COO(CH2)2CH(CH3)2 isoamyl acetate
CH3COOH acetic acid
ethanoic acid
CH3COONa sodium acetate
CH3COOK potassium acetate
CH3COORb rubidium acetate
CH3COOCs caesium acetate
(CH3CO)2O acetic anhydride
CH3Cl chloromethane
methyl chloride
CH3HgCH3 dimethylmercury

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CH3I iodomethane
methyl iodide
CH3OCH3 dimethyl ether
CH3NH2 methylamine
CH3NO oxaziridine
CH3OCs caesium methoxide
CH3OH methanol
CH3OK potassium methoxide
CH3OLi lithium methoxide
CH3ONa sodium methoxide
CH3ORb rubidium methoxide
CH3SCH3 dimethyl sulfide
DMS
CH3SH methanethiol
(CH3)2CHOH isopropyl alcohol
2-propanol
propan-2-ol
isopropanol
(CH3)2CO acetone
(CH3)2C2O4 dimethyl oxalate
(CH3)2NNH2 dimethyl hydrazine
(CH3)2NH dimethylamine
(CH3)2S+CH2CH2COO− dimethylsulfoniopropionate
DMSP
(CH3)3CCl t-butyl chloride
(CH)3COH t-butyl alcohol
(CH3)3COOC(CH3)3 di-t-butyl peroxide
DTBP
(CH3)3N trimethylamine
CH4 methane
natural gas
CH4N2O2 hydroxycarbamide
CH5N3 Guanidine
CN− cyanide ion
(CN)2 cyanogen
C(NH2)3NO3 guanidine nitrate
CNO− cyanate ion
CO carbon monoxide
COCl2 phosgene
CO2 carbon dioxide
CO3 carbon trioxide

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CO32− carbonate ion
CS2 carbon disulfide
C2F4 tetrafluoroethylene
C2H2 acetylene
C2H2O2 glyoxal
C2H3Cl vinyl chloride
C2H3NO glycolonitrile
C2H3O2− acetate ion
C2H4 ethylene
C2H4Cl2 ethylene dichloride
C2H4N4 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole
C2H4O ethylene oxide
C2H4O2 acetic acid
C2H5Br bromoethane
C2H5NH2 ethylamine
C2H5NO2 glycine
Gly
C2H5O− ethoxide ion
C2H5OH ethanol
ethyl alcohol
(C2H5)2NH diethylamine
C2H5OCs caesium ethoxide
C2H5OK potassium ethoxide
C2H5ONa sodium ethoxide
C2H5ORb rubidium ethoxide
C2H6 ethane
C2H6OS dimethyl sulfoxide
DMSO
C2H7NO ethanolamine
C2H7NO2 ammonium acetate
C2H7NO3S taurine
C2O42− oxalate ion
C3H3O4− malonate ion
C3HN cyanopolyyne
C3H3N azete
C3H4N2 imidazole
C3H4N2S aminothiazole
C3H4O3 pyruvic acid
C3H4O4 malonic acid
C3H5NO acrylamide
C3H5N3 3-amino-1H-pyrazole

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C3H5N3O9 nitroglycerine
C3H6 cyclopropane
propylene
C3H6O2 ethyl formate
C3H6O2S 2-Mercaptopropionic acid
C3H6O2S 3-Mercaptopropionic acid
C3H7N azetidine
C3H7NO2 α-alanine
β-alanine
C3H7NO2S cysteine
Cys
C3H7NO3 serine
Ser
C3H8 propane
C3H8NO5P glyphosate
C3H8O propanol
1-propanol
2-propanol
C3H8O2 propylene glycol
C3H8O2 1,3-propanediol
C3H8O3 glycerol
C3H9N3 1,3,5-triazinane
C3N3(OH)3 cyanuric acid
C3N12 cyanuric triazide
C4HCl2FN2 2,6-dichloro-5-fluoroacil
C4H2 diacetylene
C4I2 diiodobutadiyne
C4H2BrClN2 5-bromo-2-chloropyrimidine
C4H2Cl2N2 2,4-dichloropyrimidine
4,6-dichloropyrimidine
C4H3Cl2N3 2-amino-4,6-dichloropyrimidine
C4H3FN2O2 fluorouracil
C4H4 vinylacetylene
C4H4FN3O flucytosine
C4H4N2O2 uracil
C4H4N4 diaminomaleonitrile
C4H4N4 3-aminopyrazole-4-carbonitrile
C4H4N4 1,3,5,7-tetrazocine
C4H4O furan
C4H5N3O cytosine
C4H6N2 fomepizole

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C4H6N2 1-methylimidazole
C4H6N2 4-methylimidazole
C4H6N2S methimazole
2-amino-4-methylthiazole
C4H6N4O 2,4-diamino-6-hydroxypyrimidine
C4H6O2 1,4-Butynediol
C4H6O2 gamma-Butyrolactone
C4H6O2 crotonic acid
C4H6O2 diacetyl
C4H6O2 diepoxybutane
C4H6O2 1,4-Dioxene
C4H6O2 isocrotonic acid
C4H6O2 methacrylic acid
C4H6O2 methyl acrylate
C4H6O2 succinaldehyde
C4H6O2 vinyl acetate
C4H6O4 succinic acid
C4H7BrO2 2-bromobutyric acid
4-bromobutyric acid
α-bromoisobutyric acid
ethyl bromoacetate
C4H7KO3 potassium oxybate
C4H7NaO3 sodium oxybate
C4H7NO2 1-Aminocyclopropanecarboxylic acid
C4H7NO3 aceturic acid
C4H7NO4 aspartic acid
Asp
C4H8 cyclobutane
C4H8N2O3 asparagine
Asn
C4H8O tetrahydrofuran
THF
C4H8O2 ethyl acetate
C4H8O3 gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid
C4H9Li n-butyllithium
C4H9NO2 γ-aminobutyric acid
C4H9NO3 threonine
Thr
C4H9OH butyl alcohol
C4H10 butane
2-methylpropane

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C4H10O diethyl ether
C4H10O2 1,2-Butanediol
C4H10O2 1,3-Butanediol
C4H10O2 1,4-Butanediol
C4H10O2 2,3-Butanediol
C4H10O2 tert-Butyl hydroperoxide
C4H10O2 Dimethoxyethane
C4H10O2 2-Ethoxyethanol
C4H10O2 1-Methoxy-2-propanol
C4H10O3 diethylene glycol
C4H11NO2 diethanolamine
C5H3BrN2O2 2-bromo-5-nitropyridine
C5H3Br2N 3,5-dibromopyridine
C5H3ClN2O2 2-chloro-5-nitropyridine
C5H3ClN4 6-chloropurine
C5H4NCOOH niacin
C5H4N2O2 pyrazinoic acid
C5H4N2O4 orotic acid
C5H4N4O allopurinol
hypoxanthine
C5H4N4O2 xanthine
C5H4N4S mercaptopurine
C5H4O cyclopentadienone
C5H4O2 furfural
C5H4O2S b-thiophenic acid
C5H5− cyclopentadienyl anion
C5H5BrN2 2-amino-5-bromopyridine
C5H5ClN2 2-amino-4-chloropyridine
2-amino-5-chloropyridine
4-amino-2-chloropyridine
C5H5IN2 2-amino-5-iodopyridine
C5H5N pyridine
C5H5NO 2-pyridone
3-pyridinol
C5H5N3O pyrazinamide
C5H5N3O2 2-amino-nitropyridine
C5H5N5 adenine
C5H5N5O guanine
C5H6BNO2 3-pyridinylboronic acid
C5H6N2 1,2-diazepine

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 1,3-diazepine
1,4-diazepine
1-vinylimidazole
2-aminopyridine
3-aminopyridine
4-aminopyridine
glutaronitrile
C5H6N2OS methylthiouracil
C5H6N2O2 thymine
C5H6O cyclopentenone
C5H6O5 α-Ketoglutaric acid
C5H7N3 3,4-diaminopyridine
C5H8O2 gamma-Valerolactone
C5H9NO2 allylglycine
C5H9NO2 proline
Pro
C5H9NO4 glutamic acid
Glu
C5H10 cyclopentane
C5H10N2O3 glutamine
Gln
C5H10O2 pivalic acid
C5H10O2 valeric acid
C5H10O2 3-Methylbutanoic acid
C5H10O4 deoxyribose
C5H11NO2 valine
Val
C5H11NO2S methionine
Met
C5H12 pentane
C5H12O2 neopentyl glycol
C5H12O4 pentaerythritol
C5H12O5 xylitol
C6F5COOH pentafluorobenzoic acid
C6H3Br3O 2,4,6-Tribromophenol
C6H3Cl3O 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol
C6H4BrNO2 5-bromonicotinic acid
C6H4ClNO2 2-chloronicotinic acid
C6H4ClN3 6-chloro-7-dezapurine
C6H4ClNO2 6-chloro-2-pyridinecarboxylic acid
6-chloronicotinic acid

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C6H4N4 tricyanoaminopropene
C6H4O2 orthobenzoquinone
parabenzoquinone
quinone
C6H5Br bromobenzene
C6H5CHO benzaldehyde
C6H5CH2OH benzyl alcohol
C6H5Cl chlorobenzene
C6H5COCl benzoyl chloride
C6H5COO− benzoate ion
C6H5COOH benzoic acid
C6H5F fluorobenzene
C6H5I iodobenzene
C6H5NO2 picolinic acid
C6H5NO3 4-nitrophenol
6-hydroxyniacin
C6H5OH phenol
C6H5O73− citrate ion
(C6H5)4Ge tetraphenylgermane
(C6H5)2O diphenyl ether
(C6H5)3N triphenylamine
(C6H5)3P triphenylphosphine
C6H6 benzene
C6H6BClO2 4-chlorophenylboronic acid
C6H6BFO2 4-fluorophenylboronic acid
C6H6IN 4-iodoaniline
C6H6N2O nicotinamide
C6H6N2O2 6-aminonicotinic acid
C6H6O phenol
C6H6O2 catechol
hydroquinone
resorcinol
C6H6O3 hydroxymethylfurfural
C6H7BO2 phenylboronic acid
C6H7CsO6 caesium ascorbate
C6H7KO6 potassium ascorbate
C6H7LiO6 lithium ascorbate
C6H7N3O isoniazid
C6H7NaO6 sodium ascorbate
C6H7RbO6 rubidium ascorbate
C6H8N2 2-amino-3-methylpyridine

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 2-amino-4-methylpyridine
2-amino-5-methylpyridine
2-amino-6-methylpyridine
C6H8N2O2S ethyl 2-aminothiazole-4-carboxylate
sulfanilamide
C6H8O7 citric acid
C6H9N3O2 histidine
His
ethyl 5-amino-1H-pyrazole-4-carboxylate
C6H9N3O3 metronidazole
C6H10O3 4-acetylbutyric acid
butyl glyoxylate
ethyl acetoacetate
2-hydroxypropyl acrylate
pantolactone
propyl pyruvate
C6H10O4 aceburic acid
C6H10O4 adipic acid
C6H10O4 conduritol
C6H10O4 dianhydrohexitol
C6H10O4 ethylidene diacetate
C6H10O4 glucal
C6H11NO2 cycloleucine
pipecolic acid
C6H12 cyclohexane
C6H12O3 4-Hydroxy-4-methylpentanoic acid
C6H12O6 fructose
glucose
C6H13NO N-ethylmorpholine
C6H13NO2 aminocaproic acid
isoleucine
Ile
leucine
Leu
C6H14 hexane
C6H14N2O2 lysine
Lys
C6H14N4O2 arginine
Arg
C6H14O2 1,6-hexanediol
C6H14O3 dipropylene glycol

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C6H14O3 trimethylolpropane
C6H14O4 triethylene glycol
C6H15NO3 triethanolamine
C6N4 tetracyanoethylene
C7H5Br3O 2,4,6-tribromoanisole
C7H5Cl3O 2,4,6-trichloroanisole
C7H5F3O 2,4,6-trifluoroanisole
C7H5FO2 2-fluorobenzoic acid
C7H5FO2 3-Fluorobenzoic acid
C7H5FO2 4-fluorobenzoic acid
C7H5NO4 quinolinic acid
dipicolinic acid
C7H5NS2 2-mercaptobenzothiazole
C7H5N3O2 7-nitroindazole
C7H6N2 7-azaindole
C7H6N2 Benzimidazole
C7H6O tropone
C7H6O2 benzoic acid
4-hydroxybenzaldehyde
C7H6O3 salicylic acid
4-hydroxybenzoic acid
C7H6O4 protocatechuic acid
2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid
C7H6O5 gallic acid
C7H7BO4 4-carboxyphenylboronic acid
C7H7NO2 4-aminobenzoic acid
C7H7NO3 mesalazine
C7H7N3 benomyl metabolite
C7H8 toluene
C7H8ClN3O4S2 hydrochlorothiazide
C7H8N4O2 theophylline
C7H8N4O2 theobromine
C7H9BO2 4-methylphenylboronic acid
C7H9BO3 4-boronoanisole
C7H10N2 4-dimethylaminopyridine
C7H11NO5 N-Acetylglutamic acid
C7H12O4 diethyl malonate
C7H12N2O4 aceglutamide
C7H14O6 bornesitol
C7H16 heptane

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C8H5F3N2OS riluzole
C8H5NO2 isatin
C8H6BrN 5-bromoindole
6-bromoindole
C8H6ClN 4-chloroindole
C8H6Cl2O3 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
C8H6N2O 4-quinazolinol
C8H6N2O2 indazolium-3-carboxylate
C8H7N indole
C8H7NO indol-4-ol
oxindole
5-hydroxyindole
C8H8 cubane
C8H8N2OS 2-amino-6-methoxybenzothiazole
C8H8O3 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid
isovanillin
C8H8O4 vanillic acid
C8H9NO2 acetaminophen
C8H9NO2 aminomethylbenzoic acid
C8H9NO2 hydroxydanaidal
C8H9NO2 methyl anthranilate
C8H10N4O2 caffeine
C8H11NO tyramine
C8H11N5O3 aciclovir
C8H16O2 cyclohexanedimethanol
C8H16O6 pinpollitol
C8H16O6 viscumitol
C8H16O6 Eleutheroside C
ethyl galactoside
C8H18 octane
C9H6BrN 4-bromoisoquinoline
C9H6N2 5-cyanoindole
C9H6O3 umbelliferone
C9H6OS thiochromone
C9H7NO 8-hydroxyquinoline
indole-3-carboxaldehyde
C9H7NO2 indole-2-carboxylic acid
indole-3-carboxylic acid
C9H8N2 5-aminoisoquinoline
5-aminoquinoline
6-aminoquinoline

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 8-aminoquinoline
C9H8O2 cinnamic acid
C9H8O3 o-coumaric acid
m-coumaric acid
p-coumaric acid
C9H8O4 aspirin
acetylsalicylic acid
caffeic acid
C9H9N methylketol
skatole
C9H9NO 4-methoxyindole
5-methoxyindole
6-methoxyindole
indole-3-carbinol
C9H9NO3 hippuric acid
C9H10O chavicol
C9H10O3 paeonol
C9H11NO2 phenylanine
LPA
phenylanine
DLPA
C9H10O cinnamyl alcohol
C9H11NO3 tyrosine
Tyr
C9H11NO4 L-DOPA
C9H17NO2 gabapentin
C9H18N2O2 1-boc-piperazine
C9H20 nonane
C10H7NO2 quinaldic acid
C10H7N3S tiabendazole
C10H8 azulene
C10H8 naphthalene
C10H8O3 hymecromone
C10H9NO2 indole-3-acetic acid
C10H9N5O kinetin
C10H9NO2 5-methoxyindole-3-carboxaldehyde
C10H10N2O edaravone
C10H10O2 safrole
C10H10O4 ferulic acid
C10H11N3O3S sulfamethoxazole
C10H12N2 tryptamine

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C10H12O anethole
C10H12O estragole
C10H12O2 hinokitiol
C10H12O2 eugenol
C10H12O2 isoeugenol
C10H12O2 pseudoisoeugenol
C10H12O3 coniferyl alcohol
C10H13N5O4 adenosine
C10H14O mentha spicata herb oil
C10H15ON ephedrine
C10H16 limonene
C10H16O camphor
C10H17NO3 boc-4-piperidone
C10H19NO3 1-boc-4-piperidinol
C10H20N2O2 boc-4-aminopiperidine
C10H22 decane
C11H8O2 menadione
C11H11NO2 3-indolepropionic acid
C11H12N2O2 tryptophan
Trp
C11H12O3 myristicin
C11H14N2O 5-methoxytryptamine
C11H14O2 methyl eugenol
C11H14O2 methyl isoeugenol
C11H19NO4 boc-isonipecotic acid
C11H24 undecane
C12H4N4 tetracyanoquinodimethane
C12H8O4 methoxsalen
C12H10 biphenyl
C12H10ClN2O5S furosemide
C12H11N5 6-benzylaminopurine
C12H11N7 triamterene
C12H13NO2 indole-3-butyric acid
(C12H14CaO12)n calcium alginate
C12H14O4 apiole
C12H14O4 dillapiole
C12H15NO 1-benzyl-4-piperidone
C12H16N2 N,N-Dimethyltryptamine
C12H16O3 asarone
C12H16O3 elemicin
C12H16O3 isoelemicin

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C12H16O3 oudenone
C12H16O4 2,4,5-Trimethoxypropiophenone
C12H16O7 arbutin
C12H18O propofol
C12H22O11 maltose
sucrose
C12H26 dodecane
C13H10O benzophenone
C13H12F2N6O fluconazole
C13H12O β-ionone
C13H12O2 monobenzone
C13H14N2O harmaline
C13H16N2O2 melatonin
C13H18O2 ibuprofen
C13H28 tridecane
C14H10 anthracene
C14H10 phenanthrene
C14H10O14 benzoyl peroxide
C14H12O3 resveratrol
C14H14Cl2N2O enilconazole
C14H18N2O5 aspartame
C14H18N4O3 trimethoprim
C14H30 tetradecane
C15H10O4 daidzein
C15H10O5 apigenin
emodin
genistein
C15H10O6 luteolin
C15H10O7 quercetin
C15H12N2O carbamazepine
C15H12N2O2 phenytoin
C15H32 pentadecane
C16H14O3 ketoprofen
C16H28N2O6Zn zinc acexamate
C16H34 hexadecane
C17H13ClN4 alprazolam
C17H14F3N3O2S celecoxib
C17H18N2O6 nifedipine
C17H19N3O3S omeprazole
C17H21NO4 cocaine

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C17H22O2 cicutoxin
C17H22O2 oenanthotoxin
C17H24O falcarinol
C17H24O9 Eleutheroside B
syringin
C17H36 heptadecane
C18H22O2 estrone
C18H24O2 estradiol
C18H24O3 estriol
C18H24O4 estetrol
C18H27NO3 capsaicin
C18H32O2 linoleic acid
C18H36O2 stearic acid
C18H38 octadecane
C19H16ClNO4 indometacin
C19H26O2 androstenedione
C19H28O2 dehydroepiandrosterone
C19H28O2 testosterone
C19H30O2 androstenediol
C19H30O2 dihydrotestosterone
C19H40 nonadecane
C20H24O2N2 quinine
C20H27NO11 amygdalin
C20H28O2 tretinoin
C20H32O5 prostacyclin
C20H32O5 prostaglandin E2
C20H34O5 dinoprost
C20H42 eicosane
C21H20O6 curcumin
C21H30O2 progesterone
C21H36N7O16P3S Coenzyme A
C21H30O2 tetrahydrocannabinol
C22H23ClN2O2 loratadine
C23H19ClF3NO3 cyhalothrin
C30H19NO9 Dynemicin A
C34H46O18 Eleutheroside D
C35H60O6 Eleutheroside A
C40H56 lycopene
C44H69N15O9S adrenorphin
C55H74IN3O21S4 calicheamicin
C59H80N4O22S4 esperamicin

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C62H89CoN13O15P hydroxocobalamin
C63H88CoN14O14P Vitamin B12
C63H88CoN14O14P cyanocobalamin
C63H91CoN13O14P methylcobalamin
C72H100CoN18O17P adenosylcobalamin
C77H120N18O26S alpha-Endorphin
C83H131N19O27S gamma-Endorphin
C131H200N30O43S2 amidorphin
C158H251N39O46S beta-Endorphin
C161H236N42O48 leumorphin
C164H256Na2O68S2 maitotoxin
CaAl2O4 calcium aluminate
CaB6 calcium boride
CaBr2 calcium bromide
Ca(BrO)2 calcium hypobromite
Ca(BrO2)2 calcium bromite
Ca(BrO3)2 calcium bromate
Ca(BrO4)2 calcium perbromate
Ca(CN)2 calcium cyanide
CaCO3 calcium carbonate
spent lime
calcite
limestone
marble
CaC2 calcium carbide
Ca(CHO2)2 calcium formate
Ca(C2H3O2)2 calcium acetate
CaC2O4 calcium oxalate
CaCN2 calcium cyanamide
CaCl2 calcium chloride
Ca(ClO)2 calcium hypochlorite
Ca(ClO2)2 calcium chlorite
Ca(ClO3)2 calcium chlorate
Ca(ClO4)2 calcium perchlorate
CaF2 calcium fluoride
fluorite
CaH2 calcium hydride
CaHPO4 dicalcium phosphate
Ca(H2PO2)2 calcium hypophosphite
Ca(HS)2 calcium hydrosulfide
CaI2 calcium iodide

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Ca(IO)2 calcium hypoiodite
Ca(IO2)2 calcium iodite
Ca(IO3)2 calcium iodate
Ca(IO4)2 calcium periodate
CaMoO4 calcium molybdate
Ca(NO2)2 calcium nitrite
Ca(NO3)2 calcium nitrate
Ca(NO3)2 · 4H2O Calcium nitrate tetrahydrate
Ca(NbO3)2 calcium metaniobate
CaO quicklime
calcium oxide
burnt lime
Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide
slaked lime
CaO2 calcium peroxide
CaP calcium monophosphide
CaS calcium sulfide
hepar calcies
sulfurated lime
oldhamite
CaSO3 calcium sulfite
CaSO4 calcium sulfate
CaSO4 · 0.5H2O plaster of paris
calcium sulfate hemihydrate
CaSe calcium selenide
CaSeO3 calcium selenite
CaSeO4 calcium selenate
CaSiO3 calcium metasilicate
wollastonite
CaTe calcium telluride
CaTeO3 calcium tellurite
CaTeO4 calcium tellurate
CaTiO3 calcium titanate
Ca(VO3)2 calcium metavanadate
Ca(VO4)2 calcium orthovanadate
CaWO4 calcium tungstate
Ca3(AsO4)2 calcium arsenate
Ca3N2 calcium nitride
Ca3P2 calcium phosphide
Ca3(PO4)2 tricalcium phosphate
Ca4(PO4)2O tetracalcium phosphate

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Ca5(PO4)3F calcium fluorophosphate
Ca5(PO4)3(OH) hydroxyapatite
CdBr2 cadmium bromide
Cd(CN)2 cadmium cyanide
CdCO3 cadmium carbonate
Cd(C2H3O2)2 cadmium acetate
CdC2O4 cadmium oxalate
CdCl2 cadmium chloride
CdCrO4 cadmium chromate
CdF2 cadmium fluoride
CdI2 cadmium iodide
Cd(IO3)2 cadmium iodate
CdMoO4 cadmium molybdate
Cd(NO3)2 cadmium nitrate
Cd(N3)2 cadmium azide
CdO cadmium oxide
Cd(OH)2 cadmium hydroxide
CdS cadmium sulfide
greenockite
CdSO3 cadmium sulfite
CdSO4 cadmium sulfate
CdSb cadmium antimonide
CdSe cadmium selenide
cadmoselite
CdSeO3 cadmium selenite
CdSiO3 cadmium metasilicate
Cd(TaO3)2 cadmium metatantalate
CdTe cadmium telluride
CdTeO4 cadmium tellurate
CdTiO3 cadmium titanate
CdWO4 cadmium tungstate
CdZrO3 cadmium metazirconate
Cd2Nb2O7 cadmium niobate
Cd3As2 cadmium arsenide
Cd3P2 cadmium phosphide
Cd3(PO4)2 cadmium phosphate
CeB6 cerium boride
CeBr3 cerium(III) bromide
CeC cerium carbide
CeCl3 cerium(III) chloride
CeF3 cerium(III) fluoride

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CeF4 cerium(IV) fluoride
CeI2 cerium(II) iodide
CeI3 cerium(III) iodide
CeN cerium nitride
CeO2 cerium(IV) oxide
cerianite
CeS cerium(II) sulfide
Ce(SO4)2 cerium(IV) sulfate
CeSi2 cerium silicide
Ce2C3 cerium(III) carbide
Ce2O3 cerium(III) oxide
Ce2S3 cerium(III) sulfide
CF3Cl chlorotrifluoromethane
CF4 tetrafluoromethane
ClF chlorine fluoride
ClF3 chlorine trifluoride
ClF5 chlorine pentafluoride
ClOClO3 chlorine perchlorate
ClO2 chlorine dioxide
ClO3F chlorine trioxide fluoride
Cl2 chlorine
Cl2O3 chlorine trioxide
Cl2O6 chlorine hexoxide
Cl2O7 chlorine heptoxide
Cl2O8 Chlorine octaoxide
CoAl2O4 cobalt(II) aluminate
CoAs cobalt arsenide
CoAs2 cobalt(II) arsenide
CoB cobalt(II) boride
CoBr2 cobalt(II) bromide
Co(CN)2 cobalt(II) cyanide
Co(C2H3O2)2 cobalt(II) acetate
Co(C2H3O2)3 cobalt(III) acetate
CoC2O4 cobalt(II) oxalate
Co(ClO4)2 cobalt(II) perchlorate
CoCl2 cobalt(II) chloride
CoCrO4 cobalt(II) chromate
CoCr2O4 cobalt(II) chromite
CoF2 cobalt(II) fluoride
CoF3 cobalt(III) fluoride
Co(IO3)2 cobalt(II) iodate

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150
CoI2 cobalt(II) iodide
CoMoO4 cobalt(II) molybdate
Co(NO3)2 cobalt(II) nitrate
Co(NO3)3 cobalt(III) nitrate
CoO cobalt(II) oxide
Co(OH)2 cobalt(II) hydroxide
Co(OH)3 cobalt(III) hydroxide
CoS cobalt(II) sulfide
CoS2 cobalt disulfide
CoSb cobalt antimonide
CoSe cobalt(II) selenide
CoSeO3 cobalt(II) selenite
CoTe cobalt(II) telluride
CoTiO3 cobalt(II) titanate
CoWO4 cobalt(II) tungstate
Co2B cobalt boride
Co2SO4 cobalt(II) sulfate
Co2S3 cobalt(III) sulfide
Co2SiO4 cobalt(II) orthosilicate
Co2SnO4 cobalt(II) stannate
Co2TiO4 cobalt(II) titanite
Co3(AsO4)2 cobalt arsenate
Co3(Fe(CN)6)2 cobalt(II) ferricyanide
CrBr2 chromium(II) bromide
CrBr3 chromium(III) bromide
CrCl2 chromium(II) chloride
CrCl3 chromium(III) chloride
CrCl4 chromium(IV) chloride
CrF2 chromium(II) fluoride
CrF3 chromium(III) fluoride
CrF4 chromium(IV) fluoride
CrF5 chromium(V) fluoride
CrF6 chromium(VI) fluoride
CrI2 chromium(II) iodide
CrI3 chromium(III) iodide
Cr(NO3)3 chromium(III) nitrate
Cr(NO2)3 chromium(III) nitrite
Cr(OH)3 chromium(III) hydroxide
CrO2 chromium(IV) oxide
CrO3 chromium(VI) oxide

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CrO42− chromate ion
CrO2Cl2 chromium(VI) oxychloride
CrPO4 chromium(III) phosphate
CrSb chromium antimonide
CrSe chromium(II) selenide
CrSi2 chromium(II) silicide
CrVO4 chromium(III) orthovanadate
Cr2O3 chromium(III) oxide
eskolaite
Cr2(SO4)3 chromium(III) sulfate
Cr2S3 chromium(III) sulfide
Cr2Se3 chromium(III) selenide
Cr2(TeO4)3 chromium(III) tellurate
Cr2Te3 chromium(III) telluride
Cr3As2 chromium(II) arsenide
Cr3C2 chromium(II) carbide
Cr3Sb2 chromium(II) antimonide
CsBO2 caesium borate
CsBr caesium bromide
CsBrO caesium hypobromite
CsBrO2 caesium bromite
CsBrO3 caesium bromate
CsBrO4 caesium perbromate
CsBr3 caesium tribromide
CsCN caesium cyanide
CsCNO caesium cyanate
CsCNO caesium fulminate
CsC2H3O2 caesium acetate
CsCl caesium chloride
CsClO caesium hypochlorite
CsClO2 caesium chlorite
CsClO3 caesium chlorate
CsClO4 caesium perchlorate
CsF caesium fluoride
CsH caesium hydride
CsHS caesium hydrosulfide
CsI caesium iodide
CsIO caesium hypoiodite
CsIO2 caesium iodite
CsIO3 caesium iodate
CsIO4 caesium periodate

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CsI3 caesium triiodide
CsNH2 caesium amide
CsNO2 caesium nitrite
CsNO3 caesium nitrate
CsN3 caesium azide
CsNbO3 caesium niobate
Cs2NbO3 caesium metaniobate
CsOH caesium hydroxide
CsO2 caesium superoxide
Cs2O2 caesium peroxide
Cs2S caesium sulfide
CsSCN caesium thiocyanate
CsSeO4 caesium selenate
CsTaO3 caesium metatantalate
Cs2CO3 caesium carbonate
CsHCO3 caesium bicarbonate
CsH2PO3 monocaesium phosphite
CsH2PO4 monocaesium phosphate
CsHSO3 caesium bisulfite
CsHSO4 caesium hydrogen sulfate
Cs2C2O4 caesium oxalate
Cs2CrO4 caesium chromate
Cs2Cr2O7 caesium dichromate
Cs2HPO4 caesium hydrogen orthophosphate
Cs2MoO4 caesium molybdate
Cs2O caesium oxide
Cs2SO3 caesium sulfite
Cs2SO4 caesium sulfate
Cs2SiO3 caesium metasilicate
Cs2TeO4 caesium tellurate
Cs2TiO3 caesium titanate
caesium metatitanate
Cs2WO4 caesium orthotungstate
Cs2HPO3 dicaesium phosphite
Cs2HPO4 dicaesium phosphate
Cs3PO3 tricaesium phosphite
Cs3PO4 caesium orthophosphate
Cs3VO4 caesium orthovanadate
CuBr copper(I) bromide
Cu(BrO3)2 · 6H2O copper(II) bromate hexahydrate
CuBr2 copper(II) bromide

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CuC2O4 copper oxalate
Cu(CH3COO) copper(I) acetate
Cu(CH3COO)2 copper(II) acetate
CuCl copper(I) chloride
Cu(ClO3)2 · 6H2O copper(II) chlorate hexahydrate
CuCl2 copper(II) chloride
CuF copper(I) fluoride
CuF2 copper(II) fluoride
CuFeS2 copper iron sulfide
chalcopyrite
CuFe2O4 copper(II) iron(II) oxide
CuFe2S3 copper iron sulfide
cubanite
[Cu(H2O)4]SO4 · H2O blue vitriol
CuI copper(I) iodide
CuIO3 copper(I) iodate
Cu(IO3)2 copper(II) iodate
CuMoO4 copper(II) orthomolybdate
Cu(NO3)2 copper(II) nitrate
Cu(NO3)2 · 3H2O copper(II) nitrate trihydrate
Cu(NO3)2 · 6H2O copper(II) nitrate hexahydrate
Cu(NbO3)2 copper(II) orthoniobate
CuO copper(II) oxide
Cu2O copper(I) oxide
Cu(OH)2 copper(II) hydroxide
Cu2(OH)2CO3 basic copper carbonate
CuS copper(II) sulfide
covellite
CuSCN copper(I) thiocyanate
CuSO4 copper(II) sulfate
CuSO4 · 5H2O copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate
CuSe copper(II) selenide
CuSeO3 · 2H2O copper(II) selenite dihydrate
CuSeO4 · 5H2O copper(II) selenate pentahydrate
CuSiO3 copper(II) metasilicate
CuTe copper(II) telluride
CuTeO3 copper(II) tellurite
CuTiO3 copper(II) metatitanate
Cu(VO3)2 copper(II) metavanadate
CuWO4 copper(II) orthotungstate
Cu2CO3(OH)2 malachite

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Cu2S copper(I) sulfide
chalcocite
Cu2Se copper(I) selenide
Cu2Te copper(I) telluride
Cu3As copper(I) arsenide
Cu3P copper(I) phosphide
Cu3(PO4)2 copper(II) phosphate
Cu3Sb copper(III) antimonide
Cu9S5 copper sulfide
digenite
DBr deuterium bromide
DI deuterium iodide
DLi lithium deuteride
DNa sodium deuteride
D2O deuterium oxide
heavy water
D3O+ trideuterium oxide cation
DyBr3 dysprosium(III) bromide
DyCl2 dysprosium(II) chloride
DyCl3 dysprosium(III) chloride
DySi2 dysprosium(II) silicide
Dy2O3 dysprosium(III) oxide
Dy2S3 dysprosium(III) sulfide
ErCl3 erbium(III) chloride
ErF erbium monofluoride
ErF2 erbium difluoride
ErF3 erbium trifluoride
ErI3 erbium triiodide
ErI4Na erbium sodium tetraiodide
ErO erbium monoxide
EuCl2 europium(II) chloride
EuCl3 europium(III) chloride
EuF europium monofluoride
EuF3 europium trifluoride
EuI2 europium diiodide
EuNbO2 europium niobium dioxide
EuNb2O6 europium diniobium hexaoxide
EuO europium monoxide
EuO2V monoeuropium monovandium dioxide
EuO3Ti europium titanium trioxide
EuO3V europium metavanadate

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155
EuO4W europium tungsten tetraoxide
EuS europium monosulfide
EuSO4 europium(II) sulfate
EuS2 europium disulfide
Eu2O dieuropium monoxide
Eu2O2 dieuropium dioxide
Eu2O3 europium(III) oxide
Eu2S dieuropium monosulfide
Eu2S2 dieuropium disulfide
Eu2(SO4)3 europium(III) sulfate
FGa gallium monofluoride
FGaO gallium monofluoride monoxide
FGd gadolinium monofluoride
FGe germanium monofluoride
FHo holmium monofluoride
FI iodine monofluoride
FI2 monofluorodiiodine
FIn indium monofluoride
FLa lanthanum monofluoride
FLi lithium fluoride
FLiO lithium hypofluorite
FLi2 dilithium monofluoride
FMg magnesium monofluoride
FMn monomanganese monofluoride
FMnO3 manganese fluoride trioxide
FMo molybdenum monofluoride
FN fluoroimidogen
FNO nitrosyl fluoride
FNO2 nitryl fluoride
FNO3 fluorine nitrate
FNS thiazyl fluoride
FNa sodium fluoride
FNa2 disodium monofluoride
FNd neodymium monofluoride
FO oxygen monofluoride
FOTh thorium monofluoride monoxide
FOTi titanium fluoride oxide
FO2 dioxygen monofluoride
FO3S fluorosulfate radical
FP phosphorus monofluoride

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156
FPS phosphenothious fluoride
FPS2 phosphenodithioic fluoride
FPb lead monofluoride
FPu plutonium monofluoride
FRb rubidium fluoride
FS monosulfur monofluoride
FSc scandium monofluoride
FSm samarium monofluoride
FSn tin monofluoride
FSr strontium monofluoride
FTh thorium monofluoride
FTi titanium fluoride
FTl thallium monofluoride
FW tungsten monofluoride
FXe xenon monofluoride
FY yttrium monofluoride
FZr zirconium fluoride
F2 fluorine
F2Fe ferrous fluoride
F2Ga gallium difluoride
F2Gd gadolinium difluoride
F2Ge germanium difluoride
F2GeO difluorogermanone
F2Hg mercury fluoride
F2Hg2 mercury fluoride
F2Ho holmium difluoride
F2IP difluoroiodophosphine
F2K2 dipotassium difluoride
F2Kr krypton difluoride
F2La lanthanum difluoride
F2Li2 lithium fluoride
F2Mg magnesium fluoride
F2Mn manganese difluoride
F2Mo molybdenum difluoride
F2MoO2 molybdenum difluoride dioxide
F2N difluoroamino radical
F2N2O nitrosodifluoroamine
F2Na2 disodium difluoride
F2Nd neodymium difluoride
F2Ni nickel difluoride

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F2O oxygen difluoride
F2OS thionyl fluoride
F2OSi difluorooxosilane
F2OTi titanium fluoride oxide
F2O2 perfluoroperoxide
F2O2S sulfuryl fluoride
F2O2W tungsten difluoride dioxide
F2O5S3 peroxydisulfuryl difluoride
F2P phosphorus difluoride
F2Pb lead difluoride
F2Pt platinum difluoride
F2Pu plutonium difluoride
F2S sulfur difluoride
F2SW tungsten difluoride monosulfide
F2S2 difluorodisulfane
F2S2 thiothionyl fluoride
F2S2 thiothionyl fluoride
F2S2W tungsten difluoride disulfide
F2Sc scandium difluoride
F2Se selenium difluoride
F2Si difluorosilylene
F2Sn tin difluoride
F2Sr strontium fluoride
F2Th thorium difluoride
F2Ti titanium difluoride
F2Tl2 dithallium difluoride
F2W tungsten difluoride
F2Xe xenon difluoride
F2Y yttrium difluoride
F2Zn zinc difluoride
F2Zr zirconium fluoride
F3Fe iron trifluoride
F3Ga gallium trifluoride
F3Gd gadolinium trifluoride
F3Ho holmium trifluoride
F3La lanthanum trifluoride
F3Li3 trilithium trifluoride
F3Lu lutetium trifluoride
F3Mn manganese trifluoride
F3Mo molybdenum trifluoride

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F3MoO molybdenum trifluoride oxide
F3MoS molybdenum trifluoride sulfide
F3N nitrogen trifluoride
F3NO nitrogen trifluoride oxide
F3NO2S difluoroaminosulfonyl fluoride
F3NO3S difluoraminooxysulfonyl fluoride
F3NS thiazyl trifluoride
F3NaSn sodium trifluorostannate
F3Nd neodymium trifluoride
F3OP phosphoryl fluoride
F3OTa tantalum monoxide trifluoride
F3OV vanadium trifluoride oxide
F3P phosphorus trifluoride
F3PS thiophosphoryl fluoride
F3Pr praseodymium trifluoride
F3Pu plutonium trifluoride
F3Rh rhodium fluoride
F3S sulfur trifluoride
F3SW tungsten trifluoride monosulfide
F3Sb antimony trifluoride
F3Sc scandium fluoride
F3Si trifluorosilyl radical
F3Sm samarium trifluoride
F3Tb terbium trifluoride
F3Th thorium trifluoride
F3Ti titanium trifluoride
F3Tl thallium trifluoride
F3Tm thulium trifluoride
F3W tungsten trifluoride
F3Y yttrium trifluoride
F3Yb ytterbium trifluoride
F3Zr zirconium trifluoride
F4Ge germanium tetrafluoride
F4Ge2 digermanium tetrafluoride
F4Hf hafnium fluoride
F4Mg2 dimagnesium tetrafluoride
F4Mg2 magnesium fluoride
F4Mo molybdenum tetrafluoride
F4MoO molybdenum tetrafluoride oxide
F4MoS molybdenum tetrafluoride monosulfide

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F4N2 tetrafluorohydrazine
F4Na2Sn disodium tetrafluorostannate
F4OOs osmium oxide tetrafluoride
F4OP2 diphosphorus tetrafluoride oxide
F4ORe rhenium tetrafluoride oxide
F4OS sulfur tetrafluoride oxide
F4OW tungsten tetrafluoride oxide
F4OXe xenon tetrafluoride oxide
F4P2 diphosphorus tetrafluoride
F4Pb lead tetrafluoride
F4Pt platinum tetrafluoride
F4Pu plutonium tetrafluoride
F4S sulfur tetrafluoride
F4SW tungsten tetrafluoride monosulfide
F4Se selenium tetrafluoride
F4Si silicon tetrafluoride
F4Sn2 ditin tetrafluoride
F4Ti titanium fluoride
F4U uranium tetrafluoride
F4W tungsten tetrafluoride
F4Xe xenon tetrafluoride
F4Zr zirconium tetrafluoride
F5I iodine pentafluoride
F5Mo molybdenum pentafluoride
F5ORe rhenium monoxide pentafluoride
F5P phosphorus pentafluoride
F5Pu plutonium pentafluoride
F5S disulfur decafluoride
F5Sb antimony pentafluoride
F5Ta tantalum pentafluoride
F5U uranium pentafluoride
F5W tungsten pentafluoride
F6Fe2 diiron hexafluoride
F6La2 lanthanum trifluoride dimer
F6Mo molybdenum hexafluoride
F6NP3 nitridotriphosphorous hexafluoride
F6Os osmium hexafluoride
F6Pu plutonium hexafluoride
F6Re rhenium hexafluoride
F6S sulfur hexafluoride

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F6Se selenium hexafluoride
F6Si2 hexafluorodisilane
F6Sn3 tritin hexafluoride
F6Te tellurium hexafluoride
F6U uranium hexafluoride
F6W tungsten hexafluoride
F6Xe xenon hexafluoride
F7I iodine fluoride
F7NS pentafluorosulfanyldifluoroamine
F7Re rhenium heptafluoride
F8Si3 octafluorotrisilane
F10Mo2 molybdenum fluoride
F10S2 sulfur fluoride
F15Mo3 molybdenum fluoride
FeAsS iron arsenic sulfide
arsenopyrite
FeBr2 iron(II) bromide
FeBr3 iron(III) bromide
FeBr3 · 6H2O iron(III) bromide hexahydrate
FeCO3 siderite
FeC2O4 iron oxalate
FeC5O5 iron pentacarbonyl
pentacarbonyl iron
FeC10H10 ferrocene
FeCl2 iron(II) chloride
FeCl3 iron(III) chloride
FeCr2O4 chromite (ore)
FeF2 iron fluoride
FeF2 · 4H2O iron(II) fluoride tetrahydrate
FeI iron monoiodide
FeI2 iron diiodide
iron(II) iodide
FeI2 · 4H2O iron(II) iodide tetrahydrate
FeI3 iron(III) iodide
FeMoO4 iron(II) orthomolybdate
FeO iron monoxide
iron(II) oxide
wüstite
FeO2 iron dioxide
FeO2H goethite
FeO2H · nH2O limonite

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Fe(OH)2 iron(II) hydroxide
Fe(OH)3 iron(III) hydroxide
Fe(SCN)3 iron(III) Thiocyanate
FeO4S ferrous sulfate
FeO4Se iron(II) selenate
ferrous selenate
FeO8H4P2 iron(II) dihydrogen phosphate
FeP iron(III) phosphide
FePO4 iron(III) phosphate
FeS iron sulfide
iron(II) sulfide
FeS2 pyrite
fool's gold
iron(IV) sulfide
marcasite
FeSe iron(II) selenide
FeTe iron(II) telluride
FeTiO3 iron(II) metatitanate
ilmenite
FeVO4 iron(III) orthovanadate
FeWO4 iron(II) orthotungstate
FeZrO3 iron(II) metazirconate
Fe2I2 diiron diiodide
Fe2I4 diiron tetraiodide
Fe2O3 iron oxide
iron(III) oxide
hematite
Fe2O3 venetian red
Fe2O12S3 ferric sulfate
iron(III) sulfate
Fe2O12W3 iron(III) orthotungstate
Fe2P diiron phosphide
Fe2SiO4 fayalite
Fe3H2Na2O45Si chrysotile
white asbestos
Fe3O4 iron(II,III) oxide
magnetite
triiron(II, III) tetraoxide
Fe3P iron(tri) phosphide
Fe4(P2O7)3 iron(III) pyrophosphate
Fe7Si8O24H2 amosite

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 brown asbestos
grunerite
GaAs gallium(III) arsenide
GaAsO4 gallium(III) orthoarsenate
GaBr3 gallium(III) bromide
Ga(C2H3O2)3 gallium(III) acetate
GaCl2 gallium(II) chloride
GaCl3</ gallium trichloride
Ga(ClO4)3 gallium(III) perchlorate
GaI2 gallium(II) iodide
GaI3 gallium(III) iodide
GaN gallium(III) nitride
Ga(OH)3 gallium(III) hydroxide
GaPO4 gallium(III) orthophosphate
GaSb gallium(III) antimonide
GaTe gallium(II) telluride
Ga2O3 gallium(III) oxide
Ga2(SO4)3·18H2O gallium(III) sulfate octadecahydrate
Ga2S3 gallium(III) sulfide
Ga2Te3 gallium(III) telluride
GeBr4 germanium(IV) bromide
GeH3COOH 2-germaacetic acid
GeI2 germanium(II) iodide
GeI4 germanium(IV) iodide
GeO germanium(II) oxide
HArF argon fluorohydride
HAt hydrogen astatide
HBr hydrogen bromide
hydrobromic acid
HBrO hypobromous acid
HBrO2 bromous acid
HBrO3 bromic acid
HBrO4 perbromic acid
HCCH acetylene
ethyne
HCN hydrocyanic acid
hydrogen cyanide
HCNO fulminic acid
HCONH2 formamide
methanamide
HCOO− formate ion

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HCOOH formic acid
methanoic acid
HCOONH4 ammonium formate
HCO3− hydrogen carbonate ion
HC3H5O3 lactic acid
HC5H5N+ pyridinium ion
HC6H7O6 ascorbic acid
HC9H7O4 acetylsalicylic acid
HC12H17ON4SCl2 thiamine hydrochloride
vitamin B1 hydrochloride
HCl hydrochloric acid
hydrogen chloride
HClO hypochlorous acid
HClO2 chlorous acid
HClO3 chloric acid
HClO4 perchloric acid
HDO semiheavy water
water-d1
HF hydrofluoric acid
HI hydroiodic acid
HIO hypoiodous acid
HIO2 iodous acid
HIO3 iodic acid
HIO4 periodic acid
HNCO isocyanic acid
HNO nitroxyl
HNO2 nitrous acid
HNO3 nitric acid
hydrogen nitrate
HN3 hydrazoic acid
HOBr hypobromous acid
HOCl hypochlorous acid
HOF hypofluorous acid
HOOCCOOH oxalic acid
HPO42− hydrogen phosphate ion
HSO3− hydrogen sulfite ion
HSO4− hydrogen sulfate
HTO partially tritiated water
water-t
H2 hydrogen
H2C(CH)CN acrylonitrile

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H2CO formaldehyde
H2CO3 carbonic acid
H2CSO sulfine
H2C2O4 oxalic acid
H2C4H4O6 tartaric acid
H2C8H4O4 phthalic acid
H2Ph
H2CrO4 chromic acid
H2NCH2COOH glycine
H2N2O2 hyponitrous acid
H2NNH2 hydrazine
H2O water
H2O2 hydrogen peroxide
H2PO4− dihydrogen phosphate ion
H2S hydrogen sulfide
hydrosulfuric acid
H2SO3 sulfurous acid
H2SO4 sulfuric acid
hydrogen sulfate
H2S2O2 thiosulfurous acid
H2S2O3 thiosulfuric acid
H2S2O4 dithionous acid
H2S2O5 disulfurous acid
H2S2O6 dithionic acid
H2S2O7 disulfuric acid
H2S2O8 peroxydisulfuric acid
H2SeO3 selenous acid
H2SeO4 selenic acid
H2SiO3 silicic acid
H2TeO3 tellurous acid
H2TiO3 titanic acid
H3AsO4 arsenic acid
H3CCH2CH3 propane
H3N+CH2COO− zwitterion
H3O+ hydronium ion
H3PO2 hypophosphorous acid
H3PO3 phosphorous acid
H3PO4 phosphoric acid
H4XeO6 perxenic acid
H6TeO6 telluric acid
HfBr4 hafnium(IV) bromide

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HfF4 hafnium(IV) fluoride
HfOCl2 · 8H2O hafnium(IV) oxychloride octahydrate
HfOH(C2H3O2)3 hafnium(IV) acetate, basic
Hf(SO4)2 hafnium(IV) sulfate
Hg(BrO3)2 · 2H2O mercury(II) bromate dihydrate
Hg2Br2 mercury(I) bromide
HgBr2 mercury(II) bromide
Hg(C2H3O2)2 mercury(II) acetate
Hg(C7H5O2)2 · H2O mercury(II) benzoate monohydrate
HgClO4 · 4H2O mercury(I) perchlorate tetrahydrate
Hg(ClO4)2 · 3H2O mercury(II) perchlorate trihydrate
HgCl2 mercury(II) chloride
Hg(IO3)2 mercury(II) iodate
HgI2 mercury(II) iodide
Hg(NO3)2 · H2O mercury(II) nitrate monohydrate
Hg(CNO)2 mercury(II) fulminate
HgO mercury(II) oxide
Hg(OH)2 mercury(II) hydroxide
HgS mercury(II) sulfide
cinnabar
Hg(SCN)2 mercury(II) thiocyanate
HgSe mercury(II) selenide
HgSeO3 mercury(II) selenite
HgTe mercury(II) telluride
HgTeO3 mercury(II) tellurite
HgWO4 mercury(II) tungstate
Hg2Br2 mercury(I) bromide
Hg2Cl2 mercury(I) chloride
Hg2I2 mercury(I) iodide
Hg3(AsO4)2 mercury(II) orthoarsenate
Hg3(PO4)2 mercury(II) phosphate
IBr iodine(I) bromide
IBr3 iodine(III) bromide
ICl Iodine monochloride
ICl3 iodine(III) chloride
IO3− iodate ion
I2 iodine
I2O5 iodine pentoxide
I3− triiodide ion
InAs indium(III) arsenide
InBr indium(I) bromide

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InBrI2 indium(III) bromodiiodide
InBr2I indium(III) dibromoiodide
InBr3 indium(III) bromide
InCl indium(I) chloride
InCl2 indium(II) chloride
InCl3 indium(III) chloride
InCl3·4H2O indium(III) chloride tetrahydrate
InI indium(I) iodide
In(IO3)3 indium(III) iodate
InI2 indium(II) iodide
InI3 indium(III) iodide
In(NO3)3·4.5H2O indium(III) nitrate tetrahemihydrate
In(OH)3 indium(III) hydroxide
InP indium(III) phosphide
InPO4 indium(III) orthophosphate
InS indium(II) sulfide
InSb indium(III) antimonide
InTe indium(II) telluride
In2O3 indium(III) oxide
In2(SO4)3·H2O indium(III) sulfate monohydrate
In2S3 indium(III) sulfide
In2Se3 indium(III) selenide
In2Te3 indium(III) telluride
IrBr3 iridium(III) bromide
KAl(SO4)2 potassium alum
KAsO2 potassium arsenite
KH2AsO4 potassium dihydrogen arsenate
KBr potassium bromide
KBrO potassium hypobromite
KBrO2 potassium bromite
KBrO3 potassium bromate
KBrO4 potassium perbromate
KCN potassium cyanide
KCNO potassium cyanate
KCNO potassium fulminate
KCNS potassium thiocyanate
KCl potassium chloride
KClO potassium hypochlorite
KClO2 potassium chlorite
KClO3 potassium chlorate

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KClO4 potassium perchlorate
K2CrO4 potassium chromate
K2Cr2O7 potassium dichromate
K2HAsO4 dipotassium hydrogen arsenate
K2HPO3 dipotassium phosphite
K2HPO4 dipotassium phosphate
K3AsO4 potassium arsenate
K3C6H5O7 potassium citrate
K3PO3 tripotassium phosphite
K3PO4 tripotassium phosphate
KF potassium fluoride
KOF potassium hypofluorite
KH potassium hydride
KHCO3 potassium bicarbonate
KHS potassium hydrosulfide
KHSO3 potassium bisulfite
KHSO4 potassium bisulfate
KH2PO3 monopotassium phosphite
KH2PO4 monopotassium phosphate
KI potassium iodide
KIO potassium hypoiodite
KIO2 potassium iodite
KIO3 potassium iodate
KIO4 potassium periodate
KMnO4 potassium permanganate
KNO3 potassium nitrate
KNO2 potassium nitrite
K2CO3 potassium carbonate
K2MnO4 potassium manganate
K2N2O2 potassium hyponitrite
KNbO3 potassium niobate
K2O potassium oxide
K2O2 potassium peroxide
K2S potassium sulfide
K2S2O3 potassium thiosulfate
K2S2O5 potassium metabisulfite
K2S2O8 potassium persulfate
K2SO3 potassium sulfite
K2SO4 potassium sulfate
KOH potassium hydroxide/custic potash

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LaBr3 lanthanum(III) bromide
LaCl3 lanthanum(III) chloride
LaI3 lanthanum(III) iodide
La2O3 lanthanum(III) oxide
La(OH)3 lanthanum hydroxide
LaPO4 lanthanum(III) phosphate
LaPO4·0.5H2O lanthanum(III) phosphate crystal
hemihydrate
LiAlH4 lithium aluminium hydride
Li(AlSi2O6) keatite
LiBH4 lithium borohydride
LiBr lithium bromide
LiBr·2H2O lithium bromide dihydrate
LiBrO lithium hypobromite
LiBrO2 lithium bromite
LiBrO3 lithium bromate
LiBrO4 lithium perbromate
LiCl lithium chloride
LiClO lithium hypochlorite
LiClO2 lithium chlorite
LiClO3 lithium chlorate
LiClO4 lithium perchlorate
LiCN lithium cyanide
LiCNO lithium cyanate
LiC2H5O lithium ethoxide
LiF lithium fluoride
LiH lithium hydride
LiHCO3 lithium bicarbonate
LiHS lithium hydrosulfide
LiHSO3 lithium bisulfite
LiHSO4 lithium hydrogen sulfate
LiH2AsO4 lithium dihydrogen arsenate
LiH2PO3 monolithium phosphite
LiH2PO4 monolithium phosphate
LiI lithium iodide
LiIO lithium hypoiodite
LiIO2 lithium iodite
LiIO3 lithium iodate
LiIO4 lithium periodate
LiNa sodium lithium
LiNbO3 lithium niobate

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LiNO2 lithium nitrite
LiNO3 lithium nitrate
LiNO3·H2O lithium nitrate monohydrate
LiOH lithium hydroxide
LiTaO3 lithium tantalate
lithium metatantalate
LiVO3·2H2O lithium metavanadate dihydrate
Li2HAsO4 dilithium hydrogen arsenate
Li2B4O7·5H2O lithium tetraborate pentahydrate
Li2CO3 lithium carbonate
Li2CrO4 lithium chromate
Li2CrO4·2H2O lithium chromate dihydrate
Li2Cr2O7 lithium dichromate
Li2HPO3 dilithium phosphite
Li2HPO4 dilithium phosphate
Li2MoO4 lithium orthomolybdate
Li2NbO3 lithium metaniobate
Li2N2O2 lithium hyponitrite
Li2O lithium oxide
Li2O2 lithium peroxide
Li2S lithium sulfide
Li2SO3 lithium sulfite
Li2SO4 lithium sulfate
Li2SeO3 lithium selenite
Li2SeO4 lithium selenate
Li2SiO3 lithium metasilicate
lithium orthosilicate
Li2TeO3 lithium tellurite
Li2TeO4 lithium tellurate
Li2TiO3 lithium metatitanate
Li2WO4 lithium orthotungstate
Li2ZrO3 lithium metazirconate
Li3AsO4 trilithium arsenate
Li3PO3 trilithium phosphite
Li3PO4 trilithium phosphate
MgBr2 magnesium bromide
Mg(BrO)2 magnesium hypobromite
Mg(BrO2)2 magnesium bromite
Mg(BrO3)2 magnesium bromate
Mg(BrO4)2 magnesium perbromate
Mg(AlO2)2 magnesium aluminate

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As2Mg3 magnesium arsenide
MgCO3 magnesium carbonate
magnesite
MgC2O4 magnesium oxalate
Mg(ClO)2 magnesium hypochlorite
Mg(ClO2)2 magnesium chlorite
Mg(ClO3)2 magnesium chlorate
Mg(ClO3)2·xH2O magnesium chlorate hydrate
Mg(ClO4)2 magnesium perchlorate
MgCl2 magnesium chloride
MgCrO4 magnesium chromate
MgCrO4·5H2O magnesium chromate pentahydrate
MgF2 magnesium fluoride
MgHPO4 dimagnesium phosphate
MgI2 magnesium iodide
Mg(IO)2 magnesium hypoiodite
Mg(IO2)2 magnesium iodite
Mg(IO3)2 magnesium iodate
Mg(IO4)2 magnesium periodate
MgMoO4 magnesium molybdate
MgNH4PO4·6H2O magnesium ammonium phosphate
hexahydrate
Mg(NO2)2 magnesium nitrite
Mg(NO3)2 magnesium nitrate
Mg(NO3)2·6H2O magnesium nitrate hexahydrate
MgNaAl5(Si4O10)3(OH)6 montmorillonite (clay)
MgO magnesium oxide
magnesia
periclase
Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide
milk of magnesia
MgPo magnesium polonide
MgS magnesium sulfide
MgSO3 magnesium sulfite
MgSO4 magnesium sulfate
MgSe magnesium selenide
MgSeO3 magnesium selenite
MgSeO4 magnesium selenate
MgSiO3 magnesium metasilicate
enstatite
MgTiO3 magnesium metatitanate

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Mg(VO3)2 magnesium metavanadate
MgWO4 magnesium tungstate
Mg2Al(AlSiO5)(OH)4 amesite
Mg2P2O7 magnesium pyrophosphate
Mg2SiO4 forsterite
Mg3As2 magnesium arsenide
Mg3Bi2 magnesium bismuthide
Mg3P2 magnesium phosphide
Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4 chrysotile
Mg3(Si4O10)(OH)2 talc
Mg3(VO4)2 magnesium orthovanadate
MnAs manganese(III) arsenide
MnBi manganese(III) bismuthide
MnBr2 manganese(II) bromide
MnBr2·4H2O manganese(II) bromide tetrahydrate
Mn(CHO2)2 manganese(II) formate
Mn(CHO2)2·2H2O manganese(II) formate dihydrate
MnCO3 manganese(II) carbonate
MnCl2 manganese(II) chloride
MnF2 manganese(II) fluoride
MnI2 manganese(II) iodide
MnMoO4 manganese(II) orthomolybdate
Mn(NO3)2 manganese(II) nitrate
Mn(NO3)2·4H2O manganese(II) nitrate tetrahydrate
MnO manganese(II) oxide
Mn(OH)2 manganese hydroxide
MnOOH manganite
MnO2 manganese dioxide
pyrolusite
MnO4− permanganate ion
MnPb8(Si2O7)3 barysilate
MnS manganese sulfide
MnTe manganese(II) telluride
MnZrO3 manganese(II) metazirconate
Mn2O3 manganese(III) oxide
Mn3As2 manganese(II) arsenide
Mn3O4 manganese(II,III) oxide
trimanganese tetroxide
hausmannite
Mn3P2 manganese(II) phosphide
Mn3Sb2 manganese(II) antimonide

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MoBr2 molybdenum(II) bromide
MoBr3 molybdenum(III) bromide
MoCl2 molybdenum(II) chloride
MoCl3 molybdenum(III) chloride
MoCl5 molybdenum(V) chloride
MoO2 molybdenum(IV) oxide
MoO3 Molybdenum trioxide
MoO42− molybdate ion
MoSe2 molybdenum(IV) selenide
MoS2 molybdenum sulfide
molybdenum disulfide
molybdenite
NCl3 nitrogen trichloride
NHCl2 dichloramine
NH2Cl monochloramine
NH2− amide ion
NH2CH2CH2NH2 ethylenediamine
NH2CH2CN aminoacetonitrile
NH2COOH carbamic acid
NH2CONH2 urea
NH2C6H4SO3H sulfanilic Acid
NH2OH hydroxylamine
(NH2)2CO urea
NH3 ammonia
NH4+ ammonium ion
(NH4)3N ammonium nitride
NH4Br ammonium bromide
NH4CO2NH2 ammonium carbamate
(NH4)2CO3 ammonium carbonate
NH4Cl ammonium chloride
NH4ClO4 Ammonium perchlorate
NH4HS ammonium hydrosulfide
(NH4)H2AsO4 ammonium dihydrogen arsenate
NH4NO3 ammonium nitrate
NH4OCONH2 ammonium carbamate
NH4OH ammonium hydroxide
(NH4)2Ce(NO3)6 ammonium cerium(IV) nitrate
ceric ammonium nitrate
CAN
(NH4)3PO4 ammonium phosphate
(NH4)2CrO4 ammonium chromate

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(NH4)2Hg(SCN)4 mercury(II) ammonium thiocyanate
(NH4)2[PtCl6] ammonium hexachloroplatinate(IV)
(NH4)2[Pt(SCN)6] ammonium hexathiocyanoplatinate(IV)
(NH4)2SO4 ammonium sulfate
NI3 nitrogen triiodide
NO nitric oxide
nitrogen oxide
nitrogen(II) oxide
NOCl nitrosyl chloride
NOBr nitrosyl bromide
NOI nitrosyl iodide
NO2 nitrogen dioxide
nitrogen(IV) oxide
NO2− nitrite ion
NO2Cl nitryl chloride
NO3− nitrate ion
N2 nitrogen
N2H2 diazene
N2H4 hydrazine
N2O nitrous oxide
dinitrogen oxide
nitrogen(I) oxide
N2O3 dinitrogen trioxide
nitrogen(III) oxide
N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide
nitrogen(IV) oxide
N2O5 dinitrogen pentaoxide
nitrogen(V) oxide
N4H4 trans-tetrazene
NaAlSi3O3 albite
NaAsO2 sodium metaarsenite
NaH2AsO4 sodium dihydrogen arsenate
NaAu(CN)2 sodium dicyanoaurate(I)
Na2Cr2O7 · 2H2O Sodium dichromate dihydrate
Na[B(NO3)4] sodium tetranitratoborate(III)
NaBr sodium bromide
NaBrO sodium hypobromite
NaBrO2 sodium bromite
NaBrO3 sodium bromate
NaBrO4 sodium perbromate
NaCN sodium cyanide

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NaCNO sodium cyanate
NaCNO sodium fulminate
NaC6F5COO pentafluorobenzoate
NaC6H5COO sodium benzoate
NaC6H7O7 monosodium citrate
NaCa2(Al5Si5O20) · 6H2O thomsonite
NaCl sodium chloride
rock-salt
halite
NaClO2 sodium chlorite
NaClO3 sodium chlorate
NaClO4 sodium perchlorate
NaF sodium fluoride
NaOF sodium hypofluorite
NaH sodium hydride
NaHCOO sodium formate
NaHCO3 sodium bicarbonate
baking soda
NaHS sodium hydrosulfide
NaHSO3 sodium bisulfite
NaHSO4 sodium bisulfate
NaH2PO3 monosodium phosphite
NaH2PO4 monosodium phosphate
NaI sodium iodide
NaIO sodium hypoiodite
NaIO2 sodium iodite
NaIO3 sodium iodate
NaIO4 sodium periodate
NaNH2C6H4SO3 sodium sulfanilate
NaNO2 sodium nitrite
NaNO3 sodium nitrate
NaNbO3 sodium metaniobate
NaNbO3 · 7H2O sodium metaniobate heptahydrate
NaOCl sodium hypochlorite
NaOH sodium hydroxide
NaO2As(CH3)2 · 3H2O sodium salt of cacodylic acid
NaSeO3 sodium selenite
NaTaO3 sodium metatantalate
NaVO3 sodium metavanadate
Na2CO3 sodium carbonate
soda ash

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Na2C2O4 sodium oxalate
Na2C6H6O7 disodium citrate
Na2HAsO4 disodium hydrogen arsenate
Na2HPO3 disodium phosphite
Na2HPO4 disodium phosphate
Na2MoS4 sodium thiomolybdate
Na2N2O2 sodium hyponitrite
Na2O2 sodium peroxide
Na2O sodium oxide
Na2S sodium monosulfide
Na2SO3 sodium sulfite
Na2SO4 sodium sulfate
salt cake
Na2S2O3 sodium thiosulfate
Na2S2O5 sodium disulfite
Na2S2O8 sodium persulfate
Na2S4 sodium tetrasulfide
Na2SeO3 sodium selenite
Na2SeO4 sodium selenate
Na2TeO3 sodium tellurite
Na2TeO4 sodium tellurate
Na2TiO3 sodium metatitanate
Na2Zn(OH)4 sodium zincate
Na2ZnO2 sodium zincate
Na2ZrO3 sodium metazirconate
Na3AlF6 cryolite
Na3AsO4 sodium arsenate
Na3[Co(CO3)3] sodium tricarbonatocobaltate(III)
Na3VO4 sodium orthovanadate
Na3C6H5O7 trisodium citrate
Na3PO3 trisodium phosphite
Na3PO4 trisodium phosphate
Na4V2O7 sodium pyrovanadate
NbBr5 niobium(V) bromide
NbCl3 niobium(III) chloride
NbCl5 niobium(V) chloride
NbI5 niobium(V) iodide
Nb2O3 niobium(III) oxide
NdCl2 neodymium(II) chloride
neodymium dichloride
NdI2 neodymium(III) iodide

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 neodymium diiodide
Nd(OH)3 neodymium hydroxide
Nd2O3 neodymium(III) oxide
dineodymium trioxide
NiAs nickel(III) arsenide
NiAsS nickel arsenic sulfide
gersdorffite
NiBr2 nickel(II) bromide
NiBr2 · 3H2O nickel(II) bromide trihydrate
NiBr2 · 6H2O nickel(II) bromide hexahydrate
Ni(CO)3 nickel(II) carbonate
Ni(CO)4 nickel tetracarbonyl
NiC2O4 · 2H2O nickel(II) oxalate dihydrate
NiCl2 nickel(II) chloride
NiFe2O4 nickel(II) iron(III) oxide
NiI2 nickel(II) iodide
Ni(H2PO)2 · 6H2O nickel(II) hypophosphite hexahydrate
NiMoO4 nickel(II) orthomolybdate
Ni(NO3)2 · 6H2O nickel(II) nitrate hexahydrate
NiOOH nickel oxo-hydroxide
NiO nickel(II) oxide
Ni(OH)2 nickel(II) hydroxide
NiS nickel(II) sulfide
millerite
NiSO4 nickel sulfate
NiS2 nickel sulfide
NiSb nickel antimonide
NiSe nickel(II) selenide
NiTiO3 nickel(II) metatitanate
Ni(VO3)2 nickel(II) metavanadate
NiWO4 nickel(II) orthotungstate
Ni2SiO4 nickel(II) orthosilicate
Ni3(PO4)2 nickel(II) orthophosphate
Ni3Sb2 nickel(II) antimonide
O oxygen
O2 dioxygen
O2− superoxide ion
O22− peroxide ion
OF2 oxygen difluoride
O2F2 dioxygen difluoride
OH− hydroxide ion

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O3 ozone
O3− ozonide ion
PCl3 phosphorus trichloride
PCl5 phosphorus pentachloride
POCl3 phosphoryl chloride
P2I4 diphosphorus tetraiodide
P2O5 phosphorus pentoxide
P2S3 diphosphorus trisulfide
P2Se3 diphosphorus triselenide
P3N5 triphosphorus pentanitride
PH3 phosphine
POCl3 phosphoryl chloride
PbCl2 lead(II) chloride
PbCl4 lead(IV) chloride
PbHAsO4 lead hydrogen arsenate
PbI2 lead(II) iodide
Pb(IO3)2 lead(II) iodate
Pb(N3)2 lead(II) nitride
Pb(NO3)2 lead(II) nitrate
Pb(OH)2 lead(II) hydroxide
Pb(OH)4 lead(IV) hydroxide
PbC2O4 lead oxalate
PbCO3 lead carbonate
PbCrO4 lead chromate
PbF2 lead(II) fluoride
PbO lead(II) oxide
PbO2 lead dioxide
PbS lead(II) sulfide
PbSO4 lead(II) sulfate
PoBr2 polonium dibromide
PoCl2 polonium dichloride
PoCl4 polonium tetrachloride
PoF6 polonium hexafluoride
PoH2 polonium hydride
PoO polonium monoxide
PoO2 polonium dioxide
PoO3 polonium trioxide
RaCl2 radium chloride
RbBr rubidium bromide
RbBrO rubidium hypobromite

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RbBrO2 rubidium bromite
RbBrO3 rubidium bromate
RbBrO4 rubidium perbromate
RbCl rubidium chloride
RbClO rubidium hypochlorite
RbClO2 rubidium chlorite
RbClO3 rubidium chlorate
RbClO4 rubidium perchlorate
RbCN rubidium cyanide
RbCNO rubidium cyanate
RbCNO rubidium fulminate
RbF rubidium fluoride
RbH rubidium hydride
RbH2PO3 monorubidium phosphite
RbH2PO4 monorubidium phosphate
RbHS rubidium hydrosulfide
RbI rubidium iodide
RbIO rubidium hypoiodite
RbIO2 rubidium iodite
RbIO3 rubidium iodate
RbIO4 rubidium periodate
RbOH rubidium hydroxide
Rb2O rubidium oxide
Rb2O2 rubidium peroxide
Rb2CO3 rubidium carbonate
Rb2S rubidium sulfide
Rb2SO3 rubidium sulfite
Rb2SO4 rubidium sulfate
Rb2HPO3 dirubidium phosphite
Rb2HPO4 dirubidium phosphate
Rb3PO3 trirubidium phosphite
Rb3PO4 trirubidium phosphate
RbHCO3 rubidium bicarbonate
RbHSO3 rubidium bisulfite
RbHSO4 rubidium bisulfate
RbNbO3 rubidium niobate
RbNO2 rubidium nitrite
RbNO3 rubidium nitrate
RnF2 radon difluoride
RuCl3 ruthenium(III) chloride

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RuF6 ruthenium hexafluoride
RuO4 ruthenium tetroxide
SCN− thiocyanate
SF4 sulfur tetrafluoride
SF6 sulfur hexafluoride
SOF2 thionyl difluoride
SO2 sulfur dioxide
SO2Cl2 sulfuryl chloride
SO2F2 sulfuryl difluoride
SO2OOH− peroxymonosulfurous acid (aqueous)
SO3 sulfur trioxide
SO32− sulfite ion
SO42− sulfate ion
S2Br2 sulfur(II) bromide
S2O32− thiosulfate ion
S2O72− disulfate ion
SbBr3 antimony(III) bromide
SbCl3 antimony(III) chloride
SbCl5 antimony(V) chloride
SbI3 antimony(III) iodide
SbPO4 antimony(III) phosphate
Sb2OS2 antimony oxysulfide
kermesite
Sb2O3 antimony(III) oxide
Sb2O5 antimony(V) oxide
Sb2S3 antimony(III) sulfide
Sb2Se3 antimony(III) selenide
Sb2Se5 antimony(V) selenide
Sb2Te3 antimony(III) telluride
Sc2O3 scandium oxide
scandia
SeBr4 selenium(IV) bromide
SeCl selenium(I) chloride
SeCl4 selenium(IV) chloride
SeOCl2 selenium(IV) oxychloride
SeOF2 selenyl difluoride
SeO2 selenium(IV) oxide
SeO42− selenate ion
SeTe selenium(IV) telluride
SiBr4 silicon(IV) bromide
SiC silicon carbide

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SiCl4 silicon(IV) chloride
SiH4 silane
SiI4 silicon(IV) iodide
SiO2 silicon(IV) dioxide
silica
quartz
SiO44− silicate ion
Si2O76− disilicate ion
Si3N4 silicon nitride
Si6O1812− cyclosilicate ion
SnBrCl3 tin(IV) bromotrichloride
SnBr2 tin(II) bromide
SnBr2Cl2 tin(IV) dibromodichloride
SnBr3Cl tin(IV) tribromochloride
SnBr4 tin(IV) bromide
Sn(CH3COO)2 tin(II) acetate
Sn(CH3COO)4 tin(IV) acetate
SnCl2 tin(II) chloride
SnCl2I2 tin(IV) dichlorodiiodide
SnCl4 tin(IV) chloride
Sn(CrO4)2 tin(IV) chromate
SnI4 tin(IV) iodide
Sn(OH)2 tin(II) hydroxide
Sn(OH)4 tin(IV) hydroxide
SnO tin(II) oxide
SnO2 tin(IV) oxide
SnO32− stannate ion
SnS tin(II) sulfide
SnS2 tin(IV) sulfide
Sn(SO4)2·2H2O tin(IV) sulfate dihydrate
SnSe tin(II) selenide
SnSe2 tin(IV) selenide
SnTe tin(II) telluride
SnTe4 tin(IV) telluride
Sn(VO3)2 tin(II) metavanadate
Sn3Sb4 tin(IV) antimonide
SrBr2 strontium bromide
SrBr2·6H2O strontium bromide hexahydrate
SrCO3 strontium carbonate
SrCl2 strontium chloride
Sr(ClO)2 strontium hypochlorite

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Sr(ClO2)2 strontium chlorite
Sr(ClO3)2 strontium chlorate
Sr(ClO4)2 strontium perchlorate
SrC2O4 strontium oxalate
SrF2 strontium fluoride
SrHfO3 strontium hafnate
Sr(HS)2 strontium hydrosulfide
SrI2 strontium iodide
SrI2·6H2O strontium iodide hexahydrate
Sr(IO)2 strontium hypoiodite
Sr(IO2)2 strontium iodite
Sr(IO3)2 strontium iodate
Sr(IO4)2 strontium periodate
Sr(MnO4)2 strontium permanganate
SrMoO4 strontium orthomolybdate
Sr(NbO3)2 strontium metaniobate
SrO strontium oxide
Sr(OH)2 strontium hydroxide
Sr2RuO4 strontium ruthenate
SrS strontium sulfide
SrSeO3 strontium selenite
SrSeO4 strontium selenate
SrTeO3 strontium tellurite
SrTeO4 strontium tellurate
SrTiO3 strontium metatitanate
T2O tritium oxide
tritiated water
TaBr3 tantalum(III) bromide
TaBr5 tantalum(V) bromide
TaCl5 tantalum(V) chloride
TaI5 tantalum(V) iodide
TaO3− tantalate ion
TcO4− pertechnetate ion
TeBr2 tellurium(II) bromide
TeBr4 tellurium(IV) bromide
TeCl2 tellurium(II) chloride
TeCl4 tellurium(IV) chloride
TeI2 tellurium(II) iodide
TeI4 tellurium(IV) iodide
TeO2 tellurium(IV) oxide
TeO4− tellurate ion

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TeY yttrium telluride
Th(CO3)2 thorium carbonate
Th(NO3)4 thorium nitrate
ThO2 thorium(IV) oxide
Th(SO4)2 thorium(IV) sulfate
TiBr4 titanium(IV) bromide
TiCl2I2 titanium(IV) dichlorodiiodide
TiCl3I titanium(IV) trichloroiodide
TiCl4 titanium tetrachloride
TiH2 titanium hydride
TiO2 titanium dioxide
rutile
TiO32− titanate ion
TlBr thallium(I) bromide
TlBr3 thallium(III) bromide
Tl(CHO2) thallium(I) formate
TlC2H3O2 thallium(I) acetate
Tl(C3H3O4) thalliium(I) malonate
TlCl thallium(I) chloride
TlCl3 thallium(III) chloride
TlF thallium(I) fluoride
TlI thallium(I) iodide
TlIO3 thallium(I) iodate
TlI3 thallium(III) iodide
TiI4 titanium(IV) iodide
TiO(NO3)2 · xH2O titanium(IV) oxynitrate hydrate
TlNO3 thallium(I) nitrate
TlOH thallium(I) hydroxide
TlPF6 thallium(I) hexafluorophosphate
TlSCN thallium thiocyanate
Tl2MoO4 thallium(I) orthomolybdate
Tl2SeO3 thallium(I) selenite
Tl2TeO3 thallium(I) tellurite
Tl2WO4 thallium(I) orthotungstate
Tl3As thallium(I) arsenide
TmCl3 thulium(III) chloride
Tm(NO3)3 thulium(III) nitrate
Tm2(SO4)3 thullium(III) sulfate
UBr2 uranium dibromide
UBr3 uranium tribromide
UBr5 uranium pentabromide

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UC2 uranium carbide
UCl3 uranium trichloride
UCl4 uranium tetrachloride
UF4 uranium(IV) fluoride
UF6 uranium(VI) fluoride
UI3 uranium(III) iodide
UN uranium nitride
UO2 uranium dioxide
UO2(CH3COO)2 uranyl acetate
UO2Cl2 uranyl chloride
UO2(HCOO)2 uranyl formate
UO2(NO3)2 uranyl nitrate
UO2SO4 uranyl sulfate
UO3 uranium trioxide
U3O8 triuranium octoxide
USe2 uranium diselenide
US2 uranium sulfide
UTe2 uranium ditelluride
VBr2 vanadium(II) bromide
VBr3 vanadium(III) bromide
VCl2 vanadium(II) chloride
VCl3 vanadium(III) chloride
VI3 vanadium(III) iodide
VN vanadium nitride
VOC2O4 vanadyl oxalate
VOSO4 vanadium oxysulfate
V2O3 vanadium(III) oxide
V2O5 vanadium pentoxide
V2O74− divanadate ion
pyrovanadate ion
WBr2 tungsten(II) bromide
WBr3 tungsten(III) bromide
WBr4 tungsten(IV) bromide
WBr5 tungsten(V) bromide
WBr6 tungsten(VI) bromide
W(CO)6 tungsten(VI) carbonyl
WCl2 tungsten(II) chloride
WCl3 tungsten(III) chloride
WCl4 tungsten(IV) chloride
WCl5 tungsten(V) chloride
WCl6 tungsten(VI) chloride

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WF4 tungsten(IV) fluoride
WF5 tungsten(V) fluoride
WF6 tungsten(VI) fluoride
WI2 tungsten(II) iodide
WI4 tungsten(IV) iodide
WOBr3 tungsten(V) oxytribromide
WOBr4 tungsten(VI) oxytetrabromide
WOCl3 tungsten(V) oxytrichloride
WOCl4 tungsten(VI) oxytetrachloride
WOF4 tungsten(VI) oxytetrafluoride
WO2 tungsten(IV) oxide
WO2Br2 tungsten(VI) dioxydibromide
WO2Cl2 tungsten(VI) dioxydichloride
WO2I2 tungsten(VI) dioxydiiodide
WO3 tungsten(VI) oxide
WO42− tungstate ion
WS2 tungsten(IV) sulfide
WS3 tungsten(VI) sulfide
WSe2 tungsten(IV) selenide
WTe2 tungsten(IV) telluride
WC tungsten carbide
YAs yttrium arsenide
YB6 yttrium boride
YBr3 yttrium bromide
YC2 yttrium carbide
YCl3 yttrium chloride
YF3 yttrium fluoride
YP yttrium phosphide
YSb yttrium antimonide
YVO4 yttrium vanadate
Y2O3 yttria
yttrium oxide
Y2S3 yttrium sulfide
YbBr2 ytterbium(II) bromide
YbBr3 ytterbium(III) bromide
YbCl2 ytterbium(II)chloride
YbCl3 ytterbium(III) chloride
YbCl3·6H2O ytterbium(III) chloride hexahydrate
Yb(ClO4)3 ytterbium(III) perchlorate
YbF2 ytterbium(II) fluoride
YbF3 ytterbium(III) fluoride

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YbI2 ytterbium(II) iodide
YbI3 ytterbium(III) iodide
YbPO4 ytterbium(III) phosphate
YbSe ytterbium(II) selenide
YbSi2 ytterbium(II) silicide
Yb2O3 ytterbium(III) oxide
Yb2S3 ytterbium(III) sulfide
Yb2Se3 ytterbium(III) selenide
YbTe ytterbium(II) telluride
Zn(AlO2)2 zinc aluminate
Zn(AsO2)2 zinc arsenite
ZnBr2 zinc bromide
Zn(CN)2 zinc cyanide
ZnCO3 zinc carbonate
Zn(C8H15O2)2 zinc caprylate
Zn(ClO3)2 zinc chlorate
ZnCl2 zinc chloride
ZnCr2O4 zinc chromite
ZnF2 zinc fluoride
Zn(IO3)2 zinc iodate
ZnI2 zinc iodide
ZnMoO4 zinc orthomolybdate
Zn(NO2)2 zinc nitrite
Zn(NO3)2 zinc nitrate
Zn(NbO3)2 zinc metaniobate
ZnO zinc(II) oxide
zinc oxide
ZnO2 zinc peroxide
Zn(OH)2 zinc hydroxide
Zn(OH)42− zincate ion
ZnS zinc sulfide
sphalerite
Zn(SCN)2 zinc thiocyanate
Zn(SeCN)2 zinc selenocyanate
ZnSO3 zinc sulfite
ZnS2O3 zinc thiosulfate
ZnSO4 zinc sulfate
ZnSb zinc antimonide
ZnSe zinc selenide
ZnSeO3 zinc selenite
ZnSeO4 zinc selenate

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 ZnSnO3 zinc stannate
Zn(TaO3)2 zinc metatantalate
ZnTe zinc telluride
ZnTeO3 zinc tellurite
ZnTeO4 zinc tellurate
ZnTiO3 zinc metatitanate
Zn(VO3)2 zinc metavanadate
ZnWO4 zinc orthotungstate
ZnZrO3 zinc metazirconate
Zn2P2O7 zinc pyrophosphate
Zn2SiO4 zinc orthosilicate
Zn3(AsO4)2 zinc arsenate
Zn3As2 zinc arsenide
Zn3N2 zinc nitride
Zn3P2 zinc phosphide
Zn3(PO4)2 zinc phosphate
Zn3Sb2 zinc antimonide
ZrB2 zirconium boride
ZrBr4 zirconium bromide
ZrC zirconium carbide
ZrCl4 zirconium tetrachloride
ZrF4 zirconium fluoride
ZrI4 zirconium iodide
ZrN zirconium nitride
Zr(NO3)4 zirconium(IV) nitrate
Zr(OH)4 zirconium hydroxide
ZrO2 zirconium dioxide
baddeleyite
ZrO32− zirconate ion
ZrP2 zirconium phosphide
ZrS2 zirconium sulfide
ZrSi2 zirconium silicide
ZrSiO4 zirconium(IV) silicate
Zr(SO4)2 zirconium(IV) sulfate
Zr3(PO4)4 zirconium phosphate

Ten most common elements in the Milky Way Galaxy estimated spectroscopically

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 Atomic no Element Mass fraction (ppm)

1 Hydrogen 739,000

2 Helium 240,000

8 Oxygen 10,400

6 Carbon 4,600

10 Neon 1,340

26 Iron 1,090

7 Nitrogen 960

14 Silicon 650

12 Magnesium 580

16 Sulfur 440

Total 999,500

Most abundant nuclides in the Solar System

Nuclide Atomic mass Mass fraction in parts Atom fraction in parts

per million per million

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Sulfur-32 32 396 16

Sodium-23 23 33 2

Silicon-30 30 23 1

Silicon-29 29 34 2

Silicon-28 28 653 30

Oxygen-16 16 9,592 477

Nitrogen-14 14 1,105 102

Nickel-58 58 49 1

Neon-22 22 208 12

Neon-20 20 1,548 100

Magnesium-26 26 79 4

Magnesium-25 25 69 4

Magnesium-24 24 513 28

Iron-57 57 28 1

Iron-56 56 1,169 27

Iron-54 54 72 2

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Hydrogen-2 2 23 15

Hydrogen-1 1 705,700 909,964

Helium-4 4 275,200 88,714

Helium-3 3 35 15

Carbon-13 13 37 4

Carbon-12 12 3,032 326

Calcium-40 40 60 2

Argon-36 36 77 3

Aluminium-27 27 58 3

Electron configurations of the elements

1 H hydrogen: 1s1

2 He helium: 1s2

3 Li lithium: [He] 2s1

4 Be beryllium: [He] 2s2

5 B boron: [He] 2s2 2p1

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6 C carbon: [He] 2s2 2p2

7 N nitrogen: [He] 2s2 2p3

8 O oxygen: [He] 2s2 2p4

9 F fluorine: [He] 2s2 2p5

10 Ne neon: [He] 2s2 2p6

11 Na sodium: [Ne] 3s1

12 Mg magnesium: [Ne] 3s2

13 Al aluminium: [Ne] 3s2 3p1

14 Si silicon: [Ne] 3s2 3p2

15 P phosphorus: [Ne] 3s2 3p3

16 S sulfur: [Ne] 3s2 3p4

17 Cl chlorine: [Ne] 3s2 3p5

18 Ar argon: [Ne] 3s2 3p6

19 K potassium: [Ar] 4s1

20 Ca calcium: [Ar] 4s2

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21 Sc scandium: [Ar] 3d1 4s2

22 Ti titanium: [Ar] 3d2 4s2

23 V vanadium: [Ar] 3d3 4s2

24 Cr chromium: [Ar] 3d5 4s1

25 Mn manganese: [Ar] 3d5 4s2

26 Fe iron: [Ar] 3d6 4s2

27 Co cobalt: [Ar] 3d7 4s2

28 Ni nickel: [Ar] 3d8 4s2 or [Ar] 3d9 4s1

29 Cu copper: [Ar] 3d10 4s1

30 Zn zinc: [Ar] 3d10 4s2

31 Ga gallium: [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p1

32 Ge germanium: [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p2

33 As arsenic: [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p3

34 Se selenium: [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p4

35 Br bromine: [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p5

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36 Kr krypton: [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p6

37 Rb rubidium: [Kr] 5s1

38 Sr strontium: [Kr] 5s2

39 Y yttrium: [Kr] 4d1 5s2

40 Zr zirconium: [Kr] 4d2 5s2

41 Nb niobium: [Kr] 4d4 5s1

42 Mo molybdenum: [Kr] 4d5 5s1

43 Tc technetium: [Kr] 4d5 5s2

44 Ru ruthenium: [Kr] 4d7 5s1

45 Rh rhodium: [Kr] 4d8 5s1

46 Pd palladium: [Kr] 4d10

47 Ag silver: [Kr] 4d10 5s1

48 Cd cadmium: [Kr] 4d10 5s2

49 In indium: [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p1

50 Sn tin: [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p2

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51 Sb antimony: [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p3

52 Te tellurium: [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p4

53 I iodine: [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p5

54 Xe xenon: [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p6

55 Cs caesium: [Xe] 6s1

56 Ba barium: [Xe] 6s2

57 La lanthanum: [Xe] 5d1 6s2

58 Ce cerium: [Xe] 4f1 5d1 6s2

59 Pr praseodymium: [Xe] 4f3 6s2

60 Nd neodymium: [Xe] 4f4 6s2

61 Pm promethium: [Xe] 4f5 6s2

62 Sm samarium: [Xe] 4f6 6s2

63 Eu europium: [Xe] 4f7 6s2

64 Gd gadolinium: [Xe] 4f7 5d1 6s2

65 Tb terbium: [Xe] 4f9 6s2

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194
66 Dy dysprosium: [Xe] 4f10 6s2

67 Ho holmium: [Xe] 4f11 6s2

68 Er erbium: [Xe] 4f12 6s2

69 Tm thulium: [Xe] 4f13 6s2

70 Yb ytterbium: [Xe] 4f14 6s2

71 Lu lutetium: [Xe] 4f14 5d1 6s2

72 Hf hafnium: [Xe] 4f14 5d2 6s2

73 Ta tantalum: [Xe] 4f14 5d3 6s2

74 W tungsten: [Xe] 4f14 5d4 6s2

75 Re rhenium: [Xe] 4f14 5d5 6s2

76 Os osmium: [Xe] 4f14 5d6 6s2

77 Ir iridium: [Xe] 4f14 5d7 6s2

78 Pt platinum: [Xe] 4f14 5d9 6s1

79 Au gold: [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s1

80 Hg mercury: [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2

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81 Tl thallium: [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p1

82 Pb lead: [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2

83 Bi bismuth: [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p3

84 Po polonium: [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p4

85 At astatine: [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p5

86 Rn radon: [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p6

87 Fr francium: [Rn] 7s1

88 Ra radium: [Rn] 7s2

89 Ac actinium: [Rn] 6d1 7s2

90 Th thorium: [Rn] 6d2 7s2

91 Pa protactinium: [Rn] 5f2 6d1 7s2

92 U uranium: [Rn] 5f3 6d1 7s2

93 Np neptunium: [Rn] 5f4 6d1 7s2

94 Pu plutonium: [Rn] 5f6 7s2

95 Am americium: [Rn] 5f7 7s2

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96 Cm curium: [Rn] 5f7 6d1 7s2

97 Bk berkelium: [Rn] 5f9 7s2

98 Cf californium: [Rn] 5f10 7s2

99 Es einsteinium: [Rn] 5f11 7s2

100 Fm fermium: [Rn] 5f12 7s2

101 Md mendelevium: [Rn] 5f13 7s2

102 No nobelium: [Rn] 5f14 7s2

103 Lr lawrencium: [Rn] 5f14 7s2 7p1

104 Rf rutherfordium: [Rn] 5f14 6d2 7s2

105 Db dubnium: [Rn] 5f14 6d3 7s2

106 Sg seaborgium: [Rn] 5f14 6d4 7s2

107 Bh bohrium: [Rn] 5f14 6d5 7s2

108 Hs hassium: [Rn] 5f14 6d6 7s2

109 Mt meitnerium: [Rn] 5f14 6d7 7s2

110 Ds darmstadtium: [Rn] 5f14 6d8 7s2

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111 Rg roentgenium: [Rn] 5f14 6d9 7s2

112 Cn copernicium: [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2

113 Nh nihonium: [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p1

114 Fl flerovium: [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p2

115 Mc moscovium: [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p3

116 Lv livermorium: [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p4

117 Ts tennessine: [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p5

118 Og oganesson: [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p6

119 Uue ununennium: [Og] 8s1

120 Ubn unbinilium: [Og] 8s2

121 Ubu unbiunium: [Og] 8s2 8p1

122 Ubb unbibium: [Og] 7d1 8s2 8p1

123 Ubt unbitrium: [Og] 6f1 7d1 8s2 8p1

124 Ubq unbiquadium: [Og] 6f3 8s2 8p1

125 Ubp unbipentium: [Og] 5g1 6f3 8s2 8p1

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126 Ubh unbihexium: [Og] 5g2 6f2 7d1 8s2 8p1

127 Ubs unbiseptium: [Og] 5g3 6f2 8s2 8p2

128 Ubo unbioctium: [Og] 5g4 6f2 8s2 8p2

129 Ube unbiennium: [Og] 5g5 6f2 8s2 8p2

130 Utn untrinilium: [Og] 5g6 6f2 8s2 8p2

131 Utu untriunium: [Og] 5g7 6f2 8s2 8p2

132 Utb untribium: [Og] 5g8 6f2 8s2 8p2

133 Utt untritrium: [Og] 5g8 6f3 8s2 8p2

134 Utq untriquadium: [Og] 5g8 6f4 8s2 8p2

135 Utp untripentium: [Og] 5g9 6f4 8s2 8p2

136 Uth untrihexium: [Og] 5g10 6f4 8s2 8p2

137 Uts untriseptium: [Og] 5g11 6f3 7d1 8s2 8p2

138 Uto untrioctium: [Og] 5g12 6f3 7d1 8s2 8p2

139 Ute untriennium: [Og] 5g13 6f2 7d2 8s2 8p2

140 Uqn unquadnilium: [Og] 5g14 6f3 7d1 8s2 8p2

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199
141 Uqu unquadunium: [Og] 5g15 6f2 7d2 8s2 8p2

142 Uqb unquadbium: [Og] 5g16 6f2 7d2 8s2 8p2

143 Uqt unquadtrium: [Og] 5g17 6f2 7d2 8s2 8p2

144 Uqq unquadquadium: [Og] 5g18 6f1 7d3 8s2 8p2

145 Uqp unquadpentium: [Og] 5g18 6f3 7d2 8s2 8p2

146 Uqh unquadhexium: [Og] 5g18 6f4 7d2 8s2 8p2

147 Uqs unquadseptium: [Og] 5g18 6f5 7d2 8s2 8p2

148 Uqo unquadoctium: [Og] 5g18 6f6 7d2 8s2 8p2

149 Uqe unquadennium: [Og] 5g18 6f6 7d3 8s2 8p2

150 Upn unpentnilium: [Og] 5g18 6f6 7d4 8s2 8p2

151 Upu unpentunium: [Og] 5g18 6f8 7d3 8s2 8p2

152 Upb unpentbium: [Og] 5g18 6f9 7d3 8s2 8p2

153 Upt unpenttrium: [Og] 5g18 6f11 7d2 8s2 8p2

154 Upq unpentquadium: [Og] 5g18 6f12 7d2 8s2 8p2

155 Upp unpentpentium: [Og] 5g18 6f13 7d2 8s2 8p2

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156 Uph unpenthexium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d2 8s2 8p2

157 Ups unpentseptium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d3 8s2 8p2

158 Upo unpentoctium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d4 8s2 8p2

159 Upe unpentennium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d4 8s2 8p2 9s1

160 Uhn unhexnilium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d5 8s2 8p2 9s1

161 Uhu unhexunium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d6 8s2 8p2 9s1

162 Uhb unhexbium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d8 8s2 8p2

163 Uht unhextrium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d9 8s2 8p2

164 Uhq unhexquadium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2

165 Uhp unhexpentium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2 9s1

166 Uhh unhexhexium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2 9s2

167 Uhs unhexseptium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2 9s2 9p1

168 Uho unhexoctium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2 9s2 9p2

169 Uhe unhexennium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p3 9s2 9p2

170 Usn unseptnilium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p4 9s2 9p2

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171 Usu unseptunium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p5 9s2 9p2

172 Usb unseptbium: [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p6 9s2 9p2

173 Ust unsepttrium: [Usb] 6g1

Reactivity series

Metal Ion Reactivity Extraction

Caesium Cs Cs+ reacts with cold electrolysis

water

Francium Fr Fr+

Rubidium Rb Rb+

Potassium K K+

Sodium Na Na+

Lithium Li Li+

Barium Ba Ba2+

Radium Ra Ra2+

Strontium Sr Sr2+

Calcium Ca Ca2+

Magnesium Mg Mg2+ reacts very slowly

with cold water, but
rapidly

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 in boiling water, and
very vigorously
with acids

Beryllium Be Be2+ reacts with acids and

steam

Aluminium Al Al3+

Titanium Ti Ti4+ reacts with pyrometallurgical extraction

concentrated mineral using magnesium,
acids or less commonly other alkali
metals, hydrogen or calcium in
the Kroll process

Manganese Mn Mn2+ reacts with acids; smelting with coke

very poor reaction
with steam
Zinc Zn Zn2+

Chromium Cr Cr3+ aluminothermic reaction

Iron Fe Fe2+ smelting with coke

Cadmium Cd Cd2+

Cobalt Co Co2+

Nickel Ni Ni2+

Tin Sn Sn2+

Lead Pb Pb2+

Antimony Sb Sb3+ may react with some heat or physical extraction

strong oxidizing
acids
Bismuth Bi Bi3+

Copper Cu Cu2+ reacts slowly with

air

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Tungsten W W3+ may react with some
strong oxidizing
acids
Mercury Hg Hg2+

Silver Ag Ag+

Gold Au Au3+[5][6]

Platinum Pt Pt4+

The four fundamental interactions of nature

Property/ Interaction Gravitation Electroweak Strong

Weak Electromagnetic Fundamental Residual

Mediating particles Not yet observed W+, W− and γ (photon) Gluons π, ρ and ω
(Graviton Z0 mesons

hypothesized)

Affected particles All particles Left- handed Electrically charged Quarks, gluons Hadrons
fermions

Acts on Mass, energy Flavor Electric charge Color charge

Bound states formed Planets, stars, n/a Atoms, molecules Hadrons Atomic
galaxies, galaxy nuclei
groups

Strength at the scale 10−41 10−4 1 60 Not

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204
of quarks (predicted) applicable
(relative to to quarks
electromagnetism)

Strength at the scale 10−36 (predicted) 10−7 1 Not applicable 20

of to hadrons
protons/neutrons
(relative to
electromagnetism)

Formulas in Chemistry

 Ideal Gas Law

The ideal gas law is given by:

PV = nRT

where:
P: the absolute pressure of the gas
V: volume of the gas
n: number of moles, which is the ratio of mass and molar mass
R: universal gas constant, which is R = 8.3145 J mol−1 K−1
T: the absolute temperature

 Henry's Law

Henry's law is given by:

p=K·x

where:
p: partial pressure of the solute
K: Henry's constant

 Raoult's Law

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205
Raoult's law is given by:

pi = xi ∙ pi*

where:
pi : pressure of component i
xi : mole fraction in the solution

pi *: vapor pressure of the pure substance i

In a solution with two liquids A and B, if no gas are present, the total vapor pressure is given by:

Ptot = PA + PB

where:
PA: vapor pressure of liquid A
PB: vapor pressure of liquid B

For an ideal solution of liquids A and B, which obeys Raoult's law over the full range of composition. The total
pressure is given by:

ptot = xA pA* + xB pB*

which is equal to:

ptot = (1− xB) pA* + xB pB*

or

ptot = pA* + xB (pB*− pA*)

 Hess' Law

Hess' Law can be expressed in 3 ways and they are:

For enthalpy we have:

∆H = ∑ ∆Hproducts − ∑ ∆Hreactants

For entropy we have:

∆S = ∑ ∆Sproducts − ∑ ∆Sreactants

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206
For Gibbs' free energy we have:

∆G = ∑ ∆GOproducts − ∑ ∆GOreactants

 Acid and Base

For a chemical reaction:

A + H2O ↔ H3O+ + B

where:
A: acid
B: base

To determine the strength of the acid, we use the acid dissociation constant, which is given by:

[H3 O+ ][B]
KA =
[A]

For a chemical reaction:

B + H2O ↔ A + HO−

where:
A: acid
B: base

To determine the strength of the base, we use the base dissociation constant, which is given by:

[OH− ][A]
KB =
[B]

 pH

pH = −log10[H+]

H2O ↔ H+ + OH−

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The dissociation constant:

[H+ ][OH− ]
K=
[H2 O]

Here [H2O] is constant, So, K [H2O] = [H+] [OH−] = Kw

Kw is an ionic product of water and its value is 1×10−14 at 25°C.

[H+] [OH−] = 1×10−14

Pure water dissociates completely and has equal concentration. Thus [H+] = [OH−]

[H+] [H+] = 1×10−14

[H+] = 10−7
pH = 7

Thus, pure water is a neutral solution having pH equal to 7.0.

Acidic soution pH < 7

Basic solution pH > 7

 Types of Chemical Reaction

Synthesis

In a synthesis reaction, two or more simple substances combine to form a more complex substance.

A+B → AB

"Two or more reactants giving one product" is another way to identify a synthesis reaction. One example of a
synthesis reaction is the combination of iron and sulfur to form iron (II) sulfide:

8Fe + S8→ 8FeS

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208
Another example is simple hydrogen gas combined with simple oxygen gas to produce a more complex substance,
such as water.

Decomposition

A decomposition reaction is when a more complex substance breaks down into its more simple parts. It is thus the
opposite of a synthesis reaction, and can be written as:

AB → A+B

One example of a decomposition reaction is the electrolysis of water to make oxygen and hydrogen gas:

2H2O → 2H2 +O2

Single replacement

In a single replacement reaction, a single uncombined element replaces another in a compound; in other words, one
element trades places with another element in a compound. These reactions come in the general form of:

A+BC → AC+B

One example of a single displacement reaction is when magnesium replaces hydrogen in water to make magnesium
hydroxide and hydrogen gas:

Mg+2H2O →Mg (OH) 2 +H2

Double replacement

In a double replacement reaction, the anions and cations of two compounds switch places and form two entirely
different compounds. These reactions are in the general form:

AB + CD → AD + CB

For example, when barium chloride (BaCl2) and magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) react, the SO4 2− anion switches places
with the 2Cl− anion, giving the compounds BaSO4 and MgCl2. Another example of a double displacement reaction
is the reaction of lead(II) nitrate with potassium iodide to form lead(II) iodide and potassium nitrate:

Pb (NO3) 2 + 2KI → PbI2 +2KNO3

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 experimental value – theoretical value
 Percent difference from theoretical value = × 100%
theoretical value

 magnification = power of ocular lens × power of objective lens

number of moles (mol)

 molar concentration =
volume (L)

mass (g)
 number of moles = g
molar mass ( )
mol

𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
 percent by volume concentration = × 100%
𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
 parts per million = × 106 ppm
𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

1 amu = 1.66054 × 10−27 kg = 931.494 MeV/c2

1 MeV = 1.60 × 10−13 J

Particle Electric Atomic Mass (g) Atomic Mass Spin

Charge (C) Charge (Au)

Protons +1.6022 × 10-19 +1 1.6726 × 10-24 1.0073 1/2

Neutrons 0 0 1.6740 × 10-24 1.0078 1/2

Electrons -1.6022 × 10-19 -1 9.1094 × 10-28 0.00054858 1/2

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  Enthalpy Formula

Enthalpy is a thermodynamic function that is equal to the total internal energy of the system plus the product of
pressure and volume. The equation is as follows:
H = E + PV
where H is the enthalpy, E is the energy and PV is the pressure multiplied by the volume.

 Molality Formula

moles of solute
Molality (m) =
kilograms of solvent

 Molar Mass Formula

mass (grams)
Molar mass =
moles

 Molarity Formula
moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
Liters of solution

 Structural Formula

Substance Chemical Formula Structural Formula

Methane CH4 H
|
H−C–H
|
H
Carbon Dioxide CO2 O=C=O

 Chemical Equilibrium Formula

Equilibrium Constant (K):

rate constant of forward reaction 𝑘1

K= =
rate constant of backward reaction 𝑘2

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211
Equilibrium constant in terms of concentration (KC) is given by

𝑘1 [𝐶]𝑐 [𝐷]𝑑
KC = =
𝑘2 [𝐴]𝑎 [𝐵]𝑏

Equilibrium constant in the terms of partial pressure (KP) is given by

𝑘1 [𝑃𝐶 ]𝑐 [𝑃𝐷 ]𝑑
KP = =
𝑘2 [𝑃𝐴 ]𝑎 [𝑃𝐵 ]𝑏

The equilibrium constant is in terms of mole fraction (Kx) is given by

𝑘1 [𝑥𝐶 ]𝑐 [𝑥𝐷 ]𝑑
Kx = =
𝑘2 [𝑥𝐴 ]𝑎 [𝑥𝐵 ]𝑏

The Relation between KP and KC is given by

KP = KC (RT) ∆n

where: Δn = (c + d) − (a + b)

Relation between equilibrium constant and standard free energy change

ΔG° = −2.303 RT log K

where:

ΔG° = standard free energy change

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T = Absolute temperature

R = universal gas constant.

 Normality Formula

gram equivalent weight

Normality (N) =
liter of solution

Normality (N) = Molarity (M) × number of equivalents

 Photosynthesis Formula

6CO2 + 6H2O + light → C6H12O6 + 6O2

 Boyle's Law Formula

P1V1 = P2V2
where:
P1 = Initial Pressure (atm or mmHg)
V1 = Initial Volume (L or mL)
P2 = Final Pressure (atm or mmHg)
V2 = Final Volume (L or mL)

 Titration Formula

Macid × Vacid = Mbase × Vbase

where:
Macid = Molarity of the acid
Vacid = Volume of the acid
Mbase = Molarity of the base
Vbase = Volume of the base

 Charles' Law Formula

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213
 𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

where:
T1 = Initial Temperature (Kelvin - K)
V1 = Initial Volume (L or mL)
T2 = Final Temperature (Kelvin - K)
V2 = Final Volume (L or mL)

 Gay-Lussac's Law Formula

𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

where:
T1 = Initial Temperature (Kelvin - K)
P1 = Initial Pressure (atm or mmHg)
T2 = Final Temperature (Kelvin - K)
P2 = Final Pressure (atm or mmHg)

 Dilution Formula

M1 × V1 = M2 × V2

where:
M1 = the molarity of the original solution
V1 = the volume of the original solution
M2 = the molarity of the diluted solution
V2 = the volume of the diluted solution

 Heat of Fusion Formula

𝑞
Hf =
𝑚

where:

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214
Hf = heat of fusion
q = heat
m = mass

 Heat of Vaporization Formula

𝑞
Hv =
𝑚

where:

Hv = heat of vaporization
q = heat
m = mass

 Lattice Energy Formula

𝑘𝑄1 𝑄2
LE =
𝑟

LE = lattice energy
k = 2.31 × 10−19 J ∙ nm
Q1 and Q2 = numerical ion charges
r = the distance between the ion centers

 Mass Percent Formula

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Mass percent = × 100
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

 Mole Fraction Formula

moles of a
Mole fraction (xa) =
total moles

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215
a = the component that is being identified for mole fraction

 Osmotic Pressure Formula

Osmotic pressure (π) = MRT

M = the molar concentration of the solution

L∙atm
R = the gas laws constant (0.0821 )
K∙mol
T = the Kelvin temperature

 Electric Potential Energy Formula

𝑘𝑄1 𝑄2
Eel =
𝑑

Eel = electrostatic potential energy

J−m
k = 8.99 × 109
C2
Q1 and Q2 = electrical charges on the two particles
d = the distance between the charges

 Percent Composition Formula

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
% composition = × 100
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑛𝑑

 Rate of Decay Formula

Nt = N0 e−λt

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216
 Nt = the amount of radioactive particles at time (t)
N0 = the amount of radioactive particles at time = 0
λ = rate of decay constant
t = time

 Specific Heat Capacity Formula

𝑞
s=
𝑚 × ∆𝑇

s = specific heat capacity

q = heat
m = mass
Δ T = change in temperature

 Vapor Pressure Formula

Psolution = xsolvent × Posolvent

Psolution = the vapor pressure of the solution

xsolvent = the mole fraction of the solvent in the solution
Posolvent = the vapor pressure of the pure solvent at standard conditions

 Degree of unsaturation Formula

(2 × #𝐶) + 2 + #𝑁 −#𝐻 −#𝑋

Degrees of unsaturation =
2

where #C, #N, #H, #X mean the number of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and halogen atoms present in the molecular
formula.

 Arrhenius equation

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217
 −𝐸𝑎
k = A 𝑒 𝑅𝑇

where:

A is the pre-exponential factor for the reaction (that is nearly a constant that depends on the temperature), Ea is the
activation energy, R is the gas constant, T is the temperature and k is the reaction rate constant.

 Boiling point Formula

ΔHvap = Hvapor − Hliquid

where:
ΔHvap is the change of enthalpy of vaporization, H vapor is the enthalpy or heat of the gas state of a compound and
Hliquid is the enthalpy of the liquid state of a compound.

 Avogadro's law Formula

V=k×n

where:

𝑅𝑇
V is the gas volume, n is the number of moles of gas and k is a constant, which is defined as , where R is a
𝑃
constant called the constant of the gases (8.314 JK−1 mol−1), T is the temperature in Kelvin and P is the pressure.

 Dalton's law Formula

For a mixture of n gases, the total pressure is:

Ptotal =P1 + P2 + P3 + ... + Pn
where P1, P2, P3 ... Pn represent the partial pressure of each gas in the mixture.

 Ionic strength formula

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218
 1
Ionic strength (I) = ∑𝑛1 𝐶𝑖 𝑧𝑖2
2

where:

Ci – ionic concentration

Zi – ion charges

Calculate the ionic strength of KCl if its concentration is 2 M.

Ions Z C Z2
K+ 1 2 1
Cl– 1 2 1

The ionic strength is given by

1
I= [(2 × 1) + (2 × 1)] = 2
2

 Percent by volume Formula

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
% volume = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 100%
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

 pOH

pOH = − log [OH−]

For any aqueous solution at 25oC:

pH + pOH = 14

 Complete List of Inorganic Acids

Acid Name Formula

Acetic Acid CH3COOH

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219
Antimonic Acid HSbO3
Antimonous Acid H3SbO3
Arsenic Acid H3AsO4
Boric Acid H3BO3
Bromic Acid HBrO3
Bromous Acid HBrO2
Carbonic Acid H2CO3
Carbonous Acid H2CO2
Chloric Acid HClO3
Chlorous Acid HClO2
Chromic Acid H2CrO4
Chromous Acid H2CrO3
Citric Acid C6H8O7
Cyanic Acid HCNO
Dichromic Acid H2Cr2O7
Disulfurous Acid H2S2O5
Dithionous Acid H2S2O4
Diuranic Acid H2U2O7
Ferricyanic Acid H3[F3(CN)6]
Fluoric Acid HFO3
Fluorous Acid HFO2
Formic Acid HCOOH
Hydroarsenic Acid H3As
Hydrobromic Acid HBr
Hydrochloric Acid HCl
Hydrocyanic Acid HCN
Hydrofluoric Acid HF
Hydroiodic Acid HI
Hydronitric Acid HN3
Hydrophosphoric Acid H3P
Hydroselenic Acid H2Se
Hydrosulfuric Acid H2S
Hypobromous Acid HBrO
Hypocarbonous Acid H2CO
Hypochlorous Acid HClO
Hypochromous Acid H2CrO2
Hypofluorous Acid HFO

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Hypoiodous Acid HIO
Hyponitrous Acid HNO
Hypooxalous Acid H2C2O2
Hypophosphoric Acid H4P2O6
Hypophosphous Acid H3PO2
Hyposulfurous Acid H2SO2
Iodic Acid HIO3
Iodous Acid HIO2
Manganic Acid H2MnO4
Metastannic Acid H2SnO3
Molybdic Acid H2MoO4
Nitric Acid HNO3
Nitrous Acid HNO2
Oxalic Acid H2C2O4
Percarbonic Acid H2CO4
Perchloric Acid HClO4
Perchromic Acid H2CrO5
Perfluoric Acid HFO4
Periodic Acid HIO4
Permanganic Acid HMnO4
Pernitric Acid HNO4
Peroxydisulfuric Acid H2S2O8
Perphosphoric Acid H3PO5
Persulfuric Acid H2SO5
Pertechnetic Acid HTcO4
Perxenic Acid H4XeO6
Phosphoric Acid H3PO4
Phosphorous Acid H3PO3
Pyroantimonic Acid H4Sb2O7
Pyrophosphoric Acid H4P2O7
Pyrosulfuric Acid H2S2O7
Selenic Acid H2SeO4
Selenous Acid H2SeO3
Silicic Acid H2SiO3
Silicofluoric Acid H2SiF6
Silicous Acid H2SiO2
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4

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 Sulfurous Acid H2SO3
Telluric Acid H6TeO6
Tellurous Acid H2TeO3
Tetraboric Acid H2B4O7
Tetrathionic Acid H2S4O6
Thiocyanic Acid HSCN
Thiosulfurous Acid H2S2O2
Titanic Acid H2TiO3
Tungstic Acid H2WO4
Uranic Acid H2UO4
Xenic Acid H2XeO4

 Complete List of Organic Acids

Acid Name Formula

Acetylsalicylic Acid HC9H7O4
Ascorbic Acid HC6H7O6
Azelaic Acid H2C9H14O4
Barbituric Acid HC4H3N2O3
Benzilic Acid HC14H11O3
Cinnamic Acid C9H8O2
Citric Acid H2C6H6O7
Folic Acid C19H19N7O6
Fumaric Acid C4H4O4
Gallic Acid HC7H5O5
Gluconic Acid C6H12O7
Glutamic Acid HC5H8NO4
Glutaric Acid C5H8O4
Hexanoic Acid C5H11COOH
Lactic Acid HC3H5O3
Malic Acid H2C4H4O5
Malonic Acid CH2(COOH)2
Oleic Acid HC18H33O2
Phthalic Acid H2C8H4O4
Propiolic Acid HC2COOH

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 Propionic Acid CH3CH2COOH
Rosolic Acid C19H14O3
Stearic Acid C17H35COOH
Tannic Acid C76H52O46
Tartartic Acid H2C4H4O6
Trifluoroacetic Acid C2HF3O2
Uric Acid H2C5H2N4O3

Physics Formulas

 Acceleration Formula

𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 ∆𝑣
a= =
𝑡 𝑡

a = acceleration (m/s2)
vf = the final velocity (m/s)
vi = the initial velocity (m/s)
t = the time in which the change occurs (s)
Δv = short form for "the change in" velocity (m/s)

 Force Formula

Force = mass × acceleration

F=m×a

 Frequency Formula

𝟏
Frequency, the cycles in a unit of time =
period, the time required for one cycle

number of cycles
Frequency =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

 Velocity Formula

𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛−𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Velocity = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

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223
 Wavelength Formula

wave velocity
Wavelength =
frequency

 Angular Velocity Formula

𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Angular velocity = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

 Displacement Formula

Displacement = (final position) − (initial position) = change in position

 Density Formula

mass
Density =
volume

 Kinematic Equations Formula

1
D = vi t + at2
2

vf 2 = vi 2 + 2aD

vf = vi + at

D = displacement
a = acceleration
t = time
vf = final velocity
vi = initial velocity

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224
 The heaviest element is a hard, brittle, bluish-white transition metal

in the platinum group (osmium)

Approximately 20% of our body is carbon.

Lightning can reach temperature greater than

30,000 degrees Celsius.

The hardest substance in the human body is enamel (made mostly of an

extremely hard mineral called calcium phosphate)

Rotten eggs float in water

Glass is an amorphous solid that lacks an ordered internal structure

Water is blue because it absorbs colors in the red part of the light

spectrum

Dry ice is the solid form of carbon dioxide (CO2)

If we were to urinate in space, it would vaporize and turn into a gas immediately

215
 Tangential Velocity Formula

Vt = ω r
Vt = tangential velocity
ω = angular velocity
r = radius of wheel

 Kinetic Energy Formula

1
Ek = mv2
2
Ek = Kinetic energy
m = mass
v = velocity

 Buoyancy Formula

Fb = ρgV = ρghA

Fb = buoyant force of a liquid acting on an object (N)

ρ = density of the liquid (kg/m3)
g = gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2)
V = volume of liquid displaced (m3 or liters, where 1 m3 = 1000 L)
h = height of water displaced by a floating object (m)
A = surface area of a floating object (m2)

 Efficiency Formula

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Efficiency = × 100%
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

 Static Friction Formula

Fs ≤ μs η

Fsmax = μs η

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225
 Fs = force of static friction
μs = coefficient of static friction
η = normal force
Fsmax = maximum force of static friction

 Potential Energy: Elastic Formula

1
U = kx2
2

U = potential energy of a spring at a certain position

k = the spring constant, specific to the spring, with units N/m.
x = distance the spring is stretched or compressed away from equilibrium

 Tangential Acceleration Formula

Tangential acceleration = radius of the rotation × angular acceleration

 Potential Energy: Earth's Gravity Formula

Potential energy = mass of the object × acceleration due to gravity × height

 Potential Energy: Electric Potential Formula

Potential energy = charge of particle × electric potential

 Potential Energy: Two-Body Gravitation Formula

𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
U=−
𝑟

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226
 U = potential energy of gravity between two objects
G = the universal gravitational constant, G = 6.673 × 10−11 (Nm2) / kg2
m1 = mass of one of the objects
m2 = mass of the second object
r = the distance between the centers of mass of the two objects

 Potential Energy: Electrostatic Point Particles Formula

𝑞1 𝑞2
U=−k
𝑟

U = potential energy of electrostatic point particles

1
k = the Coulomb constant, k = 8.99 × 109 Nm2/C2 =
4𝜋𝜀0

ϵ0 = the permittivity of free space, ϵ0 = 8.854 x 10−12 C2/ (Nm2)

q1 = charge of one of the point particles
q2 = charge of the other point particle
r = distance between the two point charges

 Doppler Shift Formula

𝑓𝑠 (𝑣+ 𝑣𝐿 )
f= for sound
(𝑣 − 𝑣𝐿 )
f = frequency heard by listener
fs = frequency of the source
v = velocity of sound
vs = velocity of the source (positive if moving towards listener, negative if moving away from listener)
vL = velocity of listener (positive if moving toward the source, negative if moving away from the source)

 Current Density Formula

I
J=
A

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227
 J = current density in amperes/m2
I = current through a conductor (in amperes)
A = cross-sectional area of the conductor (m2)

 Heat Transfer Formula

Heat transfer = mass × specific heat × temperature change

 Centripetal Force Formula

𝑚𝑣 2
Fc =
𝑟

Fc = centripetal force
m = mass
v = velocity
r = radius of circular path

 Kelvin to Celsius Formula

K = °C + 273.15

K = temperature, Kelvin
°C = temperature, degrees Celsius (Centigrade)

 Acceleration Due to Gravity Formula

𝐺𝑚
g=
𝑟2

g = acceleration due to gravity (units m/s2)

G = the universal gravitational constant, G = 6.673 ×10−11 (Nm2) / kg2

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228
 m = mass of a large body (for example, Earth)
r = the distance from the center of mass of the large body

 Momentum Formula

Momentum = mass × velocity

 Power Formula

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
Power =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙

 Specific Gravity Formula

density of the substance

Specific gravity =
density of water at 4.0°C

 Torque Formula (Moment of Inertia and Angular Acceleration)

Torque = moment of inertia × angular acceleration

 Spring Constant Formula

F = −kx

F = restoring force of the spring (directed toward equilibrium)

k = spring constant (units N/m)
x = displacement of the spring from its equilibrium position

 Amplitude Formula

x = A sin (ωt + ϕ)

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229
 x = displacement (m)
A = amplitude (m)
ω = angular frequency (radians/s)
t = time (s)
ϕ = phase shift (radians)

 Torque Formula (Force at a Distance)

Torque = (distance between a center of rotation and a force) × force

 Tension Formula

T = mg + ma
T = tension, N, kg-m/s2
m = mass, kg
g = gravitational force, 9.8 m/s2
a = acceleration, m/s2

 Centripetal Acceleration Formula

𝑣2
ac =
𝑟

ac = centripetal acceleration
v = velocity
r = radius of circular path

 Impulse Formula

Impulse = Force × time

 Capacitance Formula

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230
 Q
C=
V

C = capacitance (Farads, F)
Q = the charge built up on the capacitor (Coulombs, C)
V = voltage difference between two sides of a capacitor (Volts, V)

 Distance Speed Time Formula

Distance = speed × time

 Orbital Velocity Formula

GM
vorbit = √
R

G = gravitational constant,

M = mass of the body at centre,

R = radius of the orbit.

 Resistance Formula

V
R=
I

R = resistance (Ohms, Ω)
V = voltage difference between the two ends of a resistor (Volts, V)
I = the current flowing through a resistor (Amperes, A)

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231
 Reynold's Number Formula

inertial force
Reynold's Number =
viscous force

density × velocity ×diameter

Reynold's Number =
viscosity

 Angular Momentum Formula

Angular momentum = (distance from the center of rotation) × linear momentum

 Unit Vector Formula

vector
Unit vector =
magnitude of the vector

 Work Formula

W = Fd cosθ

W = work (units J)
F = force (units N)
d = distance (m)
θ = the angle between the force direction and movement direction

 Air Resistance Formula

𝜌 𝐶𝐷 𝐴
F = kv2 = v2
2

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232
 F = force due to air resistance, or drag (N)
k = a constant that collects the effects of density, drag, and area (kg/m)
v = the velocity of the moving object (m/s)
ρ = the density of the air the object moves through (kg/m3)
CD = the drag coefficient, includes hard-to-measure effects (unitless)
A = the area of the object the air presses on (m2)

 Angular Momentum Formula (Moment of Inertia and Angular Velocity)

Angular Momentum = moment of inertia × angular velocity

 Center of Mass Formula

sum of all (position × mass)

Center of Mass =
sum of all masses

 Flow Rate Formula

Q = Av

Q = liquid flow rate (m3/s or L/s)

A = area of the pipe or channel (m2)
v = velocity of the liquid (m/s)

 Stopping Distance Formula

𝑣2
d=
2𝜇𝑔

d = stopping distance (m)

v = velocity of the car (m/s)
μ = coefficient of friction (unitless)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)

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233
 Escape Velocity Formula

2𝐺𝑀
escape velocity = √
𝑅

G = universal gravitational constant

M = mass of the planet (kg)
R = radius of the planet (m)

 Inelastic Collision Formula

(mass of object 1) (initial velocity 1) + (mass of object 2) (initial velocity 2) = (mass of object 1 + mass of
object 2) (final velocity of combined objects)

 Newton's Law of Cooling Formula

T(t) = Ts + (T0 - Ts) e−kt

T(t) = temperature of an object at a certain time (Kelvin, K)

t = time (s)
Ts = temperature of the surroundings (Kelvin, K)
T0 = starting temperature of the object (Kelvin, K)
k = a cooling constant, specific to the object (1/s)

 Pressure Formula

𝐹
Pressure = 𝐴, where F is a force, and A is the area it acts on.

P = ρgh
P = pressure (Pa)
ρ = density of a gas or fluid (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)
h = the height of a column of gas or fluid (m)

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234
 De Broglie Wavelength Formula

The Planck constant The Planck constant

de Broglie wavelength = =
momentum mass × velocity

 Horizontal Range Formula

v20 sin2θ
R=
g

R = horizontal range (m)

v0 = initial velocity (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)
θ = angle of the initial velocity from the horizontal plane (radians or degrees)

 Maximum Height Formula

v20 sin2 θ
H=
2g

H = maximum height (m)

v0 = initial velocity (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)
θ = angle of the initial velocity from the horizontal plane (radians or degrees)

 Rotational Kinetic Energy Formula

1
rotational kinetic energy = (moment of inertia) × (angular velocity) 2
2

 Strain Formula (general form)

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235
 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
strain =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

 Time of Flight Formula

2v0 sinθ
t=
g

t = time of flight (s)

v0 = initial velocity (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)
θ = angle of the initial velocity from the horizontal plane (radians or degrees)

 Trajectory Formula

g𝑥 2
y = x tanθ −
2v20 cos2 θ

y = vertical position (m)

x = horizontal position (m)
v0 = initial velocity (combined components, m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)
θ = angle of the initial velocity from the horizontal plane (radians or degrees)

 Capacitors in Parallel Formula

Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + …

Ceq = equivalent capacitance (F)

C1 = capacitance of first capacitor (F)
C2 = capacitance of second capacitor (F)
C3 = capacitance of third capacitor (F)

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236
 Capacitors in Series Formula

1 1 1 1
= + + + ….
Ceq C1 C2 C3

Ceq = equivalent capacitance (F)

C1 = capacitance of first capacitor (F)
C2 = capacitance of second capacitor (F)
C3 = capacitance of third capacitor (F)

 Electric Power Formula

electric power = voltage difference × current

 Resistors in Parallel Formula

1 1 1 1
= + + + ….
Req R1 R2 R3

Req = equivalent resistance (Ω)

R1 = resistance of first resistor (Ω)
R2 = resistance of second resistor (Ω)
R3 = resistance of third resistor (Ω)

 Resistors in Series Formula

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + …

Req = equivalent resistance (Ω)

R1 = resistance of first resistor (Ω)

228
237
 R2 = resistance of second resistor (Ω)
R3 = resistance of third resistor (Ω)

 Length Contraction Formula

velocity 2
observed length = proper length √1 −
speed of light 2

 Snell's Law Formula

sin i
= constant = n
sin r

where:

i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction. This constant value is called the refractive index of the
second medium with respect to the first.

n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2

n1 and n2 are the two different mediums that will impact the refraction.θ1 is the angle of incidence; θ2 is the angle of
refraction.

 Time Dilation Formula

proper time
observer time =
velocity 2
√1−
speed of light 2

 Kirchhoff's Junction Rule Formula

sum of the currents in and out of a circuit junction = 0

∑I=0

I = current, (Amperes, A)

 Kirchhoff's Loop Rule Formula

229
238
 sum of voltage differences around a circuit loop = 0

∑V=0

V = voltage difference, (Volts, V)

 Decibel Formula

I
β = 10 decibels × log
I0

β = sound intensity, in decibels (dB)

I = sound intensity (W/m2)
I0 = reference sound intensity (10 −12 W/m2)

 Einstein's Mass-Energy Equivalence Formula

Energy = mass × (speed of light) 2

 Kinetic Energy of Gas Formula

3
<KE> = kBT
2

<KE> = average kinetic energy per molecule of gas (J)

kB = Boltzmann's constant (1.38 × 10−23 J/K)
T = temperature (K)

 Impulse-Momentum Theorem Formula

Impulse = final momentum − initial momentum

230
239
 Magnetic Field Formula

μ0 I
B=
2πr

B = magnetic field magnitude (Tesla, T)

μ0 = permeability of free space (4π × 10−7 Tm/A)
I = magnitude of the electric current (Amperes, A)
r = distance (m)

 Parallel Axis Theorem Formula

IP = Icm + Md2

IP = moment of inertia for rotation around a parallel axis (kg∙m2)

Icm = moment of inertia for rotation around an axis through the center of mass (kg∙m2)
M = total mass of the object (kg)
d = distance between the two rotation axes (m)

 Bernoulli's Equation Formula

1
P + 2 ρ v2 + ρ g h = constant

P is the pressure exerted by the fluid

v is the velocity of the fluid

ρ is the density of the fluid

h is the height of the container

g is the acceleration due to gravity

 Drag Formula

1
FD = 2 ρ v2 CD A

FD: Drag force

231
240
 ρ: fluid density
v: Relative velocity between the fluid and the object
CD: Drag coefficient
A: Transversal area or cross sectional area

 Dynamic Viscosity Formula

Shearing stress
Dynamic viscosity =
Shear rate

 Kinematic Viscosity Formula

Dynamic viscosity
Kinematic viscosity =
Fluid mass density

 Mass Flow Rate Formula

m=ρvA

ρ: Density of the fluid

v: Velocity of the fluid
A: Area of the cross section

 Volume Flow Rate Formula

variation of volume
Volume Flow Rate =
variation of time

 Pressure in a Fluid Formula

P=ρgh

232
241
 ρ: Density of the fluid
g: Acceleration of gravity
h: Depth of the fluid

 Bulk modulus Formula

change in pressure
Bulk modulus =
change in volume / original volume

 Froude number Formula

Velocity of the fluid

Froude number =
√gravitational acceleration × depth of flow

 Latent Heat Formula

Q=mL

Q: Latent heat
m: Mass of the body
L: Specific latent heat coefficient of the material

 Liquid Expansion Formula

ΔL= L α ΔT

ΔL: Expansion of the liquid

L: Length of the liquid before the change of temperature
ΔT: Change of the temperature
α: Coefficient of expansion of the liquid

 Shear modulus Formula

233
242
 shear stress
Shear modulus =
strain

 Entropy Formula

S= kB ln Ω

S: Entropy
kB: Boltzmann constant. (1.38 ×10 −23 J/ K)
Ω: number of microstates.

 Surface tension Formula

F
γ=
d

γ: Surface tension
F: Force applied on the liquid
d: length along which the force acts

 Heat Flow Rate Formula

heat transfer coefficient × area of the emitting body × variation of the temperature
Heat flow = −
length of the material

 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution Formula

1
f=
exp(−𝐸 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇)

f: Energy distribution
E: energy of the system
kB: Boltzmann constant
T: Absolute Temperature in Kelvin.

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243
 Molecular Speed Formula

3RT
v=√
m

v: molecular speed
R: Ideal gas constant
T: Absolute Temperature in Kelvin.
m: molar mass

 Stephan-Boltzmann Law Formula

P = є σ T4 A

P: total power radiated

σ: The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant
T: absolute temperature in Kelvin
є: Emissivity of the material.
A: Area of the emitting body

 Thermodynamic Work Formula

Thermodynamic work = number of moles × ideal gas constant × change of temperature

 Wien Displacement Law Formula

b
λmax=
T

λmax: The peak of the wavelength

b: Wien's displacement constant (2.9 × 10−3 m K)
T: Absolute Temperature in Kelvin

 Capacitor potential energy Formula

235
244
 1
U= C V2
2

C: Capacitance
V: Voltage
U: Energy stored in the capacitor

 Period of a Pendulum Formula

L
T = 2π √
g

where L represents the length of the pendulum and g is the value of the acceleration of gravity.

 Work done by gravity Formula

W=m×g×h

W = work done by gravity

m = mass
g = gravitational acceleration
h = height

 Weight Formula

Weight = mass × gravitational acceleration

 Inductance Formula

ΦN
L=
I

236
245
 L = Inductance
Φ = Magnetic flux
N = Number of coil turns
I = current intensity
 Resonant Frequency Formula

1
fr =
2𝜋√LC

fr: resonant frequency

L: Inductance.
C: capacitance.

 Intensity Formula

P
I=
S

I = Intensity
P = power
S = surface perpendicular to the direction of propagation

 Voltage divider Formula

𝑍𝑖
Vout = 𝑛 Vin
∑𝑖=1 𝑍𝑖

Vout = output voltage.

Zi = generic impedance.
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑍𝑖 = the sum from the first to the nth impedance of the circuit.
Vin = input voltage.

237
246
 Transformer Formula

Vp × Ip = Vs × Is

Vp np
=
Vs ns

Vp = input voltage on the primary coil.

Vs = input voltage on the secondary coil.
Ip = input current on the primary coil.
Is = input current on the secondary coil.
np = number of turns of wire on the primary coil.
ns = number of turns of wire on the secondary coil.

 Speed of sound Formula

γP
v=√
ρ

v = speed of sound.
γ = the coefficient of adiabatic expansion.
P = the pressure of the gas.
ρ = the density of the medium.

 Sound intensity Formula

acoustic power
sound intensity =
normal area to the direction of propagation

 Friction loss Formula

Q 2 L
FL = C × [ ] ×
100 100

238
247
 FL = friction loss.
C = friction loss coefficient.
Q = flow rate.
L = hose length.

 Archimedes Principle Formula

push = density of fluid × gravitational acceleration × volume of object

 Uncertainty Principle Formula

ℏ
Δx Δp ≤≥
2

ℏ
ΔE Δt ≤≥
2

ℏ: reduced Planck's constant

Δx: Position uncertainty
Δp: Momentum uncertainty
ΔE: Energy uncertainty
Δt: Time uncertainty

 Rydberg Formula

1 1 1
=R[ − 𝑛2 ]
λ 𝑛12 2

R: Rydberg's constant (R=1.097 × 107 m−1)

λ: Wavelength of the emitted photon
n1 and n2 are integers and n2 is always greater than n1

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239
 Half-Life Formula

ln(2)
t1/2 =
λ

λ: disintegration constant of the system

t1/2: Half life time

 Relativistic Momentum Formula

rest mass × velocity

Relativistic momentum =
velocity 2
√1−
speed of light 2

 Relativistic Mass Formula

rest mass
Relativistic mass =
velocity 2
√1−
speed of light 2

 Relativistic Energy Formula

rest mass × speed of light squared

Relativistic energy =
velocity 2
√1−
speed of light 2

 Relativistic Doppler Effect Formula

𝑣
1+ 𝑐
frequency observed = frequency emitted × √ 𝑣
1− 𝑐

c: speed of light
v: velocity of the observer respect to the source

240
249
 Relative Velocity Formula

vAB = vA – vB

vAB: relative velocity of the body A respect body B

vA: velocity of the body A
vB: velocity of the body B

 Photon Energy Formula

hc
E=
λ

E: photon's energy
h: Plank's constant
λ: photon's wavelength
c: speed of light

 Photoelectric Effect Formula

photon energy = work function + electron kinetic energy

 Energy momentum Formula

E = √p 2 c 2 + (m0 c 2 )2

E: Energy
p: momentum
c: speed of light
m0: rest mass

 Ampere's Law Formula

∫B∙dl = μ0I

241
250
 B: magnetic field
dl: infinitesimal segment of the integration path
μ0: vacuum permeability
I: enclosed electric current by the path

 Motional Electromotive Force Formula

EMF = v × B × L

EMF: Electromotive force

v: Velocity of the charge
B: Magnetic field
L: Length of the wire where the charge is moving

 Magnetic Flux Formula

Magnetic flux = Magnetic field × Area × (angle between the planar area and the magnetic flux)

 Induced Electromotive Force Formula

ΔΦ
EMF = −
Δt

EMF: Electromotive force

ΔΦ: Change of the magnetic flux
Δt: change in time

 Gauss's Law

Q
Φ=
ε0

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251
 Φ: Electric flux
Q: Enclosed charge by the surface
ϵ0: absolute permittivity

 Electric Flux Formula

Φ = E A cosθ

Φ: Electric Flux
A: Area
E: Electric field
θ: angle between a perpendicular vector to the area and the electric field

 Spherical mirror Formula

1 1 1
+ =
object distance image distance focal length

curvature radius
Focal length ≈
2

 Resistivity-Conductivity Formula

1
Resistivity =
conductivity

 Image size Formula

image height image distance

=−
object height object distance

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252
 Electric resistance Formula

L
R=ρ
A

R: Electric Resistance
ρ: Resistivity
L: Length of the material
A: cross sectional area of the material

 Moment of Inertia Formula (common shapes)

Object Type Formula

Thin rod, axis through the center
1
I= ML2
12

Thin rod, axis through one end 1

I = ML2
3

Rectangular plate, axis through center

1
I= M (a2 + b2)
12

Rectangular plate, axis along edge 1

I = Ma2
3

Hollow cylinder, with a wall thickness

1
I = M (R12 + R22)
2

Solid cylinder 1
I = MR2
2

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253
 Thin-walled hollow cylinder
I = MR2

Solid sphere
2
I = MR2
5

Thin-walled hollow sphere 2

I = MR2
3

I = moment of inertia (kg∙m2)

M = total mass of the rotating object (kg)
L = the total length of the rod (m)
a = the length of two sides of the plate (m)
b = the length of the other two sides of the plate (m)
R1 = the inner radius of the cylinder (m)
R2 = the outer radius of the cylinder (m)
R = the radius of the cylinder or sphere (m)

 Rotational Kinematics Formula

ω = ω0 + αt
1
θ = θ0 + ω0t + 2 αt2

ω2 = ω02 + 2α (θ − θ0)
1
θ − θ0 = 2 (ω0 + ω)t

θ0 is initial angle
θ is final angle
t is the time interval

ω0 is initial angular velocity

ω is final angular velocity
α is angular acceleration

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254
 Electric Field

𝐹
E=
𝑞

E = Electric field (N/C)

F = Force (N)
q = charge (C)

 Kepler's Third Law

𝑟3 𝐺𝑀
2
=
𝑇 4𝜋 2

r = radius of motion (m)

T = period of motion (s)
G = universal gravitation constant (6.673 × 10-11 Nm2 kg−2)
M = M1+M2 = total mass of system (kg)

 Magnetic force on a current-carrying wire of length L in a magnetic field

F=B×I×L

F = force (N)
B= Magnetic Field (T)
I = current (A)
L = length (m)

 Force per unit length

246
255
 F II
k 1 2
l d

F = force (N)
l = length (m) per unit
I1, I2 = two currents
d = separation of the two currents (m)
k = magnetic constant (2 × 10−7 NC−1m−1)

 Torque on a coil immersed in a magnetic field

 = n× B× I× A× cosθ

 = torque (Nm)
n = number of turns of coil
B = magnetic field (T)
I = current (A)
A = area of coil immersed in magnetic field (m2)
cosθ = angle between the coil and the magnetic field

 Magnetic force on a charge in a magnetic field

F = q × v × B × sinθ

F = force (N)
q = charge (C)
v = velocity (m/s)
B = magnetic field (T)
sinθ = angle between the velocity and the magnetic field

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256
 Acoustic Impedance
Z=ρ×v

Z = Acoustic impedance
ρ = acoustic density
v = speed of sound in medium

 Astronomical Distance

d
M  m  5 log( )
10

M = absolute magnitude
m = relative magnitude
d = distance in parsecs

 Amplifier Gain
Vout
Amplifier Gain =
Vin

Vout = output voltage (V)

Vin = input voltage (V)

output voltage
Amplifier Gain =
positive input voltage − negative input voltage

248
257
Water expands as it freezes due to the hydrogen bonding in the water.

The taste cells in our taste buds live for only about two weeks.

There are 10 times more bacterial cells in our

body than human cells.

The human brain (made up of more than 100 billion nerves

that communicate in trillions of connections) uses just as

much power as a 10-watt light bulb.

An adult is made up of 7 octillion atoms.

We spend about five years of our lives eating.

Adult humans spend about 33% of their lives asleep. A python spends

about 75% of their life, and a dog spends about 44%.

We will eat approximately 35 tons of food in our lifetime.

Emetophobia → The fear of vomiting

Bromidrophobia → The fear of body odors

On average, a person will blink approximately about 12,000 times a day.

249
 absolute uncertainty
 Percentage uncertainty (%) = ×100
measurement

Heating processes
Latent heat of fusion for water Lf = 3.34 × 105 J kg −1
Latent heat of vaporization for water LV = 2.26 × 106 J kg −1
Specific heat capacity of ice ci = 2.05 × 103 J kg −1 K −1
Specific heat capacity of steam cs = 2.00 × 103 J kg −1 K −1
Specific heat capacity of water cw = 4.18 × 103 J kg −1 K −1

Electrical circuits
Charge on an electron 𝑒 = −1.60 × 10−19 C

Waves
Speed of sound in air at 25 °C ws = 346 m s−1

 List of Phytochemicals

Phytochemicals Plant Source Uses

Carotenoids Red, orange and green fruits and May inhibit cancer cell
vegetables including broccoli, growth, work as
(beta‐carotene, lycopene, carrots, cooked tomatoes, leafy antioxidants and improve
lutein, zeaxanthin) greens, sweet potatoes, winter immune response
squash, apricots, cantaloupe,
oranges and watermelon.

Flavonoids Apples, citrus fruits, onions, soybeans May inhibit inflammation

and soy products (tofu, soy milk, and tumor growth; may
(anthocyanins, quercetin) edamame, etc.), coffee and tea aid immunity and boost
production of detoxifying

250
258
 enzymes in the body

Indoles and Glucosinolates Cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, May induce detoxification of

cabbage, collard greens, kale, carcinogens, limit
(sulforaphane) cauliflower and Brussels sprouts) production of
cancer‐related hormones,
block carcinogens and
prevent tumor growth

Inositol Bran from corn, oats, rice rye and May retard cell growth and
wheat, nuts, soybeans and soy work as antioxidant
(phytic acid) products (tofu, soy milk, edamame,
etc.)

Isoflavones Soybeans and soy products (tofu, May inhibit tumor growth,
soy milk, edamame, etc.) limit production of
(daidzein, genistein) cancer‐related hormones and
generally work as
antioxidant

Isothiocyanates Cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, May induce detoxification of

cabbage, collard greens, kale, carcinogens, block tumor
cauliflower and Brussels sprouts) growth and work as
antioxidants

Polyphenols Green tea, grapes, wine, berries, May prevent cancer

citrus fruits, apples, whole grains formation, prevent
(ellagic acid, resveratrol) and peanuts inflammation and
work as antioxidants

Terpenes Cherries, citrus fruit peel, rosemary May protect cells from
becoming cancerous, slow
(perillyl alcohol, limonene, cancer cell growth,
carnosol) strengthen immune
function, limit production
of cancer‐related
hormones, fight viruses,
work as antioxidant

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259
 real depth
 Refractive index =
apparent depth

Conics

Ellipse Parabola Hyperbola Rectangular

hyperbola
Standard 𝑥2 𝑦2 y2 = 4ax 𝑥2 𝑦2 xy = c2
form + =1 − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑏2

Asymptotes none none 𝑥 𝑦 x = 0, y = 0

=±
𝑎 𝑏

|𝑎ℎ+𝑏𝑘+𝑐|
 The perpendicular distance from (h, k) to ax + by + c = 0 is
√𝑎2 +𝑏2

𝑚1 −𝑚2
 The acute angle between lines with gradients m1 and m2 is tan−1 | |
1+ 𝑚1 𝑚2

𝑎 ∙𝑏
 The resolved part of a in the direction of b is
|𝑏|

μa+λb
 The point dividing AB in the ratio λ : μ is
λ+ μ

 1 atm =1.01×105 Nm−2 =101kPa = 760mmHg

180o
 1 radian (rad) =
π

 1 parsec (pc) = 3.26 light year

 If y = a ± b then Δy = Δa + Δb

ab ∆𝑦 ∆𝑎 ∆𝑏 ∆𝑐
 If y = then = + +
c 𝑦 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

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260
  Star Colors and Corresponding Approximate Temperatures

Star Color Approximate Temperature Example

Blue 25,000 K Spica
White 10,000 K Vega
Yellow 6000 K Sun
Orange 4000 K Aldebaran
Red 3000 K Betelgeuse

total scattered power

 Albedo =
total incident power

 dose equivalent = absorbed dose × quality factor

 For small angle θ, measured in radians:

sinθ ≈ θ
θ2
cosθ ≈ 1 –
2
tanθ ≈ θ
 Constructive interference:
path difference = nλ
 Destructive interference:

1
path difference = ( n + 2 ) λ

𝑚
 T = 2π √
𝑘

T is the time period of motion

k is the spring constant
m is the mass attached to the spring

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261
 Nitrogen Base Classification Abbreviation

Adenine Purine A

Guanine Purine G

Cytosine Pyrimidine C
Pyrimidine
Thymine T
Pyrimidine
Uracil U

Abbreviations for Some Hormones

Hormone Abbreviation

Adrenocorticotropic hormone ACTH

Antidiuretic hormone ADH
Follicle-stimulating hormone FSH
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone GnRH
Human chorionic gonadotropin hCG
Human growth hormone hGH
Luteinizing hormone LH
Parathyroid hormone PTH
Prolactin PRL
Thyroid-stimulating hormone TSH

254
262
  Statistical Analysis

1
𝑥̅ = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
𝑛

∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ 2 )
s=√
𝑛−1

s
Standard Error of the Mean = SE =
√n

(𝑜−𝑒)2
Chi-Square = χ = ∑ 2
𝑒

𝑥̅ = sample mean
n = sample size
s = sample standard deviation
o = observed results
e = expected results
Σ = sum of all

Hardy-Weinberg Equations

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
p + q= l

p = frequency of allele 1 in a population

q = frequency of allele 2 in a population

255
263
  Water Potential = pressure potential + solute potential
 The Solute Potential of a Solution = − i CRT

i = ionization constant (1.0 for sucrose because sucrose does not ionize in water)
C = molar concentration
R = pressure constant (R = 0.0831 liter bars / mole K)
T = temperature in Kelvin (oC + 273)

Simpson's Diversity Index

total number of organisms of a particular species

Diversity Index = I – ∑ ( )2
total number of organisms of all species

 Rate and Growth

Rate

dY
Rate =
dt

Population Growth

dN
=B–D
dt

Exponential Growth

256
264
 dN
= rmax N
dt

Logistic Growth

dN K−N
= rmax N ( N )
dt

dY = amount of change
dt = change in time
B =birthrate
D = death rate
N = population size
K = carrying capacity
r max = maximum per capita growth rate of population

Shares and Dividends

 Money invested = number of shares × market value of one share.

 Annual income = number of shares × rate of dividend × face value of one share
annual income
 Rate of return = × 100 %
investment
investment
 Number of shares purchased (or held) =
market value of one share
annual income
=
income on one share

257
265
  Investment = No. of shares × Market value per share

 Sales Proceeds = No. of shares × selling price of each share (Market Value of

each share)

Matrices

 Size of Matrix = No. of rows × No. of columns.

1 0
 Identity matrix = [ ]
0 1

0 0
 Null matrix = [ ]
0 0

 Matrix A m × n can only be multiplied with matrix B p × q if n = p and the resultant

matrix will have m rows and q columns i.e. R m × q

 Matrix multiplication is not commutative. (i.e. AB ≠ BA)

 Matrix multiplication is associative.

A (BC) = (AB) C

 A × I = I × A = A where I is a unit matrix of suitable order.

 A (B + C) = AB + AC (distributive property)

 If AB = AC then B ≠ C, A may or may not be zero.

Volume of solid immersed

 Height of water risen =
Area of base of container

Volume of tank
 Time taken to fill a tank =
Volume of water given by pipe /sec

 Volume of Big Sphere = No. of lead shots × Volume of each lead shot

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266
 Volume = Area of cross section × length (height)

1m3 = 1000 ltrs = 106 cm3

 Probability of certain event = 1

 Probability of an impossible event = 0

 All possible outcomes added = 1

 Sample space denotes all possible outcomes.

 Complementary event

P (A) + P (A) = 1

P (A) = 1 – P (A)

 BODMAS Rule: This Rule depicts the correct sequence in which the operations are to be

executed, so as to find out the value of a given expression.

B – Bracket

O – Of

D – Division

M – Multiplications

A – Addition

S – Subtractions

(Length of the train + Length of engine)

 Time taken to cross a stationary Engine =
Speed of the train

Length of the train

 Time taken to Cross a signal Post =
Speed of the Train

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267
 Acute angle = 0° – 90°

 Right Angle = 90°

 Obtuse angle = 90° – 180°

 Straight Angle = 180°

 Reflex Angle = 180° – 360°

 Complete angle = 360°

 Complementary Angle = sum of two angles = 90°

 Supplementary angle = sum of two angles = 180°

 Right Angle Triangle: One angle 90°

 Obtuse Angle Triangle: One angle more than 90°

 Acute Angle Triangle: All angles less than 90°

 When AC2 < AB2 + BC2 (Acute angle triangle)

 When AC2 > AB2 + BC2 (Obtuse angle triangle)

 When AC2 = AB2 + BC2 (Right angle triangle)

 A median divides triangle into 2 equal parts:

1
2 × ( median ) 2 + 2 × ( 2 the third side ) 2 = Sum of the square of other sides

 The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

 Each diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into triangles of the same area.

 The diagonals of a rectangle are equal and bisect each other.

 The diagonals of a square are equal and bisect each other at right angles.

 The diagonals of a rhombus are unequal and bisect each other at right angles.

highest value − lowest value

 Class Width =
number classes

260
268
 upper limit + lower limit
 Class Midpoint =
2

highest value + lowest value

 Midrange =
2

 Range = Highest value − Lowest value

 Sample variance = (Sample standard deviation) 2

explained variation
 Coefficient of Determination =
total variation

List of mathematically significant natural numbers

 1, the multiplicative identity. Also the only natural number (not including 0) that

isn't prime or composite.

 2, the base of the binary number system, used in almost all modern computers and

information systems.

 3, 22-1, the first Mersenne prime. It is the first odd prime, and it is also the 2

bit integer maximum value.

 4, the first composite number

 6, the first of the series of perfect numbers, whose proper factors sum to the

number itself.

 9, the first odd number that is composite

 11, the fifth prime and first palindromic multi-digit number in base 10.

 12, the first sublime number.

 17, the sum of the first 4 prime numbers, and the only prime which is the sum of 4

consecutive primes.

 24, all Dirichlet characters mod n are real if and only if n is a divisor of 24.

 25, the first centered square number besides 1 that is also a square number

 27, the cube of 3, the value of 3 ↑↑ 2, where ↑ is Knuth's up-arrow notation.

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269
 28, the second perfect number.

 30, the smallest sphenic number.

 32, the smallest nontrivial fifth power.

 36, the smallest number which is perfect power but not prime power.

 72, the smallest Achilles number.

 255, 28 − 1, the smallest perfect totient number that is neither a power of three

nor thrice a prime; it is also the largest number that can be represented using

an 8-bit unsigned integer

 341, the smallest base 2 Fermat pseudoprime.

 496, the third perfect number.

 1729, the Hardy–Ramanujan number, also known as the second taxicab number; that is,

the smallest positive integer that can be written as the sum of two positive cubes

in two different ways.

 8128, the fourth perfect number.

 142857, the smallest base 10 cyclic number.

 9814072356, the largest perfect power that contains no repeated digits in base ten.

List of integers notable in computing

 8, the number of bits in a byte

 256, The number of possible combinations within 8 bits, or a byte.

 1024, the number of bytes in a kibibyte. It's also the number of bits in a kibibit.

 65535, 216 − 1, the maximum value of a 16-bit unsigned integer.

 65536, 216, the number of possible 16-bit combinations.

 65537, 216 + 1, the most popular RSA public key prime exponent in most SSL/TLS

certificates on the Web/Internet.

 16777216, 224, or 166; the hexadecimal "million" (0x1000000), and the total number

of possible color combinations in 24/32-bit True Color computer graphics.

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270
 2147483647, 231 − 1, the maximum value of a 32-bit signed integer using two's

complement representation.

 9223372036854775807, 263 − 1, the maximum value of a 64-bit signed

integer using two's complement representation.

Properties of Water

Heat energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . 334 J/g

Heat energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . 334 J/g

Heat energy gained during vaporization . . . . . 2260 J/g

Heat energy released during condensation . . . 2260 J/g

Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 g/mL

distance between foci

 Eccentricity =
length of major axis

change in field value

 Gradient =
distance

Average Chemical Composition of Earth's Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere

ELEMENT CRUST HYDROSPHERE TROPOSPHERE

Percent by mass Percent by volume Percent by volume Percent by volume
Oxygen (O) 46.10 94.04 33.0 21.0
Silicon (Si) 28.20 0.88
Aluminum (Al) 8.23 0.48
Iron (Fe) 5.63 0.49
Calcium (Ca) 4.15 1.18
Sodium (Na) 2.36 1.11
Magnesium (Mg) 2.33 0.33
Potassium (K) 2.09 1.42
Nitrogen (N) 78.0
Hydrogen (H) 66.0
Other 0.91 0.07 1.0 1.0

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271
 Angle 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°

sinθ 0 1 1 √3 1
2 √2 2

cosθ 1 √3 1 1 0
2 √2 2

tanθ 0 1 1 √3 Undefined
√3

cotθ Undefined √3 1 1 0
√3

secθ 1 2 √2 2 Undefined
√3

cosecθ Undefined 2 √2 2 1
√3

Mode is obtained using the modal class:

𝑓1 −𝑓0
Mo = l + ( )h
2𝑓1 − 𝑓0 −𝑓2

where:

l = lower limit of the modal class,

h = size of the class interval (assuming all class sizes to be equal),
f1 = frequency of the modal class,
f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class,
f2 = frequency of the class succeeding in the modal class

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272
Approximate coefficients of friction

Material Against Static Friction Kinetic Friction

Material

Dry Lubricated Dry Lubricated

contact contact contact contact

Aluminium Steel 0.61 0.47

Aluminum Aluminum 1.05-1.35 0.3 1.4-1.5

Gold Gold 2.5

Platinum Platinum 1.2 0.25 3.0

Silver Silver 1.4 0.55 1.5

Alumina ceramic Silicon Nitride 0.004

ceramic (wet)

BAM (Ceramic alloy Titanium 0.04–0.05 0.02

AlMgB14) boride (TiB2)

Brass Steel 0.35-0.51 0.19 0.44

Cast iron Copper 1.05 0.29

Cast iron Zinc 0.85 0.21

Concrete Rubber 1.0 0.30 (wet) 0.6-0.85 0.45-0.75

(wet)

Concrete Wood 0.62

Copper Glass 0.68

Copper Steel 0.53 0.36

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273
 Glass Glass 0.9-1.0 0.4

Human synovial fluid Cartilage 0.01 0.003

Ice Ice 0.02-0.09

Polyethene Steel 0.2 0.2

PTFE (Teflon) PTFE (Teflon) 0.04 0.04 0.04

Steel Ice 0.03

Steel PTFE (Teflon) 0.04-0.2 0.04 0.04

Steel Steel 0.74-0.80 0.16 0.42-0.62

Wood Metal 0.2–0.6 0.2 (wet)

Wood Wood 0.25–0.5 0.2 (wet)

The Resistor Colour Code Table

Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 1

Brown 1 10 ± 1%

Red 2 100 ± 2%

Orange 3 1,000

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274
 Yellow 4 10,000

Green 5 100,000 ± 0.5%

Blue 6 1,000,000 ± 0.25%

Violet 7 10,000,000 ± 0.1%

Grey 8 ± 0.05%

White 9

Gold 0.1 ± 5%

Silver 0.01 ± 10%

None ± 20%

Resistivities at 20°C

Element Resistivity at 20 °C (Ω m)

Aluminum 2.82 × 10-8

Carbon (Graphite) 3.5 × 10-5

Constantan 4.9 × 10-7

Copper 1.7 × 10-8

Germanium 4.6 × 10-1

Glass 1010 to 1014

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275
 Gold 2.44 × 10-8

Iron 1.0 × 10-7

Lead 2.2 × 10-7

Manganin 4.82 × 10-7

Mercury 9.8 × 10-7

Platinum 1.1 × 10-7

Quartz (fused) 7.5 × 1017

Silicon 6.40 × 102

Silver 1.59 × 10-8

Tungsten 5.6 × 10-8

Properties of Minerals

Property Description Example of Mineral

Fluorescence Mineral glows under ultraviolet light Fluorite

Magnetism Mineral is attracted to a magnet Magnetite

Radioactivity Mineral gives off radiation that can be measured with Geiger counter Uraninite

Reactivity Bubbles form when mineral is exposed to a weak acid Calcite

Smell Some minerals have a distinctive smell Sulfur (smells like rotten eggs)

Taste Some minerals taste salty Halite

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276
Etymology of period names

Period Started Root word Meaning Reason for name

Siderian c.2500 Ma Greek sideros iron the banded iron formations

Rhyacian c.2300 Ma Gk. rhyax lava flow much lava flowed

Orosirian c.2050 Ma Gk. oroseira mountain much orogeny in this period's

range latter half

Statherian c.1800 Ma Gk. statheros steady continents became

stable cratons

Calymmian c.1600 Ma Gk. calymma cover platform covers developed or

expanded

Ectasian c.1400 Ma Gk. ectasis stretch platform covers expanded

Stenian c.1200 Ma Gk. stenos narrow much orogeny, which survives

as narrow metamorphic belts

Tonian c.1000 Ma Gk. tonos stretch The continental crust

stretched as Rodinia broke up

Cryogenian c.720 Ma Gk. cryogenicos cold- In this period all the Earth
making froze over

Ediacaran c.635 Ma Ediacara Hills stony place in Australia where

ground the Ediacaran biota fossils
were found

Cambrian c.541 Ma Latin Cambria Wales the place in Great

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277
 Britain where Cambrian rocks
are best exposed

Ordovician c.485.4 Celtic Ordovices Tribe in north Wales, where

Ma the rocks were first
identified

Silurian c.443.8 Ctc. Silures Tribe in south Wales, where

Ma the rocks were first
identified

Devonian c.419.2 Devon County in England in which

Ma rocks from this period were
first identified

Carboniferous c.358.9 Lt. carbo coal Global coal beds were laid in
Ma this period

Permian c.298.9 Perm Krai Region in Russia where rocks

Ma from this period were first
identified

Triassic c.251.902 Lt. trias triad In Germany this period forms

Ma three distinct layers

Jurassic c.201.3 Jura Mountains Mountain range in the Alps in

Ma which rocks from this period
were first identified

Cretaceous c.145 Ma Lt. creta chalk More chalk formed in this

period than any other

Paleogene c.66 Ma Gk. palaiogenos "ancient

born"

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278
 Neogene c.23.03 Gk. neogenos "new born"
Ma

Quaternary c.2.58 Ma Lt. quaternarius "fourth" This was initially deemed the
"fourth" period after the
now-obsolete "primary",
"secondary" and "tertiary"
periods.

Abbreviations yr and ya

Non-SI Short for... SI- Comments and examples

abbreviation prefixed

equivalent

 Thousand years
kyr kilo years ka

myr million years Ma  Million years

Myr Mega years

byr billion years Ga  Billion years (thousand

million years)

kya kilo years ago ka ago  Appearance of Homo

sapiens, circa 200 kya

 Out-of-Africa migration, circa 60

kya

 Last Glacial Maximum, circa 20 kya

 Neolithic Revolution, circa 10 kya

mya million years ago Ma ago  Pliocene, 5.3 to 2.6 mya

Mya Mega years ago

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279
 o The last geomagnetic

reversal was 0.78 mya

o The (Eemian Stage) Ice

Age started 0.13 mya

 The Holocene started 0.01 mya

bya billion years ago Ga ago  oldest Eukaryotes, 2 bya

Gya giga years ago
 formation of the Earth, 4.5 bya

 Big Bang, 13.8 bya

Ionization Energies (1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th) of Gaseous Atoms (kJ/mol)

Atomic number First Second Third Fourth

1 H 1,312
2 He 2,372 5,251
3 Li 520.3 7,298 11,815
4 Be 899.5 1,757 14,849 21,007
5 B 800.7 2,427 3,660 25,026
6 C 1,086 2,353 4,621 6,223
7 N 1,402 2,856 7,475 9,445
8 O 1,314 3,388 5,301 7,469
9 F 1,681 3,374 6,051 8,408
10 Ne 2,081 3,952 6,122 9,370
11 Na 495.9 4,563 6,913 9,544
12 Mg 737.8 1,451 7,733 10,541
13 Al 577.6 1,817 2,745 11,578
14 Si 786.5 1,577 3,232 4,356
15 P 1,012 1,903 2,912 4,957
16 S 999.6 2,251 3,361 4,564
17 Cl 1,251 2,297 3,822 5,158
18 Ar 1,521 2,666 3,931 5,771
19 K 418.9 3,051 4,412 5,877
20 Ca 589.8 1,145 4,912 6,474

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280
21 Sc 631 1,235 2,389 7,089
22 Ti 658 1,310 2,653 4,175
23 V 650 1,414 2,828 4,507
24 Cr 652.9 1,592 2,987 4,740
25 Mn 717.4 1,509 3,249 4,940
26 Fe 759.4 1,561 2,958 5,290
27 Co 758 1,646 3,232 4,950
28 Ni 736.7 1,753 3,394 5,300
29 Cu 745.5 1,958 3,554 5,330
30 Zn 906.4 1,733 3,833 5,730
31 Ga 578.8 1,979 2,963 6,200
32 Ge 762.2 1,537 3,302 4,411
33 As 947 1,798 2,736 4,837
34 Se 941 2,045 2,974 4,144
35 Br 1,140 2,100 3,500 4,560
36 Kr 1,351 2,368 3,565 5,070
37 Rb 403 2,632 3,900 5,080
38 Sr 549.5 1,064 4,210 5,500
39 Y 616 1,181 1,980 5,960
40 Zr 660 1,267 2,218 3,313
41 Nb 664 1,382 2,416 3,700
42 Mo 685 1,558 2,621 4,480
43 Tc 702 1,472 2,850
44 Ru 711 1,617 2,747
45 Rh 720 1,745 2,997
46 Pd 805 1,875 3,177
47 Ag 731 2,074 3,361
48 Cd 867.7 1,631 3,616
49 In 558.3 1,821 2,705 5,200
50 Sn 708.6 1,412 2,943 3,930
51 Sb 833.8 1,595 2,440 4,260
52 Te 869.3 1,790 2,698 3,610
53 I 1,008 1,846 3,200
54 Xe 1,170 2,047 3,100
55 Cs 375.7 2,420
56 Ba 502.9 965.3
57 La 538.1 1,067 1,850 4,820

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281
58 Ce 527.4 1,047 1,949 3,547
59 Pr 523.2 1,018 2,086 3,761
60 Nd 529.6 1,035 2,130 3,899
61 Pm 535.9 1,052 2,150 3,970
62 Sm 543.3 1,068 2,260 3,990
63 Eu 546.7 1,085 2,405 4,110
64 Gd 592.6 1,167 1,991 4,250
65 Tb 564.7 1,112 2,114 3,839
66 Dy 571.9 1,126 2,200 4,001
67 Ho 580.7 1,139 2,204 4,100
68 Er 588.7 1,151 2,194 4,115
69 Tm 596.7 1,163 2,544 4,119
70 Yb 603.4 1,176 2,415 4,220
71 Lu 523.6 1,340 2,022 4,360
72 Hf 680 1,440 2,250 3,215
73 Ta 761
74 W 770
75 Re 760
76 Os 840
77 Ir 880
78 Pt 870 1,791
79 Au 890.1 1,980
80 Hg 1,007 1,810 3,300
81 Tl 589.4 1,971 2,878
82 Pb 715.6 1,450 3,082 4,083
83 Bi 703.3 1,610 2,466 4,370
84 Po 812
85 At 890
86 Rn 1,037
87 Fr 384
88 Ra 509.4 971.9
89 Ac 499
90 Th 587
91 Pa 568
92 U 584
93 Np 597
94 Pu 585

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282
 95 Am 578
96 Cm 581
97 Bk 601
98 Cf 608
99 Es 619
100 Fm 627
101 Md 635
102 No 642

Ionic radii

Ionic Radius Name Symbol Atomic number

0.012 Å 1.2 pm Hydrogen H 1
0.13 Å 13 pm Nitrogen N 7
0.23 Å 23 pm Boron B 5
0.35 Å 35 pm Beryllium Be 4
0.38 Å 38 pm Phosphorus P 15
0.4 Å 40 pm Silicon Si 14
0.46 Å 46 pm Manganese Mn 25
0.5 Å 50 pm Selenium Se 34
0.52 Å 52 pm Uranium U 92
0.52 Å 52 pm Chromium Cr 24
0.53 Å 53 pm Germanium Ge 32
0.535 Å 53.5 pm Aluminum Al 13
0.56 Å 56 pm Rhenium Re 75
0.56 Å 56 pm Technetium Tc 43
0.58 Å 58 pm Arsenic As 33
0.59 Å 59 pm Vanadium V 23
0.605 Å 60.5 pm Titanium Ti 22
0.62 Å 62 pm Tungsten W 74
0.62 Å 62 pm Gallium Ga 31
0.625 Å 62.5 pm Platinum Pt 78
0.625 Å 62.5 pm Iridium Ir 77
0.63 Å 73 pm Osmium Os 76
0.64 Å 64 pm Tantalum Ta 73

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283
0.645 Å 64.5 pm Iron Fe 26
0.65 Å 65 pm Molybdenum Mo 42
0.68 Å 68 pm Rhodium Rh 45
0.68 Å 68 pm Ruthenium Ru 44
0.69 Å 69 pm Nickel Ni 28
0.69 Å 69 pm Niobium Nb 41
0.69 Å 69 pm Tin Sn 50
0.71 Å 71 pm Hafnium Hf 72
0.72 Å 72 pm Zirconium Zr 40
0.72 Å 72 pm Magnesium Mg 12
0.73 Å 73 pm Copper Cu 29
0.74 Å 74 pm Zinc Zn 30
0.745 Å 74.5 pm Cobalt Co 27
0.745 Å 74.5 pm Scandium Sc 21
0.75 Å 75 pm Neptunium Np 93
0.76 Å 76 pm Lithium Li 3
0.76 Å 76 pm Antimony Sb 51
0.78 Å 78 pm Protactinium Pa 91
0.8 Å 80 pm Indium In 49
0.848 Å 84.8 pm Lutetium Lu 71
0.85 Å 85 pm Gold Au 79
0.858 Å 85.8 pm Ytterbium Yb 70
0.86 Å 86 pm Palladium Pd 46
0.869 Å 86.9 pm Thulium Tm 69
0.881 Å 88.1 pm Erbium Er 68
0.887 Å 88.7 pm Plutonium Pu 94
0.9 Å 90 pm Yttrium Y 39
0.901 Å 90.1 pm Holmium Ho 67
0.912 Å 91.2 pm Dysprosium Dy 66
0.923 Å 92.3 pm Terbium Tb 65
0.925 Å 92.5 pm Einsteinium Es 99
0.934 Å 93.4 pm Californium Cf 98
0.938 Å 93.8 pm Gadolinium Gd 64
0.947 Å 94.7 pm Europium Eu 63
0.949 Å 94.9 pm Berkelium Bk 97
0.964 Å 96.4 pm Samarium Sm 62

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284
0.97 Å 97 pm Curium Cm 96
0.97 Å 97 pm Tellurium Te 52
0.97 Å 97 pm Cadmium Cd 48
0.972 Å 97.2 pm Thorium Th 90
0.979 Å 97.9 pm Promethium Pm 61
0.982 Å 98.2 pm Americium Am 95
0.99 Å 99 pm Calcium Ca 20
0.995 Å 99.5 pm Neodymium Nd 60
1.013 Å 101.3 pm Praseodymium Pr 59
1.02 Å 102 pm Mercury Hg 80
1.02 Å 102 pm Sodium Na 11
1.03 Å 103 pm Bismuth Bi 83
1.034 Å 103.4 pm Cerium Ce 58
1.061 Å 106.1 pm Lanthanum La 57
1.1 Å 110 pm Nobelium No 102
1.119 Å 111.9 pm Actinium Ac 89
1.12 Å 112 pm Strontium Sr 38
1.19 Å 119 pm Lead Pb 82
1.26 Å 126 pm Silver Ag 47
1.33 Å 133 pm Fluorine F 9
1.35 Å 135 pm Barium Ba 56
1.38 Å 138 pm Potassium K 19
1.4 Å 140 pm Oxygen O 8
1.43 Å 143 pm Radium Ra 88
1.5 Å 150 pm Thallium Tl 81
1.52 Å 152 pm Rubidium Rb 37
1.67 Å 167 pm Cesium Cs 55
1.8 Å 180 pm Francium Fr 87
1.81 Å 181 pm Chlorine Cl 17
1.84 Å 184 pm Sulfur S 16
1.96 Å 196 pm Bromine Br 35
2.2 Å 220 pm Iodine I 53
2.3 Å 230 pm Polonium Po 84

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285
States of Matter and Appearance of Halogens at Room Temperature

States of Matter Halogen Appearance

(at Room Temperature)

Solid Iodine Violet

Solid Astatine Black/Metallic [Assumed]

Liquid Bromine Reddish-Brown

Gas Fluorine Pale Yellow-Brown

Gas Chlorine Pale Green

The gyromagnetic ratios for several common nuclei

Nuclei Spin Gyromagetic Ratio Natural Abundance

(MHz/T) (%)
1
H 1 42.576 99.9985
2
13
C 1 10.705 1.07
2
31
P 1 17.235 100
2
27
Al 5 11.103 100
2
23
Na 3 11.262 100
2
7
Li 3 16.546 92.41
2
29
Si 1 -8.465 4.68
2
17
O 5 5.772 0.038
2

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286
 15
N 1 -4.361 0.368
2

COMMON ISOTOPE PAIRS CHART

Isotope Half-life of Parent Effective Dating Range

(years) (years)

Parent Daughter

Uranium-238 Lead-206 4.5 billion 1 million to 4.5 billion

Potassium-40 Argon-40 1.3 billion 10 000 to 3 billion

Carbon-14 Nitrogen-14 5730 up to 50 000

Measurement

 Absolute error = indicated value – true value

 Absolute correction = true value – indicated value

absolute error
 Relative error =
true value

absolute correction
 Relative correction =
true value

Mechanical equations

axial force
 axial stress =
cross sectional area

change in length
 axial strain =
original length

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287
 shear force
 shear stress =
shear area

ultimate stress
 Working or allowable stress =
Factor of Safety (FOS)

output force (or torque)

 Mechanical advantage (MA) =
input force (or torque)

velocity of output from a mechanism

 Velocity ratio (VR) =
velocity of input to a mechanism

speed of input
 Velocity ratio =
speed of output

 Input speed × input size = output speed × output size

 Gear systems

Number of teeth on output gear

MA =
Number of teeth on input gear

Number of teeth on input gear

VR =
Number of teeth on output gear

 Belt and pulley systems

Diameter of output pulley

MA =
Diameter of input pulley

Diameter of input pulley

VR =
Diameter of output pulley

Fluid mechanics

 Pressure due to a column of liquid = height of column × gravitational acceleration × density of liquid

 Up-thrust force on a submerged body = volume of submerged body × gravitational acceleration × density of liquid

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288
Energy equations

 Non-flow energy equation

U1 + Q = U2 + W

where:

Q = energy entering the system

W = energy leaving the system

U1 = initial energy in the system

U2 = final energy in the system

 Steady flow energy equation

Q = (W2 – W1) + W

where:

Q = heat energy supplied to the system

W1 = energy entering the system

W2 = energy leaving the system

W = work done by the system.

Principle of moments

Σ clockwise moments = Σ anti-clockwise moments

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289
HYDRAULICS

 Pressure loss due to Friction

9000𝑓𝑙L2
𝑃𝑓 =
d5

where:

Pf = Pressure loss due to friction in bar

f = Friction factor for the hose

l = Length of the hose in meters

L = Flow rate in liters per minute

d = Diameter of the hose in millimeters

 Flow through a Nozzle

2
L = d2 √P
3

where:
L = Flow rate in liters per minute
d = Diameter of the nozzle in millimeters
P = Pressure in bar

 Water power and Efficiency

100LP
WP =
60

where:

WP = Water Power in Watts

L = Flow rate in liters per minute

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290
 P = Pressure in bar

WP
E= × 100
BP
where:

E = Efficiency of a pump (%)

WP = Water Power in Watts

BP = Brake Power of engine in Watts

 Jet Reaction

R = 0.157Pd2

where:

R = Jet reaction in newtons

P = Pressure in bar

d = Diameter of the hose in millimeters

 Effective Height of a Jet

2 H2
He = (H – 0.113 )
3 d

where:

He = Effective height of jet in meters

H = Theoretical height to which water will rise when projected vertically from nozzle in meters

d = Diameter of nozzle in millimeters

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291
 E◦net = E◦red + E◦ox

E◦ net = net voltage of a cell (V)

E◦ red = voltage of the reduction half reaction (V)
E◦ ox = voltage of the oxidation half reaction (V)

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

 Newton's First Law: An object continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a

straight line unless acted upon by an external force.

 Newton's Second Law: A change in motion (acceleration) is proportional to the force

acting and takes place in the direction of the straight line along which the force acts.

Acting force = mass × acceleration caused

 Newton's Third Law: To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction (or, if

object A exerts a force on object B, then object B exerts an equal, but oppositely-directed,

force on A).

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292
 The most abundant element in the universe is hydrogen.

The most abundant element on the Earth is Oxygen.

The idea of Friedrich August Kekule von Stradonitz's dream helped

form the benzene structure.

The density of ice is 10% lower than that of water.

Hydrofluoric acid (a solution of hydrogen fluoride in water) is so

corrosive that it can dissolve glass.

Helium (a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas) can

be frozen only through pressure; not by cooling.

Graphene (an allotrope of carbon) is the best conductor of electricity and heat.

Chalk is made of trillions of fossils of planktonic

microscopic skeleton.

285
 Systematic Procedure for Inorganic Qualitative Analysis
Systematic Analysis of Anion
S.No Experiment Observation Inference
1 Preliminary Reactions Colourless Absence of Fe2+, Fe3+, Ni2+,
Co2+.
Appearance Green May be Fe2+, Ni2+, Cu2+
Blue Cu2+
Brown May be Fe2+
Pink May be Co2+, Mn2+
A colourless gas with a May be NH4+ salt
characteristic pungent
Action of heat odour turning moist red
Take a small amount of litmus paper blue.
the given salt taken in a Reddish brown vapours May be
2
dry test tube, heat it turning acidified ferrous
gently; then strongly. sulphate paper brown, are
obtained.
Substance is white when May be (Zn)2+
cold and yellow when hot.
3 Flame Test (i) Bluish green flame May be Cu2+
To a small amount of the (ii) Apple green May be Ba2+
given salt taken in a (iii) Brick red May be Ca2+
watch glass, add a drop (iv) Crimson red May be Sr2+
of Con. HCl and make it
into a paste. Introduce
the paste with the help
of a glass rod to the base
of the non-luminous
bunsen burner.
Identification of Anions from Volatile Products:
Brisk effervescence of Anion is CO32-
colourless, odourless gas
turning lime water, milky is
obtained.
Colourless gas with a smell Anion is sulphide.
of rotten eggs, turning lead
acetate paper black is
obtained.
Colourless gas with smell of Anion is SO32-
burning sulphur turning
Action of dilute H2SO4:
acidified dichromatic green
To a small portion of the
is obtained.
given salt taken in a test
4 Reddish brown gas with Anion is
tube add 1 or 2ccs of
fishy odour turning
H2SO4 and gently warm
acidified ferrous sulphate
it.
brown is obtained.
Colourless gas with smell of Anion may be acetate.
vinegar is obtained.
No characteristic Absence of CO32-, , S2-,
observation. SO3 , CH3COO
2- -

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293
 Reddish brown vapours Anion may be bromide.
turning moist fluorescent
paper red.
Colourless gas with Anion may be chloride.
pungent smell giving dense
Action of Con.H2SO4 white fumes with a glass
To a small amount of rod dipped in NH4OH
given salt taken in a test solution.
5
tube, add 2-3 ccs of Violet coloured vapours Anion may be Iodide.
Con.H2SO4 and gently turning starch paper blue
heat it. or violet.
Reddish brown vapours Anion may be nitrate.
turning acidified ferrous
sulphate paper brown.
No characteristic Absence of , , &
observation.
6 Action of Con.H2SO4 with Copius evolution of reddish Anion is nitrate.
Cu turnings: brown gas turning acidified
Mix a small amount of ferrous sulphate paper
the given salt taken in a brown is observed.
test tube with a few Cu
bits, add 2 – 3 ccs of No reddish brown vapours. Absence of
H2SO4 and heat it.
A greenish yellow gas Anion may be chloride.
Action of Con.H2SO4 with turning starch iodide paper
MnO2 violet (or) blue is obtained.
To a small amount of the Reddish brown vapours Anion may be bromide.
given salt taken in a test turning moist fluorescent
7 tube, add an equal paper red is obtained.
amount of MnO2 and Violet vapours turning Anion may be iodide
add a few ccs of starch paper blue (or) violet
Con.H2SO4 and gently is obtained.
heat. No characteristic coloured Absence of , ,
vapours are obtained.
8 Action of NaOH A colourless gas with a Cation is ammonium.
To a pinch of the given pungent smell giving dense
salt taken in a test tube, white fumes with glass rod
add few ccs of 10% dipped in HCl is obtained.
NaOH solution and
gently warm it. No characteristic gas is Ammonium is absent.
Ammonium liberated.
Sodium Carbonate Extract
Identification of Anions in solution
Preparation of Extract:
Take about or of the given salt in a 50cc beaker. Mix it well with about
thrice its amount of solid sodium carbonate. Add about 15 – 20ml of distilled
water. Mix well with neat glass rod. Boil contents of the beaker over Bunsen
flame. Cool and filter through filter assembly. Collect the clean filtrate in
another beaker. The Filtrate is called soda extract.

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294
S.No Experiment Observation Inference
9 Silver Nitrate Test: Curdy white precipitate Anion is Cl–
To a portion of extract soluble in NH4OH.
add dilute HNO3 until
–
effervescence ceases. Pale yellow precipitate Anion is Br
Add few drops in excess, sparingly soluble in NH4OH.
2 – 3nos of AgNO3
solution. Yellow precipitate insoluble Anion is
in NH4OH.

No precipitate is obtained. Absence of Br–, Cl–, I–

10 Barium Chloride Test: A white precipitate Anion is
To about one or two ccs insoluble in HCl.
of the extract, (after
neutralizing with acetic A white precipitate soluble Anion is
acid and boiling of CO2) in HCl.
add BaCl2 solution.
To a portion of the above No precipitate is obtained. Absence of
ppt add dil. HCl.

11 Lead Acetate Test:

To about one or two ccs White ppt, soluble in excess confirmed.
of the extract (after of ammonium acetate
acidifying with acetic solution.
acid, boiling off CO2 and
cooling) add lead acetate
solution.
12 Ferrous Sulphate Test:
(Brown Ring Test)
To about 1 or 2cc of A brown ring is obtained at Anion is
extract add dilute the junction of the liquid.
H2SO4 in drops until the
effervescence ceases.
And few drops in excess
add 2- 3 drops of freshly No brown ring is observed. Anion is absent.
prepared FeSO4 solution.
Keeping the test tube in
a slanting position, add
Con. H2SO4 without
disturbing the solution.
13 Ferric Chloride Test:
Take about 1 or 2ccs of Deep red colouration confirmed.
the extract in a test tube produced
and add neutral FeCl3
solution. Filter, if
required, and divide the
solution or the filtrate in
two parts:

(i) To one part add Red colouration disappears confirmed.

dil.HCl

(ii) To the second part Reddish brown ppt. confirmed.

add water and boil

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295
14 Calcium Chloride Test:
To a portion of the A white precipitate of Confirms Oxalate.
sodium carbonate calcium oxalate is obtained
extract, taken in a test
tube add dil. Acetic acid
and boil off CO2. Then
add a few drops of
calcium chloride
solution.

Add dil. HNO3 to the The precipitate dissolves.

white ppt and warm.
15 Ethyl Acetate Test:
To a pinch of given salt A pleasant fruity odor is The presence of anion acetate is
taken in a test tube, add obtained. confirmed.
a few drops of ethanol
followed by 1 or 2ccs of
H2SO4. Gently heat and
cool it. Pour into
Na2CO3.

Diamond and graphite both are forms of pure carbon.

The chemical name for water (H2O) is dihydrogen monoxide.

The only 2 non-silvery metals are gold and copper.

Our body contains enough carbon to provide graphite for 9,000 pencils.

If we mix half a liter of alcohol and half a liter of water, the total

volume of the resultant liquid will be less than one liter.

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296
 Systematic Analysis of Cations
Preparation of Original solution:
Check solubility of the given salt in:
- Cold water (or) hot water (or) Dil HCl (or) Conc. HCl. Label this solution as
original solution.

Procedure for Separation of Basic Radicals into Groups

To the original solution, add Dil. HCl.

White ppt.
Group I
present (Pb 2+

and
If no ppt. pass H2S through the given solution. If a coloured ppt. is formed,
group 2 cations are present (Cu2+), Pb2+.
If no ppt is obtained from the above, boil off H2s gas and add a
few drops of conc. HNO3 to the remaining solution. Cool, add
2-3g of solid NH4Cl. Boil again and add NH4OH solution till it
becomes alkaline.
If a ppt is formed, Group III cations are present. Reddish
brown ppt. Fe3+ Gelatinous white ppt. Al3+

If no ppt., pass H2S to the given solution.

If a ppt is formed Group IV cations are

present. Black ppt. (Co2+, Ni2+)
Flesh coloured ppt. Mn2+ white ppt. Zn2+.
If no ppt is formed, boil off
H 2S gas add (NH4)2CO3
solution.
If a white ppt is formed Group
V cations are present (Ba2+,
Sr2+, Ca2+)
If no ppt.
Group VI
cation is
present (Mg2+

If none of the cations are present, check for Group 0 ( )

Cation Analysis

Group O (NH4+):

To a pinch of given salt add Yellowish brown precipitate Cation is ammonium.

some water and warm. is obtained.
Then allow it to cool. Add
Nessler’s reagent and No precipitate is obtained. Cation is not ammonium.
excess of NaOH solution.

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297
Group I (lead):
Group I precipitate is dissolved by heating the precipitate with dil.HNO3 or distilled
water. Divide the solution into 3 portions and carry out the following reactions.
Experiment Observation Inference
To one portion of the above A white precipitate of Pb2+ is present.
solution add dilute H2SO4. PbSO4 is obtained.

To another portion, add A yellow precipitate of Presence of is

potassium chromate is obtained. confirmed.
solution.

Golden Spangles Test: A yellow precipitate is The presence of is

To the 3rd portion, add KI obtained. confirmed.
solution

To above yellow precipitate, Precipitate dissolves and

add some H2O, boil and reappears in the form of
then cool. golden spangles.

Group II ( :
The group 2 precipitate is dissolved by heating with dilute HCl. Precipitate dissolves.

Experiment Observation Inference

Test for :
To one portion of the above A pale blue precipitate The presence of Cu2+ is
solution add drops of which dissolves in excess confirmed.
NH4OH, until it is in NH4OH to give any inky
excess. blue solution is obtained.

To another portion, add

dilute acetic acid and A chocolate brown ppt. Confirms copper.
potassium ferrocyanide
[K4(Fe(CN6))]

Group III:
Group III precipitate is heated with Con. HCl and water, cooled and filtered.
Reddish brown precipitate indicates Fe2+ (or) Fe3+
Gelatinous white indicates Al3+

Experiment Observation Inference

1. To 1 cm3 OS, add a Formation of a deep Fe2+ confirmed.
few drops of dilute blue colour or ppt.
HCl and then add

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298
 0.5 cm3 of potassium
ferricyanide solution.
2. White gelatinous Formation of a blue Al3+ confirmed.
precipitate dissolves floating ppt. in
in minimum quantity colourless solution.
of dil. HCl. To this, (This is known as Lake
add a few drops of test)
blue litmus solution.

Add NH4OH solution A blue ppt., suspended

in excess. in a colourless medium
(called a lake)

2B To one part of the White Precipitate soluble Al3+ confirmed

above solution add in excess of NaOH
NaOH solution solution

3. Reddish brown ppt. A yellow solution is may be present.

(Shows the presence produced.
of Fe3+) Treat it with
minimum quantity of
dil. HCl solution to
dissolve the ppt. and
then heat. Divide the
solution into two
parts.
(i) To one part, add few A deep blue colour or confirmed.
drops of potassium ppt. is obtained.
ferrocyanide solution.

(ii) To another portion A deep red colour is confirmed.

add few drops of obtained.
potassium
sulphocyanide
solution.

Group IV :

Group IV precipitate is warmed with dilute HCl centrifugate

Black precipitate Ni2+
Ni is not soluble in dilute HCl. To residue A Red rosy precipitate confirms the
add Con.HCl, boil, cool. Divide the presence of Ni2+
solution into two parts and boil of H2S. To
one part add dimethyl glyoxime reagent.
Con.NH4OH, till the solution becomes
alikaline.

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299
Sodium Hydroxide and Br2 – water test. A black precipitate confirms the presence
To the second part of the above solution, of Ni2+.
add NaOH and Br2 water and then boil
Confirmation of Zn2+:
Dissolve a part of white ppt in dil. HCl.
Boil off H2S and divide the solution in two
parts. Bluish White ppt confirms Zinc.
(i) To one part of solution add Pot.
ferrocyanide solution
White ppt soluble in excess of NaOH is
(ii) To second part of solution add NaOH.
obtained.
Flesh (buff) colour precipitate indicates A white precipitate is formed. Add Br
Mn2+. water to the white ppt it turns black or
Dissolve the precipitate in Dil. HCl and brown. Mn2+ confirmed.
boil off H2S then add NaOH solution.
Lead peroxide test A pink colouration is produced. Mn2+ is
To the second part of the flesh coloured confirmed.
ppt, add a little of PbO2 powder and
conc. HNO3. Boil, cool and allow to
stand.

Group V :
Take a small portion of Group V precipitate, carry out flame test. Take group V
precipitate, add dilute CH3COOH, warm. Boil of CO2 and divide the solution into
three parts.

Barium, Ba2+ Stronium Sr2+ Calcium Ca2+

1. Potassium chromate 1. Ammonium sulphate 1. Ammonium oxalate test.
test. test. To the third portion of the
To one part of the above To the second part of the above solution, add
solution, add a few drops of above solution add a few ammonium oxalate
K2CrO4 solution – Yellow drops of ammonium solution and then NH4OH
ppt. Ba2+ confirmed. sulphate solution – white solution to make it alkaline
ppt. Sr2+ confirmed. and scratch the sides of
the test tube – white ppt.
Ca2+ confirmed.

2. Dil. H2SO4 Test Flame test Flame test

To another portion of the
above solution, add a few
drops of dil. H2SO4 – white
ppt. insoluble in HCl.
Ba2+ confirmed.

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300
Test for Mg2+:

1. Ammonium phosphate test. White crystalline ppt.

To the original salt solution, add solid
NH4 Cl, warm to dissolve, cool and add
NH4 OH solution in slight excess. Then
add ammonium phosphate solution,
shake well and allow to stand
2. To the original sat solution, add White crystalline ppt confirms Mg2+
disodium hydrogen phosphate.

Additional Test:
Ash test for Al3+, Zn2+, Mg2+

To a pinch of given salt Blue tinted ash is obtained. The presence of Al3+ is
taken in a test tube, add a confirmed.
few drops of Con.H2SO4, Green tinted ash is
Co(No3)2. Mix it well. Dip obtained. The presence of Zn2+ is
one filter paper bit in a confirmed.
Bunsen flame. After it burns Pink tinted ash is obtained.
remove it from flame. After The presence of Mg2+ is
cooking observe the odor of confirmed.
the ash formed.

Sound travels 4.3 times faster in water than in air

Urine glows under ultraviolet light

Apples produce a gas called ethylene on ripening.

We have lost about 1% of our body's water by the time we feel thirsty.

Warm water freezes more quickly than cold water.

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301
Known ice ages

Name of ice age Years BP Geological Era

(Ma) period

Pongola 2900–2780 Mesoarchean

Huron 2400–2100 Siderian Paleoproterozoic

Rhyacian

Sturt 715–680 Cryogenian Neoproterozoic

Marino 650–635
Gaskiers 580 Ediacaran
Baykonur 547

Andean-Saharan 450–420 Late Ordovician Paleozoic

(incl. Hirnantian and Silurian
Late Ordovician glaciation)

Karoo 360–260 Carboniferous Paleozoic

Permian

Late Cenozoic Ice Age 34–present Late Paleogene Cenozoic

(incl. Quaternary Neogene
glaciation) Quaternary

Binding Energy
Binding Energy per nucleon =
Nucleon Number

Element Mass of Nuclear mass Binding energy Binding energy

nucleons (u) (u) (MeV) per nucleon

(MeV)

Deuterium 2.01594 2.01355 2.23 1.12

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302
Helium 4 4.03188 4.00151 28.29 7.07

Lithium 7 7.05649 7.01336 40.15 5.74

Beryllium 9 9.07243 9.00999 58.13 6.46

Iron 56 56.44913 55.92069 492.24 8.79

Silver 107 107.86187 106.87934 915.23 8.55

Iodine 127 128.02684 126.87544 1072.53 8.45

Lead 206 207.67109 205.92952 1622.27 7.88

Polonium 210 211.70297 209.93683 1645.16 7.83

Uranium 235 236.90849 234.99351 1783.80 7.59

Uranium 238 239.93448 238.00037 1801.63 7.57

Viscosity of Water

Temperature Dynamic Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity Density

°C (centiPoise) (centiPoise) gm/cm3

2 1.6735 1.6736 0.9999

3 1.619 1.6191 1

4 1.5673 1.5674 1

5 1.5182 1.5182 1

6 1.4715 1.4716 0.9999

7 1.4271 1.4272 0.9999

8 1.3847 1.3849 0.9999

9 1.3444 1.3447 0.9998

10 1.3059 1.3063 0.9997

11 1.2692 1.2696 0.9996

12 1.234 1.2347 0.9995

13 1.2005 1.2012 0.9994

14 1.1683 1.1692 0.9992

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303
15 1.1375 1.1386 0.9991

16 1.1081 1.1092 0.9989

17 1.0798 1.0811 0.9988

18 1.0526 1.0541 0.9986

19 1.0266 1.0282 0.9984

20 1.0016 1.0034 0.9982

21 0.9775 0.9795 0.998

22 0.9544 0.9565 0.9978

23 0.9321 0.9344 0.9975

24 0.9107 0.9131 0.9973

25 0.89 0.8926 0.997

26 0.8701 0.8729 0.9968

27 0.8509 0.8539 0.9965

28 0.8324 0.8355 0.9962

29 0.8145 0.8178 0.9959

30 0.7972 0.8007 0.9956

31 0.7805 0.7842 0.9953

32 0.7644 0.7682 0.995

33 0.7488 0.7528 0.9947

34 0.7337 0.7379 0.9944

35 0.7191 0.7234 0.994

36 0.705 0.7095 0.9937

37 0.6913 0.6959 0.9933

38 0.678 0.6828 0.993

39 0.6652 0.6702 0.9926

40 0.6527 0.6579 0.9922

45 0.5958 0.6017 0.9902

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304
 50 0.5465 0.5531 0.988

55 0.5036 0.5109 0.9857

60 0.466 0.474 0.9832

65 0.4329 0.4415 0.9806

70 0.4035 0.4127 0.9778

75 0.3774 0.3872 0.9748

80 0.354 0.3643 0.9718

 Beer–Lambert law
The absorbance of a material that has only one attenuating species also depends on the pathlength and the
concentration of the species, according to the Beer–Lambert law:

A=ε×C×L

where:

ε is the molar attenuation coefficient of that material

C is the molar concentration of those species

L is the pathlength

 Profitability ratios (SL/HL)

gross profit
Gross profit margin = × 100
sales revenue

net profit before interest and tax

Net profit margin = × 100
sales revenue

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305
 Liquidity ratios (SL/HL)

current assets
Current ratio = × 100
current liabilities

current assets − stock

Acid test (quick) ratio = × 100
current liabilities

 Efficiency ratios (SL/HL)

net profit before interest and tax

Return on capital employed (ROCE) = × 100
capital employed

where:

capital employed = loan capital (or long-term liabilities) + share capital + retained profit

 Efficiency ratios (HL only)

cost of goods sold

Stock turnover (number of times) =
average stock
average stock
Stock turnover (number of days) = × 365
cost of goods sold

where:

cost of goods sold is an approximation of total credit purchases and

opening stock + closing stock

average stock =
2

debtors
Debtor days ratio (number of days) = × 365
total sales revenue

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306
 where total sales revenue is an approximation of total credit sales

creditors
Creditor days ratio (number of days) = × 365
cost of goods sold

where cost of goods sold is an approximation of total credit purchases

loan capital
Gearing ratio = × 100
capital employed

where capital employed = loan capital (or long-term liabilities) + share capital + retained profit

 Investment appraisal (SL/HL)

(total returns− capital cost)/ years of use

Average rate of return (ARR) = × 100
capital cost

 Investment appraisal (HL only)

Net present value (NPV) = Σ present values of return − original cost

 Capacity utilization and productivity (HL only)

actual output
Capacity utilization rate = × 100
productive capacity

total output
Productivity rate = × 100
total input

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307
 The Periodic Table of the Elements
1 2
H He
Hydrogen Helium
1.00794 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
6.941 9.012182 10.811 12.0107 14.00674 15.9994 18.9984032 20.1797
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
22.989770 24.3050 26.981538 28.0855 30.973761 32.066 35.4527 39.948
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39.0983 40.078 44.955910 47.867 50.9415 51.9961 54.938049 55.845 58.933200 58.6934 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.61 74.92160 78.96 79.904 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
85.4678 87.62 88.90585 91.224 92.90638 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.90550 106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.90447 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
132.90545 137.327 138.9055 178.49 180.9479 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217 195.078 196.96655 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.98038 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium
(223) (226) (227) (261) (262) (263) (262) (265) (266) (269) (272) (277)

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
140.116 140.90765 144.24 (145) 150.36 151.964 157.25 158.92534 162.50 164.93032 167.26 168.93421 173.04 174.967
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
232.0381 231.03588 238.0289 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)

301
308
 Sources of antioxidants

 allium sulphur compounds – leeks, onions and garlic

 anthocyanins – eggplant, grapes and berries

 beta-carotene – pumpkin, mangoes, apricots, carrots, spinach and parsley

 catechins – red wine and tea

 copper – seafood, lean meat, milk and nuts

 cryptoxanthins – red capsicum, pumpkin and mangoes

 flavonoids – tea, green tea, citrus fruits, red wine, onion and apples

 indoles – cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage and cauliflower

 isoflavonoids – soybeans, tofu, lentils, peas and milk

 lignans – sesame seeds, bran, whole grains and vegetables

 lutein – green, leafy vegetables like spinach, and corn

 lycopene – tomatoes, pink grapefruit and watermelon

 manganese – seafood, lean meat, milk and nuts

 polyphenols – thyme and oregano

 selenium – seafood, offal, lean meat and whole grains

 vitamin A – liver, sweet potatoes, carrots, milk, and egg yolks

 vitamin C – oranges, blackcurrants, kiwifruit, mangoes, broccoli, spinach, capsicum and strawberries

 vitamin E – vegetable oils (such as wheatgerm oil), avocados, nuts, seeds and whole grains

 zinc – seafood, lean meat, milk and nuts

 zoochemicals – red meat, offal and fish.

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302
 Oxidation states of the elements

Element Negative states Positive states Group

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9

1 hydrogen H −1 +1 1

2 helium He 18

3 lithium Li +1 1

4 beryllium Be 0 +1 +2 2

5 boron B −5 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 13

6 carbon C −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14

7 nitrogen N −3 −2 −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15

8 oxygen O −2 −1 0 +1 +2 16

9 fluorine F −1 17

10 neon Ne 18

11 sodium Na −1 +1 1

12 magnesium Mg +1 +2 2

13 aluminium Al −2 −1 +1 +2 +3 13

14 silicon Si −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14

15 phosphorus P −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15

310

303
16 sulfur S −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 16

17 chlorine Cl −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 17

18 argon Ar 0 18

19 potassium K −1 +1 1

20 calcium Ca +1 +2 2

21 scandium Sc 0 +1 +2 +3 3

22 titanium Ti −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 4

23 vanadium V −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 5

24 chromium Cr −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 6

25 manganese Mn −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 7

26 iron Fe −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 8

27 cobalt Co −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 9

28 nickel Ni −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 10

29 copper Cu −2 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 11

30 zinc Zn −2 +1 +2 12

31 gallium Ga −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 +1 +2 +3 13

32 germanium Ge −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14

33 arsenic As −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15

34 selenium Se −2 −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 16

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304
35 bromine Br −1 +1 +3 +4 +5 +7 17

36 krypton Kr 0 +1 +2 18

37 rubidium Rb −1 +1 1

38 strontium Sr +1 +2 2

39 yttrium Y 0 +1 +2 +3 3

40 zirconium Zr −2 +1 +2 +3 +4 4

41 niobium Nb −3 −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 5

42 molybdenum Mo −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 6

43 technetium Tc −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 7

44 ruthenium Ru −4 −2 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 8

45 rhodium Rh −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 9

46 palladium Pd 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 10

47 silver Ag −2 −1 +1 +2 +3 11

48 cadmium Cd −2 +1 +2 12

49 indium In −5 −2 −1 +1 +2 +3 13

50 tin Sn −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14

51 antimony Sb −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15

52 tellurium Te −2 −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 16

53 iodine I −1 +1 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 17

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305
54 xenon Xe 0 +1 +2 +4 +6 +8 18

55 caesium Cs −1 +1 1

56 barium Ba +1 +2 2

57 lanthanum La 0 +1 +2 +3 3

58 cerium Ce +2 +3 +4 n/a

59 praseodymium Pr 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 n/a

60 neodymium Nd 0 +2 +3 +4 n/a

61 promethium Pm +2 +3 n/a

62 samarium Sm 0 +2 +3 n/a

63 europium Eu +2 +3 n/a

64 gadolinium Gd 0 +1 +2 +3 n/a

65 terbium Tb 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 n/a

66 dysprosium Dy 0 +2 +3 +4 n/a

67 holmium Ho 0 +2 +3 n/a

68 erbium Er 0 +2 +3 n/a

69 thulium Tm +2 +3 n/a

70 ytterbium Yb +2 +3 n/a

71 lutetium Lu 0 +2 +3 n/a

72 hafnium Hf −2 +1 +2 +3 +4 4

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306
73 tantalum Ta −3 −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 5

74 tungsten W −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 6

75 rhenium Re −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 7

76 osmium Os −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 8

77 iridium Ir −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 9

78 platinum Pt −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 10

79 gold Au −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +5 11

80 mercury Hg −2 +1 +2 12

81 thallium Tl −5 −2 −1 +1 +2 +3 13

82 lead Pb −4 −2 −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 14

83 bismuth Bi −3 −2 −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15

84 polonium Po −2 +2 +4 +5 +6 16

85 astatine At −1 +1 +3 +5 +7 17

86 radon Rn +2 +6 18

87 francium Fr +1 1

88 radium Ra +2 2

89 actinium Ac +3 3

90 thorium Th +1 +2 +3 +4 n/a

91 protactinium Pa +3 +4 +5 n/a

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307
 92 uranium U +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 n/a

93 neptunium Np +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 n/a

94 plutonium Pu +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 n/a

95 americium Am +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 n/a

96 curium Cm +3 +4 +5 +6 n/a

97 berkelium Bk +2 +3 +4 +5 n/a

98 californium Cf +2 +3 +4 +5 n/a

99 einsteinium Es +2 +3 +4 n/a

100 fermium Fm +2 +3 n/a

101 mendelevium Md +2 +3 n/a

102 nobelium No +2 +3 n/a

103 lawrencium Lr +3 n/a

104 rutherfordium Rf +4 4

105 dubnium Db +5 5

106 seaborgium Sg 0 +6 6

107 bohrium Bh +7 7

108 hassium Hs +8 8

109 meitnerium Mt 9

110 darmstadtium Ds 10

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 111 roentgenium Rg 11

112 copernicium Cn +2 12

113 nihonium Nh 13

114 flerovium Fl 14

115 moscovium Mc 15

116 livermorium Lv 16

117 tennessine Ts 17

118 oganesson Og 18

Factorial table

Number Factorial

n n!

0 1

1 1

2 2

3 6

4 24

5 120

6 720

7 5040

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309
 8 40320

9 362880

10 3628800

11 3.991680 × 107

12 4.790016 × 108

13 6.227021 × 109

14 8.717829 × 1010

15 1.307674 × 1012

16 2.092279 × 1013

17 3.556874 × 1014

18 6.402374 × 1015

19 1.216451 × 1017

20 2.432902 × 1018

Rocket Equations:

dM
Thrust = u
dt
 M → mass of the rocket
 u → exhaust velocity in the rocket frame
 (v − u) → exhaust velocity in the observer frame
 v→ velocity of the rocket

Under the influence of the rocket thrust in a gravity-free environment, the resulting velocity can
be calculated from:

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310
 m0
v = v0 + u ln
m

original mass
velocity = initial velocity + exhaust velocity × ln
mass

Under the influence of the rocket thrust in a gravity environment, the resulting velocity can be
calculated from:

m0
v = v0 + u ln − gt
m
g→ gravitational acceleration
t→ time

Power Table from 1 to 10

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2n 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024

3n 3 9 27 81 243 729 2187 6561 19683 59049

4n 4 16 64 256 1024 4096 16384 65536 262144 1048576

5n 5 25 125 625 3125 15625 78125 390625 1953125 9765625

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311
6n 6 36 216 1296 7776 46656 279936 1679616 10077696 60466176

7n 7 49 343 2401 16807 117649 823543 5764801 40353607 282475249

8n 8 64 512 4096 32768 262144 2097152 16777216 134217728 1073741824

9n 9 81 729 6561 59049 531441 4782969 43046721 387420489 3486784401

10n 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 1000000000 10000000000

Formulas of some saturated fatty acids

Common name Chemical structure

Caprylic acid CH3(CH2)6COOH

Capric acid CH3(CH2)8COOH

Lauric acid CH3(CH2)10COOH

Myristic acid CH3(CH2)12COOH

Palmitic acid CH3(CH2)14COOH

Stearic acid CH3(CH2)16COOH

Arachidic acid CH3(CH2)18COOH

Behenic acid CH3(CH2)20COOH

Lignoceric acid CH3(CH2)22COOH

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 Cerotic acid CH3(CH2)24COOH

Formulas of some Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Common name Chemical structure

Myristoleic acid CH3(CH2)3CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

Palmitoleic acid CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

Sapienic acid CH3(CH2)8CH=CH(CH2)4COOH

Oleic acid CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

Elaidic acid CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

Vaccenic acid CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)9COOH

Linoleic acid CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

Linoelaidic acid CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

α-Linolenic acid CH3CH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

Arachidonic acid CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)3COOH

Eicosapentaenoic acid CH3CH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)3COOH

Erucic acid CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)11COOH

Docosahexaenoic acid CH3CH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)2COOH

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313
Qualitative Analysis of the Phytochemicals

 Test for Carbohydrates: The presence of carbohydrates is confirmed when 2 ml of

extract is treated with 1 ml of Molisch's reagent and few drops of concentrated sulphuric

acid which results in the formation of purple or reddish color.

 Test for Tannins: To 1 ml of extract, 2 ml of 5% ferric chloride is added. Formation of

dark blue or greenish black indicates the presence of tannins.

 Test for Saponins: 2 ml of extract, 2 ml of distilled water are added and shaken in a

graduated cylinder for 15 min lengthwise. It results in the formation of 1 cm layer of

foam that indicates the presence of saponins.

 Test for Alkaloids: To 2 ml of extract, 2 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid is added.

Then few drops of Mayer's reagent are added. Presence of green color or white

precipitate indicates the presence of alkaloids.

 Test for Flavonoids: To 2 ml of extract, 1 ml of 2N sodium hydroxide is added.

Presence of yellow color indicates the presence of flavonoids.

 Test for Glycosides: To 2 ml of extract, 3ml of chloroform and 10% ammonia solution is

added. Formation of pink color indicates presence of glycosides.

 Test for Quinones: To 1 ml of extract, 1 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid is added.

Formation of red color indicates presence of quinones.

 Test for Phenols: 2 ml of distilled water followed by few drops of 10% ferric chloride is

added to 1ml of the extract. Formation of blue or green color indicates presence of

phenols.

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314
 Test for Terpenoids: 0.5 ml of the extract is treated with 2 ml of chloroform and conc.

sulphuric acid. Formation of red brown colour at the interface indicates the presence of

terpenoids.

 Test for Cardiac Glycosides: To 0.5 ml of the extract, 2 ml of glacial acetic acid and

few drops of ferric chloride are added. This is under layered with 1 ml of conc. sulphuric

acid. Formation of brown ring at the interface indicates the presence of cardiac

glycosides.

 Ninhydrin Test: To 2 ml of the extract few drops of 0.2% ninhydrin reagent is added

and heated for 5 min. Formation of blue colour indicates the presence of amino acids.

 Test for Coumarins: 1 ml of 10% sodium hydroxide is added to 1ml of the extract.

Formation of yellow colour indicates the presence of coumarins.

 Anthraquinones: To 1 ml of extract few drops of 10% ammonia solution is added,

appearance of pink color precipitate indicates the presence of anthraquinones

 Steroids: To 1 ml of extract equal volume of chloroform is added and a few drops of

concentrated sulphuric acid added appearance of brown ring indicates the presence of

steroids and appearance of bluish brown ring indicates the presence of phytosteroids.

 Test for Phlobatannins: Few drops of 2% hydrochloric acid are added to 1ml of the

extract. Appearance of red colour precipitate indicates the presence of phlobatannins.

 Anthracyanine: To 1 ml of the extract is added 1 mL 2N sodium hydroxide and heated

for 5 min at 100 °C. Formation of bluish green color indicates the presence of

anthocyanin.

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315
Common names and IUPAC names of some carboxylic acids

Carbon atoms Common name IUPAC name Chemical formula

1 Formic acid Methanoic acid HCOOH

2 Acetic acid Ethanoic acid CH3COOH

3 Propionic acid Propanoic acid CH3CH2COOH

4 Butyric acid Butanoic acid CH3(CH2)2COOH

5 Valeric acid Pentanoic acid CH3(CH2)3COOH

6 Caproic acid Hexanoic acid CH3(CH2)4COOH

7 Enanthic acid Heptanoic acid CH3(CH2)5COOH

8 Caprylic acid Octanoic acid CH3(CH2)6COOH

9 Pelargonic acid Nonanoic acid CH3(CH2)7COOH

10 Capric acid Decanoic acid CH3(CH2)8COOH

11 Undecylic acid Undecanoic acid CH3(CH2)9COOH

12 Lauric acid Dodecanoic acid CH3(CH2)10COOH

13 Tridecylic acid Tridecanoic acid CH3(CH2)11COOH

14 Myristic acid Tetradecanoic acid CH3(CH2)12COOH

15 Pentadecylic acid Pentadecanoic acid CH3(CH2)13COOH

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316
 16 Palmitic acid Hexadecanoic acid CH3(CH2)14COOH

17 Margaric acid Heptadecanoic acid CH3(CH2)15COOH

18 Stearic acid Octadecanoic acid CH3(CH2)16COOH

19 Nonadecylic acid Nonadecanoic acid CH3(CH2)17COOH

20 Arachidic acid Icosanoic acid CH3(CH2)18COOH

Magnetic properties of common nuclei

Isotope Occurrence Spin Magnetic Electric Operating Relative

in nature number I moment μ quadrupole frequency at 7 T sensitivity
(%) (μN) moment (MHz)
−24 2
(e × 10 cm )
1
H 99.984 1 2.79628 0 300.13 1
2
2
H 0.016 1 0.85739 0.0028 46.07 0.0964
10
B 18.8 3 1.8005 0.074 32.25 0.0199
11
B 81.2 3 2.6880 0.026 96.29 0.165
2
12
C 98.9 0 0 0 0 0
13
C 1.1 1 0.70220 0 75.47 0.0159
2
14
N 99.64 1 0.40358 0.071 21.68 0.00101
15
N 0.37 1 −0.28304 0 30.41 0.00104
2
16
O 99.76 0 0 0 0 0
17
O 0.0317 5 −1.8930 −0.0040 40.69 0.0291
2
19
F 100 1 2.6273 0 282.40 0.834
2
28
Si 92.28 0 0 0 0 0

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317
 29
Si 4.70 1 −0.5548 0 59.63 0.0785
2
31
P 100 1 1.1205 0 121.49 0.0664
2
35
Cl 75.4 3 0.92091 −0.079 29.41 0.0047
2
37
Cl 24.6 3 0.68330 −0.062 24.48 0.0027
2

List of plant hormones and their functions

Hormone Function

Ethylene Fruit ripening and abscission

Gibberellins Break the dormancy of seeds and buds; promote

growth

Cytokinins Promote cell division; prevent senescence

Abscisic Acid Close the stomata; maintain dormancy

Auxins Involved in tropisms and apical dominance

List of the Constellations

Constellation Mythological Association First Genitive Form Brightest Star

Appeared

Andromeda The Princess Andromeda; in Greek Ancient Andromedae Alpheratz

mythology, the daughter of

Cepheus and Cassiopeia and wife

of Perseus.

Antlia The air pump; a southern 1756 Antliae α-Ant

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318
 constellation introduced by (Lacaille)

Lacaille in 1756, originally the

'pneumatic machine'.

Apus The bird of paradise; a southern 1598 (Keyser Apodis α-Aps

constellation introduced by & de Houtman)

Keyser & de Houtman in 1598.

Aquarius The water bearer; in Greek Ancient Aquarii Sadalsuud

mythology, Ganymede, wine-waiter

to the Gods and lover of Zeus.

Aquila The eagle; in Greek mythology, Ancient Aquilae Altair

the bird of Zeus and the

retriever of his thunderbolts.

Ara The altar; in Greek mythology, Ancient Arae α-Ara

used by the Gods to vow

allegiance before their battle

with the Titans.

Aries The ram; in Greek mythology, the Ancient Arietis Hamal

animal whose golden fleece was

recovered by Jason and the

Argonauts.

Auriga The charioteer; in Greek Ancient Aurigae Capella

mythology, Erichthonius, son of

Vulcan, the first person to

attach four horses to a chariot.

Bootes The herdsman; in Greek Ancient Bootis Arcturus

mythology, Arcas, son of Zeus by

Callisto.

Caelum The chisel; a southern 1756 Caeli α-Cae

constellation introduced by (Lacaille)

Lacaille in 1756.

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319
Camelopardalis The giraffe; a large but faint 1612 Camelopardalis β-Cam

northern constellation (Plancius)

introduced by Plancius in 1612.

Cancer The crab; in Greek mythology, a Ancient Cancri β-Cnc

crab which bit Hercules's foot.

Canes Venatici The hunting dogs; introduced by 1687 Canum Cor-Caroli

Johannes Hevelius in 1687, and (Hevelius) Venaticorum

said to be held by the herdsman

Bootes.

Canis Major The greater dog; in Greek Ancient Canis Majoris Sirius

mythology, a hunting dog

belonging to Orion, depicted

pursuing the hare Lepus.

Canis Minor The lesser dog; in Greek Ancient Canis Minoris Procyon

mythology, a hunting dog

belonging to Orion, depicted

pursuing the hare Lepus.

Capricornus The sea goat; associated with Ancient Capricorni δ-Cap

Pan in Greek mythology, god of

the countryside.

Carina The keel; a sub-division of the 1756 Carinae Canopus

ancient constellation Argo – in (Lacaille)

Greek mythology, the ship of the

Argonauts.

Cassiopeia Queen Cassiopeia; in Greek Ancient Cassiopeiae γ-Cas

mythology, wife of Cepheus and

mother of Andromeda.

Centaurus The Centaur: half man and half Ancient Centauri Rigil-

horse; in Greek mythology, the Kentaurus

wise centaur Chiron.

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320
 Cepheus King Cepheus of Ethiopeia; in Ancient Cephei Alderamin

Greek mythology, the king of

Ethiopia, descended from Zeus

and Io.

Cetus The sea monster, which in Greek Ancient Ceti Diphda

mythology attacked Cepheus's

territory and Andromeda, but

which was slain by Perseus.

Chamaeleon The chameleon; introduced by 1598 (Keyser Chamaeleontis α-Cha

Keyser & de Houtman in 1598. & de Houtman)

Circinus The pair of dividing compasses; 1756 Circini α-Cir

a modern constellation (Lacaille)

introduced by Lacaille in 1756.

Columba The dove; introduced by Plancius 1592 Columbae Phact

in 1592. In Biblical history, (Plancius)

said to be the dove of Noah.

Coma Berenices The hair of Queen Berenice of 1536 (Vopel) Comae β-Com

Egypt; introduced as a Berenices

constellation by Vopel in 1536.

Corona The southern crown, lying at the Ancient Coronae α-CrA

Australis feet of Sagittarius, and known Australis

to the Greeks as a wreath.

Corona The northern crown; in Greek Ancient Coronae Alphecca

Borealis mythology, worn by the Princess Borealis

Ariadne on her wedding day.

Corvus The crow; in Greek mythology, Ancient Corvi Gienah

sent by Apollo in search of

water.

Crater The cup; in Greek mythology, Ancient Crateris δ-Crt

clutched by the crow Crater in

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 its search for water.

Crux The southern cross; introduced 1598 Crucis Acrux

as a constellation by Plancius (Plancius)

in 1598.

Cygnus The swan; in Greek mythology, Ancient Cygni Deneb

Zeus in disguise.

Delphinus The dolphin; in Greek mythology, Ancient Delphini Rotanev

the messenger of Poseidon.

Dorado The goldfish; a constellation 1598 (Keyser Doradus α-Dor

introduced by Keyser & de & de Houtman)

Houtman in 1598.

Draco The dragon; in Greek mythology, Ancient Draconis Eltanin

Ladon, guard of the tree on

which golden apples grew, slain

by Hercules.

Equuleus The little horse; a tiny yet Ancient Equulei Kitalpha

ancient constellation with no (Ptolemy)

mythological association.

Eridanus The mythical river Eridanus; Ancient Eridani Achernar

associated variously with the

Nile or Po.

Fornax The furnace; originally a 1756 Fornacis α-For

chemist's distillation furnace, (Lacaille)

introduced by Lacaille in 1756.

Gemini The mythical twins Castor and Ancient Geminorum Pollux

Pollux.

Grus The crane; a constellation 1598 (Keyser Gruis Alnair

introduced by Keyser & de & de Houtman)

Houtman in 1598.

Hercules Hercules; a large yet dark Ancient Herculis Kornephoros

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 constellation representing the

greatest hero of Greek

mythology.

Horologium The pendulum clock; a modern 1756 Horologii α-Hor

constellation introduced by (Lacaille)

Lacaille in 1756.

Hydra The multi-headed water snake, Ancient Hydrae Alphard

slain by Hercules in Greek

mythology.

Hydrus The lesser water snake; 1598 (Keyser Hydri β-Hyi

introduced as a constellation by & de Houtman)

Keyser & de Houtman in 1598.

Indus The Indian; introduced as a 1598 (Keyser Indi α-Ind

constellation by Keyser & de & de Houtman)

Houtman in 1598.

Lacerta The lizard; introduced as a 1690 Lacertae α-Lac

constellation by Johannes (Hevelius)

Hevelius in 1690.

Leo The lion of Nemea; in Greek Ancient Leonis Regulus

mythology, a monster slain by

Hercules.

Leo Minor The lion cub; introduced as a 1687 Leonis Minoris 46-LMi

constellation by Johannes (Hevelius)

Hevelius in 1687.

Lepus The hare; often depicted being Ancient Leporis Arneb

chased by Orion and his two

dogs.

Libra The balance; a zodiacal Ancient Librae Zubeneschamali

constellation introduced by the (Roman)

Romans.

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 Lupus The wolf; an ancient Ancient Lupi α-Lup

constellation, but without

mythological association.

Lynx The lynx; a faint constellation 1687 Lyncis α-Lyn

introduced by Johannes Hevelius (Hevelius)

in 1687.

Lyra The lyre; often said to be Ancient Lyrae Vega

played by Orpheus, the greatest

musician of his age.

Mensa Table Mountain, South Africa; a 1756 Mensae α-Men

modern constellation introduced (Lacaille)

by Lacaille in 1756, celebrating

his southern-hemisphere

observing site.

Microscopium The microscope; a modern 1756 Microscopii γ-Mic

constellation introduced by (Lacaille)

Lacaille in 1756.

Monoceros The unicorn; a constellation 1612 Monocerotis α-Mon

introduced by Plancius in 1612. (Plancius)

Musca The fly; a constellation 1598 (Keyser Muscae α-Mus

introduced by Keyser & de & de Houtman)

Houtman in 1598.

Norma The set square; a modern 1756 Normae γ²-Nor

constellation introduced by (Lacaille)

Lacaille in 1756.

Octans The octant, a navigational 1756 Octantis ν-Oct

instrument invented in the (Lacaille)

1730s. A modern constellation

introduced by Lacaille in 1756.

Ophiuchus The serpent bearer; in Greek Ancient Ophiuchi Rasalhague

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 mythology, Asclepius, the god of

medicine, depicted in the sky

holding the snake Serpens.

Orion The hunter; associated in Greek Ancient Orionis Rigel

mythology with a son of

Poseidon, but associated by the

Sumerians with their great hero

Gilgamesh.

Pavo The peacock; a constellation 1598 (Keyser Pavonis Peacock

introduced by Keyser & de & de Houtman)

Houtman in 1598.

Pegasus The winged horse; in Greek Ancient Pegasi Enif

mythology, used by Zeus to carry

thunder and lightning.

Perseus Perseus; in Greek mythology, the Ancient Persei Mirfak

husband of Andromeda, also known

for slaying Medusa the Gorgon.

Phoenix The phoenix; a constellation 1598 (Keyser Phoenicis Ankaa

introduced by Keyser & de & de Houtman)

Houtman in 1598.

Pictor The painter's easel; a modern 1756 Pictoris α-Pic

constellation introduced by (Lacaille)

Lacaille in 1756.

Pisces Two fishes, swimming in opposite Ancient Piscium η-Psc

directions with their tails

connected by a cord.

Piscis The southern fish; the parent of Ancient Piscis Fomalhaut

Austrinus the two fish depicted by Pisces. Austrini

Puppis The poop deck of the Argo Navis; 1756 Puppis Naos

a sub-division of the ancient (Lacaille)

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 constellation Argo – in Greek

mythology, the ship of the

Argonauts.

Pyxis The compass; a southern 1756 Pyxidis α-Pyx

constellation introduced by (Lacaille)

Lacaille in 1756.

Reticulum The net; a southern 1756 Reticuli α-Ret

constellation introduced by (Lacaille)

Lacaille in 1756, commemorating

the cross-hair in his telescope.

Sagitta The arrow; in Greek mythology, Ancient Sagittae γ-Sge

perhaps the arrow that Apollo

used to kill the Cyclopes.

Sagittarius The archer; usually drawn as a Ancient Sagittarii Kaus-Australis

centaur – half man, half horse

Scorpius The scorpion; said to have stung Ancient Scorpii Antares

the hunter Orion to death in

Greek mythology.

Sculptor The sculptor – originally, the 1756 Sculptoris α-Scl

sculptor's studio; a modern (Lacaille)

constellation introduced by

Lacaille in 1756.

Scutum The shield; a constellation 1684 Scuti α-Sct

honouring King John III Sobieski (Hevelius)

of Poland – the only politically

inspired constellation still in

use.

Serpens Caput The serpent's head; held by Ancient Serpentis Unukalhai

Ophiuchus and part of the same Caput

constellation as Serpens Cauda.

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Serpens Cauda The serpent's tail; held by Ancient Serpentis η-Ser

Ophiuchus and part of the same Cauda

constellation as Serpens Caput.

Sextans The sextant; a constellation 1687 Sextantis α-Sex

introduced by Johannes Hevelius (Hevelius)

in 1687, celebrating an

instrument used to measure star

positions.

Taurus The bull; said by the Sumerians Ancient Tauri Aldebaran

to be charging at Orion the

hunter, but in Greek mythology

said to be Zeus in disguise.

Telescopium The telescope; a modern 1756 Telescopii α-Tel

constellation introduced by (Lacaille)

Lacaille in 1756.

Triangulum The triangle; appearing similar Ancient Trianguli β-Tri

to a capital delta in the Greek

alphabet.

Triangulum The southern triangle; a 1598 (Keyser Trianguli Atria

Australe constellation introduced by & de Houtman) Australe

Keyser & de Houtman in 1598.

Tucana The toucan; a constellation 1598 (Keyser Tucanae α-Tuc

introduced by Keyser & de & de Houtman)

Houtman in 1598.

Ursa Major The great bear, also known as Ancient Ursae Majoris Alioth

the Big Dipper or the Plough. In

Greek mythology, Callisto, lover

of Zeus.

Ursa Minor The lesser bear; in Greek Ancient Ursae Minoris Polaris

mythology, one of the nymphs

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 that nursed Zeus as an infant.

Vela The sail; a sub-division of the 1756 Velorum γ²-Vel

ancient constellation Argo – in (Lacaille)

Greek mythology, the ship of the

Argonauts.

Virgo The virgin; in Greek mythology, Ancient Virginis Spica

the goddess of justice.

Volans The flying fish; a constellation 1598 (Keyser Volantis γ²-Vol

introduced by Keyser & de & de Houtman)

Houtman in 1598, celebrating the

family Exocoetidae.

Vulpecula The fox; a constellation 1687 Vulpeculae α-Vul

introduced by Johannes Hevelius (Hevelius)

in 1687.

List of superconductors

Substance Class Transition Critical magnetic Type

temperature (K) field (T)

Al Element 1.20 0.01 I

5.3×10−4 5.2×10−6 I
Bi Element

Cd Element 0.52 0.0028 I

Diamond:B Element 11.4 4 II
Ga Element 1.083 0.0058 I
Hf Element 0.165 I
α-Hg Element 4.15 0.04 I

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 β-Hg Element 3.95 0.04 I
In Element 3.4 0.03 I
Ir Element 0.14 0.0016 I
α-La Element 4.9 I
β-La Element 6.3 I
−4
Li Element 4×10 I
Mo Element 0.92 0.0096 I
Nb Element 9.26 0.82 II
Os Element 0.65 0.007 I
Pa Element 1.4 I
Pb Element 7.19 0.08 I
Re Element 2.4 0.03 I
−4 −6
Rh Element 3.25×10 4.9×10 I
Ru Element 0.49 0.005 I
Si:B Element 0.4 0.4 II
Sn Element 3.72 0.03 I
Ta Element 4.48 0.09 I
Tc Element 7.46–11.2 0.04 II
α-Th Element 1.37 0.013 I
Ti Element 0.39 0.01 I
Tl Element 2.39 0.02 I
α-U Element 0.68 I
β-U Element 1.8 I
V Element 5.03 1 II
α-W Element 0.015 0.00012 I
β-W Element 1–4
Zn Element 0.855 0.005 I
Zr Element 0.55 0.014 I
Ba8Si46 Compound 8.07 0.008 II
C6Ca Compound 11.5 0.95 II
C6Li3Ca2 Compound 11.15 II
C8K Compound 0.14 II
C8KHg Compound 1.4 II

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 C6K Compound 1.5 II
C3K Compound 3.0 II
C3Li Compound <0.35 II
C2Li Compound 1.9 II
C3Na Compound 2.3–3.8 II
C2Na Compound 5.0 II
C8Rb Compound 0.025 II
C6Sr Compound 1.65 II
C6Yb Compound 6.5 II
C60Cs2Rb Compound 33 II
C60K3 Compound 19.8 0.013 II
C60RbX Compound 28 II
FeB4 Compound 2.9 II
InN Compound 3 II
In2O3 Compound 3.3 ~3 II
LaB6 Compound 0.45
MgB2 Compound 39 74 II
Nb3Al Compound 18 II
NbC1-xNx Compound 17.8 12 II
Nb3Ge Compound 23.2 37 II
NbO Compound 1.38 II
NbN Compound 16 II
Nb3Sn Compound 18.3 30 II
NbTi Compound 10 15 II
SiC:B Compound 1.4 0.008 I
SiC:Al Compound 1.5 0.04 II
TiN Compound 5.6 5 I
V3Si Compound 17
YB6 Compound 8.4 II
ZrN Compound 10
ZrB12 Compound 6.0 II
YBCO Cuprate 95 120–250 II
GdBCO Cuprate 91 II

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 BSCCO Cuprate 104
HBCCO Cuprate 135
SmFeAs(O,F) Iron-based 55
CeFeAs(O,F) Iron-based 41
LaFeAs(O,F)) Iron-based 26
LaFePO Iron-based 4
FeSe Iron-based 65
(Ba,K)Fe2As2 Iron-based 38
NaFeAs Iron-based 20

List of vitamins and their functions

Water-soluble vitamins

Vitamin Function Sources

Thiamine Part of an enzyme needed for energy Found in all nutritious foods in moderate
(vitamin B1) metabolism; important to nerve function amounts: pork, whole-grain or enriched breads
and cereals, legumes, nuts and seeds

Riboflavin Part of an enzyme needed for energy Milk and milk products; leafy green vegetables;
(vitamin B2) metabolism; important for normal vision whole-grain, enriched breads and cereals
and skin health

Niacin Part of an enzyme needed for energy Meat, poultry, fish, whole-grain or enriched
metabolism; important for nervous breads and cereals, vegetables (especially
(vitamin B3)
mushrooms, asparagus, and leafy green

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 system, digestive system, and skin health vegetables), peanut butter

Pantothenic Part of an enzyme needed for energy Widespread in foods

acid metabolism

Biotin Part of an enzyme needed for energy Widespread in foods; also produced in intestinal
metabolism tract by bacteria

Pyridoxine Part of an enzyme needed for protein Meat, fish, poultry, vegetables, fruits
metabolism; helps make red blood cells
(vitamin B6)

Folic acid Part of an enzyme needed for Leafy green vegetables and legumes, seeds,
making DNA and new cells, especially orange juice, and liver; now added to most refined
red blood cells grains

Cobalamin Part of an enzyme needed for making Meat, poultry, fish, seafood, eggs, milk and milk
new cells; important to nerve function products; not found in plant foods
(vitamin B12)

Ascorbic acid Antioxidant; part of an enzyme needed Found only in fruits and vegetables, especially
(vitamin C) for protein metabolism; important for citrus fruits, vegetables in the cabbage family,
immune system health; aids in iron cantaloupe, strawberries, peppers, tomatoes,
absorption potatoes, lettuce, papayas, mangoes, kiwifruit

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Fat-soluble vitamins
Vitamin Function Sources

Vitamin A (and its Needed for vision, healthy skin Vitamin A from animal sources (retinol): fortified
precursor*, beta- and mucous membranes, bone milk, cheese, cream, butter, fortified margarine,
carotene) and tooth growth, immune eggs, liver
system health
*A precursor is Beta-carotene (from plant sources): Leafy, dark
converted by the green vegetables; dark orange fruits (apricots,
body to the vitamin. cantaloupe) and vegetables (carrots, winter squash,
sweet potatoes, pumpkin)

Vitamin D Needed for proper absorption Egg yolks, liver, fatty fish, fortified milk, fortified
of calcium; stored in bones margarine. When exposed to sunlight, the skin can
make vitamin D.

Vitamin E Antioxidant; protects cell walls Polyunsaturated plant oils (soybean, corn,
cottonseed, safflower); leafy green vegetables;
wheat germ; whole-grain products; liver; egg yolks;
nuts and seeds

Vitamin K Needed for proper blood clotting Leafy green vegetables such as kale, collard greens,
and spinach; green vegetables such as broccoli,
Brussels sprouts, and asparagus; also produced
in intestinal tract by bacteria

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 Surface tension for some interfaces

Interface Temperature Surface tension

(mN/m)

Water–air 20 °C 72.86 ± 0.05

Water–air 21.5 °C 72.75

Water–air 25 °C 71.99±0.05

Methylene iodide–air 20 °C 67.00

Methylene iodide–air 21.5 °C 63.11

Ethylene glycol–air 25 °C 47.3

Ethylene glycol–air 40 °C 46.3

Dimethyl sulfoxide–air 20 °C 43.54

Propylene carbonate–air 20 °C 41.1

Benzene–air 20 °C 28.88

Benzene–air 30 °C 27.56

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 Toluene–air 20 °C 28.52

Chloroform–air 25 °C 26.67

Propionic acid–air 20 °C 26.69

Butyric acid–air 20 °C 26.51

Carbon tetrachloride–air 25 °C 26.43

Butyl acetate–air 20 °C 25.09

Diethylene glycol–air 20 °C 30.09

Nonane–air 20 °C 22.85

Methanol–air 20 °C 22.50

Ethanol–air 20 °C 22.39

Ethanol–air 30 °C 21.55

Octane–air 20 °C 21.61

Heptane–air 20 °C 20.14

Ether–air 25 °C 20.14

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 Mercury–air 20 °C 486.5

Mercury–air 25 °C 485.5

Mercury–air 30 °C 484.5

NaCl–air 1073 °C 115

KClO3–air 20 °C 81

Water–1-Butanol 20 °C 1.8

Water–Ethyl acetate 20 °C 6.8

Water–Heptanoic acid 20 °C 7.0

Water–Benzaldehyde 20 °C 15.5

Water–transformer oil 20 °C 37.2

Water–Mercury 20 °C 415

Ethanol–Mercury 20 °C 389

Water–1,2-Dichloroethane 20 °C 30.5 ± 0.3

Water–α,α,α-trifluorotoluene 20 °C 38.0 ± 0.5

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 Water–nitrobenzene 20 °C 24.4 ± 0.2

Water–nitromethane 20 °C 16.0 ± 0.2

Water–propylene carbonate 20 °C 2.9 ± 0.1

List of inorganic and organic reagents commonly used in chemistry

Name General Description

Acetic acid an organic acid; is one of the simplest carboxylic acids

Acetone an organic compound; simplest example of the ketones

Acetylene a hydrocarbon and the simplest alkyne; widely used as a

fuel and chemical building block

Ammonia inorganic; the precursor to most nitrogen-containing

compounds; used to make fertilizer

Ammonium hydroxide aqueous ammonia; used in traditional qualitative

inorganic analysis

Azobisisobutyronitrile organic compound; often used as a foamer in plastics

and rubber and as a radical initiator

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 Baeyer's reagent is an alkaline solution of potassium permanganate; used
in organic chemistry as a qualitative test for the presence
of unsaturation, such as double bonds;

N-Bromosuccinimide used in radical substitution and electrophilic

addition reactions in organic chemistry

Butanone (methyl ethyl ketone) organic compound; similar solvent properties to acetone
but has a significantly slower evaporation rate

Butylated hydroxytoluene a fat-soluble organic compound that is primarily used as

an antioxidant food additive

n-Butyllithium an organolithium reagent; used as

a polymerization initiator in the production
of elastomers such as polybutadiene or styrene-
butadiene-styrene (SBS)

Carbon disulfide a non-polar solvent; used frequently as a building block

in organic chemistry

Carbon tetrachloride toxic, and its dissolving power is low; consequently, it

has been largely superseded by deuterated solvents

Carbonyldiimidazole often used for the coupling of amino

acids for peptide synthesis and as a reagent in organic
synthesis

Ceric ammonium nitrate an inorganic compound; used as an oxidising agent in

organic synthesis and as a standard oxidant in

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 quantitative analysis

Chloridotris(triphenylphosphine) rhodium (I) Coordination complex; used in

homogeneous catalysis of alkenes to alkanes

Chloroform organic compound; often used as CHCl3 (deuterated

chloroform) as a solvent for NMR spectroscopy and as a
general solvent.

Chromic acid a strong and corrosive oxidising agent; an intermediate

in chromium plating

Chromium trioxide the acidic anhydride of chromic acid; mainly used in

chrome-plating

Collins reagent used to selectively oxidize primary alcohols to

an aldehyde

Copper(I) iodide useful in a variety of applications ranging from organic

synthesis to cloud seeding

Dess–Martin periodinane chemical reagent used to oxidize primary alcohols to

aldehydes and secondary alcohols to ketones

Diborane the central organic synthesis reagent for hydroboration

Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide an organic compound; primary use is to couple amino

acids during artificial peptide synthesis

Diethyl azodicarboxylate a valuable reagent but also quite dangerous and explodes

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 upon heating

Diethyl ether organic compound; a common laboratory solvent

Dihydropyran a heterocyclic compound; used as a protecting

group for alcohols in organic synthesis.

Diisobutylaluminium hydride an organoaluminium compound ; a reducing agent;

converts esters and nitriles to aldehydes

Diisopropyl azodicarboxylate the diisopropyl ester of azodicarboxylic acid; a reagent

in the production of many organic compounds

Dimethyl ether the simplest ether; a useful precursor to other organic

compounds and an aerosol propellant

Dimethylformamide organic compound; a common solvent for chemical

reactions

Dimethylsulfide organosulfur compound; used in petroleum refining and

in petrochemical production processes; a reducing agent
in ozonolysis reactions

Dimethyl sulfoxide an organosulfur compound; an important polar aprotic

solvent that dissolves both polar and nonpolar
compounds

Dioxane a heterocyclic organic compound; classified as an ether

Ethanol a powerful psychoactive drug; used in alcoholic

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 beverages, in thermometers, as a solvent, and as a fuel

Fehling's reagent used to differentiate between water-soluble aldehyde and

ketone functional groups

Fenton's reagent a solution of hydrogen peroxide and an iron catalyst that

is used to oxidize contaminants or waste waters

Formaldehyde the simplest aldehyde; an important precursor to many

other chemical compounds, such as polymers and
polyfunctional alcohols

Formic acid the simplest carboxylic acid; often used as a source of

the hydride ion

Grignard reagents the most common application is for alkylation of

aldehydes and ketones

Hexamethylphosphoramide a phosphoramide; useful polar aprotic solvent and

additive in organic synthesis

Hydrazine It's a good reducing agent and is used in the Wolff-

Kishner reaction for reducing carbonyls to its
corresponding alkanes. used as a foaming agent in
preparing polymer foams; also a precursor to
polymerization catalysts and pharmaceuticals; also as an
Oxygen scavenger in Power Plants

Hydrazoic acid used primarily for preservation of stock solutions, and as

a reagent

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 Hydrochloric acid a highly corrosive, strong mineral acid with many
industrial uses

Hydrofluoric acid valued source of fluorine, precursor to numerous

pharmaceuticals; highly corrosive

Hydrogen peroxide an oxidizer commonly used as a bleach

Imidazole an organic compound; this aromatic heterocyclic is

a diazole and is classified as an alkaloid

Isopropyl alcohol simplest example of a secondary alcohol; dissolves a

wide range of non-polar compounds

Lime used in Flue Gas Desulphurisation in Power Plants

Limestone used in Flue Gas Desulphurisation in Power Plants

Lithium aluminium hydride a reducing agent in organic synthesis; used to prepare

main group and transition metal hydrides from the
corresponding metal halides

Lithium diisopropylamide strong base used in organic chemistry for the

deprotonation of weakly acidic compounds

Manganese dioxide used as a pigment and as a precursor to other manganese

compounds; used as a reagent in organic synthesis for
the oxidation of allylic alcohols

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Meta-Chloroperoxybenzoic acid used as an oxidant in organic synthesis

Methyl tert-butyl ether a gasoline additive; also used in organic chemistry as a

relatively inexpensive solvent

Millon's reagent an analytical reagent used to detect the presence of

soluble proteins

Nitric acid highly corrosive and toxic strong acid; used for the
production of fertilizers, production of explosives, and
as a component of aqua regia

Osmium tetroxide in organic synthesis, is widely used to oxidise alkenes to

the vicinal diols

Oxalyl chloride used in organic synthesis for the preparation of acid

chlorides from the corresponding carboxylic acids

Palladium(II) acetate a catalyst for many organic reactions by combining with

many common classes of organic compounds to form
reactive adduct

Perchloric acid a powerful oxidizing agent; readily forms explosive

mixtures; mainly used in the production of rocket fuel

Phosphoric acid a mineral acid with many industrial uses; commonly

used in the laboratory preparation of hydrogen halides

Phosphorus pentachloride one of the most important phosphorus chlorides; a

chlorinating reagent. Also used as a dehydrating agent

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 for oximes which turn them into nitriles.

Phosphorus tribromide used for the conversion of alcohols to alkyl bromides

Phosphorus trichloride most important of the three phosphorus chlorides; used

to manufacture organophosphorus compounds; used to
convert primary and secondary alcohols into alkyl
chlorides, or carboxylic acids into acyl chlorides

Phosphoryl chloride used to make phosphate esters such as tricresyl

phosphate

Potassium dichromate a common inorganic chemical reagent, most commonly

used as an oxidizing agent in various laboratory and
industrial applications

Potassium hydroxide a strong base; precursor to most soft and liquid soaps as
well as numerous potassium-containing chemicals

Potassium permanganate a strong oxidizing agent; can be used to quantitatively

determine the total oxidisable organic material in an
aqueous sample; a reagent for the synthesis of organic
compounds

Pyridinium chlorochromate used to oxidize primary alcohols to aldehydes and

secondary alcohols to ketones

Pyridinium dichromate (Cornforth reagent) converts primary and secondary alcohols to ketones

Raney nickel an alternative catalyst for the hydrogenation of vegetable

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 oils; in organic synthesis, used for desulfurization

Sakaguchi's Reagent Detects the presence of arginine

Samarium(II) iodide (Kagan Reagent) a powerful reducing agent

Silver oxide used to prepare other silver compounds; in organic

chemistry, used as a mild oxidizing agent

Silver nitrate precursor to many other silver compounds; commonly

used in inorganic chemistry to abstract halides

Sodium amide used in the industrial production of indigo, hydrazine,

and sodium cyanide; used for the drying of ammonia;
used as a strong base in organic chemistry

Sodium azide gas-forming component in airbag systems; used in

organic synthesis to introduce the azide functional group
by displacement of halides

Sodium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide a strong base; deprotonates ketones and esters to

generate enolate derivative

Sodium borohydride a versatile reducing agent; converts ketones and

aldehydes to alcohols

Sodium chlorite in organic synthesis, used for the oxidation of aldehydes

to carboxylic acids

Sodium hydride a strong base used in organic synthesis

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 Sodium hydroxide strong base with many industrial uses; in the laboratory,
used with acids to produce the corresponding salt, also
used as an electrolyte

Sodium hypochlorite frequently used as a disinfectant or a bleaching agent

Sodium nitrite used to convert amines into diazo compounds

Sulfuric acid strong mineral acid; major industrial use is the

production of phosphoric acid

tert-Butyl hydroperoxide used in a variety of oxidation processes; industrially, is

used as a starter of radical polymerization

Tetrahydrofuran one of the most polar ethers; a useful solvent; its main
use is as a precursor to polymers

Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0) a catalyst for palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions

Tetramethylammonium hydroxide a quaternary ammonium salt; used as an anisotropic

etchant of silicon; used as a basic solvent in the
development of acidic photoresist in
the photolithography process

Tetramethylsilane the simplest tetraorganosilane; a building block

in organometallic chemistry

Thionyl chloride an inorganic compound; used in chlorination reactions;

converts carboxylic acids to acyl chlorides

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 Thiophenol an organosulfur compound; the simplest aromatic thiol

Titanium tetrachloride an intermediate in the production of titanium metal and

titanium dioxide

Tollens' reagent a chemical test most commonly used to determine

whether a known carbonyl-containing compound is an
aldehyde or a ketone

Triphenylphosphine used in the synthesis of organic and organometallic

compounds

The Four Fundamental Interactions of Nature

Interaction Current theory Mediators Relative strength Range (m)

Weak Electroweak theory (EWT) W and Z bosons 1025 10−18

Strong Quantum chromodynamics gluons 1038 10−15

(QCD)

Electromagnetic Quantum electrodynamics photons 1036 ∞

(QED)

Gravitation General relativity gravitons 1 ∞

(GR)
(hypothetical)

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Table of liquid–vapor critical temperature and pressure for selected substances

Substance Critical temperature Critical pressure (absolute)

Argon −122.4 °C (150.8 K) 48.1 atm (4,870 kPa)

Ammonia (NH3) 132.4 °C (405.5 K) 111.3 atm (11,280 kPa)

R-134a 101.06 °C (374.21 K) 40.06 atm (4,059 kPa)

R-410A 72.8 °C (345.9 K) 47.08 atm (4,770 kPa)

Bromine 310.8 °C (584.0 K) 102 atm (10,300 kPa)

Caesium 1,664.85 °C (1,938.00 K) 94 atm (9,500 kPa)

Chlorine 143.8 °C (416.9 K) 76.0 atm (7,700 kPa)

Ethanol (C2H5OH) 241 °C (514 K) 62.18 atm (6,300 kPa)

Fluorine −128.85 °C (144.30 K) 51.5 atm (5,220 kPa)

Helium −267.96 °C (5.19 K) 2.24 atm (227 kPa)

Hydrogen −239.95 °C (33.20 K) 12.8 atm (1,300 kPa)

Krypton −63.8 °C (209.3 K) 54.3 atm (5,500 kPa)

Methane (CH4) −82.3 °C (190.8 K) 45.79 atm (4,640 kPa)

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 Neon −228.75 °C (44.40 K) 27.2 atm (2,760 kPa)

Nitrogen −146.9 °C (126.2 K) 33.5 atm (3,390 kPa)

Oxygen (O2) −118.6 °C (154.6 K) 49.8 atm (5,050 kPa)

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 31.04 °C (304.19 K) 72.8 atm (7,380 kPa)

Nitrous oxide (N2O) 36.4 °C (309.5 K) 71.5 atm (7,240 kPa)

Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) 654 °C (927 K) 45.4 atm (4,600 kPa)

Xenon 16.6 °C (289.8 K) 57.6 atm (5,840 kPa)

Lithium 2,950 °C (3,220 K) 652 atm (66,100 kPa)

Mercury 1,476.9 °C (1,750.1 K) 1,720 atm (174,000 kPa)

Sulfur 1,040.85 °C (1,314.00 K) 207 atm (21,000 kPa)

Iron 8,227 °C (8,500 K)

Gold 6,977 °C (7,250 K) 5,000 atm (510,000 kPa)

Aluminum 7,577 °C (7,850 K)

Water (H2O) 373.946 °C (647.096 K) 217.7 atm (22,060 kPa)

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List of Natural Satellites

Name of Natural Satellite Planet of Origin

Moon Earth
Mimas Saturn
Enceladus Saturn
Tethys Saturn
Rhea Saturn
Dione Saturn
Titan Saturn
Hyperion Saturn
Iapetus Saturn
Phobos Mars
Deimos Mars
Metis Jupiter
Adrastea Jupiter
Amalthea Jupiter
Thebe Jupiter
Io Jupiter
Europa Jupiter
Ganymede Jupiter
Callisto Jupiter
Themisto Jupiter
Leda Jupiter
Himalia Jupiter
Lysithea Jupiter
Elara Jupiter
Dia Jupiter
Carpo Jupiter

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S/2003 J 12 Jupiter
Euporie Jupiter
S/2003 J 3 Jupiter
S/2011 J 1 Jupiter
S/2003 J 18 Jupiter
S/2010 J 2 Jupiter
Thelxinoe Jupiter
Euanthe Jupiter
Helike Jupiter
Orthosie Jupiter
S/2016 J 1 Jupiter
Iocaste Jupiter
S/2003 J 16 Jupiter
Praxidike Jupiter
Harpalyke Jupiter
Mneme Jupiter
Hermippe Jupiter
Thyone Jupiter
Ananke Jupiter
Herse Jupiter
Aitne Saturn
Kale Jupiter
Taygete Jupiter
S/2003 J 19 Jupiter
Chaldene Jupiter
S/2003 J 15 Jupiter
S/2003 J 10 Jupiter
S/2003 J 23 Jupiter
Erinome Jupiter
Aoede Jupiter

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Kallichore Jupiter
Kalyke Jupiter
Carme Jupiter
Callirrhoe Jupiter
Eurydome Jupiter
Pasithee Jupiter
S/2010 J 1 Jupiter
Kore Jupiter
Cyllene Jupiter
S/2011 J 2 Jupiter
Eukelade Jupiter
S/2017 J 1 Jupiter
S/2003 J 4 Jupiter
Pasiphae Jupiter
Hegemone Jupiter
Arche Jupiter
Isonoe Jupiter
S/2003 J 9 Jupiter
S/2003 J 5 Jupiter
Sinope Jupiter
Sponde Jupiter
Autonoe Jupiter
Megaclite Jupiter
S/2003 J 2 Jupiter
S/2009 S 1 Saturn
Pan Saturn
Daphnis Saturn
Atlas Saturn
Peggy Saturn
Prometheus Saturn

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 Pandora Saturn
Epimetheus Saturn
Janus Saturn
Aegaeon Saturn
Mimas Saturn
Methone Saturn
Anthe Saturn
Pallene Saturn
Enceladus Saturn
Tethys Saturn
Telesto Saturn
Calypso Saturn
Dione Saturn
Helene Saturn
Polydeuces Saturn
Rhea Saturn
Titan Saturn
Hyperion Saturn
Iapetus Saturn
Kiviuq Saturn
Ijiraq Saturn
Phoebe Saturn
Paaliaq Saturn
Skathi Saturn
Albiorix Saturn
S/2007 S 2 Saturn
Bebhionn Saturn
Erriapus Saturn
Skoll Saturn
Siarnaq Saturn

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 Tarqeq Saturn
S/2004 S 13 Saturn
Greip Saturn
Hyrrokkin Saturn
Jarnsaxa Saturn
Tarvos Saturn
Mundilfari Saturn
S/2006 S 1 Saturn
S/2004 S 17 Saturn
Bergelmir Saturn
Narvi Saturn
Suttungr Saturn
Hati Saturn
S/2004 S 12 Saturn
Farbauti Saturn
Thrymr Saturn
Aegir Saturn
S/2007 S 3 Saturn
Bestla Saturn
S/2004 S 7 Saturn
S/2006 S 3 Saturn
Fenrir Saturn
Surtur Saturn
Kari Saturn
Ymir Saturn
Loge Saturn
Fornjot Saturn
Themis (Destroyed) Saturn
Chiron (Destroyed) Saturn
Cordelia Uranus

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 Ophelia Uranus
Bianca Uranus
Cressida Uranus
Desdemona Uranus
Juliet Uranus
Portia Uranus
Rosalind Uranus
Cupid Uranus
Belinda Uranus
Perdita Uranus
Puck Uranus
Mab Uranus
Miranda Uranus
Ariel Uranus
Umbriel Uranus
Titania Uranus
Oberon Uranus
Francisco Uranus
Caliban Uranus
Stephano Uranus
Trinculo Uranus
Sycorax Uranus
Margaret Uranus
Prospero Uranus
Setebos Uranus
Ferdinand Uranus
Naiad Neptune
Thalassa Neptune
Despina Neptune
Galatea Neptune

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 Larissa Neptune
Hippocamp Neptune
Proteus Neptune
Triton Neptune
Nereid Neptune
Halimede Neptune
Sao Neptune
Laomedeia Neptune
Psamathe Neptune
Neso Neptune
Charon Pluto
Styx Pluto
Nix Pluto
Kerberos Pluto
Hydra Pluto
MK 2 Makemake
Namaka Haumea
Hi'laka
Dysnomia Eris
Dactyl 243 Ida
Skamandrios 624 Hektor
Remus 87 Sylvia
Romulus 87 Sylvia
S/2001 (107) 1 107 Camilla
S/2016 (107) 1 107 Camilla
Petit-Prince 45 Eugenia
S/2004 (45) 1 45 Eugenia
S/2007 (225088) 1 Snow-White
S/2013 (285263) 1 (285263) 1998 QE2
Alexhelios 216 Kleopatra

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 Cleoselene 216 Kleopatra
Weywot 50000 Quaoar
Didymoon 65803 Didymos

Groups Neurotransmitter Function

Acetylcholine Acetylcholine Excitatory

Amines Epinephrine Excitatory

Norephinephrine Excitatory

Dopamine Excitatory and Inhibitory

Serotonin Excitatory

Amino Acids Glutamate Excitatory

Glycine Mainly inhibitory

g-Aminobutiric acid (GABA) Inhibitory

Binary star Orbital period

AM Canum Venaticorum 17.146 minutes

Beta Lyrae AB 12.9075 days

Alpha Centauri AB 79.91 years

Proxima Centauri – Alpha Centauri AB 500,000 years or more

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Properties of Ionic Diatomic Molecules

Molecule Dissociation Energy(eV) Equilibrium Separation (nm)

(Bond length)
NaCl 4.26 0.236
NaF 4.99 0.193
NaBr 3.8 0.250
NaI 3.1 0.271
NaH 2.08 0.189
LiCl 4.86 0.202
LiH 2.47 0.239
LiI 3.67 0.238
KCl 4.43 0.267
KBr 3.97 0.282
RbF 5.12 0.227
RbCl 4.64 0.279
CsI 3.57 0.337

Properties of Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules

Molecule Dissociation Energy(eV) Equilibrium Separation (nm)

(Bond length)
BN 4.0 0.128
CO 11.2 0.113
HBr ... 0.141
HCl 4.4 0.127
HF 5.8 0.092
NO 7.0 0.115
PbO 4.1 0.192
PbS 3.3 0.239

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 Thermal Conductivity and Debye Temperature

Li Be Debye temperature and thermal conductivity B C N O F Ne

344 1440 Low temperature limit of Debye temperature in Kelvin ... 2230 ... ... ... 75

0.85 2.00 Thermal conductivity at 300K, in W/cmK 0.27 1.29 ... ... ... ...

Na Mg ... Al Si P S Cl Ar

158 400 428 645 ... ... ... 92

1.41 1.56 2.37 1.48 ... ... ... ...

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

91 230 360 420 380 630 410 470 445 450 343 327 320 374 282 90 ... 72

1.02 ... 0.16 0.22 0.31 0.94 0.08 0.80 1.00 0.91 4.01 1.16 0.41 0.6 0.50 0.02 ... ...

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

56 147 280 291 275 450 ... 600 480 274 225 209 108 200 211 153 ... 64

0.58 ... 0.17 0.23 0.54 1.38 0.51 1.17 1.50 0.72 4.29 0.97 0.82 0.67 0.24 0.02 ... ...

Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

38 110 142 252 240 400 430 500 420 240 165 71.9 78.5 105 119 ... ... 64

0.36 ... 0.14 0.23 0.58 1.74 0.48 0.88 1.47 0.72 3.17 ... 0.46 0.35 0.08 ... ... ...

Fr Ra Ac ...

... ... ...

... ... ...

... Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu ...

... ... ... ... ... ... 200 ... 210 ... ... ... 120 210

0.11 0.13 0.16 ... 0.13 ... 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.16 0.14 0.17 0.35 0.16

... Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr ...

163 ... 207 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

0.54 ... 0.28 0.06 0.07 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

366

359
Vibrational frequencies of diatomic molecules

Molecule Frequency (1013 Hz)

HH 13

NN 7.0

CO 6.4

NO 5.7

OO 4.7

Superconductor coherence lengths and penetration depths

Material Coherence length London penetration depth Ratio

ξ0(nm) λL(nm) 𝛌𝐋
𝛏𝟎

Sn 230 34 0.16

Al 1600 16 0.010

Pb 83 37 0.45

Cd 760 110 0.14

Nb 38 39 1.02

Semiconductor Band Gaps

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360
 Material Energy gap (eV)

0K 300K

Si 1.17 1.11

Ge 0.74 0.66

InSb 0.23 0.17

InAs 0.43 0.36

InP 1.42 1.27

GaP 2.32 2.25

GaAs 1.52 1.43

GaSb 0.81 0.68

CdSe 1.84 1.74

CdTe 1.61 1.44

ZnO 3.44 3.2

ZnS 3.91 3.6

Quarks

Generation Name Symbol Antiparticle Spin Charge Mass

(e)
(MeV/c2)

1 up u u̅ 1 2 2.2+0.6
+ −0.4
2 3

down d d̅ 1
−
1 4.6+0.5
−0.4
2 3

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361
 2 charm c c̅ 1 2 1,280±30
+
2 3

strange s s̅ 1 1 96+8
− −4
2 3

3 top t t̅ 1 2 173,100±600
+
2 3

bottom b ̅
b 1 1 4,180+40
− −30
2 3

Leptons

Generation Name Symbol Antiparticle Spin Charge Mass

(e)
(MeV/c2)

1 Electron e− e+ 1 −1 0.511
2

Electron neutrino νe ν̅e 1 0 < 0.0000022

2

2 Muon 1 −1 105.7
2
μ− μ+

Muon neutrino νμ νμ
̅̅̅ 1 0 < 0.170
2

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362
 3 Tau τ− τ+ 1 −1 1,776.86±0.12
2

Tau neutrino ντ ν̅τ 1 0 < 15.5

2

Bosons

Name Symbol Antiparticle Spin Charge Mass Interaction Observed

(e) mediated
(GeV/c2)

Photon γ Self 1 0 0 Electromagnetism Yes

W boson 1 −1 80.385±0.015 Weak interaction Yes

W− W+

Z boson Self 1 0 91.1875±0.0021 Weak interaction Yes

Z

Gluon Self 1 0 0 Strong interaction Yes

g

Higgs Self 0 0 125.09±0.24 Mass Yes

boson H 0

Graviton G Self 2 2 0 Gravitation No

370

363
Low-frequency dielectric constants of some common solvents

Solvent Dielectric constant Temperature (K)

benzene 2.3 298

diethyl ether 4.3 293

tetrahydrofuran (THF) 7.6 298

dichloromethane 9.1 293

liquid ammonia 17 273

ethanol 24.3 298

methanol 32.7 298

nitromethane 35.9 303

dimethyl formamide (DMF) 36.7 298

acetonitrile 37.5 293

water 78.4 298

formamide 109 293

371

364
Poisson's ratio values for different materials

Material Poisson's ratio

rubber 0.4999

gold 0.42–0.44

saturated clay 0.40–0.49

magnesium 0.252–0.289

titanium 0.265–0.34

copper 0.33

aluminium-alloy 0.32

clay 0.30–0.45

stainless steel 0.30–0.31

steel 0.27–0.30

cast iron 0.21–0.26

sand 0.20–0.455

concrete 0.1–0.2

glass 0.18–0.3

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365
 metallic glasses 0.276–0.409

foam 0.10–0.50

cork 0.0

Material Typical values for shear modulus (GPa)

(at room temperature)

Diamond 478.0

Steel 79.3

Iron 52.5

Copper 44.7

Titanium 41.4

Glass 26.2

Aluminium 25.5

Polyethylene 0.117

Rubber 0.0006

Granite 24

Shale 1.6

Limestone 24

Chalk 3.2

Sandstone 0.4

Wood 4

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366
Thermal diffusivity of selected materials and substances

Material Thermal diffusivity

(mm²/s)

Wood (Yellow Pine) 0.082

Water vapour (1 atm, 400 K) 23.38

Water at 25 °C 0.143

Tin 40

Steel, stainless 310 at 25 °C 3.352

Steel, stainless 304A at 27 °C 4.2

Steel, AISI 1010 (0.1% carbon) 18.8

Steel, 1% carbon 11.72

Silver, pure (99.9%) 165.63

Silicon Dioxide (Polycrystalline) 0.83

Silicon 88

Si3 N4 with CNTs 26 °C 9.142

Si3 N4 without CNTs 26 °C 8.605

Sandstone 1.15

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367
Rubber 0.089 - 0.13

Quartz 1.4

Pyrolytic graphite, parallel to layers 1220

Pyrolytic graphite, normal to layers 3.6

PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) 0.08

PTFE (Polytetrafluorethylene) at 25 °C 0.124

PP (Polypropylene) at 25 °C 0.096

PC (Polycarbonate) at 25 °C 0.144

Paraffin at 25 °C 0.081

Oil, engine (saturated liquid, 100 °C) 0.0738

Nylon 0.09

Nitrogen (300 K, 1 atm) 22

Molybdenum (99.95%) at 25 °C 54.3

Iron 23

Inconel 600 at 25 °C 3.428

Ice at 0 °C 1.02

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368
Hydrogen (300 K, 1 atm) 160

Helium (300 K, 1 atm) 190

Gold 127

Glass, window 0.34

Copper at 25 °C 111

Carbon/carbon composite at 25 °C 216.5

Brick, common 0.52

Brick, adobe 0.27

Argon (300 K, 1 atm) 22

Aluminium oxide (polycrystalline) 12.0

Aluminium 6061-T6 Alloy 64

Aluminium 97

Alcohol 0.07

Al-10Si-Mn-Mg (Silafont 36) at 20 °C 74.2

Al-5Mg-2Si-Mn (Magsimal-59) at 20 °C 44.0

Air (300 K) 19

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369
 Substance Vapor pressure Temperature
(°C)

(Pa) (bar) (mmHg)

Tungsten 100 Pa 0.001 0.75 3203

Ethylene glycol 500 Pa 0.005 3.75 20

Xenon difluoride 600 Pa 0.006 4.50 25

Water (H2O) 2.3 kPa 0.023 17.5 20

Propanol 2.4 kPa 0.024 18.0 20

Methyl isobutyl ketone 2.66 kPa 0.0266 19.95 25

Ethanol 5.83 kPa 0.0583 43.7 20

Freon 113 37.9 kPa 0.379 284 20

Acetaldehyde 98.7 kPa 0.987 740 20

Butane 220 kPa 2.2 1650 20

Formaldehyde 435.7 kPa 4.357 3268 20

Propane 997.8 kPa 9.978 7584 26.85

Carbonyl sulfide 1.255 MPa 12.55 9412 25

Nitrous oxide 5.660 MPa 56.60 42453 25

Carbon dioxide 5.7 MPa 57 42753 20

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370
 Antibody isotypes of mammals

Class Subclasses Description

IgA 2 Found in mucosal areas, such as the gut, respiratory

tract and urogenital tract, and prevents colonization
by pathogens. Also found in saliva, tears, and breast milk.

IgD 1 Functions mainly as an antigen receptor on B cells that have not

been exposed to antigens. It has been shown to
activate basophils and mast cells to produce antimicrobial factors.

IgE 1 Binds to allergens and triggers histamine release from mast

cells and basophils, and is involved in allergy. Also protects
against parasitic worms.

IgG 4 In its four forms, provides the majority of antibody-based immunity

against invading pathogens. The only antibody capable of crossing
the placenta to give passive immunity to the fetus.

IgM 1 Expressed on the surface of B cells (monomer) and in a secreted

form (pentamer) with very high avidity. Eliminates pathogens in the
early stages of B cell-mediated (humoral) immunity before there is
sufficient IgG.

378

371
 Antibody isotypes not found in mammals

Class Types Description

IgY Found in birds and reptiles; related to mammalian IgG.

IgW Found in sharks and skates; related to mammalian IgD.

The luminosity L of a star is related to its apparent brightness b and its distance d to us by:
L
b=
4πd2

The luminosity L of a star is related to its radius R and its temperature T by:

L = 4πR2σT4

where σ is Stefan–Boltzmann constant.

Helmholtz free energy:

F = U − TS

Gibbs free energy:

G = H − TS

Enthalpy:
H = U + PV

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372
where: H → enthalpy, P → pressure, V → volume, T → temperature, S → entropy and U →
internal energy.

Limiting Magnitudes for Visual Observation at High Magnification

Telescope aperture Limiting

(mm) Magnitude

35 11.3

60 12.3

102 13.3

152 14.1

203 14.7

305 15.4

406 15.7

508 16.4

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373
Neutron energy range names

Neutron energy Energy range

0.0–0.025 eV Cold neutrons

0.025 eV Thermal neutrons

0.025–0.4 eV Epithermal neutrons

0.4–0.5 eV Cadmium neutrons

0.5–1 eV EpiCadmium neutrons

1–10 eV Slow neutrons

10–300 eV Resonance neutrons

300 eV–1 MeV Intermediate neutrons

1–20 MeV Fast neutrons

> 20 MeV Ultrafast neutrons

381

374
Black hole Equations:

2GM
 Rs =
c2

ħc3
 T=
8πGMkB

ħc6
 P=
15360πG2M2

5120πG2 M3 480c2 V
 tev = =
ħc4 ħG

kB A
 S=
4L2Planck

16πG2 M2
 A=
c4

κ
 dE = dA + ΩdJ + ϕdQ
8π

dA
 ≥0
dt

3c6
 ρ=
32πG3 M2

where: M is the Mass, G is the gravitational constant, S is the Entropy, A is the Horizon area, t ev
is the evaporation time, T is the temperature, kB is the Boltzmann constant, ρ is the density, c is

Għ
the speed of light, LPlanck = √ 3 is the Planck length, V is the volume, Rs is the Schwarzschild
c

radius, E = Mc2 is the energy, κ is the surface gravity, Ω is the angular velocity, J is the angular
momentum, ϕ is the electrostatic potential and Q is the electric charge.

382

375
Thermodynamics of the universe:

0 = dQ = dU + PdV

dU = − PdV

where Q is the total heat which is assumed to be constant, U is the internal energy of the matter
and radiation in the universe, P is the pressure and V the volume.

U
Energy density u =
V

dV d𝑎
du = − (P + u) = − 3(P + u)
V 𝑎

u
For radiation, p = whereas for matter p << u and the pressure can be neglected. Thus we get:
3

For radiation
d𝑎
du = − 4u thus u is proportional to a−4
𝑎
For matter
d𝑎
du = − 3u thus u is proportional to a−3
𝑎

a being the scale factor of the universe.

Redshift
λnow 𝑎now
=
λthen 𝑎then

383

376
 𝑎now
1+z=
𝑎then

If the source moves away from the observer with velocity v, which is much less than the speed of
light (v ≪ c), the redshift is given by:

v
z=
c

Gravitational redshift:

1
1+ z =
2GM
√1−
rc2

where

 G is the gravitational constant,

 M is the mass of the object creating the gravitational field,
 r is the radial coordinate of the source (which is analogous to the classical distance from the
center of the object, but is actually a Schwarzschild coordinate), and
 c is the speed of light.

Hubble's law:
v = HD
where

 v is the recessional velocity, typically expressed in km/s.

 H is the Hubble parameter
 D is the proper distance from the galaxy to the observer, measured in mega parsecs
(Mpc)

384

377
 c
Hubble Distance =
H

1
Hubble Time =
H

dH
= −H2 (1+ q)
dt

q being the deceleration parameter.

Critical density of the universe:

3H2
ρc =
8πG

Density parameter:
ρ 8πGρ
Ω= =
ρc 3H2

 Ω = 0: empty universe
 Ω < 1: expansion overcomes gravity; universe expands forever
 Ω = 1: critical density; mass is just enough to stop it expanding but not enough to make it
recollapse
 Ω > 1 : gravity overcomes expansion; universe recollapse

General relativity: Ω determines the curvature (k), or "shape", of the universe:

 Ω = 1: flat universe, k = 0

385

378
  Ω > 1: closed (or bound) universe, k = +1
 Ω < 1: open (or unbound) universe, k = −1

The virial theorem relates the total kinetic energy of a self-gravitating body due to the motions
of its constituent parts, T to the gravitational potential energy, U of the body.

2T + U = 0

Chandrasekhar limit:

ѡ03 √3π 1 (Planck mass)3

Mlimit = × ×
2 μe (proton mass)2

 μe is the average molecular weight per electron, which depends upon the chemical
composition of the star.
 ω03 ≈ 2.018236 is a constant connected with the solution to the Lane–Emden equation.

Schönberg–Chandrasekhar limit:

Mcore μ2env
≈ 0.37 2
M μ core

 Mcore − mass of the core.

 M − mass of the whole star.
 μcore − mean molecular mass of the core.
 μenv − mean molecular mass of the envelope.

Eddington luminosity:
4πGMmp c
LEdd =
σT

379
386
Eddington Parameter
Luminosity of the star
A=
Eddington Luminosity

where M is the mass of the star, G is the gravitational constant, mp is the proton mass, c is the
speed of light and σT is the Thomson cross section.

8πr2e
σT =
3

Classical electron radius

e2
re =
4πε0 me c2

where e is the elementary charge, me is the electron rest mass, c is the speed of light, and ε0 is the
permittivity of free space.

Fine-structure constant

e2
α=
4πε0 ħc
h
where ħ = is the reduced Planck constant.
2π

Gravitational coupling constant

(electron rest mass)2

αG =
(Planck mass)2

387

380
 (proton rest mass)2
αG =
(Planck mass)2

Compton scattering

h
λ'–λ= (1− cosθ)
me c

where
λ is the initial wavelength,
λ' is the wavelength after scattering,
h is the Planck constant,
me is the electron rest mass,
c is the speed of light, and
θ is the scattering angle.

Photoelectric effect

Energy of the photon = Work function of the surface + Kinetic energy of the emitted electron

E = W + KE

m0 v2
hυ = hυ0 +
2

υ < υ0 → no photoelectric emission

388

381
 hυ = hυ0 + eVstop

where e is the electron charge and Vstop is the stopping voltage (or stopping potential).

Photoemission from atoms:

hυ = electron's binding energy + KE

Photoemission from solids:

hυ = W + electron's binding energy + KE

Photon gas

4σT4
 U= ×V
c

 μ=0

U 4σT4
 P= =
3V 3c

4U
 S=
3T

4U
 H=
3

U
 A=−
3

 G=0

where U is the internal energy, Gibbs free energy, H is the Enthalpy, A is the Helmholtz free
energy, S is the entropy, T is the temperature, V is the volume, μ is the chemical potential, c is
π2 k2B
the speed of light and σ = is the Stefan's constant.
60ħ3 c2
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382
Poynting–Robertson effect

The Poynting–Robertson force is equal to:

v r2 Lsun GMsun
FPR = W= √
c2 4c2 R5

where v is the grain's velocity, c is the speed of light, W is the power of the incoming radiation, r
the grain's radius, G is the universal gravitational constant, Msun the Sun's mass, Lsun is the solar
luminosity and R the grain's orbital radius.

The ratio of the force due to radiation pressure to the force of gravity on the particle:

FR 3Lsun QPR
β= =
FG 16πGMsun cρr

where QPR is the Mie scattering coefficient and ρ is the density and r is the radius of the dust
grain.

The scale height is related to the temperature (T) and mean molecular mass (m) of the atmosphere
kB T
by the formula H = where kB is Boltzmann's constant and g is the gravitational acceleration of
mg
the body.

390

383
If electrons are accelerated to a velocity v by a potential difference V and then allowed to collide
with a metal target, the maximum frequency of the X-rays emitted is given by the equation:

m0 v2
= eV = hυmax
2
Therefore:
eV
υmax =
h

This shows that the maximum frequency is directly proportional to the accelerating voltage.

Fermi energy

1
The Fermi energy for a non-interacting ensemble of identical spin-2 fermions in a three-

dimensional (non-relativistic) system is given by:

ħ2 N
EF = ( 3π2 V ) 2 / 3
2m0

where N is the number of particles, m0 the rest mass of each fermion, V the volume of the
system, and ħ the reduced Planck constant.

EF = k B TF

pF
vF =
m0

pF = ħkF

where TF is the Fermi temperature, vF is the Fermi velocity, pF is the Fermi momentum and kF is
Fermi wave-vector.

391

384
 Heat capacity ratio for various gases

Temp. Gas γ Temp. Gas γ Temp. Gas γ

−181 °C H2 1.597 200 °C Dry air 1.398 20 °C NO 1.400

−76 °C 1.453 400 °C 1.393 20 °C N2O 1.310

20 °C 1.410 1000 °C 1.365 −181 °C N2 1.470

100 °C 1.404 15 °C 1.404

400 °C 1.387 0 °C CO2 1.310 20 °C Cl2 1.340

1000 °C 1.358 20 °C 1.300 −115 °C CH4 1.410

2000 °C 1.318 100 °C 1.281 −74 °C 1.350

20 °C He 1.660 400 °C 1.235 20 °C 1.320

20 °C Water vapour 1.330 1000 °C 1.195 15 °C NH3 1.310

100 °C 1.324 20 °C CO 1.400 19 °C Ne 1.640

200 °C 1.310 −181 °C O2 1.450 19 °C Xe 1.660

−180 °C Ar 1.760 −76 °C 1.415 19 °C Kr 1.680

20 °C 1.670 20 °C 1.400 15 °C SO2 1.290

0 °C Dry air 1.403 100 °C 1.399 360 °C Hg 1.670

20 °C 1.400 200 °C 1.397 15 °C C2H6 1.220

100 °C 1.401 400 °C 1.394 16 °C C3H8 1.130

392

385
The acid in our stomach is strong enough to dissolve razor blades

An average cumulus cloud weighs over a million pounds.

There are more trees on Earth than stars in our galaxy

Cold water heats up faster than hot water

Water can exist in all three states: solid (ice), liquid and gas

(vapor) at the same time at a temperature called triple point.

Men are more likely to be colorblind than women

Sound waves almost always generate a little bit of heat when they
travel and are absorbed by materials.

According to Albert Einstein's theory of Relativity, the farther you are from
the earth's surface, the faster time passes.

386
Gravitational waves

dE 32G4(m1 m2 )2 (m1 +m2 )

P=− = ×
dt 5c5 r5

dr 64G3(m1 m2 ) (m1 +m2 )

− = ×
dt 5c5 r3

5c5 r4
tlife =
256G3 (m1 m2 )(m1 +m2 )

where:

 P is the rate of loss of energy from the binary system through gravitational radiation.
 m1, m2 = masses of the orbiting bodies.
 tlife is the lifetime of distance "r" between the masses orbiting each other in highly circular
orbit about their center of mass.

Relative size of a scattering particle is defined by size parameter which is the ratio of its
characteristic dimension and wavelength of incident radiation

2πr
α=
λ

 α ≪ 1: Rayleigh scattering (small particle compared to wavelength of light)

 α ≈ 1: Mie scattering (particle about the same size as wavelength of light, valid only for

spheres)

 α ≫ 1: geometric scattering (particle much larger than wavelength of light).

393

387
Laws of reflection:

 The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal ray at the point of incidence, lie in the
same plane.
 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

Laws of refraction:

 The incident ray refracted ray, and the normal to the interface of two media at the point of
incidence all lie on the same plane.

 The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant.

sin i
= constant
sin r

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

C
A B

If two bodies A and B are in thermal equilibrium with third body C, then body A and B are also
in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Tyndall effect

The scattering of light by very small particles suspended in a gas or liquid

388
Wiedemann-Franz Law:

Thermal conductivity of the material

∝ Temperature
Electrical conductivity of the material

Thermal conductivity of the material

= Lorenz number × Temperature
Electrical conductivity of the material

Plant Cell Animal Cell

Cell Shape
Square or rectangular in shape Irregular or round in shape
Cell Wall
Present Absent
Cell Membrane
Present Present
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Present Present
Nucleus
Present and lies on one side of the cell Present and lies in the centre of the cell
Lysosomes
Present but are very rare Present
Centrosomes
Absent Present
Golgi Apparatus
Present Present
Cytoplasm
Present Present
Ribosomes

389
 Present Present
Plastids
Present Absent
Vacuoles
Few large or a single, centrally positioned vacuole Usually small and numerous
Cilia
Absent Present in most of the animal cells
Mitochondria
Present but fewer in number Present and are numerous
Mode of Nutrition
Primarily autotrophic Heterotrophic

Mitosis Meiosis

It takes place in both Haploid cells and diploid cells It takes place only in diploid cells.
It takes place in all body cells or vegetative cells or It takes place in reproductive cells or germinal cells.
somatic.
Nucleus divides once Nucleus divides twice to produce 4 nuclei.
Daughter cells are identical to mother cells Daughter cells are not identical.
Chromosomes do not pair Homologous chromosomes (similar) pair to form
bivalent ones.
Chiasmata is absent, Also there is no crossing over Chiasmata present. Crossing over between non-sister
chromatids occurs.
The chromosome number in the daughter cell is Chromosome number is reduced to half of the parent cell.
unchanged.
The entire cell division is short comparatively. The duration of cell division is very large as it involves
many steps.
It helps for the growth of the body and in lower forms It helps in gamete formation for sexual reproduction.
like bacteria, to multiply organism numbers.

390
 Soap Detergent

Sodium salt of Carboxylic acids Sodium salts of benzene sulphonic acids.

Soaps are bio-degradable Some detergents are non- biodegradable
Soaps do not lather in hard water Detergent lather well in hard water
Weak cleansing action Have strong cleansing action

Photosynthesis Respiration

It is the process by which plants use sunlight, water, It refers to a metabolic pathway that breaks down
and carbon dioxide to create oxygen and energy in the glucose and produces ATP.
form of sugar.

Occurs in plants containing chlorophyll and some Occurs in all living organisms
bacteria

It takes place in chloroplasts It takes place in mitochondria

Anabolic process Catabolic process

Endothermic reaction because it needs energy Exergonic reaction because it releases energy

Produces food and captures the energy Takes in oxygen and liberates out carbon dioxide

Requires sunlight because it is mandatory Does not require sunlight as it takes place all the
time

Absorbs carbon dioxide and water Releases carbon dioxide and water

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

391
Bragg's Law

n λ = 2 d sin θ

where λ is the wavelength of the radiation used, d is the inter-planar spacing involved and θ is
the angle between the incident (or diffracted) ray and the relevant crystal planes; n is an integer,
referred to as the order of diffraction.

The Nuclear radius is given by the following relation:

R = R0 A1/3

where R0 is constant for all nuclei and its value is 1.2 × 10−15 m and A = Mass number of nucleus
(the number of protons Z, plus the number of neutrons N).

Moore's law → the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit (IC) doubles about every
two years.

In a medium of constant refractive index, n, the Optical path length for a path of geometrical
length L is just

OPL = nL

Optical depth = ln10 × Absorbance

394

392
Refractive index
c
n=
v

where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the phase velocity of light in the medium. For
example, the refractive index of water is 1.333, meaning that light travels 1.333 times as fast in
c
vacuum as in water. The speed of light in a medium is v = , and similarly the wavelength in that
n
λ0
medium is λ = , where λ0 is the wavelength of that light in vacuum.
n

Refractivity = (n – 1)

Refractivity of the medium

Specific refractivity =
Density of the medium

Eyring equation

kB T ∆G0∗
k=κ exp (− )
h RT

where ∆G∗0 is the standard Gibbs free energy of activation, κ is the transmission coefficient, kB
is Boltzmann's constant, T is the absolute temperature, k is the reaction rate constant, R is the gas
constant and h is Planck's constant.

Michaelis–Menten equation

395

393
The Michaelis–Menten kinetics takes the form of an equation describing the rate of enzymatic
reactions, by relating reaction rate v (rate of formation of product, [P]) to [S], the concentration
of a substrate S. Its formula is given by:

d[P] vmax [S]

v= =
dt Km + [S]

This equation is called the Michaelis–Menten equation. Here, vmax represents the maximum rate
achieved by the system, happening at saturating substrate concentration. The value of the
Michaelis constant Km is numerically equal to the substrate concentration at which the reaction
rate is half of vmax.

k1
E + S → ES

k2
ES → E + S

k3
ES → P + E

(k2 + k3 )
Km =
k1

k3
The ratio (catalytic efficiency) is a measure of how efficiently an enzyme converts a
Km
substrate into product.

396

394
Monod equation

S
μ = μmax
Ks + S

where:
 μ is the specific growth rate of the microorganisms
 μmax is the maximum specific growth rate of the microorganisms
 S is the concentration of the limiting substrate for growth
μ
 Ks is the "half-velocity constant" or the value of S when = 0.5
μmax

Nernst Equation

0
RT
Ecell = Ecell − lnQ
nF

where:
 Ecell = cell potential of the cell
 0
Ecell = cell potential under standard conditions
 R = universal gas constant
 T = temperature
 n = number of electrons transferred in the redox reaction
 F = Faraday constant
 Q = reaction quotient

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395
Faraday's law of electrolysis

The mass m of elements deposited at an electrode in g is directly proportional to the Charge Q in

Coulombs.

m=Z×Q

Here, the constant of proportionality Z is called the Electro-Chemical Equivalent of the

substance.

atomic weight
Chemical equivalent of a substance =
valency

Activity of sample at instant t is given by A = A0 eλt where λ is the Decay constant

Activity per unit mass → Specific activity

0.693
Half life: T1 =
2 λ

T1
2
Average life: Tav =
0.693

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396
Quantum numbers

 Principal Quantum Number (n) = 1, 2, 3, …, ∞

𝑛ℎ
 Orbital angular momentum of electron in any orbit =
2π

 Angular Momentum (Secondary, Azimuthal) Quantum Number ( l ) = 0,1, ..., (n −1).

 Number of orbitals in a subshell = 2l + 1

 Maximum number of electrons in particular subshell = 2 × (2l +1)

h
 Orbital angular momentum (L) = √𝑙 (𝑙 + 1)
2π

Name Symbol Orbital meaning Range of Value examples

values

Principal quantum number n shell 1≤n n = 1, 2, 3, …

Azimuthal quantum l subshell (s orbital is listed as 0, p 0≤l≤n−1 for n = 3:

number (angular momentum) orbital as 1 etc.) l = 0, 1, 2 (s, p, d)

Magnetic quantum number ml energy shift (orientation of the −l ≤ ml ≤ l for l = 2:

subshell's shape) ml = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2

(projection of angular momentum)

spin of the electron −s ≤ ms ≤ s for an electron

Spin quantum number ms
1 1
(− = "spin down", s= ,
2 2

1 1 1
2
= "spin up") so ms = −2, +2

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397
Nuclide Ratio of atomic mass to mass number

1
H 1.00782505

2
H 1.0070508885

3
H 1.0053497592

3
He 1.0053431064

4
He 1.0006508135

6
Li 1.0025204658

12
C 1

14
N 1.0002195718

16
O 0.9996821637

56
Fe 0.9988381696

210
Po 0.9999184462

232
Th 1.0001640315

238
U 1.0002133958

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398
 Molar mass
Equivalent weight of acid =
Basicity

Basicity → The number of hydrogen atoms replaceable by a base in a particular acid

Molar mass
Equivalent weight of base =
Acidity

Acidity → The number of ionizable hydrogen ions (OH−) present in one molecule of a base

Oxidation number = number of electrons in the valence shell – number of electrons left after bonding

mass of CaCO3
Hardness in ppm = × 106
Total mass of water

Thermodynamic processes

 Isothermal process:

Temperature = constant

 Isochoric process:

Volume = constant

 Isobaric process:

Pressure = constant

 Adiabatic process:

Heat exchange with the surroundings = 0

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399
 Work done on the system = positive
Work done by the system = negative

Law of Equipartition Energy

N
Internal energy = × number of moles × universal gas constant × absolute temperature
2

where: N = number of active degrees of freedom (Translational + Rotational)

 N = 3 for monoatomic gas

 N=5 for diatomic or linear polyatomic gas
 N=6 for non-linear polyatomic gas

Second law of Thermodynamics

∆Suniverse = ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssurrounding > 0 for a spontaneous process

Third law of thermodynamics

The entropy change associated with any condensed system undergoing a reversible isothermal
process approaches zero as the temperature at which it is performed approaches 0 K.

Criteria of spontaneity:

∆G = ∆H − T∆S

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400
  If ∆G is negative (< 0), the process is spontaneous.
 If ∆G is positive (> 0), the process is non spontaneous.

Endothermic → absorbs heat

Exothermic → releases heat

Degree of dissociation
number of moles dissociated
α=
initial number of moles

% Dissociation = α × 100

partial pressure of water vapor

Relative humidity =
equilibrium vapor pressure of water at a given temperature

The quantum yield for the decomposition of a reactant molecule in a decomposition reaction is
defined as:

number of molecules decomposed

Φ=
number of photons absorbed

Quantum yield can also be defined for other events, such as fluorescence:

number of photons emitted

Φ=
number of photons absorbed

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401
Simple buffering agents

Buffering agent pKa pH range

Citric acid 3.13, 4.76, 6.40 2.1–7.4

Acetic acid 4.8 3.8–5.8

KH2PO4 7.2 6.2–8.2

CHES 9.3 8.3–10.3

Borate 9.24 8.25–10.25

Acid Buffer: CH3COOH and CH3COONa (weak acid and salt of its conjugate base).

[Salt]
pH = pKa + log (Henderson–Hasselbalch equation)
[Acid]

Basic Buffer: NH4OH and NH4Cl (weak base and salt of its conjugate acid).

[Salt]
pH = pKb + log
[Base]

Buffer capacity:
dCb
β=
d(pH)

where dCb is an infinitesimal amount of added base

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402
 dCa
β=−
d(pH)
where dCa is an infinitesimal amount of added acid. pH is defined as −log10[H+], and d(pH) is an
infinitesimal change in pH.

van 't Hoff factor

Observed value of colligative property
i =
Theoretical value of colligative property

Steric Number = (number of lone electron pairs on the central atom) + (number of atoms bonded to the central atom)

Steric Number Predicted Shape Bond angle (Degrees)

2 Linear 180
3 Trigonal Planar 120
4 Tetrahedral 109.5
5 Trigonal Bipyramidal 90,120
6 Octahedral 90

Table of Common Ligands

Name in
Type Charge Ligand Formula
Complexes

ammonia NH3 ammine

monodentate neutral water H2O aqua

carbon monoxide CO carbonyl

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403
 pyridine pyr pyridine

azide N3 azido

bromide Br bromido

chloride Cl chlorido

cyanide CN cyanido

minus one
fluoride F fluorido

hydroxide OH hydroxido

nitrite NO2 nitrito

thiocyanate SCN or NCS thiocyanato

bipyridine bipy bipyridine

neutral
ethylenediamine en ethylenediamine

carbonate CO32 carbonato

bidentate
oxide O2 oxo
minus two
oxalate C2O42 oxolato

sulfate SO42 sulfato

Hybridisation Geometry Coordination number

sp linear 2
sp2 Trigonal planar 3
sp3 Tetrahedral 4
dsp2 Square planar 4
dsp3 Trigonal bipyramidal 5

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404
 dsp3 Square-based pyramid 5
d2sp3 Octahedral 6

Bead test

Metal Color in Oxidizing flame Color in Reducing flame

Aluminum colorless (hot and cold), opaque colorless, opaque

Antimony colorless, yellow or brown (hot) gray and opaque

Barium colorless

Bismuth colorless, yellow or brownish (hot) gray and opaque

Cadmium colorless gray and opaque

Calcium colorless

Cerium red (hot) colorless (hot and cold)

Copper sky blue (hot and cold), opaque red, opaque

Iron yellow (hot and cold), opaque bottle-green, opaque

Manganese pink (hot and cold), opaque colorless, opaque

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405
 Cobalt deep blue (hot and cold), opaque deep blue, opaque

Nickel yellow-brown (hot and cold), opaque grey, opaque

Silver colourless (hot and cold), opaque grey, opaque

Vanadium colourless (hot and cold), opaque green, opaque

Uranium yellow-brown (hot and cold), opaque green, opaque

Chromium green (hot and cold), opaque green, opaque

Platinum colourless (hot and cold), opaque grey, opaque

Gold yellow-brown (hot and cold), opaque grey, opaque

Tin colourless (hot and cold), opaque colourless, opaque

Titanium colourless (hot and cold), opaque yellow, opaque (hot) violet (cold)

Tungsten colourless (hot and cold), opaque brown, opaque

Magnesium colourless (hot and cold), opaque colourless, opaque

Molybdenum colourless (hot and cold), opaque yellow or brown, opaque

Strontium colourless (hot and cold), opaque colourless, opaque

Thorium colourless (hot and cold), opaque colourless, opaque

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406
 Yttrium colourless (hot and cold), opaque colourless, opaque

Neodymium colourless (hot and cold), opaque colourless, opaque

Praseodymium colourless (hot and cold), opaque colourless, opaque

Silicon colourless (hot and cold), opaque colourless, opaque

Germanium colourless (hot and cold), opaque colourless, opaque

List of oncogenic bacteria

Species or genera Possibly associated cancers

Bacteroides fragilis Colon cancer.
Borrelia burgdorferi MALT lymphoma.
Campylobacter jejuni Immunoproliferative small intestinal disease
(IPSID), which is rare a type of MALT lymphoma.
Chlamydia pneumonia Lung MALT lymphoma.
Chlamydia trachomatis (chlamydia) Cervical cancer.
Chlamydophila psittaci Ocular/adnexal lymphoma (forms of eye cancer).
Clostridium ssp Colon cancer.
Helicobacter bilis Biliary cancers (such as gallbladder and biliary tract
cancers).
Helicobacter bizzozeronii Gastric MALT lymphoma.
Helicobacter felis Gastric MALT lymphoma.
Helicobacter heilmannii Marginal zone B-cell lymphoma of the stomach.
Helicobacter hepaticus Biliary cancer.
Helicobacter pylori Stomach cancer, Marginal zone B-cell lymphoma

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407
 of the stomach, and bile duct cancer
Helicobacter salomonis Gastric MALT lymphoma.
Helicobacter suis Gastric MALT lymphoma.
Mycoplasma spp Stomach, colon, ovarian, and lung
cancers (particularly M. fermentans, M.
penetrans, M. hyorhinis).
Neisseria gonorrhoeae (gonorrhea) Bladder cancer and possibly prostate cancer.
Cutibacterium acnes Bladder and prostate cancer.
Salmonella enterica serovar Paratyphi Biliary cancer.
Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium Biliary cancer.
Treponema pallidum (syphilis) Bladder cancer and possibly prostate cancer.

List of infectious diseases

Infectious agent Common name

Acinetobacter baumannii Acinetobacter infections
Actinomyces israelii, Actinomyces Actinomycosis
gerencseriae and Propionibacterium propionicus
Trypanosoma brucei African sleeping sickness (African
trypanosomiasis)
HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus) AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome)
Entamoeba histolytica Amoebiasis
Anaplasma species Anaplasmosis
Angiostrongylus Angiostrongyliasis
Anisakis Anisakiasis
Bacillus anthracis Anthrax
Arcanobacterium haemolyticum Arcanobacterium
haemolyticum infection

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408
 Junin virus Argentine hemorrhagic fever
Ascaris lumbricoides Ascariasis
Aspergillus species Aspergillosis
Astroviridae species Astrovirus infection
Babesia species Babesiosis
Bacillus cereus Bacillus cereus infection
multiple bacteria Bacterial meningitis
multiple bacteria Bacterial pneumonia
List of bacterial vaginosis microbiota Bacterial vaginosis
Bacteroides species Bacteroides infection
Balantidium coli Balantidiasis
Bartonella Bartonellosis
Baylisascaris species Baylisascaris infection
BK virus BK virus infection
Piedraia hortae Black piedra
Blastocystis species Blastocystosis
Blastomyces dermatitidis Blastomycosis
Machupo virus Bolivian hemorrhagic fever
Clostridium botulinum; Note: Botulism is not an Botulism (and Infant botulism)
infection by Clostridium botulinum but caused by the
intake of botulinum toxin.
Sabiá virus Brazilian hemorrhagic fever
Brucella species Brucellosis
Yersinia pestis Bubonic plague
usually Burkholderia cepacia and Burkholderia infection
other Burkholderia species
Mycobacterium ulcerans Buruli ulcer
Caliciviridae species Calicivirus infection
(Norovirus and Sapovirus)
Campylobacter species Campylobacteriosis

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409
 usually Candida albicans and other Candida species Candidiasis (Moniliasis; Thrush)
Intestinal disease by Capillaria philippinensis, hepatic Capillariasis
disease by Capillaria hepatica and pulmonary disease
by Capillaria aerophila
Bartonella bacilliformis Carrion's disease
Bartonella henselae Cat-scratch disease
usually Group A Streptococcus and Staphylococcus Cellulitis
Trypanosoma cruzi Chagas disease (American
trypanosomiasis)
Haemophilus ducreyi Chancroid
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) Chickenpox
Alphavirus Chikungunya
Chlamydia trachomatis Chlamydia
Chlamydophila pneumoniae Chlamydophila pneumoniae infection
(Taiwan acute respiratory agent or
TWAR)
Vibrio cholerae Cholera
usually Fonsecaea pedrosoi Chromoblastomycosis
Batrachochytrium dendrabatidis Chytridiomycosis
Clonorchis sinensis Clonorchiasis
Clostridium difficile Clostridium difficile colitis
Coccidioides immitis and Coccidioides posadasii Coccidioidomycosis
Colorado tick fever virus (CTFV) Colorado tick fever (CTF)
usually rhinoviruses and coronaviruses Common cold (Acute viral
rhinopharyngitis; Acute coryza)
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-
2 (SARS-CoV-2) 19)
PRNP Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD)
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic
fever (CCHF)

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410
 Cryptococcus neoformans Cryptococcosis
Cryptosporidium species Cryptosporidiosis
usually Ancylostoma braziliense; multiple other Cutaneous larva migrans (CLM)
parasites
Cyclospora cayetanensis Cyclosporiasis
Taenia solium Cysticercosis
Cytomegalovirus Cytomegalovirus infection
Dengue viruses (DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3 and DEN-4) – Dengue fever
Flaviviruses
Green algae Desmodesmus armatus Desmodesmus infection
Dientamoeba fragilis Dientamoebiasis
Corynebacterium diphtheriae Diphtheria
Diphyllobothrium Diphyllobothriasis
Dracunculus medinensis Dracunculiasis
Ebolavirus (EBOV) Ebola hemorrhagic fever
Echinococcus species Echinococcosis
Ehrlichia species Ehrlichiosis
Enterobius vermicularis Enterobiasis (Pinworm infection)
Enterococcus species Enterococcus infection
Enterovirus species Enterovirus infection
Rickettsia prowazekii Epidemic typhus
Parvovirus B19 Erythema infectiosum (Fifth disease)
Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) and human herpesvirus Exanthem subitum (Sixth disease)
7 (HHV-7)
Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica Fasciolasis
Fasciolopsis buski Fasciolopsiasis
PRNP Fatal familial insomnia (FFI)
Filarioidea superfamily Filariasis
Clostridium perfringens Food poisoning by Clostridium
perfringens

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411
 multiple Free-living amebic infection
Fusobacterium species Fusobacterium infection
usually Clostridium perfringens; Gas gangrene (Clostridial
other Clostridium species myonecrosis)
Geotrichum candidum Geotrichosis
PRNP Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker
syndrome (GSS)
Giardia lamblia Giardiasis
Burkholderia mallei Glanders
Gnathostoma spinigerum and Gnathostoma hispidum Gnathostomiasis
Neisseria gonorrhoeae Gonorrhea
Klebsiella granulomatis Granuloma inguinale (Donovanosis)
Streptococcus pyogenes Group A streptococcal infection
Streptococcus agalactiae Group B streptococcal infection
Haemophilus influenzae Haemophilus influenzae infection
Enteroviruses, mainly Coxsackie Hand, foot and mouth
A virus and enterovirus 71 (EV71) disease (HFMD)
Sin Nombre virus Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome
(HPS)
Heartland virus Heartland virus disease
Helicobacter pylori Helicobacter pylori infection
Escherichia coli O157:H7, O111 and O104:H4 Hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS)
Bunyaviridae species Hemorrhagic fever with renal
syndrome (HFRS)
Hendra virus Hendra virus infection
Hepatitis A virus Hepatitis A
Hepatitis B virus Hepatitis B
Hepatitis C virus Hepatitis C
Hepatitis D Virus Hepatitis D
Hepatitis E virus Hepatitis E

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412
Herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) Herpes simplex
Histoplasma capsulatum Histoplasmosis
Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus Hookworm infection
Human bocavirus (HBoV) Human bocavirus infection
Ehrlichia ewingii Human ewingii ehrlichiosis
Anaplasma phagocytophilum Human granulocytic
anaplasmosis (HGA)
Human metapneumovirus (hMPV) Human metapneumovirus infection
Ehrlichia chaffeensis Human monocytic ehrlichiosis
One of the human papillomaviruses Human papillomavirus (HPV)
infection
Human parainfluenza viruses (HPIV) Human parainfluenza virus infection
Hymenolepis nana and Hymenolepis diminuta Hymenolepiasis
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) Epstein–Barr virus infectious
mononucleosis (Mono)
Orthomyxoviridae species Influenza (flu)
Isospora belli Isosporiasis
unknown; evidence supports that it is infectious Kawasaki disease
multiple Keratitis
Kingella kingae Kingella kingae infection
PRNP Kuru
Lassa virus Lassa fever
Legionella pneumophila Legionellosis (Legionnaires' disease)
Legionella pneumophila Pontiac fever
Leishmania species Leishmaniasis
Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium Leprosy
lepromatosis
Leptospira species Leptospirosis
Listeria monocytogenes Listeriosis
Borrelia burgdorferi, Borrelia garinii, and Borrelia Lyme disease (Lyme borreliosis)

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413
 afzelii
Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia malayi Lymphatic filariasis (Elephantiasis)
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) Lymphocytic choriomeningitis
Plasmodium species Malaria
Marburg virus Marburg hemorrhagic fever (MHF)
Measles virus Measles
Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus Middle East respiratory
syndrome (MERS)
Burkholderia pseudomallei Melioidosis (Whitmore's disease)
multiple Meningitis
Neisseria meningitidis Meningococcal disease
usually Metagonimus yokagawai Metagonimiasis
Microsporidia phylum Microsporidiosis
Molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV) Molluscum contagiosum (MC)
Monkeypox virus Monkeypox
Mumps virus Mumps
Rickettsia typhi Murine typhus (Endemic typhus)
Mycoplasma pneumoniae Mycoplasma pneumonia
Mycoplasma genitalium Mycoplasma genitalium infection
numerous species of bacteria (Actinomycetoma) Mycetoma
and fungi (Eumycetoma)
parasitic dipterous fly larvae Myiasis
most commonly Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria Neonatal conjunctivitis (Ophthalmia
gonorrhoeae neonatorum)
Nipah virus Nipah virus infection
Norovirus Norovirus (children and babies)
PRNP (New) Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob
disease (vCJD, nvCJD)
usually Nocardia asteroides and other Nocardia species Nocardiosis
Onchocerca volvulus Onchocerciasis (River blindness)

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414
Opisthorchis viverrini and Opisthorchis felineus Opisthorchiasis
Paracoccidioides brasiliensis Paracoccidioidomycosis (South
American blastomycosis)
usually Paragonimus westermani and Paragonimiasis
other Paragonimus species
Pasteurella species Pasteurellosis
Pediculus humanus capitis Pediculosis capitis (Head lice)
Pediculus humanus corporis Pediculosis corporis (Body lice)
Pthirus pubis Pediculosis pubis (pubic lice, crab
lice)
multiple Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
Bordetella pertussis Pertussis (whooping cough)
Yersinia pestis Plague
Streptococcus pneumoniae Pneumococcal infection
Pneumocystis jirovecii Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP)
multiple Pneumonia
Poliovirus Poliomyelitis
Prevotella species Prevotella infection
usually Naegleria fowleri Primary amoebic
meningoencephalitis (PAM)
JC virus Progressive multifocal
leukoencephalopathy
Chlamydophila psittaci Psittacosis
Coxiella burnetii Q fever
Rabies virus Rabies
Borrelia hermsii, Borrelia recurrentis, and Relapsing fever
other Borrelia species
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) Respiratory syncytial virus infection
Rhinosporidium seeberi Rhinosporidiosis
Rhinovirus Rhinovirus infection

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415
 Rickettsia species Rickettsial infection
Rickettsia akari Rickettsialpox
Rift Valley fever virus Rift Valley fever (RVF)
Rickettsia rickettsii Rocky Mountain spotted
fever (RMSF)
Rotavirus Rotavirus infection
Rubella virus Rubella
Salmonella species Salmonellosis
SARS coronavirus SARS (severe acute respiratory
syndrome)
Sarcoptes scabiei Scabies
Group A Streptococcus species Scarlet fever
Schistosoma species Schistosomiasis
multiple Sepsis
Shigella species Shigellosis (bacillary dysentery)
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) Shingles (Herpes zoster)
Variola major or Variola minor Smallpox (variola)
Sporothrix schenckii Sporotrichosis
Staphylococcus species Staphylococcal food poisoning
Staphylococcus species Staphylococcal infection
Strongyloides stercoralis Strongyloidiasis
Measles virus Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis
Treponema pallidum Bejel, Syphilis, and Yaws
Taenia species Taeniasis
Clostridium tetani Tetanus (lockjaw)
usually Trichophyton species Tinea barbae (barber's itch)
usually Trichophyton tonsurans Tinea capitis (ringworm of the scalp)
usually Trichophyton species Tinea corporis (ringworm of the body)
usually Epidermophyton floccosum, Trichophyton Tinea cruris (Jock itch)
rubrum, and Trichophyton mentagrophytes

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416
 Trichophyton rubrum Tinea manum (ringworm of the hand)
usually Hortaea werneckii Tinea nigra
usually Trichophyton species Tinea pedis (athlete’s foot)
usually Trichophyton species Tinea unguium (onychomycosis)
Malassezia species Tinea versicolor (Pityriasis versicolor)
Toxocara canis or Toxocara cati Toxocariasis (ocular larva migrans
(OLM))
Toxocara canis or Toxocara cati Toxocariasis (visceral larva migrans
(VLM))
Toxoplasma gondii Toxoplasmosis
Chlamydia trachomatis Trachoma
Trichinella spiralis Trichinosis
Trichomonas vaginalis Trichomoniasis
Trichuris trichiura Trichuriasis (whipworm infection)
usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis Tuberculosis
Francisella tularensis Tularemia
Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica, serovar typhi Typhoid fever
Rickettsia Typhus fever
Ureaplasma urealyticum Ureaplasma urealyticum infection
Coccidioides immitis or Coccidioides posadasii. Valley fever
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus Venezuelan equine encephalitis
Guanarito virus Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever
Vibrio vulnificus Vibrio vulnificus infection
Vibrio parahaemolyticus Vibrio parahaemolyticus enteritis
multiple viruses Viral pneumonia
West Nile virus West Nile fever
Trichosporon beigelii White piedra (tinea blanca)
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infection
Yersinia enterocolitica Yersiniosis
Yellow fever virus Yellow fever

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417
 Zeaspora fungus Zeaspora
Zika virus Zika fever
Mucorales order (Mucormycosis) Zygomycosis
and Entomophthorales order (Entomophthoramycosis)

Pharmacokinetics

Total Dose
 Volume of Distribution =
Drug Concentration

clearance
 Volume of Distribution =
elimination rate constant

0.693
 Half Life = elimination rate constant

𝐁𝐢𝐨𝐚𝐯𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐚𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 ×Dose
 Clearance =
area under curve

 Dose Rate = Desired concentration of drug in plasma at steady state × Clearance

Desired concentration of drug in plasma at steady state

 Adjusted Dose Rate = Initial Dose Rate ×
Measured concentration of drug in plasma at steady state

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418
Molecularity of Reaction

The molecularity of an elementary reaction is defined as the number of reactant molecules taking
part in the chemical reaction.

Chemical Reaction Molecularity

PCl5 → PCl3 + Cl2 Unimolecular

2HI → H2 + I2 Bimolecular

2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3 Trimolecular

NO + O3 → NO2 + O2 Bimolecular

2CO + O2 → 2CO2 Trimolecular

2FeCl3 + SnCl2 → SnCl2 + 2FeCl2 Trimolecular

Common Multiferroic Materials

Material Ferroelectric TC [K] magnetic TN or TC [K] Type of Ferroelectricity

BiFeO3 1100 653 lone pair

HoMn2O5 39 magnetically driven

TbMnO3 27 42 magnetically driven

Ni3V2O8 6.5

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419
 MnWO4 13.5 magnetically driven

CuO 230 230 magnetically driven

ZnCr2Se4 110 20

Ranges of the Trig Functions

−1 ≤ sinθ ≤ 1

−1 ≤ cosθ ≤ 1

−∞ ≤ tanθ ≤ ∞

cscθ ≥ 1 and cscθ ≤ −1

secθ ≥ 1 and secθ ≤ −1

−∞ ≤ cotθ ≤ ∞

Periods of the Trig Functions

The period of a function is the number, T, such that f (θ + T) = f (θ).

So, if ω is a fixed number and θ is any angle we have the following periods.
2π
sin(ωθ) → T =
ω
2π
cos(ωθ) → T =
ω
π
tan(ωθ) → T =
ω

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420
 2π
csc(ωθ) → T =
ω
2π
sec(ωθ) → T =
ω
π
cot(ωθ) → T =
ω

If n is an integer
sin(θ+ 2πn) = sinθ

cos(θ + 2πn) = cosθ

tan(θ + πn) = tanθ

csc(θ + 2πn) = cscθ

sec(θ + 2πn) = secθ

cot(θ + πn) = cotθ

Degrees to Radians Formulas

If x is an angle in degrees and t is an angle in radians then:

180o t
x=
π

Conic Sections

 Circle
Standard Form: (x − h) 2 + (y − k) 2 = r2

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421
where (h, k) = center and r = radius

 Ellipse

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
Standard Form for Horizontal Major Axis: + =1
a2 b2

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
Standard Form for Vertical Major Axis: + =1
b2 a2

where (h, k) = center

2a=length of major axis
2b=length of minor axis
(0 < b < a)

Foci can be found by using c2 = a2 − b2

where c = foci length

 Hyperbola

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
Standard Form for Horizontal Transverse Axis: − =1
a2 b2

(y − k)2 (x − h)2
Standard Form for Vertical Transverse Axis: − =1
a2 b2

where (h, k) = center

a=distance between center and either vertex

Foci can be found by using b2 = c2 − a2

where c is the distance between center and either focus. (b > 0)

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  Parabola

Vertical axis: y = a(x − h) 2 + k

Horizontal axis: x = a(y − k) 2 + h
where (h, k) = vertex
a=scaling factor

Range of Trigonometric Expression:

− √a2 + b 2 ≤ asinθ +bcosθ ≤ √a2 + b 2

Coefficient of Determination Formula

n(Σxy)−(Σx) (Σy)
r=
√[nΣx2 −(Σx2 )][nΣy2 −(Σy2 )]

where,

 r = Correlation coefficient
 x = Values in first set of data
 y = Values in second set of data
 n = Total number of values.

Formula for Conditional Probability

Conditional Probability of A given B P(A ∩ B)

P (A|B) =
P(B)

Conditional Probability of B given A P(B ∩ A)

P (B|A) =
P(A)

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Covariance Formula

Population Covariance Formula ∑(xi −x̅ )(yi −y

̅)
Cov(x, y) =
N

Sample Covariance Formula ∑(xi −x̅ )(yi −y

̅)
Cov(x, y) =
N−1

 xi = data value of x
 yi = data value of y
 x̄ = mean of x
 ȳ = mean of y
 N = number of data values.

Cov(x,y)
Correlation =
σx σy

where: Cov(x, y) is the covariance between x and y while σx and σy are the standard deviations of
x and y.

Anova Formula

sum of squares factor

Mean Square Factor =
degrees of freedom factor

sum of squares error

Mean Square Error =
degrees of freedom error

Degrees of freedom factor = number of factor levels – 1

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 Degrees of freedom error = total number of observations − number of factor levels

Mean square factor

F-value =
Mean square error

sum of squares error

R2 =
sum of squares total

Mean Square error

R2 (adjusted) = 1 –
Sum of Squares total / degrees of freedom total

Predicted Residual Sum of squares

R2 (predicted) = 1 −
Sum of Squares total

Process capability Formula

upper specification limit − lower specification limit

Process capability =
6 × standard deviation

Effect Size Formula

Mean of first observation−Mean of second observation

Cohen's index = 2 + (Standard deviation of second observation)2
√(Standard deviation of first observation)
2

d
Effect-size coefficient =
√d2 + 4

where: d denote the Cohen's index

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Euler's Formula Equation

eix = cos x + i sin x

Exponential Equation Formula

y = abx

 x and y are the variables

 a and b are constants

Fibonacci Formula

Fn = Fn – 1 + Fn – 2
where,

 Fn = nth term of the series

 Fn – 1 and Fn – 2 are the (n −1) th and (n – 2) th terms respectively

Gaussian Distribution Formula

The probability density function formula for Gaussian distribution is given by:

1 −(x−μ)2
f (x, μ, σ) = exp ( )
σ√2π 2σ2

where,

 x is the variable
 μ is the mean
 σ is the standard deviation

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Infinite Series Formula

1
∑∞ n
0 r = 1− r

Linear Interpolation Formula

(x−x1 )
y = y1 + × (y2 − y1)
(x2 −x1 )

Percent Decrease Formula

Decreased Value
Percent Decrease = × 100
Original Value

Percentage Increase Formula

Increased Value
Percent Increase = × 100
Original Value

Percentile Formula

Number of Values Below "x"

Percentile = × 100
Total Number of Values

Perfect Square Trinomial Formula

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 (ax)2 + 2abx + b2 = (ax + b)2

(ax)2 − 2abx + b2 = (ax − b)2

Poisson Distribution Formula

Suppose we conduct a Poisson experiment, in which the average number of successes within a
given region is μ. Then, the Poisson probability is:

e−μ μx
P(x, μ) =
x!

where x is the actual number of successes that result from the experiment, and e is approximately
equal to 2.71828.

Quartile Formula

When the set of observation is arranged in an ascending order, then the lower percentile is given

by:

N+1
Q1 = ( ) th Term
4

The middle quartile is given by:

N+1
Q2 = ( ) th Term
2

The upper quartile is given by:

3(N+1)
Q3 = ( ) th Term
4

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 inter quartile range = Q3 – Q1

 N → number of observations

Ratio Analysis Formula

 Liquidity Ratios

Current Asset
Current Ratio =
Current Liabilities

(Total Current Ratio − Inventory)

Quick Ratio =
Total Current Liabilities

 Profitability Ratios

Net profit after tax

Net Profit Ratio = × 100
NetSales

GrossProfit
Gross Profit Ratio = × 100
NetSales

Operating Cost
Operating Ratio = × 100
NetSales

Net Income – Preferred Dividends

Earnings per share =
average outstanding common shares

 Activity Ratios

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 Cost of goods sold
Inventory Turnover Ratio =
Average Inventory

Net Credit Sales

Receivables Turnover Ratio =
Average Trade Receivable

 Solvency Ratios

Total Liabilities
Debt Equity Ratio =
Stakeholder Equity

Stakeholder Equity
Proprietary Ratio = ×100
Total Assets

Relative frequency formula

number of times the data occurred in an observation

relative frequency =
total frequencies

Sampling Error Formula

σ
Sampling Error = Z ×
√n

where,
 Z is the Z score value based on the confidence interval (approx = 1.96)
 σ is the population standard deviation
 n is the size of the sample

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Stirling Formula

n
n! ≈ ( e )n √2πn

Annulus Formula

A = π (R2 − r2)

where,

 A = Area of Annulus
 R = Outer radius
 r = Inner radius
 (Pi) π = is approximately 3.142

Bayes' theorem

P(B | A) P(A)
P(A | B) =
P(B)

where A and B are events and P(B) ≠ 0.

 P(A | B) is a conditional probability: the likelihood of event A occurring given that B is
true.
 P(B | A) is also a conditional probability: the likelihood of event B occurring given that A
is true.
 P(A) and P(B) are the probabilities of observing A and B respectively; they are known as
the marginal probability.

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 35 × 11 32 × 31 = ?

9 × 1 = 09 3 + 5
9 × 2 = 18

9 × 3 = 27 3 8 5
9 × 4 = 36

9 × 5 = 45 35 × 11 = 385
9 × 6 = 54 9 6 +3 = 9 2

9 × 7 = 63

9 × 8 = 72 992

9 × 9 = 81 32 × 11
32 × 31 = 992
9 × 10 = 90
3 + 2

3 5 2 374 × 43 = ?

 374 = 300 + 70 + 4
32 × 11 = 352
19 1❾ 1  43 = 40 + 3
= =
95 ❾5 5

16 1❻ 1 300 70 4
= = 40 12000 2800 160
64 ❻4 4
3 900 210 12
26 2❻ 1
= =
65 ❻5 5
12000 + 2800 + 160 + 900 + 210 + 12 =16082

374 × 43 = 16082

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Central Limit Theorem Formula

Central limit theorem is applicable for a sufficiently large sample sizes (n ≥ 30). The formula for
central limit theorem can be stated as follows:

Sample mean = Population mean

and
Population standard deviation
Sample standard deviation =
√Sample size

Coefficient of Variation Formula

Standard Deviation
Coefficient of variation = ×100%
Mean

Process capability index (Cpk) Formula

upper specification limit − mean mean− lower specification limit

Cpk = min( , )
3 × standard deviation 3 × standard deviation

Signal to Noise Ratio Formula

standard deviation
signal to noise ratio =
mean of the given data

Uniform Distribution Formula

x+y
Theoretical Mean =
2

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 (y−x)2
Standard Deviation = √
12

Z Score Formula
Standardized random variable − mean
Z Score =
Standard deviation

Inductance Formula

The total series inductance is

L=L1 + L2 + L3 +…. + Ln

The parallel inductance is

1 1 1 1 1
= + + +….+
L L1 L2 L3 Ln

where, L1, L2, L3….. Ln denotes the inductance values.

Soil Erosion Formula

The universal soil loss equation predicts the annual soil loss per unit area. The universal soil loss
equation is given by:

A = R × K × L× S × CP

where,

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  A is the estimated annual soil loss
 R is the rainfall and runoff factor representing the summed erosive potential of all rainfall
events in a year.
 L is the slope length
 S is the slope steepness
 K is the soil erodibility factor representing units of soil loss per unit of soil erosivity
 CP characterizes conservation management and land cover practices.

Critical Velocity Formula

K× η
Critical velocity of a liquid flowing through a tube =
ρ×r

where:
 K is the Reynold's number
 η is the coefficient of the viscosity of the liquid
 r is the radius of the tube through which the liquid flows
 ρ is the density of the liquid

Horsepower Formula

One Horsepower equals to 33,000 lb. ft/min

Torque × Speed
Horsepower (HP) =
5252

velocity
Horsepower (HP) = Weight × ( )2
234

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Beat Frequency Formula

The formula for beat frequency is the difference in frequency of the two superimposed waves.

fb = f2−f1

 f1 and f2 are the frequency of two waves

Voltage Drop Formula

voltage drop across the circuit = Current in amperes × impedance in Ω

Brewster's law Formula

µ = tanθp

where,

 µ is the refractive index of the medium

 θp is the polarizing angle

Hagen–Poiseuille equation

8πμLQ
Δp =
A2

where:
 Δp is the pressure difference between the two ends,
 L is the length of pipe,
 μ is the dynamic viscosity,
 Q is the volumetric flow rate,
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  R is the pipe radius,
 A is the cross section of pipe.

Pressure Drop Formula

J = fLv2 / 2gD

where:

 J = pressure drop
 f = friction factor
 L = length of the tube
 v = velocity of the fluid
 g = acceleration due to gravity
 D = inner diameter of the tube

Strain Energy Formula

F×δ
strain energy =
2
where,

 δ = compression,
 F = force applied.

1
strain energy = Vσε
2

where,

 σ = stress
 ε= strain
 V = volume of body

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 σ2
strain energy =
2E × V

where,
 σ = stress,
 E = Young's modulus,
 V = volume of body.

Rate Law

 Zero order
dC
− =k
dt

C0
t1 =
2 2k

 First order

dC
−
dt = kC

ln2
t1 =
2 2k

 Second

dC 2
−
dt = kC

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 1
t1 =
2 kC0

 nth order
dC
−
dt
= kCn

 n → order of the reaction

 C → reactant concentration
 C0 → initial reactant concentration
 t 1 → Half life period
2

 k → rate constant

List of ester odorants

Ester name Odor or occurrence

Allyl hexanoate pineapple

Benzyl acetate pear, strawberry, jasmine

Bornyl acetate pine

Butyl acetate apple, honey

Butyl butyrate pineapple

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 Butyl propanoate pear drops

Ethyl acetate nail polish remover, model paint, model airplane glue

Ethyl benzoate sweet, wintergreen, fruity, medicinal, cherry, grape

Ethyl butyrate banana, pineapple, strawberry

Ethyl hexanoate pineapple, waxy-green banana

Ethyl cinnamate cinnamon

Ethyl formate lemon, rum, strawberry

Ethyl heptanoate apricot, cherry, grape, raspberry

Ethyl isovalerate apple

Ethyl lactate butter, cream

Ethyl nonanoate grape

Ethyl pentanoate apple

Geranyl acetate geranium

Geranyl butyrate cherry

Geranyl pentanoate apple

Isobutyl acetate cherry, raspberry, strawberry

Isobutyl formate raspberry

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 Isoamyl acetate pear, banana (flavoring in Pear drops)

Isopropyl acetate fruity

Linalyl acetate lavender, sage

Linalyl butyrate peach

Linalyl formate apple, peach

Methyl acetate glue

Methyl anthranilate grape, jasmine

Methyl benzoate fruity, ylang ylang, feijoa

Methyl butyrate pineapple, apple, strawberry

(methyl butanoate)

Methyl cinnamate strawberry

Methyl pentanoate flowery

(methyl valerate)

Methyl phenylacetate honey

Methyl salicylate Modern root beer, wintergreen,

(oil of wintergreen) Germolene and Ralgex ointments (UK)

Nonyl caprylate orange

Octyl acetate fruity-orange

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 Octyl butyrate parsnip

Amyl acetate apple, banana

(pentyl acetate)

Pentyl butyrate apricot, pear, pineapple

(amyl butyrate)

Pentyl hexanoate apple, pineapple

(amyl caproate)

Pentyl pentanoate apple

(amyl valerate)

Propyl acetate pear

Propyl hexanoate blackberry, pineapple, cheese, wine

Propyl isobutyrate rum

Terpenyl butyrate cherry

List of dyes with Colour Index International generic names and numbers

Common name Synonyms C.I. generic name C.I. number

Alcian Blue 8GX Alcian Blue Ingrain Blue 74240

Alcian yellow GXS Sudan orange Ingrain yellow 1 12840

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 Alizarin Mordant red 11 58000

Alizarin Red S Mordant red 3 58005

Alizarin yellow GG Mordant yellow 1 14025

Alizarin yellow R Mordant orange 1 14030

Azophloxin Azogeranin B Acid red 1 18050

Bismarck brown R Vesuvine brown Basic brown 4 21010

Bismarck brown Y Vesuvine Basic brown 1 21000

Phenylene brown

Brilliant cresyl blue Cresyl blue BBS Basic dye 51010

Chrysoidine R Basic orange 1 11320

Chrysoidine Y Basic orange 2 11270

Congo red Direct red 28 22120

Crystal violet Basic violet 3 42555

Ethyl Green 42590

Fuchsin acid Acid violet 19 42685

Gentian violet Basic violet 1 42535

Janus green Basic dye 11050

Lissamine fast yellow Yellow 2G Acid yellow 17 18965

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 Malachite green

Martius yellow Acid yellow 24 10315

Meldola blue Phenylene blue Basic blue 6 51175

Metanil yellow Acid yellow 36 13065

Methyl orange Acid orange 52 13025

Methyl red Acid red 2 13020

Naphthalene black 12B Amido black 10B Acid black 1 20470

Naphthol green B Acid green 1 10020

Naphthol yellow S Acid yellow 1 10316

Orange G Acid orange 10 16230

Purpurin Verantin

Rose bengal Acid red 94 45440

Sudan II Solvent orange 7 12140

Titan yellow Direct yellow 9 19540

Tropaeolin O Sulpho orange Acid orange 6 14270

Tropaeolin OO Acid orange 5 13080

Tropaeolin OOO Orange II Acid orange 7 15510

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 Victoria blue 4R Basic blue 8 42563

Victoria blue B Basic blue 26 44045

Victoria blue R Basic blue 11 44040

Xylene cyanol FF Acid blue 147 42135

List of copper salts

Name Chemical Formula Anion

Copper silicide Cu5Si Silicide (silane)
Copper(I) oxide Cu2O Oxide (oxygen)
Copper(I) chloride CuCl Chloride (hydrochloric acid)
Copper(I) iodide CuI Iodide (hydroiodic acid)
Copper(I) cyanide CuCN Cyanide (hydrocyanic acid)
Copper(I) thiocyanate CuSCN Thiocyanate (thiocyanic acid)
Copper(I) sulfate Cu2SO4 Sulfate (sulfuric acid)
Copper(I) sulfide Cu2S Sulfide (hydrogen sulfide)
Copper(I) acetylide Cu2C2 Acetylide (acetylene)
Copper(I) bromide CuBr Bromide (hydrobromic acid)
Copper(I) fluoride CuF Fluoride (hydrofluoric acid)
Copper(I) hydroxide CuOH Hydroxide (water)
Copper(I) hydride CuH Hydride (hydrogen gas)
Copper(I) nitrate CuNO3 Nitrate (nitric acid)
Copper(I) phosphide Cu3P Phosphide (phosphine)
Copper(I) thiophene-2- C5H3CuO2S thiophene-2-carboxylate (thiophene-2-
carboxylate carboxylic acid)
Copper(I) t-butoxide C16H36Cu4O4 t-butoxide (t-butyl alcohol)
Copper(II) sulfate CuSO4 Sulfate (sulfuric acid)

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 Copper(II) chloride CuCl2 Chloride (hydrochloric acid)

Copper(II) hydroxide Cu(OH)2 Hydroxide (water)

Copper(II) nitrate Cu(NO3)2 Nitrate (nitric acid)

Copper(II) oxide CuO Oxide (oxygen)

Copper(II) acetate Cu(OAc)2 Acetate (acetic acid)

Copper(II) fluoride CuF2 Fluoride (hydrofluoric acid)

Copper(II) bromide CuBr2 Bromide (bromine)

Copper(II) carbonate CuCO3 Carbonate (carbonic acid)

Copper(II) carbonate Cu2CO3(OH)2 Hydroxide (water)
hydroxide Carbonate (carbonic acid)

Copper(II) chlorate Cu(ClO3)2 Chlorate (chloric acid)

Copper(II) arsenate Cu3(AsO4)2 Arsenate (arsenic acid)
Copper(II) azide Cu(N3)2 Azide (hydrazoic acid)

Copper(II) Cu(O2C5H7)2 Acetylacetonate (acetylacetone)

acetylacetonate
Copper(II) aspirinate C36H28Cu2O16 Acetylsalicylate (acetylsalicylic acid)

Copper(II) cyanurate CuC3HN3O3 Cyanurate (cyanuric acid)

Copper(II) glycinate Cu(H2NCH2CO2)2 Glycinate (glycine)
Copper(II) phosphate Cu3(PO4)2 Phosphate (phosphoric acid)
Copper(II) perchlorate Cu(ClO4)2 Perchlorate (perchloric acid)

Copper(II) selenite CuSeO3 Selenite (selenous acid)

Copper(II) sulfide CuS Sulfide (hydrogen sulfide)
Copper(II) thiocyanate Cu(SCN)2 Thiocyanate (thiocyanic acid)
Copper(II) triflate Cu(OSO2CF3)2 Triflate (triflic acid)
Copper(II) Cu(BF4)2 Tetrafluoroborate (tetrafluoroboric acid)
tetrafluoroborate

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 Copper(II) acetate Cu(C2H3O2)2·3Cu(AsO2)2 Acetate (acetic acid)
triarsenite Triarsenite
(Paris Green) (1,3,5,2,4,6-Trioxatriarsinane-2,4,6-triol)
Copper(II) benzoate Cu(C6H5CO2)2 Benzoate (benzoic acid)

Copper(II) arsenite AsCuHO3 Arsenite (Arsenous acid)

(Scheele's Green)
Copper(II) chromite Cu2Cr2O5 Chromite (chromic acid)
Copper(II) gluconate C12H22CuO14 Gluconate (gluconic acid)
Copper(II) peroxide CuO2 Peroxide (hydrogen peroxide)
Copper(II) usnate C18H14CuO7 Usnate (usnic acid)
Copper(III) oxide Cu2O3 Oxide (oxygen)

List of purification methods in chemistry

 Affinity purification purifies proteins by retaining them on a column through their affinity
to antibodies, enzymes, or receptors that have been immobilised on the column.
 Filtration is a mechanical method to separate solids from liquids or gases by passing the feed stream
through a porous sheet such as a cloth or membrane, which retains the solids and allows the liquid to
pass through.
 Centrifugation is a process that uses an electric motor to spin a vessel of fluid at high speed to make
heavier components settle to the bottom of the vessel.
 Evaporation removes volatile liquids from non-volatile solutes, which cannot be done through
filtration due to the small size of the substances.
 Liquid–liquid extraction removes an impurity or recovers a desired product by dissolving the crude
material in a solvent in which other components of the feed material are soluble.
 Crystallization separates a product from a liquid feed stream, often in extremely pure form, by
cooling the feed stream or adding precipitants that lower the solubility of the desired product so that it
forms crystals. The pure solid crystals are then separated from the remaining liquor by filtration or
centrifugation.
 Recrystallization: In analytical and synthetic chemistry work, purchased reagents of doubtful purity
may be recrystallized, e.g. dissolved in a very pure solvent, and then crystallized, and the crystals
recovered, in order to improve and/or verify their purity.

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 Trituration removes highly soluble impurities from usually solid insoluble material by rinsing it
with an appropriate solvent.
 Adsorption removes a soluble impurity from a feed stream by trapping it on the surface of a solid
material, such as activated carbon, that forms strong non-covalent chemical bonds with the impurity.
 Chromatography employs continuous adsorption and desorption on a packed bed of a solid to purify
multiple components of a single feed stream. In a laboratory setting, mixture of dissolved materials
are typically fed using a solvent into a column packed with an appropriate adsorbent, and due to
different affinities for solvent (moving phase) versus adsorbent (stationary phase) the components in
the original mixture exit the column in the moving phase at different rates, which thus allows to
selectively collect desired materials out of the initial mixture.
 Smelting produces metals from raw ore, and involves adding chemicals to the ore and heating it up to
the melting point of the metal.
 Refining is used primarily in the petroleum industry, whereby crude oil is heated and separated into
stages according to the condensation points of the various elements.
 Distillation is widely used in petroleum refining and in purification of ethanol separates volatile
liquids on the basis of their relative volatilities. There is several type of distillation: simple
distillation, steam distillation etc.
 Water purification combines a number of methods to produce potable or drinking water.
 Downstream processing refers to purification of chemicals, pharmaceuticals and food ingredients
produced by fermentation or synthesized by plant and animal tissues, for example antibiotics, citric
acid, vitamin E, and insulin.
 Fractionation refers to a purification strategy in which some relatively inefficient purification
method is repeatedly applied to isolate the desired substance in progressively greater purity.
 Electrolysis refers to the breakdown of substances using an electric current. This removes impurities
in a substance that an electric current is run through
 Sublimation is the process of changing of any substance (usually on heating) from a solid to a gas
(or from gas to a solid) without passing through liquid phase. In terms of purification - material is
heated, often under vacuum, and the vapors of the material are then condensed back to a solid on a
cooler surface. The process thus in its essence is similar to distillation, however the material which is
condensed on the cooler surface then has to be removed mechanically, thus requiring different
laboratory equipment.
 Bioleaching is the extraction of metals from their ores through the use of living organisms.

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Physics Glossary

 Absolute zero: The lowest possible temperature T, at which substances contain no heat energy
Q.
 Acceleration: The rate at which the speed of an object is changing and it is given by the
𝐝𝐯
equation a = .
𝐝𝐭

 Anthropic principle: We see the universe the way it is because if it were different we would not
be here to observe it through a gigantic telescopes pointing deep into the immense sky – merely
stating that the constants of nature must be tuned to allow for intelligence (otherwise we would
not be here). Some believe that this is the sign of a cosmic creator. Others believe that this is a
sign of the multiverse.
 Antiparticle: Each type of matter particle has a corresponding antiparticle – first predicted to
exist by P. A. M. Dirac. When a particle collides with its antiparticle, they annihilate, leaving
only pure energy in the form of discrete bundle (or quantum) of electromagnetic (or light) energy
called photons.
 Atom: The basic unit of ordinary matter, made up of a tiny nucleus (consisting of positively
charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons – which obey the strong interactions)
surrounded by orbiting negatively charged weakly interacting particles called the electrons.
 Big Bang: The singularity at the beginning of the universe. The titanic explosion that created the
universe, sending the galaxies hurtling in all directions. When the universe was created, the
temperature was extremely hot, and the density of material was enormous i.e., infinite. The big
bang took place 13.7 billion years ago, according to the WMAP satellite. The afterglow of the
big bang is seen today as the cosmic background microwave radiation (of temperature 2.7 degrees
above absolute zero). There are three experimental "proofs" of the big bang: the redshift of
the galaxies, the cosmic background microwave radiation, and nucleosynethsis of the elements.
 Big crunch: The singularity at the end of the universe i.e., The final collapse of the universe. If
the density of matter is large enough (Omega – The parameter that measures the average density
of matter in the universe – being larger than 1), then there is enough matter in the universe to
reverse the original expansion and cause the universe to recollapse. Temperatures rise to infinity
at the instant of the big crunch.
 Big freeze: The end of the universe when it reaches near absolute zero. The big freeze is probably
the final state of our universe, because the sum of Omega and Lambda is believed to be 1.0, and

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 hence the universe is in a state of inflation. There is not enough matter and energy to reverse the
original expansion of the universe, so it will probably expand forever.
 Big Bang nucleosynthesis: The production of deuterium, Helium-3 and Helium-4 (the latter to
about 25% mass fraction) in the first 500 to 1000 sec of the early universe. These light isotopes,
plus measurable amounts of lithium-7 and trace amounts of elements B, Be, are the result of non-
equilibrium nuclear reactions as the universe cooled to about 10 to the power of 8 K. Heavier
isotopes were produced in stellar nucleosynthesis.
 Black hole: A region of space-time from which nothing, not even light, can escape, because
gravity is so strong and escape velocity equals the speed of light. Because the speed of light is the
ultimate velocity in the universe, this means that nothing can escape a black hole, once an object
has crossed the event horizon. Black holes can be of various sizes. Galactic black holes, lurking
in the center of galaxies and quasars, can weight millions to billions of solar masses. Stellar black
holes are the remnant of a dying star, perhaps originally up to forty times the mass of our Sun.
Both of these black holes have been identified with our instruments. Mini–black holes may also
exist, as predicted by theory, but they have not yet been seen in the laboratory conditions.
 Black Hole Escape Velocity: It is widely held by astrophysicists and astronomers that a black
hole has an escape velocity c (or c, the speed of light in Vacuum). Chandrasekhar [Nobel
laureate] remarked,

"Let me be more precise as to what one means by a black hole. One says that a black hole is
formed when the gravitational forces on the surface become so strong that light cannot escape
from it. ... A trapped surface is one from which light cannot escape to infinity."

According to Hawking,

"Eventually when a star has shrunk to a certain critical radius, the gravitational field at the surface
becomes so strong that the light cones are bent inward so much that the light can no longer
escape. According to the theory of relativity, nothing can travel faster than light. Thus, if light
cannot escape, neither can anything else. Everything is dragged back by the gravitational field. So
one has a set of events, a region of space-time from which it is not possible to escape to reach a
distant observer. Its boundary is called the event horizon. It coincides with the paths of the light
rays that just fail to escape from the black hole."

A neutron star has a radius of about ten miles, only a few times the critical radius at which a star
becomes a black hole.

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 "I had already discussed with Roger Penrose the idea of defining a black hole as a set of events
from which it is not possible to escape to a large distance. It means that the boundary of the black
hole, the event horizon, is formed by rays of light that just fail to get away from the black hole.
Instead, they stay forever hovering on the edge of the black hole."

However, according to the alleged properties of a black hole, nothing at all can even leave the
black hole. In the very same paper Chandrasekhar made the following quite typical
contradictory assertion:

"The problem we now consider is that of the gravitational collapse of a body to a volume so small
that a trapped surface forms around it; as we have stated, from such a surface no light can
emerge."

Hughes reiterates,

"Things can go into the horizon (from r > 2M to r < 2M), but they cannot get out; once inside, all
causal trajectories (time-like or null) take us inexorably into the classical singularity at r = 0."

The defining property of black holes is their event horizon. Rather than a true surface, black holes
have a 'one-way membrane' through which stuff can go in but cannot come out.

Taylor and Wheeler assert,

"... Einstein predicts that nothing, not even light, can be successfully launched outward from the
horizon ... and that light launched outward EXACTLY at the horizon will never increase its radial
position by so much as a millimeter."

 Zero point Energy: an intrinsic and unavoidable part of quantum physics. The ZPE has been
studied, both theoretically and experimentally, since the discovery of quantum mechanics in the
1920s and there can be no doubt that the ZPE is a real physical effect.
 Casimir effect: The attractive pressure between two flat, parallel metal plates placed very near to
each other in a vacuum. The pressure is due to a reduction in the usual number of virtual
particles in the space between the plates. This tiny effect has been measured in the laboratory.
The Casimir effect may be used as the energy to drive a time machine or wormhole, if its
energy is large enough.
 Chandrasekhar limit: The maximum possible mass of a stable cold star (i.e., 1.4 solar masses),
above which it must collapse into a black hole.

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 Conservation of energy: The law of science that states that energy (or its equivalent in mass) can
neither be created nor destroyed i.e., they never change with time. For example, the conservation
of matter and energy posits that the total amount of matter and energy in the universe is a
constant.
 Coordinates: Numbers that specify the position of a point in 4 dimensional space-time.
 Cosmological constant: A mathematical parameter (which measures the amount of dark energy
in the universe) introduced by Albert Einstein to give space-time an inbuilt tendency to expand.
At present, the data supports density parameter + cosmological constant = 1, which fits the
prediction of inflation for a flat universe. Cosmological constant, which was once thought to be
zero, is now known to determine the ultimate destiny of the universe.
 Cosmology: The study of the universe as a whole.
 COBE: The Cosmic Observer Background Explorer satellite.
 Dark matter: Invisible Matter usually found in a huge halo around galaxies, clusters, and
possibly between clusters, that cannot be observed directly but can be detected by its gravitational
effect and they does not interact with light. As much as 90 percent of the mass of the universe
may be in the form of dark matter and they makes up 23 percent of the total matter/energy content
of the universe. According to string theory, dark matter may be made of subatomic particles, such
as the neutralino, which represent higher vibrations of the superstring.
 Duality: A correspondence between apparently different theories that lead to the same physical
results.
 Einstein-Rosen bridge: A thin tube of space-time linking two black holes.
 Electric charge: A property of a particle by which it may repel (or attract) other particles that
have a charge of similar (or opposite) sign.
 Electromagnetic force: The force of electricity and magnetism that arises between particles
with electric charge; the second strongest of the four fundamental forces – which
obeys Maxwell's equations.
 Electron: A negatively charged subatomic particle with negative electric charge that orbits
the nucleus of an atom and determines the chemical properties of the atom.
 Electroweak unification energy: The energy (around 100 GeV) above which the distinction
between the electromagnetic force and the weak force disappears.
 Elementary particle: A particle that, it is believed fundamental building block of Nature, cannot
be subdivided and are not composed of other simpler particles.

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 Event: A point in space-time, specified by its time and place.
 Event horizon: The boundary of a black hole. The point of no return, often called the horizon.
 Exclusion principle: The idea that two identical spin-1/2 particles cannot have (within the limits
set by the uncertainty principle) both the same position and the same velocity. This means that
two electrons cannot occupy precisely the same point with the same properties, so that there is a
net force pushing the electrons apart (in addition to electrostatic repulsion).
 Field: Something that exists throughout 4 dimensional fabric of space -time, as opposed to a
particle that exists at only one point at a time.
 Frequency: For a wave, the number of complete cycles per second.
 Gamma rays: Electromagnetic rays of very short wavelength, produced in radio-active
decay or by collisions of elementary particles.
 General relativity: Einstein's theory of gravity based on the idea that the laws of science
should be the same for all observers, no matter how they are moving. It explains the force of
gravity in terms of the curvature of a four dimensional space-time; so that the curvature of space-
time gives the illusion that there is a force of attraction called gravity. It has been verified
experimentally to better than 99.7 percent accuracy and predicts the existence of black holes and
the expanding universe. The theory, however, break down at the center of a black hole or the
instant of creation, where the theory predicts nonsense. To explain these phenomena, one must
resort to a theory of subatomic physics.
 Geodesic: The shortest (or longest) path between two points.
 Grand unification energy: The energy above which, it is believed, the electromagnetic force,
weak force, and strong force become indistinguishable from each other.
 Grand unified theory (GUT): A theory which unifies the electromagnetic, strong, and weak
forces (but not gravity). The proton is not stable in these theories and can decay into
positrons. GUT theories are inherently unstable (unless one adds super symmetry). GUT theories
also lack gravity. (Adding gravity to GUT theories makes them diverge with infinities.)
 Imaginary time: Time measured using imaginary numbers.
 Inflation: The theory which states that the universe underwent an incredible amount
of superliminal expansion at the instant of its birth i.e., A distance of one nanometer was
enlarged to a quarter of a billion light-years.
 Hyperspace: Dimensions higher than four.

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 Light cone: A surface in space-time that marks out the possible directions for light rays passing
through a given event.
 Light year: The distance light travels in one year, or approximately 5.88 trillion miles (9.46
trillion kilometers).
 LIGO: The Laser Interferometry Gravitational-Wave Observatory, based in Washington state
and Louisiana,which is the world’s largest gravity wave detector.
 LISA: The Laser Interferometry Space Antenna- which is a series of three space satellites using
laser beams to measure gravity waves. It is sensitive enough to confirm or disprove the
inflationary theory and possibly even string theory.
 Magnetic field: The field responsible for magnetic forces, now incorporated along with
the electric field, into the electromagnetic field.
 Muon: A subatomic particle identical to the electron but with a much larger mass. It belongs to
the second redundant generation of particles found in the Standard Model.
 Mass: The quantity of matter in a body; its inertia, or resistance to acceleration.
 Microwave background radiation: The remnant radiation (with a temperature of about 2.7
degrees K) from the glowing of the hot early universe (big bang), now so greatly red-shifted that
it appears not as light but as microwaves (radio waves with a wavelength of a few centimeters).
Tiny deviations in this background radiation give scientists valuable data that can verify or rule
out many cosmological theories.
 Naked singularity: A space-time singularity not surrounded by a black hole.
 Neutrino: An extremely light (possibly massless) subatomic particle that react very weakly with
other particles and may penetrate several light-years of lead without ever interacting with
anything and is affected only by the weak force and gravity.
 Neutron: A neutral subatomic particle, very similar to the proton, which accounts for roughly
half the particles in an atomic nucleus.
 Neutron star: A cold collapsed star consisting of a solid mass of neutrons — which is usually
about 10 to 15 miles across — supported by the exclusion principle repulsion between neutrons.
If the mass of the neutron stars exceeds (3- 4 solar masses) i.e., if the number of neutrons
becomes ≥ 5.9 × 10 57, then the degenerate neutron pressure will not be large enough to overcome
the gravitational contraction and the star collapses into the next stage called black holes.
 No boundary condition: The idea that the universe is finite but has no boundary (rooted in
the Euclidean formalism) to account for the initial conditions in the big bang.

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 Nuclear fusion: The process by which two nuclei collide and coalesce to form a single, heavier
nucleus.
−13
 Nucleus: The tiny core of an atom, which is roughly 10 cm across, consisting only of protons
and neutrons, held together by the strong force.
 Particle accelerator: A machine — based in Geneva, Switzerland — that, using electromagnets,
can accelerate moving charged particles, giving them more energy.
 Phase: For a wave, the position in its cycle at a specified time: a measure of whether it is at a
crest, a trough, or somewhere in between.
 Photon: A quantum of light (which was first proposed by Einstein to explain the photoelectric
effect—that is, the fact that shining light on a metal results in the ejection of electrons).
 Planck's quantum principle: The idea that light (or any other classical waves) can be emitted or
absorbed only in discrete quanta, whose energy E is proportional to their wavelength λ (i.e., E =
hc
).
λ
 Positron: The (positively charged) antiparticle of the electron.
 Primordial black hole: A black hole created in the very early universe.
 Negative energy: Energy that is less than zero.
 Proton: A positively charged subatomic particle, very similar to the neutron, that accounts for
roughly half the particles in the nucleus of most atoms. They are stable, but Grand Unification
theory predicts that they may decay over a long period of time.
 Pulsar: A rotating neutron star that emits regular pulses of radio waves.
 Quantum: The indivisible unit in which waves may be emitted or absorbed.
 Quark: A subatomic particle that makes up the proton and neutron and feels the strong force.
Three quarks make up a proton or neutron, and a quark and antiquark pair makes up a meson.
 Quantum chromodynamics (QCD): The theory that describes the interactions of quarks
and gluons.
 Quantum mechanics: The theory developed from wave equations, Planck's quantum principle
and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. No deviation from quantum mechanics has ever been
found in the laboratory. Its most advanced version today is called quantum field theory, which
combines special relativity and quantum mechanics. A fully quantum mechanical theory of
gravity, however, is exceedingly difficult.

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 Quasar: Quasi-stellar object. They are huge galaxies that were formed shortly after the gigantic
explosion called the big bang.
 Quantum foam: Tiny, foam like distortions of 4 dimensional fabric of space-time at the level of
the Planck length.
 Radioactivity: The spontaneous breakdown of one type of atomic nucleus into another.
 Red shift: The reddening or decrease in frequency of light from a star that is moving away from
us, due to the Doppler effect.
 Singularity: A point in space-time at which the space-time curvature becomes infinite – which
represent a breakdown of general relativity, forcing the introduction of a quantum theory of
gravity.
 Singularity theorem: A theorem that states that the universe must have started with a singularity.
 Space-time: The four-dimensional space whose points are events.
 Spatial dimension: Any of the three dimensions that are space like – that is, any except
the time dimension.
 Special relativity: Einstein's 1905 theory based on the idea that the laws of science should be the
same for all observers, no matter how they are moving, in the absence of gravitational
phenomena. Consequences include: time slows down, mass increases, and distances shrink the
faster you move. Also, matter and energy are related via E = mc2. One consequence of special
relativity is the atomic bomb.
 Spectrum: The different colors or component frequencies that make up a wave. By analyzing the
spectrum of starlight, one can determine that stars are mainly made of hydrogen and helium.
 Spin: An internal property of elementary particles.
 Stationary state: One that is not changing with time.
 Supernova: An exploding star. They are so energetic that they can sometimes outshine a galaxy.
 String theory: A theory of physics based on tiny vibrating strings, such that each particle is
described as a wave on a string. It is the only theory that can combine gravity with the quantum
theory, making it the leading candidate for a theory of everything.
 Strong force: The strongest of the four fundamental forces, with the shortest range of all. It holds
the quarks together within protons and neutrons, and holds the protons and neutrons together to
form atoms.
 Steady state theory: The theory which states that the universe had no beginning but constantly
generates new matter as it expands, keeping the same density.

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 Uncertainty principle: The principle, formulated by Heisenberg, that one can never be
exactly sure of both the position and the velocity of a particle; the more accurately one
knows the one, the less accurately one can know the other.

ħ
Δx Δp ≥
2

ħ
ΔE Δt ≥
2

 Avogadro's Number: 6.022 × 1023. The number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in 1
gram of matter.
 Virtual particle: In quantum mechanics, a particle that briefly dart in and out of the
vacuum but can never be directly detected, but whose existence does have measurable
effects. They violate known conservation laws but only for a short period of time, via the
uncertainty principle.
 Baryon: A particle that is composed of three quarks, such as the proton or neutron.
 Baryon Asymmetry Problem: The fact that the universe contains a billion times as
many baryons (ordinary matter) as antibaryons (antimatter), when they would be
expected to have been produced in equal quantities in the early universe.
 Brownian Motion: The random motion of macroscopic particles that results from their
being bombarded by molecules.
 Copernican Principle: The earth is not the center of the universe.
 Curie Point: The temperature below which iron becomes magnetic.
 Generalized Copernican Principle: There is no center of the universe, no special point
in space or time.
 Hilbert Space: An abstract mathematical space used to describe quantum mechanical
states.
 Occam's Razor: The principle that one should introduce no more hypotheses than are
necessary to explain the data.
 Wave / particle duality: The concept in quantum mechanics that there is no distinction
between waves and particles; particles may sometimes behave like waves, and waves like
particles.
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  Wavelength: For a wave, the distance between two adjacent troughs or two adjacent
crests.
 Weak force: The second weakest of the four fundamental forces – which is carried by
the W- and Z-bosons- that makes possible nuclear decay. It affects all matter particles,
but not force carrying particles.

 Selectron: The supersymmetric partner of the electron. Not yet observed.

 Weight: The force exerted on a body by a gravitational field. It is proportional to, but not
the same as, its mass.
 Principle of Galilean Relativity: Velocity is relative. There is no difference between
being in motion at constant velocity and being at rest.
 Parity Violation: The observation that the mirror image of a natural process is not
always fundamentally equivalent to the original process.
 Quantum Electrodynamics (QED): The quantum theory of electromagnetism.
 White dwarf: A stable cold star consisting of lower elements such as oxygen, lithium,
carbon, and so forth, supported by the exclusion principle repulsion between electrons.
 Wormhole: A passageway between two universes or a thin tube of space-time
connecting distant regions of the universe. Wormholes might also link to parallel or baby
universes and could provide the possibility of time travel.
 Neutrino-Dominated Universe: The model in which neutrinos with mass constitute the
dark matter of the universe.

Gravitational binding energy of the star:

3GM2
U=−
5R

where:
 M and R denote the mass and radius of the star
 G is the Gravitational constant

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Core pressure of the star:

5GM2
Pcore =
4πR2

Core density of the star:

3M
ρcore =
πR3

Core Temperature of the star:

5μmH GM
Tcore =
3kB R

where:
 μ denotes mean molecular weight of the matter insider the star
 mH is the mass of hydrogen nucleus
 kB is the Boltzmann constant

The ideal gas equation PV = NkBT does not hold good for the matter present inside a star.
Because, most stars are made up of more than one kind of particle and the gas inside the star is
ionized. There is no indication of these facts in the above equation. We need to change the ideal
gas equation, so that it holds good for the material present inside the star. It can be shown that
the required equation can be written as

1 MkB T
PV =
μ mH
where μ denotes mean molecular weight of the matter inside the star, M is the mass of the star
and mH is the mass of hydrogen nucleus.

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Stellar timescales

 Nuclear timescale:

total mass of fuel available

tnuc = × fraction of star over which fuel is burned
rate of fuel consumption

MX
tnuc = L ×F
Q

where M is the mass of the star, X is the fraction of the star (by mass) that is composed of the fuel, L is
the star's luminosity, Q is the energy released per mass of the fuel from nuclear fusion, and F is the
fraction of the star where the fuel is burned.

 Einstein timescale:

Mc2
tE =
L

 Thermal time scale

GM2
tth ≈
2RL

 Dynamical timescale

R3
tdyn = √
GM

where c is the speed of light

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Richardson-Dushman Equation:

The Richardson-Dushman equation relates the current density of a thermionic emission (js) to the
work function (W) and temperature (T) of the emitting material:

−W
js = A T 2
𝑒 kB T

where A denotes the Richardson's constant and kB is the Boltzmann constant.

In a nuclear reaction:
MA+ MB → MC+ MD

Q = (MA+ MB −MC −MD) c2

The amount of energy released or absorbed in a nuclear reaction is called the Q value, or reaction
energy.

If MA+ MB > MC+ MD→ Q > 0 ≡ exoergic reaction

If MA+ MB < MC+ MD → Q < 0 ≡ endoergic reaction

An endoergic reaction will not proceed unless the incoming particle provides the reaction energy
"Q".

Drake equation:

N = R∗ × fp × nE × fl × fi × fc × L

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where:

 N = the number of civilizations in our galaxy with which communication might be

possible.
 R∗ = the average rate of star formation in our galaxy.
 fp = the fraction of those stars that have planets.
 nE = the average number of planets that can potentially support life per star that has
planets.
 fl = the fraction of planets that could support life that actually develop life at some
point.
 fi = the fraction of planets with life that actually go on to develop intelligent life
(civilizations).
 fc = the fraction of civilizations that develop a technology that releases detectable
signs of their existence into space.
 L = the length of time for which such civilizations release detectable signals into
space.

Borda–Carnot equation

1
∆E = ξ ρ (v1 − v2) 2
2

where:

 ΔE is the fluid mechanical energy loss,

 ξ is an empirical loss coefficient, which is dimensionless and has a value between zero
and one, 0 ≤ ξ ≤ 1
 ρ is the fluid density
 v1 and v2 are the mean flow velocities before and after the expansion.

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Kepler's equation

M = E – e sin E

where M is the mean anomaly, E is the eccentric anomaly, and e is the eccentricity.

Maxwell's Equations

Gauss's law for electricity ρ

∇⦁E=
ε0

Gauss's law for magnetism ∇⦁B= 0

Maxwell–Faraday equation ∂B
∇×E=−
∂t
(Faraday's law of induction)

Ampere's circuital law ∂E

∇ × B = μ0 ( J + ε0 ∂t )

where:

 ∇ = Laplace operator
 E = Electric field
 ρ = charge density
 B = Magnetic field
 ε0 = absolute permittivity
 J = current density
 μ0 = absolute permeability

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Prony equation

The Prony equation is a historically important equation in hydraulics, used to calculate the head
loss due to friction within a given run of pipe. It is an empirical equation developed by
Frenchman Gaspard de Prony in the 19th century:

L
hf = (aV + bV2)
D

where "hf" is the head loss due to friction, calculated from: the ratio of the length to diameter of
L
the pipe " ", the velocity of the flow "V", and two empirical factors "a" and "b" to account for
D
friction.

Rankine-Hugoniot conditions

In a coordinate system that is moving with the shock, the Rankine–Hugoniot conditions can be
expressed as:

ρ1 us = ρ2 (us − u2) → Conservation of mass

p2 − p1 = ρ2 u2 (us − u2) = ρ1 u2 us → Conservation of momentum
1
p2 u2 = ρ1 us ( 2 u22 + e2 − e1) → Conservation of energy

where us is the shock wave speed, ρ1 and ρ2 are the mass density of the fluid behind and inside the
shock, u2 is the particle velocity of the fluid inside the shock, p1 and p2 are the pressures in the two
regions, and e1 and e2 are the specific (with the sense of per unit mass) internal energies in the two
regions.

Sackur–Tetrode equation

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The Sackur–Tetrode equation expresses the entropy S of a monatomic ideal gas in terms of its
thermodynamic state − specifically, its volume V, internal energy U, and the number of particles
N:

S V 4πmU 3/2 5
= ln [ ( 2 ) ]+
kB N N 3h N 2

where:

 kB = Boltzmann's constant
 m =Mass of a gas particle
 h = Planck's constant

Butler–Volmer equation

α𝑎 zFη αc zFη
j = j0 {exp [ ] − exp [ − ]}
RT RT

where:

 j: electrode current density, A/m2 (defined as j = I/S)

 j0: exchange current density, A/m2
 E: electrode potential, V
 Eeq: equilibrium potential, V
 T: absolute temperature, K
 z: number of electrons involved in the electrode reaction
 F: Faraday constant
 R: universal gas constant
 αc: so-called cathodic charge transfer coefficient, dimensionless
 αa: so-called anodic charge transfer coefficient, dimensionless
 η: activation overpotential (defined as η = E − E eq).

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Lotka–Volterra equations

dx
= αx − βxy
dt

dy
= δxy − γy
dt

where:

 x is the number of prey (for example, rabbits)

 y is the number of some predator (for example, foxes)
dy dx
 and represent the instantaneous growth rates of the two populations
dt dt
 t represents time
 α, β, γ, δ are positive real parameters describing the interaction of the two species

Black–Scholes equation
In mathematical finance, the Black–Scholes equation is a partial differential equation (PDE)
governing the price evolution of a European call or European put under the Black–Scholes
model. Broadly speaking, the term may refer to a similar PDE that can be derived for a variety of
options, or more generally, derivatives. For a European call or put on an underlying stock paying
no dividends, the equation is:

∂V 1 ∂2 V ∂V
+ σS
2 2
+ rS – rV = 0
∂t 2 ∂S2 ∂S

where V is the price of the option as a function of stock price S and time t, r is the risk-free
interest rate, and σ is the volatility of the stock.

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Password length parameter

In telecommunication, a password length parameter is a basic parameter the value of which

affects password strength against brute force attack and so is a contributor to computer security.
R
One use of the password length parameters is in the expression P = L × S , where P is the

probability that a password can be guessed in its lifetime, L is the maximum lifetime a password
can be used to log into a system, R is the number of guesses per unit of time, and S is the number
of unique algorithm-generated passwords.

Stellar structure

 The Equation of mass conservation

dm
= 4πr2ρ
dr

where: ρ is the matter density and m is the cumulative mass inside the shell at r and G is
the gravitational constant.

 The Equation of hydrostatic equilibrium

dP Gm
=− ρ
dr r2

where: P is the total pressure (matter plus radiation).

 The Equation of energy generation

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 dL
= 4πr2ρq
dr

where: L is the luminosity and q is the rate of energy generation per unit mass

 The Equation of energy transport

dT 3κρL
=−
dr 64πr2 σT3

where: T is the temperature, κ is the opacity of the matter and σ is the Stefan–Boltzmann
constant

For stars:

tdyn <tth < tnuc

 tdyn = timescale of collapsing star, e.g. supernova

 tth = timescale of star before nuclear fusion starts, e.g. pre-main sequence lifetime
 tnuc = timescale of star during nuclear fusion, i.e. main-sequence lifetime

Taft equation
ks
log ( ) = ρ* σ* + δEs
kCH3

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 ks
where log ( ) is the ratio of the rate of the substituted reaction compared to the reference
kCH3

reaction, σ* is the polar substituent constant that describes the field and inductive effects of the
substituent, Es is the steric substituent constant, ρ* is the sensitivity factor for the reaction to
polar effects, and δ is the sensitivity factor for the reaction to steric effects.

Hammett equation

k
log ( ) = σρ
k0
where:

 σ = substituent constant
 ρ = reaction constant
 k0 is the reference reaction rate of the unsubstituted reactant, and k that of a substituted
reactant.

∆s2 = −c2∆t2 + ∆x2 + ∆y2 + ∆z2

 ∆s2 < 0 is a timelike interval. Events separated by this interval can be causally
related.
 ∆s2 = 0 is a lightlike interval. Events separated by this interval can be causally
related, but only by a light speed signal.
 ∆s2 > 0 is a spacelike interval. Events separated by this interval cannot be causally
related.

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Basic terms in chemistry

 Chemistry - a science that deals with the structure and properties of substances and their
reactions, it studies matter and energy
 Organic chemistry – the branch of chemistry that deals with the chemistry of carbon and
living organisms
 Analytical chemistry – the branch of chemistry that studies the properties of materials
and analyzes materials
 Matter - the thing that forms physical objects and occupies space, it exists in four main
states as solids, liquids, gases and plasma
 Solid – a substance that has a definite shape and a definite volume, it is not compressible
 Liquid – a substance (state of matter) which has an indefinite shape and a definite
volume, not easily compressible
 Gas – a substance with an indefinite shape and volume, easily compressible
 Melting point – the temperature at which solids turn into liquid
 Condensation – the phase change when gas forms a liquid
 Sublimation – the phase change when a solid state changes into a gaseous state
 Evaporation – the phase change when a substance changes from a liquid state into a
gaseous state
 Atom – the smallest unit of matter which has all the chemical properties of a particular
element
 Molecule − the smallest possible amount of a particular substance that has all the
characteristics of that substance
 Neutron − a particle found in the nucleus of an atom which has the same mass as a
proton but no charge
 Element – a substance that consists only of one type of atom
 Compound – a chemical substance that consists of two or more elements that together
form a molecule
 Mixture − a material system made up of two or more different substances which are
mixed but are not combined chemically

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470
 Solvent − A liquid in which a substance (solute) dissolves.
 Acid − a chemical with a sour taste that forms a salt when mixed with a base
 Base − a chemical that reacts with an acid to form a salt, it has a pH higher than 7
 Atomic number – the number of protons in an atom
 Mass number – the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in one atom
 Bond − a force that holds together the atoms in a molecule, an attraction between atoms
or molecules
 Ion − an atom or group of atoms that has a positive or negative electric charge from
losing or gaining one or more electrons
 Covalent bond – a type of bond between non-metal atoms, consists of a shared pair of
electrons
 Shell / orbital – region a of space around the nucleus of an atom where an electron is
likely to be found
 Steric hindrance − the phenomenon of physical blockage of a particular site within a
molecule by the presence of local atoms or groups of atoms.
 Structural isomerism − isomers which differ in the order of bonding of the constituent
atoms.
 Reactant – an original substance that changes when it is combined with another
substance in a chemical reaction
 Product – resulting substance of a chemical reaction
 Mole − A formula mass expressed in grams
 Nucleophile − a substance which donates a pair of electrons in the reaction considered.
 Chemical equation – a shorthand representation of a chemical reaction with formulas of
reactants to the left of an arrow and the formulas of the products to the right of an arrow
 Catalyst – a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction
 Enzyme − A biological catalyst.
 Combination (synthesis) reaction – chemical change in which two or more substances
react to form a single (one) new substance
 Period − A horizontal row in the periodic table.

472

471
 Beaker − a wide glass with a lip for pouring that is used for holding and measuring
liquids
 Test tube − a glass container that is shaped like a tube which is closed at one end and
that is used especially in science experiments
 Funnel − a device shaped like a hollow cone with a tube extending from the point which
is used for pouring something (such as a liquid) into a narrow opening
 Flask − a glass bottle used in scientific laboratories that is used to carry liquids
 Thermometer − an instrument used for measuring temperature
 Condenser − a device used for changing a gas into a liquid
 Forceps / tweezers − a tool that is used for grasping or holding little things
 Spatula − a tool that has a long handle which is bent upward and a wide, thin blade used
for lifting and turning chemicals
 Bunsen burner − a piece of equipment that produces a hot flame and that is used in
scientific experiments
 Dropper − a glass or plastic tube that is used to measure out liquids by drops
 Tongs − a tool used for lifting or holding objects that is made of two long pieces
connected in the middle
 Tautomerism − a form of structural isomerism where the two structures are
interconvertible by means of the migration of a proton.
 Crucible − a pot in which metals or other substances are heated to a very high
temperature or melted
 Clamp − a device that holds or presses parts tightly together
 Petri dish − a small, shallow dish that has a loose cover and that is is used in scientific
experiments especially for growing bacteria
 Analytical balance − a device that measures weight and shows how heavy things are.
 Fume hood − a piece of laboratory equipment designed to limit exposure to dangerous
fumes
 Markownikow's rule − in the ionic addition of hydrogen halides to a carbon-carbon
double bond the halogen attaches itself to the carbon atom bearing the least number of
hydrogen atoms.

473

472
 Greek Alphabet and SI Prefixes

A α alpha N ν nu
B β beta Ξ ξ xi
Γ γ gamma O o omicron
∆ δ delta Π π pi
E ϵ, ε epsilon P ρ rho
Z ζ zeta Σ σ, ς sigma
H η eta T τ tau
Θ θ, ϑ theta Y υ upsilon
I ι iota Φ φ, ϕ phi
K κ kappa X χ chi
Λ λ lambda Ψ ψ psi
M µ mu Ω ω omega

n × (n − 2) × … × 5 × 3 × 1 for n > 0 odd

Double Factorial n!! = n × (n − 2) × … × 6 × 4 × 2 for n > 0 even

1 for n = −1, 0

Convergence Tests

D'Alembert's ratio test

𝑎𝑛+1
In a series, ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 , let the ratio R = lim ( )
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛

 If R < 1 the series is convergent

474

473
  If R > 1 the series is divergent
 If R = 1 the test fails.

The Integral Test

∞
A sum to infinity of an converges if ∫1 𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑛 is finite. This can only be applied to series where
an is positive and decreasing as n gets larger.

Maxwell's thermodynamic relations

∂T ∂P
( ) =−( )
∂V S ∂S V

∂T ∂V
( ) = ( )
∂P S ∂S P

∂V ∂S
( ) =−( )
∂T P ∂P T

∂S ∂P
( ) = ( )
∂V T ∂T V

475

474
Cramer's Rule

Two simultaneous equations in unknowns x and y,

a1x + b1 y = c1 and a2 x + b2 y = c2,
have the solutions
c b1
| 1 |
c2 b2 c1 b2 −c2 b1
x= a b =
| 1 1
| a1 b2 −a2 b1
a 2 b2
and
a1 c1
| a c | a1 c2 −a2c1
y = a 2 b2 =
| 1 1
| a1 b2 −a2 b1
a 2 b2

When a surface intercepts electromagnetic radiation, a force and a pressure are exerted on the
surface. If the radiation is totally absorbed by the surface, the force is

IA
F= (total absorption),
c

in which I is the intensity of the radiation, c is the speed of light, and A is the area of the surface
perpendicular to the path of the radiation. If the radiation is totally reflected back along its
original path, the force is

2IA
F= (total reflection back along path).
c

The radiation pressure pr is the force per unit area:

I
pr = (total absorption)
c

2I
and pr = (total reflection back along path).
c

475
476
 E2
I=
cμ0

Because E = c × B and c is such a very large number: the energy associated with the electric field
is much greater than that associated with the magnetic field.

The rate per unit area at which energy is transported via an electromagnetic wave is given by the
Poynting vector:

⃗⃗⃗⃗ × B
E ⃗⃗⃗⃗
S⃗⃗⃗ =
μ0

Masses are usually measured in atomic mass units, where

1 u = 1.660 538 86 ×10−27 kg

and energies are usually measured in electron-volts or multiples of it, where

1 eV = 1.602 176 462 × 10−19 J.

2π
Angular wave number =
Wavelength

The probability that a given particle of mass m and energy E will tunnel through a barrier of
height Ub and thickness L is given by the transmission coefficient T:

T ≈ e−2bL

8π2 m(Ub −E)

where b = √ (h: Planck's constant)
h2

476
477
Because it is a matter wave, an electron confined to an infinite potential well can exist in only
certain discrete states. If the well is one-dimensional with length L, the energies associated with
these quantum states are

h 2 n2
En = for n = 1, 2, 3. . .
8mL2

where m is the electron mass and n is a quantum number.

Moseley's law

υ = A × (Z − b) 2

where:

 υ is the frequency of the observed X-ray emission line

 Z is the atomic number
 A and b are constants that depend on the type of line (that is, K, L, etc. in X-ray notation)

Number of conduction electrons in sample = number of atoms in sample × number of valence electrons per atom.

1 becquerel = 1 Bq = 1 decay per second.

1 curie = 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq

477
478
 Physical Data Often Used

Average Earth–Moon distance 3.84 × 10 m

8

Average Earth–Sun distance 11

1.496 × 10 m

Average Radius of the Earth 6

6.37 × 10 m

3
Density of air (20°C and 1 atm) 1.20 kg/m

3 3
Density of water (20°C and 1 atm) 1.00 × 10 kg/m

2
Free-fall acceleration 9.80 m/s

24
Mass of the Earth 5.98 × 10 kg

22
Mass of the Moon 7.36 × 10 kg

30
Mass of the Sun 1.99 × 10 kg

5
Standard atmospheric pressure 1.013 × 10 Pa

 Distance from the Earth to the most remote known quasar: 1.4 × 1026 m
 Distance from the Earth to the most remote normal galaxies: 9 × 10 25 m
 Distance from the Earth to the nearest large galaxy (Andromeda): 2 × 1022 m
 Distance from the Sun to the nearest star (Proxima Centauri): 4 × 1016 m
 One light-year: 9.46 × 1015 m
 Mean orbit radius of the Earth about the Sun: 1.50 × 1011 m
 Mean distance from the Earth to the Moon: 3.84 × 108 m
 Distance from the equator to the North Pole: 1.00 × 107 m
 Typical altitude (above the surface) of a satellite orbiting the Earth: 2 × 105 m
 Length of a housefly: 5 × 10−3 m
 Size of smallest dust particles: ~10−4 m

478
479
  Size of cells of most living organisms: ~10−5 m
 Diameter of a hydrogen atom: ~10−10 m
 Diameter of an atomic nucleus: ~10−14 m
 Diameter of a proton: ~10−15 m
 Age of the Universe: 5 × 1017 s
 Age of the Earth: 1.3 × 1017 s
 One year: 3.2 × 107s
 One day: 8.6 × 104 s
 Time interval between normal heartbeats: 8 × 10−1 s
 Period of audible sound waves: ~10−3 s
 Period of typical radio waves: ~10−6 s
 Period of vibration of an atom in a solid: ~10−13 s
 Period of visible light waves: ~10−15 s
 Duration of a nuclear collision: ~10−22 s
 Time interval for light to cross a proton: ~10−24 s
 1000 kg = 1 t (metric ton)
 1 slug = 14.59 kg

PV
Compressibility Factor (Z) =
nRT

where P is the pressure, n is the number of moles of gas, T is the absolute temperature, and R is
the gas constant.

479
480
Garland or mala product:

A product of numbers remains the same when read from left to right or vice.

139 × 139 = 15151

152207 × 73 = 11111111

14287143 × 7 = 100010001

12345679 × 9 = 111111111

142857143 × 7 = 1000000001

11011011 × 91 = 1002002001

27994681 × 441 = 12345654321

333333666667 × 33 = 11000011000011

Kaprekar Numbers:

8426
Ascending order: 2468
Descending order: 8642
Difference: 6174

4671
Ascending order: 1467
Descending order: 7641
Difference: 6174

480
481
1, 9, 45, 55, 703, 2223 … are known as Kaprekar numbers.

Stoke's Law of Viscosity:

F = 6πηrv

 F= Drag Force
 η = Viscosity Coefficient
 r = Radius of the Particle
 v = Relative velocity of the Particle

Reynolds Number:

r×ρ×v
Re =
μ

 Re = Reynolds Number
 r = The diameter or length (basically length of the shape of the object)
 ρ = The density of the fluid
 v = The velocity of the object
 μ = Viscosity of the fluid;

Eotvos Ramsay-Shield relation:

2
M
[ ] 3 γ = k (Tc − T − 6)
ρ

481
482
  M=Molecular Weight
 ρ = density
 γ = Surface Tension
 k = Eotvos-Ramsay Coefficient
 Tc = Critical Temperature
 T = System Temperature

Young-Laplace Equation:

2γ
Pin = Pout +
r

 Pin = Pressure Inside the Curved Surface

 Pout = Pressure Outside the Curved Surface
 γ = Surface Tension
 r = Radius of Curvature of the Curved Surface

Dieterici Equation of State:

an
Pe RTV (V − nb) = nRT

 P = Pressure
 V = Volume
 a , b = Dieterici Constants
 n = Number of Moles
 R = Universal Gas Constant
 T = Temperature

482
483
Energy of Polyatomic Gas (Non-Linear):

E = 3 (n −1) RT

 E = Average energy per mole

 n = Number of atoms in a non-linear Molecule
 R= Gas Constant
 T= Temperature

Energy of Polyatomic Gas (Linear):

5
E= RT + (3n − 5) RT
2

 E = Average energy per mole

 n = Number of atoms in a linear Molecule
 R= Gas Constant
 T= Temperature

Collision Frequency of a single gas:

π n σ cave
ZAA =
√2

 ZAA=Collision frequency
 n = Molecules per unit Volume
 σ = Diameter of the gas molecules
 cave = Average Velocity of the gas molecules

483
484
Root Mean Square, Average, Median Velocity of Gas:

3RT
crms = √
M

8RT
cave = √
πM

2RT
cm = √
M

 crms, cave , cm = Root Mean Square, Average Velocity and Most Probable Velocity of gas
molecules
 M= Molecular Weight
 T =Temperature
 R= Universal Gas Constant

Clausius Clapeyron Equation:

P2 ΔHm 1 1
ln ( )= [ − ]
P1 R T1 T2

 P1 and P2 = Initial and Final Pressure

 ΔHm = Molar Enthalpy of vaporization
 T1 and T2 = Initial and Final Temperature
 R= Gas Constant

484
485
Relative Population of rotational energy states:

Nj B h c J (J+1)
= exp (− )
N0 kB T

 NJ = Number of molecule in J state

 N0 = Number of molecule in the ground state (J= 0)
 kB =Boltzmann Constant
 T = Temperature
 B = Rotational Constant
 h = Plank Constant
 c = Velocity of light
 J = Rotational Quantum Number

H X N
Double Bond Equivalent (DBE) = C + 1 − − +
2 2 2

 C= Number of Carbon atoms present

 H = Number of Hydrogen atoms present
 X= Number of Halogen atoms present (Cl, Br, I or F)
 N= Number of Nitrogen atoms present

Langmuir Isotherm:

KP
θ=
1+KP

485
486
  K = Equilibrium Constant of Adsorption
 P = Partial Pressure or Concentration of the absorbate
 θ = The fraction of adsorbent surface covered by adsorbate

Slater's Rule:
Zeff = Z − σ

 Zeff = Effective nuclear charge

 Z = Atomic Number
 σ = number of shielding electrons

Interplanar Spacing of Cubic Lattice:

a
dhkl =
√h2 + k2 + 𝑙 2

 dhkl = Lattice Spacing

 a = Lattice Constant
 h , k , l = Miller Indices

Interplanar Spacing of Tetragonal Lattice:

1 h2 + k2 𝑙2
= +
d2 a2 c2

 d= Interplanar Spacing
 h , k, l = Miller Indices
 a, c = Lattice Constants

486
487
 The Dead Sea is much denser and heavier than freshwater because of its

salt content, which would make it impossible for us to sink.

Pi is an irrational number, which means that it is a real number that cannot be

expressed by a simple fraction.

If we travel faster than the speed of light, we will age less.

Gravitational potential energy increases as height increases.

Adding a resistor in series increases the total resistance of a circuit.

Adding a resistor in parallel decreases the total resistance of a circuit.

The insulator does not permit the free flow of electrons

Light slows down, bends toward the normal and has a shorter
wavelength when it enters a medium with a higher index of refraction

A prism produces a rainbow from white light by the

phenomenon of dispersion

487
 Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation

Region Wavelength Wavelength Frequency Energy

(Angstroms) (centimeters) (Hz) (eV)

Radio > 109 > 10 < 3 × 109 < 10−5

Microwave 109 −106 10 − 0.01 3 × 109 − 3 × 1012 10−5 − 0.01

Infrared 106 − 7000 0.01 − 7 × 10−5 3 × 1012 − 4.3 × 1014 0.01 − 2

Visible 7000 − 4000 7 × 10−5 − 4 × 10−5 4.3 × 1014 − 7.5 × 1014 2−3

Ultraviolet 4000 − 10 4 × 10−5 − 10−7 7.5 × 1014 − 3 × 1017 3 − 103

X−Rays 10 − 0.1 10−7 − 10−9 3 × 1017 − 3 × 1019 103 − 105

Gamma Rays < 0.1 < 10−9 > 3 × 1019 > 105

Doppler Effect

When a wave source moves toward us, we will perceive waves with a shorter wavelength and

higher frequency than the waves emitted by the source.

When a wave source moves away from us, we will perceive waves with a longer wavelength and

lower frequency.

At the critical angle a wave will be refracted to 90 degrees. At angles larger than the critical
angle, light is reflected not refracted.

488
Natural abundance of some elements

Isotope % Natural Abundance Atomic Mass

1H 99.985 1.007825

2H 0.015 2.0140

12C 98.89 12 (formerly by definition)

13C 1.11 13.00335

14N 99.64 14.00307

15N 0.36 15.00011

16O 99.76 15.99491

17O 0.04 16.99913

18O 0.2 17.99916

28Si 92.23 27.97693

29Si 4.67 28.97649

30Si 3.10 29.97376

32S 95.0 31.97207

33S 0.76 32.97146

34S 4.22 33.96786

489
35Cl 75.77 34.96885

37Cl 24.23 36.96590

79Br 50.69 78.9183

81Br 49.31 80.9163

There are 2 basic types of elementary particles: Hadrons and Leptons

There are 2 types of Hadrons: Baryons and Mesons

Made up of 3 quarks

Made up of a quark and antiquark

As the frequency of an electromagnetic radiation increases, its energy

increases and its wavelength decreases and its velocity remains constant as
long as it doesn't enter a medium with a different refractive index

Ionized gases conduct electric current using positive ions,

negative ions and electrons.

490
Thermal DeBroglie wavelength of an electron:

h2
λD = √
2πme kB T

where: h is the Planck's constant, me is the mass of the electron, kB is the Boltzmann's constant,
and T is the temperature.

1
Debye screening wave vector =
Debye length

The Debye length of semiconductors:

εkB T
LD = √ 2
q Ndop

where:

 ε is the dielectric constant,

 kB is the Boltzmann's constant,
 T is the absolute temperature in Kelvins,
 q is the elementary charge, and
 Ndop is the net density of dopants (either donors or acceptors).

491
488
The Bjerrum length is given by:

e2
λB =
4πε0 εr kB T

where: e is the elementary charge, εr is the relative dielectric constant of the medium and ε0 is the
vacuum permittivity.

Drift velocity = electrical mobility of the particle × magnitude of the applied electric field

Pfusion
Fusion energy gain factor =
Pheating

 Pfusion = power produced in a nuclear fusion reactor

 Pheating = power of external heating required to keep fusion going

The Hall parameter, β, in a plasma is the ratio between the electron gyrofrequency, Ωe, and the
electron-heavy particle collision frequency, ν:

Ωe eB
β= =
ν νme

where:
 e is the elementary charge (approximately 1.6×10−19 C)
 B is the magnetic field (in teslas)

492
489
  me is the electron mass (approximately 9.1×10−31 kg)

Magnetic Reynolds number:

UL
Rm =
η

where:
 U is a typical velocity scale of the flow
 L is a typical length scale of the flow
 η is the magnetic diffusivity

advective transport rate

Péclet number =
diffusive transport rate

hL
Nusselt number =
k

where h is the convective heat transfer coefficient of the flow, L is the

characteristic length, k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid.

momentum diffusivity
Magnetic Prandtl number =
magnetic diffusivity

493
490
The magnetic pressure PB is given in SI units (P in Pa, B in T, μ0 in H/m) by:

B2
PB =
2μ0

where: B is the strength of magnetic field and μ0 is the permeability of free space.

voltage
Static resistance =
current

small change in voltage

Differential resistance =
small change in current

1
Static conductance =
Static resistance

small change in current

Differential conductance =
small change in voltage

The acceleration gradient for a linear plasma wave is:

me ne
E=c√
ε0

494
491
In this equation, E is the electric field, c is the speed of light in vacuum, me is the mass of the
electron, ne is the plasma electron density (in particles per metre cubed), and ε0 is the permittivity
of free space.

Bond distance d in Rydberg matter is given by:

d = 2.9 n2a0

where n is the principal quantum number and a0 is the Bohr radius.

The ram pressure is a function of wind speed and density. The formula is

P = mp n v2

where mp is the proton mass, pressure P is in nPa (nanopascals), n is the density in particles/cm 3
and v is the speed in km/s of the solar wind.

For a gas composed of a single atomic species, the Saha equation is written:

ni+1 ne 2 gi+1 εi+1 − εi

= exp [− ]
ni λ3 gi kB T

where: ni + 1 and ni are the number of atoms in the (i + 1) th and ith ionization states, respectively;
g i + 1 and gi describe how energy is partitioned among the (i + 1) th
and ith ionization states; εi + 1

495
492
and εi are the energies of the ionization states; ne is the number of electrons; and T is the

h2
temperature. λ = √ is the thermal de Broglie wavelength of an electron. The other
2πme kB T

quantities in the equation are physical constants: me is the mass of the electron, kB is the
Boltzmann's constant, and h is Planck's constant.

sensible heating
Bowen ratio =
latent heating

Bejan number =

entropy generation contributed by heat transfer

entropy generation contributed by heat transfer+ entropy generation contributed by fluid friction

Antoine equation

B
log10 p = A −
C+T

where: p is the vapor pressure, T is temperature and A, B and C are component-specific

constants.

Kopp–Neumann law:

496
493
The Kopp–Neumann law, named for Kopp and Franz Ernst Neumann, is a common approach
for determining the specific heat C (in J·kg−1·K−1) of compounds using the following equation:

C = ∑𝑁
𝑖 =1(𝐶𝑖 ∙ 𝑓𝑖 )

where: N is the total number of compound constituents, and Ci and fi denote the specific
heat and mass fraction of the ith constituent. This law works surprisingly well at room-
temperature conditions, but poorly at elevated temperatures.

sensible heat
Stefan number =
latent heat

Duhem–Margules equation:

dlnP dlnP
( dlnxA ) T, P = ( dlnxB ) T, P
A B

where PA and PB are the partial vapor pressures of the two constituents and x A and xB are the
mole fractions of the liquid.

1
Airway Conductance =
Airway Resistance

Atmospheric Pressure−Alveolar Pressure

Airway Resistance =
Volumetric Airflow

497
494
 Cardiac output Stroke volume × Heart rate
Cardiac index = =
Body surface area Body surface area

Stroke volume = End-systolic volume − End-diastolic volume

Mean arterial pressure = (cardiac output × systemic vascular resistance) + central venous pressure

In practice, the contribution of central venous pressure (which is small) is generally ignored and so:

Mean arterial pressure = cardiac output × systemic vascular resistance

Pulse pressure = systolic pressure − diastolic pressure

stroke volume
Ejection fraction (%) = × 100
end diastolic volume

498
495
 body mass
Body mass index =
(body height)2

Low-density lipoprotein:

LDL = C – HDL − kT

where: HDL is High Density Lipoprotein, C is total cholesterol, T denote the triglycerides, and k
is 0.20 if the quantities are measured in mg/dl and 0.45 if in mmol/l.

Widmark formula:

Alcohol consumed in grams

Blood Alcohol Content = × 100
Body weight in grams × r

In this formula, "r" is the gender constant: r = 0.55 for females and 0.68 for males.

Creatinine Clearance:

(140 − age) (weight in kg)

CrCl (male) =
72 × serum creatinine

For women, this result is multiplied by the factor 0.85.

499
496
The Doppler frequency shift for active radar is as follows, where FD is Doppler frequency, FT
is transmit frequency, vR is radial velocity, and c is the speed of light:

vR
FD = 2 × FT ×
c

For Passive radar:

vR
FD = FT ×
c

Output voltage of the transducer:

P × K × Vsa
Vout =
Vsi

where:
 P is the actual measured pressure.
 K is the nominal transducer scale factor.
 Vsa is the actual transducer supply voltage.
 Vsi is the ideal transducer supply voltage.

actual damping
Critical damping coefficient =
critical damping

500
497
 True Positive
True Positive Rate =
True Positive +False Negative

False Positive
False Positive Rate =
True Negative +False Positive

The specific intensity Iν of radiation is defined by:

dP
Iν =
(cosθ dσ) dν dΩ

where dP is the power received by a detector with projected area (cosθ dσ) in the solid angle dΩ
and in the frequency range ν to ν + dν.

Iλ is the brightness per unit wavelength:

dP
Iλ =
(cosθ dσ) dλ dΩ

These two quantities are related by:

Iλ dν c
= =
Iν dλ λ2

The spectral energy density of radiation is:

1
uν =
c
∫ Iν dΩ

The mean photon energy of blackbody radiation is:

E = 2.7 kBT

501
498
The flux density of isotropic radiation is:
Sν = π Iν

The Nyquist approximation for the spectral power generated by a warm resistor in the limit
hν ≪ kBT is
Pν = kBT

At any frequency, the exact Nyquist formula is

hν
Pν = hν
exp( )−1
kB T

The CMB temperature at redshift z is

T = T0  (1 + z)

T0 is the temperature of the CMB as observed in the present day (2.725 K)

The total power emitted by an accelerated charge is given by Larmor's formula:

q2 a 2
P= which is valid only if v << c
6πε0 c3

where a is the proper acceleration, q is the charge, and c is the speed of light.

If an antenna delivers Po watts to the load connected to its output terminals (e.g. the receiver)
when irradiated by a uniform field of power density S watts per square meter, the antenna's
Po
aperture Ae in square meters is given by: Ae =
S

502
499
 PN
= kBT
B

where:

 PN is the noise power

 B is the total bandwidth over which that noise power is measured
 kB is the Boltzmann constant (1.381×10−23 J/K)
 T is the noise temperature

The minimum mean density of a pulsar with period P is:

3π
ρ>
GP2

 G is the Newtonian constant of gravitation

The spin-down luminosity of a pulsar is:

dErot −4π2 I dP
− = ×
dt P3 dt

 I is the moment of inertia

 Erot is the rotational kinetic energy

The characteristic age of a pulsar is defined by:

P
τ= dP
2×
dt

503
500
Bremermann's limit:

c2
≈ 1.36 × 1050 bits per second per kilogram
h

is a limit on the maximum rate of computation that can be achieved in a self-contained system in
the material universe.

Bekenstein bound:

2πkB RE
S≤
ℏc

where S is the entropy, kB is Boltzmann's constant, R is the radius of a sphere that can enclose
the given system, E is the total mass–energy including any rest masses, ℏ is the reduced Planck
constant, and c is the speed of light.

In informational terms, with S = kB × I × ln 2, the bound is given by

2πRE
I≤
ℏc ln2

where I is the information expressed in number of bits contained in the quantum states in the
sphere. The ln 2 factor comes from defining the information as the logarithm to the base 2 of the
number of quantum states. Using mass–energy equivalence (E=Mc2), the informational limit
may be reformulated as

2πcRM
I≤
ℏ ln2

504
501
 Band ratio (TM) Mineral
5/7 clay, carbonate, silica, mica group
3/1 heamtite goethite and jarosite
5/4 bare rock and soil

Geology:

total length of channel in a drainage basin

Drainage density =
total area

area of the basin to the right of the trunk stream

Asymmetry factor = × 100
total area of the drainage basin

The number of streams of one order

Bifurcation ratio =
The number of streams of the next higher order in a drainage network

Discharge = width of the channel × depth of the channel × velocity of flow

the length of the stream channel

Channel sinuosity = the straight line distance between the end points of the selected channel reach

ripple wavelength
Ripple index =
ripple height

stoss length
Symmetry index =
lee length

505
502
 Tonnage = Volume of ore-block × Specific gravity

 Metal content = tonnage × grade (or assay value)

 Mineral matter = 1.1 × Ash content

 Weight loss due to Volatile Matter = Total Weight loss – moisture

Weight loss due to volatile matter

 % Volatile Matter = × 100
Weight of sample

 Fixed carbon = 100 – (% moisture + % Ash content + % volatile matter)

Weight loss due to moisture

 % moisture = × 100
Weight of sample

Weight of residue
 % Ash content = Weight of sample × 100

 Dry mineral matter free volatile matter = 100 − Dry mineral matter free Fixed carbon

 % Fixed carbon on dry ash free basis = 100 – (% moisture + % Ash content)

% Volatile Matter
 Analysis on dry ash free basis = × 100
100−(% moisture + % Ash content)

 Darcy's law:

permeability
Instantaneous flow rate = − dynamic viscosity of the fluid × pressure drop

 Plasticity index = Liquid limit – Plastic limit

Liquid limit – water content

 Consistency index =
Liquid limit – Plastic limit

dry weight of soil

 Bulk density of soil =
volume of soil

506
503
 dry weight of soil
 Particle density of soil =
volume of solid

mass of water
 Mass wetness =
mass of soil

volume of voids
 Void ratio =
volume of solids

void volume
 Porosity =
total volume

volume of water in a soil

 Degree of saturation = × 100
volume of voids

The size opening that will just pass 60% of the sand (d60 value)
 Uniformity coefficient = The size opening that will just pass 10% of the sand sample (d10 value)

 Coefficient of curvature:

(Size of particle corresponding to 30% finer)2

Cc = Size of the particle corresponding to 60% finer × Size of the particle corresponding to 10% finer

the density of a substance

 Relative density =
the density of a given reference material

Sum of length of core pieces

 Total core recovery = × 100
Total length of core run

Sum of length of solid , cylindrical, core pieces > core diameter

 Solid core recovery = × 100
Total length of core run

Sum of length of core pieces >100mm

 Rock quality designation = × 100
Total length of core run

Rock quality designation Rock mass quality

< 25% Very poor
25-50% Poor
51-75% Fair
76-90% Good
91-100% Excellent

507
504
 Rock quality designation (RQD) = 115 − 3.5 Jn

RQD Jr Jw
 Rock tunneling index = × ×
Jn Ja SRF

where:
 Jn = Joint set number (1−20)
 Jr = Joint roughness (1−20)
 Ja = Joint alteration number
 Jw = Joint water flow (1−20)
 SRF = stress reduction factor
RQD Jr
 Geological strength index = 9log[ × ] + 44
Jn Ja
C−D
 Slake durability index = A−D × 100

where:

 D = dry drum mass

 A = drum mass with rock before run
 C = drum mass with rock after run

elastic modulus of a particular material in a cross−section

 Modular ratio =
elastic modulus of the base or the reference material

 Point load index (Is) → The force needed to fracture a sample of rock between conical
P
points: Is = , where P is force and D is the distance between the points, both at failure.
D2
Is is related to uniaxial compressive strength (approximately equal to Is × 24)

 Wyllie time-average equation:

1 porosity in rock (1− porosity in rock)

= +
wave velocity in rock velocity of the fluid in the pores velocity of the rock matrix

508
505
 1
sinC =
n

where:
 C is the critical angle.
 n is the refractive index of the medium.

Substance medium Refractive index Critical angle

Water 1.33 48.75°
Crown glass 1.52 41.14°
Dense flint glass 1.62 37.31°
Diamond 2.42 24.41°

Science Technology

Explores new knowledge methodically through The application of scientific knowledge for various
observation and experimentation. purposes.

The wave nature of light was demonstrated convincingly for the first time in 1801 by Thomas
Young by a wonderfully simple experiment. He let a ray of sunlight into a dark room, placed a
dark screen in front of it, pierced with two small pinholes, and beyond this, at some distance, a
white screen. He then saw two darkish lines at both sides of a bright line, which gave him
sufficient encouragement to repeat the experiment, this time with spirit flame as light source,
with a little salt in it to produce the bright yellow sodium light. This time he saw a number of
dark lines, regularly spaced; the first clear proof that light added to light can produce darkness.
This phenomenon is called interference. Thomas Young had expected it because he believed in
the wave theory of light.

− Dennis Gabor

509
506
 Physical quantities with same dimensional formula:

Physical Quantity Dimensional Formula

Momentum and impulse [M1L1T-1]

Angular momentum and Planck's constant [M1L2T-1]

Work, Energy, Moment of a force, Torque and couple [M1L2T-2]

Frequency, Angular Frequency, Angular velocity and Velocity gradient [M0L0T-1]

Pressure, Stress, Elastic constant and Energy density [M1L-1T-2]

Force constant (spring), Surface Tension and surface energy [M1L0T-2]

Radius of gyration, light year and wavelength [M0L1T0]

The Spectral Lines for Atomic Hydrogen:

Series n1 n2 Spectral Region

Lyman 1 2, 3 … Ultraviolet
Balmer 2 3, 4 … Visible
Paschen 3 4, 5 … Infrared
Brackett 4 5, 6 … Infrared
Pfund 5 6, 7 … Infrared

Formal charge Total number of Total number of

Total number of
1
(F.C.) on an atom = valence electrons in − non bonding − bonding (shared)
2
in a Lewis structure (lone pair) electrons
the free atom
electrons

510
507
 Bonding molecular orbital Anti Bonding molecular orbital

Molecular orbitals formed by the additive Molecular orbitals formed by the subtractive
effect of the atomic orbitals effect of atomic orbitals
Probability of finding the electrons is more Probability of finding the electrons is less

ΔG0 = ΔH0−TΔS0

ΔH0 ΔS0 ΔG0 Description

– + – Reaction spontaneous at all temperatures

– – – (at low Temperature) Reaction spontaneous at low temperature
– – + (at high Temperature) Reaction non-spontaneous at high temperature
+ + + (at low Temperature) Reaction Non-spontaneous at low temperature
+ + – (at high Temperature) Reaction spontaneous at high temperature

+ – + (at all Temperature) Reaction non-spontaneous at all temperatures

Temperature Corrected Density = (Density of Fuel Oil @ 15⁰C) × [1− {(T−15) × 0.00064}]

where: T = temperature of oil in bunker tanks in degree Celsius

Metric Tonnes = (Actual Sounder Volume) × (Temperature Corrected Density)

Specific Fuel Oil Consumption (SFOC):

Mass of fuel consumed per hour

SFOC (g/KWh) =
Power developed in KW

Engine distance in nautical mile = (Pitch × revolutions per day)

511
508
 List of physical quantities:

Base quantity Description SI base unit

Length The one-dimensional extent of an object metre

Mass A measure of resistance to acceleration kilogram

Time The duration of an event second

Electric Current Rate of flow of electrical charge per unit time ampere

Temperature Average kinetic energy per degree of freedom of Kelvin

a system

Amount of substance The quantity proportional to the number of mole

particles in a sample, with the Avogadro
constant as the proportionality constant

Luminous intensity Wavelength-weighted power of emitted light candela

per unit solid angle

Derived quantity Description SI derived unit

Young's modulus Ratio of stress to strain pascal (Pa = N/m2)

Work Transferred energy joule (J)

Weight Gravitational force on an object newton (N = kg⋅m/s2)

512
 Derived quantity Description SI derived unit

Repetency or spatial frequency vector: the

Wavevector m−1
number of cycles per unit distance

Repetency or spatial frequency: the number

Wavenumber m−1
of cycles per unit distance

Perpendicular distance between repeating

Wavelength m
units of a wave

Rate of change of volume with respect to

Volumetric flow rate m3⋅s−1
time

Volume Three dimensional extent of an object m3

Moved distance per unit time: the first time

Velocity m/s
derivative of position

Product of a force and the perpendicular

Torque distance of the force from the point about newton-metre (N⋅m)
which it is exerted

Measure for the ease with which a material

Thermal resistivity K⋅m/W
resists conduction of heat

Measure for the ease with which an object

Thermal resistance K/W
resists conduction of heat

Measure for the ease with which a material

Thermal conductivity W/(m⋅K)
conducts heat

Measure for the ease with which an object

Thermal conductance W/K
conducts heat

513
 Derived quantity Description SI derived unit

steepest rate of temperature change at a

Temperature gradient K/m
particular location

Energy change per unit change in surface

Surface tension N/m or J/m2
area

Stress Force per unit oriented surface area Pa

Strain Extension per unit length unitless

Quantum-mechanically defined angular

Spin kg⋅m2⋅s−1
momentum of a particle

Specific volume Volume per unit mass (reciprocal of density) m3⋅kg−1

Specific heat capacity Heat capacity per unit mass J/(K⋅kg)

Specific energy Energy density per unit mass J⋅kg−1

Ratio of area on a sphere to its radius

Solid angle steradian (sr)
squared

Reluctance resistance to the flow of magnetic flux H−1

Factor by which the phase velocity of light is

Refractive index unitless
reduced in a medium

Reaction rate Rate of a chemical reaction for unit time mol/(m3⋅s)

Power of emitted electromagnetic radiation

Radiant intensity W/sr
per unit solid angle

Radiance Power of emitted electromagnetic radiation W/(m2⋅sr)

514
Derived quantity Description SI derived unit

per unit solid angle per emitting source area

Pressure Force per unit area pascal (Pa = N/m2)

Power Rate of transfer of energy per unit time watt (W)

Rate of change of crackle per unit time: the

Pop m/s6
sixth time derivative of position

Plane angle Ratio of circular arc length to radius radian (rad)

Measure for how the polarization of a

Permittivity material is affected by the application of an F/m
external electric field

Measure for how the magnetization of

Permeability material is affected by the application of an H/m
external magnetic field

Measure of the effective curvature of a lens

Optical power dioptre (dpt = m−1)
or curved mirror; inverse of focal length

Momentum Product of an object's mass and velocity kg⋅m/s

Inertia of an object with respect to angular

Moment of inertia kg⋅m2
acceleration

Heat capacity of a material per unit amount

Molar heat capacity J/(K⋅mol)
of substance

Molar entropy Entropy per unit amount of substance J/(K⋅mol)

Molar energy Amount of energy present in a system per J/mol

515
 Derived quantity Description SI derived unit

unit amount of substance

Molar concentration Amount of substance per unit volume mol⋅m−3

Average time for a particle of a substance to

Mean lifetime s
decay

Mass of a substance as a fraction of the total

Mass fraction kg/kg
mass

Amount of magnetic moment per unit

Magnetization A/m
volume

Measure for the strength of the magnetic

Magnetic flux density tesla (T = Wb/m2)
field

Measure of magnetism, taking account of the

Magnetic flux weber (Wb)
strength and the extent of a magnetic field

Magnetic field strength Strength of a magnetic field A/m

Ratio of flow velocity to the local speed of

Mach number (or mach) unitless
sound

Luminous
Perceived power of a light source lumen (lm = cd⋅sr)
flux (or luminous power)

Linear density Mass per unit length kg⋅m−1

Change of jerk per unit time: the fourth time

Jounce (or snap) m/s4
derivative of position

Jerk Change of acceleration per unit time: the m/s3

516
Derived quantity Description SI derived unit

third time derivative of position

Electromagnetic radiation power per unit

Irradiance W/m2
surface area

Intensity Power per unit cross sectional area W/m2

Magnetic flux generated per unit current

Inductance henry (H)
through a circuit

Impulse Transferred momentum newton-second (N⋅s = kg⋅m/s)

Resistance to an alternating current of a

Impedance ohm (Ω)
given frequency, including effect on phase

Illuminance Luminous flux per unit surface area lux (lx = cd⋅sr/m2)

Heat flux density Heat flow per unit time per unit surface area W/m2

Heat capacity Energy per unit temperature change J/K

Heat Thermal energy joule (J)

Time for a quantity to decay to half its initial

Half-life s
value

Number of (periodic) occurrences per unit

Frequency hertz (Hz = s−1)
time

Force Transfer of momentum per unit time newton (N = kg⋅m⋅s−2)

Logarithmic measure of the number of

Entropy J/K
available states of a system

517
 Derived quantity Description SI derived unit

Energy density Energy per unit volume J⋅m−3

Energy Energy J

Bulk property equivalent of electrical

Electrical resistivity ohm-metre (Ω⋅m)
resistance

Electrical resistance Electric potential per unit electric current ohm (Ω = V/A)

Measure of a material's ability to conduct an

Electrical conductivity S/m
electric current

Measure for how easily current flows

Electrical conductance siemens (S = Ω−1)
through a material

Energy required to move a unit charge

Electric potential through an electric field from a reference volt (V = J/C)
point

Electric field strength Strength of the electric field V/m

Electric displacement field Strength of the electric displacement C/m2

Electric charge density Electric charge per unit volume C/m3

Electric charge The force per unit electric field strength coulomb (C = A⋅s)

Measure for the resistance of an

Dynamic viscosity Pa⋅s
incompressible fluid to stress

Received radiation adjusted for the effect on

Dose equivalent sievert (Sv = m2/s2)
biological tissue

518
 Derived quantity Description SI derived unit

Current density Electric current per unit cross-section area A/m2

Change of jounce per unit time: the fifth time

Crackle m/s5
derivative of position

Energy per unit change in amount of

Chemical potential J/mol
substance

Inertial force that appears to act on all

Centrifugal force objects when viewed in a rotating frame of N⋅rad = kg⋅m⋅rad⋅s−2
reference

Catalytic activity Change in reaction rate due to presence of

kat⋅m−3
concentration a catalyst per unit volume of the system

Capacitance Stored charge per unit electric potential farad (F = C/V)

Area density Mass per unit area kg⋅m−2

Area Extent of a surface m2

The angle incremented in a plane by a

Angular velocity segment connecting an object and a rad/s
reference point per unit time

Measure of the extent and direction of an

Angular momentum kg⋅m2/s
object rotates about a reference point

Angular acceleration Change in angular velocity per unit time rad/s2

Rate of change of velocity per unit time: the

Acceleration m/s2
second time derivative of position

519
 Derived quantity Description SI derived unit

Absorbed dose rate Absorbed dose received per unit of time Gy/s

Measure of sustained displacement: the first

Absement m⋅s
integral with respect to time of displacement

Ionizing radiation energy absorbed by

(Radioactive) Dose gray (Gy = m2/s2)
biological tissue per unit mass

(Radioactive) Activity Number of particles decaying per unit time becquerel (Bq = Hz)

(Mass) Density (or volume

Mass per unit volume kg/m3
density)

The Earth spins at 1,000 mph but it travels through space at an incredible 67,000 mph.

Every year over one million earthquakes shake the Earth.

The dinosaurs (a diverse group of reptiles of the clade Dinosauria) became

extinct before the Rockies or the Alps were formed.

The first synthetic human chromosome was constructed by US scientists in 1997.

There are 60,000 miles of blood vessels in the human body.

520
 If the Sun were the size of a beach ball then Jupiter would be the size of a

golf ball and the Earth would be as small as a pea.

List of Nobel laureates in Physics

1901 Wilhelm Röntgen "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has

rendered by the discovery of the
remarkable rays subsequently named after him"

1902 Hendrik Lorentz "in recognition of the extraordinary service they

rendered by their researches into the influence
of magnetism upon radiation phenomena"
Pieter Zeeman

1903 Antoine Henri Becquerel "for his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity"

Pierre Curie "for their joint researches on

the radiation phenomena discovered by
Professor Henri Becquerel"
Marie Skłodowska-Curie

1904 Lord Rayleigh "for his investigations of the densities of the most
important gases and for his discovery of argon in
connection with these studies"

1905 Philipp Eduard Anton von "for his work on cathode rays"
Lenard

1906 Joseph John Thomson "for his theoretical and experimental investigations
on the conduction of electricity by gases"

1907 Albert Abraham Michelson "for his optical precision instruments and
the spectroscopic and metrological investigations

521
 carried out with their aid"

1908 Gabriel Lippmann "for his method of reproducing colours

photographically based on the phenomenon
of interference"

1909 Guglielmo Marconi "for their contributions to the development of

wireless telegraphy"

Karl Ferdinand Braun

1910 Johannes Diderik van der "for his work on the equation of state for gases and
Waals liquids"

1911 Wilhelm Wien "for his discoveries regarding the laws governing the
radiation of heat"

1912 Nils Gustaf Dalén "for his invention of automatic valves designed to be
used in combination with gas accumulators
in lighthouses and buoys"

1913 Heike Kamerlingh-Onnes "for his investigations on the properties of matter at

low temperatures which led, inter alia, to the
production of liquid helium"

1914 Max von Laue "For his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by
crystals", an important step in the development of X-
ray spectroscopy.

1915 William Henry Bragg "'For their services in the analysis of crystal
structure by means of X-rays', an important step in
the development of X-ray crystallography"
William Lawrence Bragg

522
1916 Not awarded due to World War I

1917 Charles Glover Barkla "'For his discovery of the characteristic Röntgen
radiation of the elements', another important step in the
development of X-ray spectroscopy"

1918 Max Planck "for the services he rendered to the advancement of

physics by his discovery of energy quanta"

1919 Johannes Stark "for his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and
the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields"

1920 Charles Édouard "for the service he has rendered to precision

Guillaume measurements in physics by his discovery of anomalies
in nickel-steel alloys"

1921 Albert Einstein "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for
his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"

1922 Niels Bohr "for his services in the investigation of the structure
of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them"

1923 Robert Andrews "for his work on the elementary charge of electricity and
Millikan on the photoelectric effect"

1924 Manne Siegbahn "for his discoveries and research in the field of X-ray
spectroscopy"

1925 James Franck "for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of

523
 an electron upon an atom"
Gustav Hertz

1926 Jean Baptiste Perrin "for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter,
and especially for his discovery of sedimentation
equilibrium"

1927 Arthur Holly Compton "for his discovery of the effect named after him"

Charles Thomson Rees "for his method of making the paths of electrically
Wilson charged particles visible by condensation of vapour"

1928 Owen Willans "for his work on the thermionic phenomenon and
Richardson especially for the discovery of the law named after him"

1929 Louis Victor Pierre "for his discovery of the wave nature of electrons"
Raymond, 7th Duc de
Broglie

1930 Chandrasekhara "for his work on the scattering of light and for the
Venkata Raman discovery of the effect named after him"

1931 Not awarded

1932 Werner Heisenberg "for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application
of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of
the allotropic forms of hydrogen"

1933 Erwin Schrödinger "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic
theory"

Paul Dirac

524
1934 Not awarded

1935 James Chadwick "for the discovery of the neutron"

1936 Victor Francis Hess "for his discovery of cosmic radiation"

Carl David Anderson "for his discovery of the positron"

1937 Clinton Joseph "for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of

Davisson electrons by crystals"

George Paget Thomson

1938 Enrico Fermi "for his demonstrations of the existence of new

radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation,
and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions
brought about by slow neutrons"

1939 Ernest Lawrence "for the invention and development of the cyclotron and
for results obtained with it, especially with regard to
artificial radioactive elements"

1940

Not awarded due to World War II

1941

1942

1943 Otto Stern "for his contribution to the development of the molecular
ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of

525
 the proton"

1944 Isidor Isaac Rabi "for his resonance method for recording the magnetic
properties of atomic nuclei"

1945 Wolfgang Pauli "for the discovery of the Exclusion Principle, also called
the Pauli principle"

1946 Percy Williams "for the invention of an apparatus to produce extremely

Bridgman high pressures, and for the discoveries he made there
within the field of high pressure physics"

1947 Edward Victor "for his investigations of the physics of the upper
Appleton atmosphere especially for the discovery of the so-
called Appleton layer"

1948 Patrick Maynard Stuart "for his development of the Wilson cloud
Blackett chamber method, and his discoveries therewith in the
fields of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation"

1949 Hideki Yukawa "for his prediction of the existence of mesons on the
basis of theoretical work on nuclear forces"

1950 Cecil Frank Powell "for his development of the photographic method of
studying nuclear processes and his discoveries
regarding mesons made with this method"

1951 John Douglas "for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic
Cockcroft nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles"

Ernest Thomas Sinton

526
 Walton

1952 Felix Bloch "for their development of new methods for nuclear
magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in
connection therewith"
Edward Mills Purcell

1953 Frits Zernike "for his demonstration of the phase contrast method,
especially for his invention of the phase contrast
microscope"

1954 Max Born "for his fundamental research in quantum mechanics,

especially for his statistical interpretation of
the wavefunction"

Walther Bothe "for the coincidence method and his discoveries made
therewith"

1955 Willis Eugene Lamb "for his discoveries concerning the fine structure of the
hydrogen spectrum"

Polykarp Kusch "for his precision determination of the magnetic

moment of the electron"

1956 John Bardeen "for their researches on semiconductors and their

discovery of the transistor effect"

Walter Houser Brattain

William Bradford
Shockley

527
1957 Tsung-Dao Lee "for their penetrating investigation of the so-called parity
laws which has led to important discoveries regarding
the elementary particles"
Chen-Ning Yang

1958 Pavel Alekseyevich "for the discovery and the interpretation of

Cherenkov the Cherenkov effect"

Ilya Frank

Igor Yevgenyevich
Tamm

1959 Emilio Gino Segrè "for their discovery of the antiproton"

Owen Chamberlain

1960 Donald Arthur Glaser "for the invention of the bubble chamber"

1961 Robert Hofstadter "for his pioneering studies of electron scattering in

atomic nuclei and for his thereby achieved discoveries
concerning the structure of the nucleons"

Rudolf Ludwig "for his researches concerning the resonance absorption

Mössbauer of gamma radiation and his discovery in this connection
of the effect which bears his name"

1962 Lev Davidovich Landau "for his pioneering theories for condensed matter,
especially liquid helium"

1963 Eugene Paul Wigner "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic

528
 nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly
through the discovery and application of
fundamental symmetry principles"

Maria Goeppert-Mayer "for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure"

J. Hans D. Jensen

1964 Nicolay Gennadiyevich "for fundamental work in the field of quantum

Basov electronics, which has led to the construction
of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser–
laser principle"
Alexander Prokhorov

Charles Hard Townes

1965 Richard Phillips "for their fundamental work in quantum

Feynman electrodynamics (QED), with deep-ploughing
consequences for the physics of elementary particles"

Julian Schwinger

Shin'ichirō Tomonaga

1966 Alfred Kastler "for the discovery and development of optical methods
for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms"

1967 Hans Albrecht Bethe "for his contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions,
especially his discoveries concerning the energy
production in stars"

1968 Luis Walter Alvarez "for his decisive contributions to elementary particle
physics, in particular the discovery of a large number

529
 of resonance states, made possible through his
development of the technique of using hydrogen bubble
chamber and data analysis"

1969 Murray Gell-Mann "for his contributions and discoveries concerning the
classification of elementary particles and their
interactions"

1970 Hannes Olof Gösta "for fundamental work and discoveries in magneto-
Alfvén hydrodynamics with fruitful applications in different
parts of plasma physics"

Louis Néel "for fundamental work and discoveries

concerning antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism whic
h have led to important applications in solid state
physics"

1971 Dennis Gabor "for his invention and development of the holographic
method"

1972 John Bardeen "for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity,

usually called the BCS-theory"

Leon Neil Cooper

John Robert Schrieffer

1973 Leo Esaki "for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling

phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors,
respectively"
Ivar Giaever

Brian David Josephson "for his theoretical predictions of the properties of

530
 a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier, in particular
those phenomena which are generally known as
the Josephson effect"

1974 Martin Ryle "for their pioneering research in radio astrophysics: Ryle
for his observations and inventions, in particular of
the aperture synthesis technique, and Hewish for his
Antony Hewish
decisive role in the discovery of pulsars"

1975 Aage Bohr "for the discovery of the connection between collective
motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the
development of the theory of the structure of the atomic
Ben Roy Mottelson
nucleus based on this connection"

Leo James Rainwater

1976 Samuel Chao Chung "for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy
Ting elementary particle of a new kind"

Burton Richter

1977 Philip Warren "for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the

Anderson electronic structure of magnetic and disordered
systems"

Nevill Francis Mott

John Hasbrouck Van

Vleck

1978 Pyotr Leonidovich "for his basic inventions and discoveries in the area
Kapitsa of low-temperature physics"

531
 Arno Allan Penzias "for their discovery of cosmic microwave background
radiation"

Robert Woodrow
Wilson

1979 Sheldon Lee Glashow "for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak
and electromagnetic interaction between elementary
particles, including, inter alia, the prediction of the weak
Abdus Salam
neutral current"

Steven Weinberg

1980 James Watson Cronin "for the discovery of violations of fundamental symmetry
principles in the decay of neutral K-mesons"

Val Logsdon Fitch

1981 Nicolaas Bloembergen "for their contribution to the development of laser

spectroscopy"

Arthur Leonard
Schawlow

Kai Manne Börje "for his contribution to the development of high-

Siegbahn resolution electron spectroscopy"

1982 Kenneth G. Wilson "for his theory for critical phenomena in connection
with phase transitions"

1983 Subrahmanyan "for his theoretical studies of the physical processes of

Chandrasekhar importance to the structure and evolution of the stars"

532
 William Alfred Fowler "for his theoretical and experimental studies of
the nuclear reactions of importance in the formation of
the chemical elements in the universe"

1984 Carlo Rubbia "for their decisive contributions to the large project,
which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z,
communicators of weak interaction"
Simon van der Meer

1985 Klaus von Klitzing "for the discovery of the quantized Hall effect"

1986 Ernst Ruska "for his fundamental work in electron optics, and for the
design of the first electron microscope"

Gerd Binnig "for their design of the scanning tunneling microscope"

Heinrich Rohrer

1987 Johannes Georg "for their important break-through in the discovery

Bednorz of superconductivity in ceramic materials"

Karl Alexander Müller

1988 Leon Max Lederman "for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration
of the doublet structure of the leptons through the
discovery of the muon neutrino"
Melvin Schwartz

Jack Steinberger

1989 Norman Foster Ramsey "for the invention of the separated oscillatory
fields method and its use in the hydrogen maser and

533
 other atomic clocks"

Hans Georg Dehmelt "for the development of the ion trap technique"

Wolfgang Paul

1990 Jerome I. Friedman "for their pioneering investigations concerning deep

inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound
neutrons, which have been of essential importance for
Henry Way Kendall
the development of the quark model in particle physics"

Richard E. Taylor

1991 Pierre-Gilles de Gennes "for discovering that methods developed for studying
order phenomena in simple systems can be generalized
to more complex forms of matter, in particular to liquid
crystals and polymers"

1992 Georges Charpak "for his invention and development of particle detectors,
in particular the multiwire proportional chamber"

1993 Russell Alan Hulse "for the discovery of a new type of pulsar, a discovery
that has opened up new possibilities for the study
of gravitation"
Joseph Hooton Taylor
Jr.

1994 Bertram Brockhouse "for the development of neutron spectroscopy" and "for
pioneering contributions to the development of neutron
scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter"

Clifford Glenwood "for the development of the neutron

diffraction technique" and "for pioneering contributions

534
 Shull to the development of neutron scattering techniques for
studies of condensed matter"

1995 Martin Lewis Perl "for the discovery of the tau lepton" and "for pioneering
experimental contributions to lepton physics"

Frederick Reines "for the detection of the neutrino" and "for pioneering
experimental contributions to lepton physics"

1996 David Morris Lee "for their discovery of superfluidity in helium-3"

Douglas D. Osheroff

Robert Coleman
Richardson

1997 Steven Chu "for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with
laser light."

Claude Cohen-
Tannoudji

William Daniel Phillips

1998 Robert B. Laughlin "for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with
fractionally charged excitations"

Horst Ludwig Störmer

Daniel Chee Tsui

1999 Gerard 't Hooft "for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak

535
 interactions in physics"
Martinus J. G. Veltman

2000 Zhores Ivanovich "for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in

Alferov high-speed- and optoelectronics"

Herbert Kroemer

Jack St. Clair Kilby "for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit"

2001 Eric Allin Cornell "for the achievement of Bose–Einstein condensation in

dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental
studies of the properties of the condensates"
Carl Edwin Wieman

Wolfgang Ketterle

2002 Raymond Davis Jr. "for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, in

particular for the detection of cosmic neutrinos"

Masatoshi Koshiba

Riccardo Giacconi "for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, which

have led to the discovery of cosmic X-ray sources"

2003 Alexei Alexeyevich "for pioneering contributions to the theory

Abrikosov of superconductors and superfluids"

Vitaly Lazarevich
Ginzburg

Anthony James

536
 Leggett

2004 David J. Gross "for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of
the strong interaction"

Hugh David Politzer

Frank Wilczek

2005 Roy J. Glauber "for his contribution to the quantum theory of optical
coherence"

John L. Hall "for their contributions to the development of laser-

based precision spectroscopy, including the optical
frequency comb technique"
Theodor W. Hänsch

2006 John C. Mather "for their discovery of the blackbody

form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave
background radiation"
George F. Smoot

2007 Albert Fert "for the discovery of giant magnetoresistance"

Peter Grünberg

2008 Makoto Kobayashi "for the discovery of the origin of the broken
symmetry which predicts the existence of at least three
families of quarks in nature"
Toshihide Maskawa

Yoichiro Nambu "for the discovery of the mechanism of spontaneous

broken symmetry in subatomic physics"

537
2009 Charles K. Kao "for groundbreaking achievements concerning the
transmission of light in fibers for optical
communication"

Willard S. Boyle "for the invention of an imaging semiconductor circuit –

the CCD sensor"

George E. Smith

2010 Andre Geim "for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-

dimensional material graphene"

Konstantin Novoselov

2011 Saul Perlmutter "for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the
Universe through observations of distant supernovae"

Brian P. Schmidt

Adam G. Riess

2012 Serge Haroche "for ground-breaking experimental methods that enable

measuring and manipulation of
individual quantum systems."
David J. Wineland

2013 François Englert "for the theoretical discovery of a mechanism that

contributes to our understanding of the origin of mass
of subatomic particles, and which recently was
Peter Higgs
confirmed through the discovery of the predicted
fundamental particle, by
the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN's Large
Hadron Collider"

538
2014 Isamu Akasaki "for the invention of efficient blue light-emitting
diodes which has enabled bright and energy-saving
white light sources"
Hiroshi Amano

Shuji Nakamura

2015 Takaaki Kajita "for the discovery of neutrino oscillations, which shows
that neutrinos have mass"

Arthur B. McDonald

2016 David J. Thouless "for theoretical discoveries of topological phase

transitions and topological phases of matter"

F. Duncan M. Haldane

John M. Kosterlitz

2017 Rainer Weiss "for decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the
observation of gravitational waves"

Kip Thorne

Barry Barish

2018 Arthur Ashkin "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser

physics", in particular "for the optical tweezers and their
application to biological systems"

Gérard Mourou "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser

physics", in particular "for their method of generating
high-intensity, ultra-short optical pulses"
Donna Strickland

539
 2019 James Peebles "for theoretical discoveries in physical cosmology"

Michel Mayor "for the discovery of an exoplanet orbiting a solar-type

star"

Didier Queloz

2020 Roger Penrose "for the discovery that black hole formation is a robust
prediction of the general theory of relativity"

Reinhard Genzel "for the discovery of a supermassive compact object at

the centre of our galaxy"

Andrea Ghez

Each rubber molecule is made of 65,000 individual atoms.

Around a million, billion neutrinos from the Sun will pass through our body every day.

Quasars are the most distant objects in the Universe which emit more

energy than 100 giant galaxies.

540
 List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry

1901 Jacobus Henricus van 't "[for his] discovery of the laws of chemical
Hoff dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions"

1902 Hermann Emil Fischer "[for] his work on sugar and purine syntheses"

1903 Svante August Arrhenius "[for] his electrolytic theory of dissociation"

1904 Sir William Ramsay "[for his] discovery of the inert gaseous elements in
air, and his determination of their place in the
periodic system"

1905 Adolf von Baeyer "[for] the advancement of organic chemistry and
the chemical industry, through his work
on organic dyes and hydroaromatic compounds"

1906 Henri Moissan "[for his] investigation and isolation of the

element fluorine, and for [the] electric
furnace called after him"

1907 Eduard Buchner "for his biochemical researches and his discovery
of cell-free fermentation"

1908 Ernest Rutherford "for his investigations into the disintegration of the
elements, and the chemistry of radioactive
substances"

1909 Wilhelm Ostwald "[for] his work on catalysis and for his
investigations into the fundamental principles

541
 governing chemical equilibria and rates of
reaction"

1910 Otto Wallach "[for] his services to organic chemistry and the
chemical industry by his pioneer work in the field
of alicyclic compounds"

1911 Maria Skłodowska-Curie "[for] the discovery of the

elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of
radium and the study of the nature and
compounds of this remarkable element"

1912 Victor Grignard "for the discovery of the [...] Grignard reagent"

Paul Sabatier "for his method of hydrogenating organic

compounds in the presence of finely disintegrated
metals"

1913 Alfred Werner "[for] his work on the linkage of atoms in

molecules [...] especially in inorganic chemistry"

1914 Theodore William "[for] his accurate determinations of the atomic

Richards weight of a large number of chemical elements"

1915 Richard Martin "for his researches on plant pigments,

Willstätter especially chlorophyll"

1916

Not awarded
1917

542
1918 Fritz Haber "for the synthesis of ammonia from its elements"

1919 Not awarded

1920 Walther Hermann Nernst "[for] his work in thermochemistry"

1921 Frederick Soddy "for his contributions to our knowledge of the

chemistry of radioactive substances, and his
investigations into the origin and nature
of isotopes"

1922 Francis William Aston "for his discovery, by means of his mass
spectrograph, of isotopes, in a large number of
non-radioactive elements, and for his enunciation
of the whole-number rule"

1923 Fritz Pregl "for his invention of the method of micro-

analysis of organic substances"

1924 Not awarded

1925 Richard Adolf Zsigmondy "for his demonstration of the heterogeneous

nature of colloid solutions and for the methods he
used"

1926 The (Theodor) Svedberg "for his work on disperse systems"

1927 Heinrich Otto Wieland "for his investigations of the constitution of

the bile acids and related substances"

543
1928 Adolf Otto Reinhold "[for] his research into the constitution of
Windaus the sterols and their connection with the vitamins"

1929 Arthur Harden "for their investigations on the fermentation of

sugar and fermentative enzymes"

Hans Karl August Simon

von Euler-Chelpin

1930 Hans Fischer "for his researches into the constitution

of haemin and chlorophyll and especially for his
synthesis of haemin"

1931 Carl Bosch "[for] their contributions to the invention and

development of chemical high pressure methods"

Friedrich Bergius

1932 Irving Langmuir "for his discoveries and investigations in surface

chemistry"

1933 Not awarded

1934 Harold Clayton Urey "for his discovery of heavy hydrogen"

1935 Frédéric Joliot "[for] their synthesis of new radioactive elements"

Irène Joliot-Curie

1936 Peter Debye "[for his work on] molecular structure through his
investigations on dipole moments and

544
 the diffraction of X-rays and electrons in gases"

1937 Walter Norman Haworth "for his investigations on carbohydrates

and vitamin C"

Paul Karrer "for his investigations on carotenoids, flavins and

vitamins A and B2"

1938 Richard Kuhn "for his work on carotenoids and vitamins"

1939 Adolf Friedrich Johann "for his work on sex hormones"

Butenandt

Leopold Ruzicka "for his work on polymethylenes and

higher terpenes"

1940

Not awarded
1941

1942

1943 George de Hevesy "for his work on the use of isotopes as tracers in
the study of chemical processes"

1944 Otto Hahn "for his discovery of the fission of heavy nuclei"

1945 Artturi Ilmari Virtanen "for his research and inventions in agricultural
and nutrition chemistry, especially for his fodder

545
 preservation method"

1946 James Batcheller "for his discovery that enzymes can be

Sumner crystallized"

John Howard Northrop "for their preparation of enzymes and virus

proteins in a pure form"

Wendell Meredith
Stanley

1947 Sir Robert Robinson "for his investigations on plant products of

biological importance, especially the alkaloids"

1948 Arne Wilhelm Kaurin "for his research on electrophoresis and

Tiselius adsorption analysis, especially for his discoveries
concerning the complex nature of the serum
proteins"

1949 William Francis Giauque "for his contributions in the field of chemical
thermodynamics, particularly concerning the
behaviour of substances at extremely low
temperatures"

1950 Otto Paul Hermann Diels "for their discovery and development of the diene
synthesis"

Kurt Alder

1951 Edwin Mattison "for their discoveries in the chemistry

McMillan of transuranium elements"

546
 Glenn Theodore Seaborg

1952 Archer John Porter "for their invention of partition chromatography"

Martin

Richard Laurence
Millington Synge

1953 Hermann Staudinger "for his discoveries in the field of macromolecular

chemistry"

1954 Linus Pauling "for his research into the nature of the chemical
bond and its application to the elucidation of the
structure of complex substances"

1955 Vincent du Vigneaud "for his work on biochemically important sulphur

compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a
polypeptide hormone"

1956 Sir Cyril Norman "for their researches into the mechanism of
Hinshelwood chemical reactions"

Nikolay Nikolaevich
Semenov

1957 Lord (Alexander R.) Todd "for his work on nucleotides and nucleotide co-
enzymes"

1958 Frederick Sanger "for his work on the structure of proteins,

547
 especially that of insulin"

1959 Jaroslav Heyrovský "for his discovery and development of

the polarographic methods of analysis"

1960 Willard Frank Libby "for his method to use carbon-14 for age
determination in archaeology, geology, geophysics,
and other branches of science"

1961 Melvin Calvin "for his research on the carbon dioxide

assimilation in plants"

1962 Max Ferdinand Perutz "for their studies of the structures of globular
proteins"

John Cowdery Kendrew

1963 Karl Ziegler "for their discoveries in the field of the chemistry
and technology of high polymers"

Giulio Natta

1964 Dorothy Crowfoot "for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the

Hodgkin structures of important biochemical substances"

1965 Robert Burns Woodward "for his outstanding achievements in the art of
organic synthesis"

1966 Robert S. Mulliken "for his fundamental work concerning chemical

bonds and the electronic structure of molecules by
the molecular orbital method"

548
1967 Manfred Eigen "for their studies of extremely fast chemical
reactions, effected by disturbing the equilibrium

Ronald George Wreyford by means of very short pulses of energy"

Norrish

George Porter

1968 Lars Onsager "for the discovery of the reciprocal

relations bearing his name, which are
fundamental for the thermodynamics of
irreversible processes"

1969 Derek H. R. Barton "for their contributions to the development of the

concept of conformation and its application in

Odd Hassel chemistry"

1970 Luis F. Leloir "for his discovery of sugar nucleotides and their
role in the biosynthesis of carbohydrates"

1971 Gerhard Herzberg "for his contributions to the knowledge of

electronic structure and geometry of molecules,
particularly free radicals"

1972 Christian B. Anfinsen "for his work on ribonuclease, especially

concerning the connection between the amino acid
sequence and the biologically active conformation"

Stanford Moore "for their contribution to the understanding of the

549
 connection between chemical structure and
William H. Stein
catalytic activity of the active centre of
the ribonuclease molecule"

1973 Ernst Otto Fischer "for their pioneering work, performed

independently, on the chemistry of

Geoffrey Wilkinson the organometallic, so called sandwich

compounds"

1974 Paul J. Flory "for his fundamental work, both theoretical and
experimental, in the physical chemistry
of macromolecules"

1975 John Warcup Cornforth "for his work on the stereochemistry of enzyme-
catalyzed reactions"

Vladimir Prelog "for his research into the stereochemistry of

organic molecules and reactions"

1976 William N. Lipscomb "for his studies on the structure

of boranes illuminating problems of chemical
bonding"

1977 Ilya Prigogine "for his contributions to non-equilibrium

thermodynamics, particularly the theory
of dissipative structures"

1978 Peter D. Mitchell "for his contribution to the understanding of

biological energy transfer through the formulation
of the chemiosmotic theory"

550
1979 Herbert C. Brown "for their development of the use of boron- and
phosphorus-containing compounds, respectively,

Georg Wittig into important reagents in organic synthesis"

1980 Paul Berg "for his fundamental studies of the biochemistry of

nucleic acids, with particular regard
to recombinant-DNA"

Walter Gilbert "for their contributions concerning

the determination of base sequences in nucleic

Frederick Sanger acids"

1981 Kenichi Fukui "for their theories, developed independently,

concerning the course of chemical reactions"

Roald Hoffmann

1982 Aaron Klug "for his development of crystallographic electron

microscopy and his structural elucidation of
biologically important nucleic acid-protein
complexes"

1983 Henry Taube "for his work on the mechanisms of electron

transfer reactions, especially in metal complexes"

1984 Robert Bruce Merrifield "for his development of methodology for chemical
synthesis on a solid matrix"

1985 Herbert A. Hauptman "for their outstanding achievements in

551
 developing direct methods for the determination of
Jerome Karle
crystal structures"

1986 Dudley R. Herschbach "for their contributions concerning the dynamics

of chemical elementary processes"

Yuan T. Lee

John C. Polanyi

1987 Donald J. Cram "for their development and use of molecules

with structure-specific interactions of high

Jean-Marie Lehn selectivity"

Charles J. Pedersen

1988 Johann Deisenhofer "for their determination of the three-dimensional

structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre"

Robert Huber

Hartmut Michel

1989 Sidney Altman "for their discovery of catalytic properties of RNA"

Thomas Cech

1990 Elias James Corey "for his development of the theory and
methodology of organic synthesis"

1991 Richard R. Ernst "for his contributions to the development of the

552
 methodology of high resolution nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) spectroscopy"

1992 Rudolph A. Marcus "for his contributions to the theory of electron

transfer reactions in chemical systems"

1993 Kary B. Mullis "for contributions to the developments of methods

within DNA-based chemistry [...] for his invention
of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method"

Michael Smith "for contributions to the developments of methods

within DNA-based chemistry [...] for his
fundamental contributions to the establishment of
oligonucleotide-based, site-directed
mutagenesis and its development for protein
studies"

1994 George A. Olah "for his contribution to carbocation chemistry"

1995 Paul J. Crutzen "for their work in atmospheric chemistry,

particularly concerning the formation

Mario J. Molina and decomposition of ozone"

F. Sherwood Rowland

1996 Robert F. Curl Jr. "for their discovery of fullerenes"

Sir Harold W. Kroto

Richard E. Smalley

553
1997 Paul D. Boyer "for their elucidation of the enzymatic
mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine

John E. Walker triphosphate (ATP)"

Jens C. Skou "for the first discovery of an ion-transporting

enzyme, Na+, K+ -ATPase"

1998 Walter Kohn "for his development of the density-functional

theory"

John A. Pople "for his development of computational methods in

quantum chemistry"

1999 Ahmed Zewail "for his studies of the transition states of chemical
reactions using femtosecond spectroscopy"

2000 Alan J. Heeger "for their discovery and development of conductive

polymers"

Alan G. MacDiarmid

Hideki Shirakawa

2001 William S. Knowles "for their work on chirally catalysed hydrogenation

reactions"

Ryōji Noyori

K. Barry Sharpless "for his work on chirally catalysed oxidation

reactions"

554
2002 John B. Fenn "for the development of methods for identification
and structure analyses of biological

Koichi Tanaka macromolecules [...] for their development of soft

desorption ionisation methods for mass
spectrometric analyses of biological
macromolecules"

Kurt Wüthrich "for the development of methods for identification

and structure analyses of biological
macromolecules [...] for his development
of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy for
determining the three-dimensional structure of
biological macromolecules in solution"

2003 Peter Agre "for discoveries concerning channels in cell

membranes [...] for the discovery of water
channels"

Roderick MacKinnon "for discoveries concerning channels in cell

membranes [...] for structural and
mechanistic studies of ion channels"

2004 Aaron Ciechanover "for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein

degradation"

Avram Hershko

Irwin Rose

2005 Yves Chauvin "for the development of the metathesis method in

555
 organic synthesis"
Robert H. Grubbs

Richard R. Schrock

2006 Roger D. Kornberg "for his studies of the molecular basis

of eukaryotic transcription"

2007 Gerhard Ertl "for his studies of chemical processes on solid

surfaces"

2008 Osamu Shimomura "for the discovery and development of the green
fluorescent protein, GFP"

Martin Chalfie

Roger Y. Tsien

2009 Venkatraman "for studies of the structure and function of

Ramakrishnan the ribosome"

Thomas A. Steitz

Ada E. Yonath

2010 Richard F. Heck "for palladium-catalyzed cross couplings in

organic synthesis"

Ei-ichi Negishi

Akira Suzuki

556
2011 Dan Shechtman "for the discovery of quasicrystals"

2012 Robert Lefkowitz "for studies of G-protein-coupled receptors"

Brian Kobilka

2013 Martin Karplus "for the development of multiscale models for

complex chemical systems"

Michael Levitt

Arieh Warshel

2014 Eric Betzig "for the development of super-resolved

fluorescence microscopy"

Stefan W. Hell

William E. Moerner

2015 Tomas Lindahl "for mechanistic studies of DNA repair"

Paul L. Modrich

Aziz Sancar

2016 Jean-Pierre Sauvage "for the design and synthesis of molecular

machines"

Fraser Stoddart

557
 Ben Feringa

2017 Jacques Dubochet "for developing cryo-electron microscopy for the

high-resolution structure determination of

Joachim Frank biomolecules in solution"

Richard Henderson

2018 Frances Arnold "for the directed evolution of enzymes"

George Smith "for the phage display of peptides and antibodies"

Sir Gregory Winter

2019 John B. Goodenough "for the development of lithium ion batteries"

M. Stanley Whittingham

Akira Yoshino

2020 Emmanuelle Charpentier "for the development of a method for genome

editing"

Jennifer Doudna

Light would take 0.13 seconds to travel around the Earth.

To escape the Earth's gravity a rocket need to travel at 7 miles a second.

558
 No one shall expel us from the paradise which Cantor has created for us.

{Expressing the importance of Georg Cantor's set theory in the development of mathematics.}

― David Hilbert

The largest dinosaur ever discovered was Seismosaurus which was over 100

feet long and weighed up to 80 tones.

The risk of being struck by a falling meteorite for a human is one

occurrence every 9,300 years.

559
 List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine

1901 Emil Adolf von Behring "for his work on serum therapy, especially its
application against diphtheria, by which he has
opened a new road in the domain of medical science
and thereby placed in the hands of the physician a
victorious weapon against illness and deaths"

1902 Sir Ronald Ross "for his work on malaria, by which he has shown how
it enters the organism and thereby has laid the
foundation for successful research on this disease and
methods of combating it"

1903 Niels Ryberg Finsen "[for] his contribution to the treatment of diseases,
especially lupus vulgaris, with concentrated light
radiation, whereby he has opened a new avenue for
medical science"

1904 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov "in recognition of his work on the physiology
of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects
of the subject has been transformed and enlarged"

1905 Robert Koch "for his investigations and discoveries in relation

to tuberculosis"

1906 Camillo Golgi "in recognition of their work on the structure of

the nervous system"

Santiago Ramón y Cajal

1907 Charles Louis Alphonse "in recognition of his work on the role played

560
 Laveran by protozoa in causing diseases"

1908 Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov "in recognition of their work on immunity"

Paul Ehrlich

1909 Emil Theodor Kocher "for his work on the physiology, pathology and surgery
of the thyroid gland"

1910 Albrecht Kossel "in recognition of the contributions to our knowledge

of cell chemistry made through his work on proteins,
including the nucleic substances"

1911 Allvar Gullstrand "for his work on the dioptrics of the eye"

1912 Alexis Carrel "[for] his work on vascular suture and

the transplantation of blood vessels and organs"

1913 Charles Richet "[for] his work on anaphylaxis"

1914 Robert Bárány "for his work on the physiology and pathology of
the vestibular apparatus"

1915

Not awarded
1916

1917

1918

561
1919 Jules Bordet "for his discoveries relating to immunity"

1920 Schack August "for his discovery of the capillary motor regulating
Steenberg Krogh mechanism"

1921 Not awarded

1922 Archibald Vivian Hill "for his discovery relating to the production of heat in
the muscle"

Otto Fritz Meyerhof "for his discovery of the fixed relationship between the
consumption of oxygen and the metabolism of lactic
acid in the muscle"

1923 Sir Frederick Grant "for the discovery of insulin"

Banting

John James Rickard

Macleod

1924 Willem Einthoven "for the discovery of the mechanism of

the electrocardiogram"

1925 Not awarded

1926 Johannes Andreas Grib "for his discovery of the Spiroptera carcinoma"
Fibiger

1927 Julius Wagner-Jauregg "for his discovery of the therapeutic value

of malaria inoculation in the treatment of dementia
paralytica"

562
1928 Charles Jules Henri "for his work on typhus"
Nicolle

1929 Christiaan Eijkman "for his discovery of the antineuritic vitamin"

Sir Frederick Gowland "for his discovery of the growth-stimulating vitamins"

Hopkins

1930 Karl Landsteiner "for his discovery of human blood groups"

1931 Otto Heinrich Warburg "for his discovery of the nature and mode of action of
the respiratory enzyme"

1932 Sir Charles Scott "for their discoveries regarding the functions
Sherrington of neurons"

Edgar Douglas Adrian

1933 Thomas Hunt Morgan "for his discoveries concerning the role played by
the chromosome in heredity"

1934 George Hoyt Whipple "for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases
of anaemia"

George Richards Minot

William Parry Murphy

1935 Hans Spemann "for his discovery of the organizer effect in embryonic
development"

563
1936 Sir Henry Hallett Dale "for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission
of nerve impulses"

Otto Loewi

1937 Albert Szent-Györgyi von "for his discoveries in connection with the biological
Nagyrapolt combustion processes, with special reference
to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid"

1938 Corneille Jean François "for the discovery of the role played by
Heymans the sinus and aortic mechanisms in the regulation
of respiration"

1939 Gerhard Domagk "for the discovery of the antibacterial effects

of prontosil"

1940

Not awarded
1941

1942

1943 Carl Peter Henrik Dam "for his discovery of vitamin K"

Edward Adelbert Doisy "for his discovery of the chemical nature of vitamin K"

1944 Joseph Erlanger "for their discoveries relating to the highly

differentiated functions of single nerve fibres"

Herbert Spencer Gasser

1945 Sir Alexander Fleming "for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in

564
 various infectious diseases"
Sir Ernst Boris Chain

Howard Walter Florey

1946 Hermann Joseph Muller "for the discovery of the production of mutations by
means of X-ray irradiation"

1947 Carl Ferdinand Cori "for their discovery of the course of the catalytic
conversion of glycogen"

Gerty Theresa Cori, née

Radnitz

Bernardo Alberto "for his discovery of the part played by the hormone of
Houssay the anterior pituitary lobe in the metabolism of sugar"

1948 Paul Hermann Müller "for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a
contact poison against several arthropods"

1949 Walter Rudolf Hess "for his discovery of the functional organization of
the interbrain as a coordinator of the activities of the
internal organs"

António Caetano Egas "for his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy
Moniz (lobotomy) in certain psychoses"

1950 Philip Showalter Hench "for their discoveries relating to the hormones of
the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological
effects"
Edward Calvin Kendall

Tadeusz Reichstein

565
1951 Max Theiler "for his discoveries concerning yellow fever and how to
combat it"

1952 Selman Abraham "for his discovery of streptomycin, the

Waksman first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis"

1953 Sir Hans Adolf Krebs "for his discovery of the citric acid cycle"

Fritz Albert Lipmann "for his discovery of co-enzyme A and its importance
for intermediary metabolism"

1954 John Franklin Enders "for their discovery of the ability

of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various
types of tissue"
Frederick Chapman
Robbins

Thomas Huckle Weller

1955 Axel Hugo Theodor "for his discoveries concerning the nature and mode of
Theorell action of oxidation enzymes"

1956 André Frédéric "for their discoveries concerning heart

Cournand catheterization and pathological changes in
the circulatory system"

Werner Forssmann

Dickinson W. Richards

1957 Daniel Bovet "for his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds

that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and

566
 especially their action on the vascular system and the
skeletal muscles"

1958 George Wells Beadle "for their discovery that genes act by regulating
definite chemical events"

Edward Lawrie Tatum

Joshua Lederberg "for his discoveries concerning genetic

recombination and the organization of the genetic
material of bacteria"

1959 Arthur Kornberg "for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological
synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic
acid"
Severo Ochoa

1960 Sir Frank Macfarlane "for discovery of acquired immunological tolerance"

Burnet

Sir Peter Brian Medawar

1961 Georg von Békésy "for his discoveries of the physical mechanism of
stimulation within the cochlea"

1962 Francis Harry Compton "for their discoveries concerning the molecular
Crick structure of nucleic acids and its significance for
information transfer in living material"

James Dewey Watson

Maurice Hugh Frederick

Wilkins

567
1963 Sir John Carew Eccles "for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms
involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral
and central portions of the nerve cell membrane"
Sir Alan Lloyd Hodgkin

Sir Andrew Fielding

Huxley

1964 Konrad Bloch "for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and
regulation of the cholesterol and fatty
acid metabolism"
Feodor Lynen

1965 François Jacob "for their discoveries concerning genetic control of

enzyme and virus synthesis"

André Lwoff

Jacques Monod

1966 Peyton Rous "for his discovery of tumour-inducing viruses"

Charles Brenton Huggins "for his discoveries concerning hormonal

treatment of prostatic cancer"

1967 Ragnar Granit "for their discoveries concerning the primary

physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye"

Haldan Keffer Hartline

George Wald

1968 Robert W. Holley "for their interpretation of the genetic code and its

568
 function in protein synthesis"
Har Gobind Khorana

Marshall W. Nirenberg

1969 Max Delbrück "for their discoveries concerning the replication

mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses"

Alfred D. Hershey

Salvador E. Luria

1970 Julius Axelrod "for their discoveries concerning the

humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the
mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation"
Ulf von Euler

Sir Bernard Katz

1971 Earl W. Sutherland, Jr. "for his discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the
action of hormones"

1972 Gerald M. Edelman "for their discoveries concerning the chemical

structure of antibodies"

Rodney R. Porter

1973 Karl von Frisch "for their discoveries concerning organization and
elicitation of individual and social behavior patterns"

Konrad Lorenz

Nikolaas Tinbergen

569
1974 Albert Claude "for their discoveries concerning the structural and
functional organization of the cell"

Christian de Duve

George E. Palade

1975 David Baltimore "for their discoveries concerning the interaction

between tumour viruses and the genetic material of
the cell"
Renato Dulbecco

Howard Martin Temin

1976 Baruch S. Blumberg "for their discoveries concerning new mechanisms for
the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases"

D. Carleton Gajdusek

1977 Roger Guillemin "for their discoveries concerning the peptide

hormone production of the brain"

Andrew V. Schally

Rosalyn Yalow "for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide

hormones"

1978 Werner Arber "for the discovery of restriction enzymes and their
application to problems of molecular genetics"

Daniel Nathans

Hamilton O. Smith

570
1979 Allan M. Cormack "for the development of computer assisted
tomography"

Sir Godfrey N.
Hounsfield

1980 Baruj Benacerraf "for their discoveries concerning genetically

determined structures on the cell surface that
regulate immunological reactions"
Jean Dausset

George D. Snell

1981 Roger W. Sperry "for his discoveries concerning the functional

specialization of the cerebral hemispheres"

David H. Hubel "for their discoveries concerning information

processing in the visual system"

Torsten N. Wiesel

1982 Sune K. Bergström "for their discoveries concerning prostaglandins and

related biologically active substances"

Bengt I. Samuelsson

Sir John R. Vane

1983 Barbara McClintock "for her discovery of mobile genetic elements"

1984 Niels K. Jerne "for theories concerning the specificity in development

and control of the immune system and the discovery of
the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies"
Georges J.F. Köhler

571
 César Milstein

1985 Michael S. Brown "for their discoveries concerning the regulation

of cholesterol metabolism"

Joseph L. Goldstein

1986 Stanley Cohen "for their discoveries of growth factors"

Rita Levi-Montalcini

1987 Susumu Tonegawa "for his discovery of the genetic principle for
generation of antibody diversity"

1988 Sir James W. Black "for their discoveries of important principles for drug
treatment"

Gertrude B. Elion

George H. Hitchings

1989 J. Michael Bishop "for their discovery of the cellular origin

of retroviral oncogenes"

Harold E. Varmus

1990 Joseph E. Murray "for their discoveries concerning organ and cell
transplantation in the treatment of human disease"

E. Donnall Thomas

1991 Erwin Neher "for their discoveries concerning the function of

572
 single ion channels in cells"
Bert Sakmann

1992 Edmond H. Fischer "for their discoveries concerning

reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological
regulatory mechanism"
Edwin G. Krebs

1993 Sir Richard J. Roberts "for their discoveries of split genes"

Phillip A. Sharp

1994 Alfred G. Gilman "for their discovery of G-proteins and the role of these
proteins in signal transduction in cells"

Martin Rodbell

1995 Edward B. Lewis "for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of
early embryonic development"

Christiane Nüsslein-
Volhard

Eric F. Wieschaus

1996 Peter C. Doherty "for their discoveries concerning the specificity of

the cell mediated immune defence"

Rolf M. Zinkernagel

1997 Stanley B. Prusiner "for his discovery of Prions - a new biological principle
of infection"

1998 Robert F. Furchgott "for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a

573
 signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system"
Louis J. Ignarro

Ferid Murad

1999 Günter Blobel "for the discovery that proteins have intrinsic signals
that govern their transport and localization in the cell"

2000 Arvid Carlsson "for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in

the nervous system"

Paul Greengard

Eric R. Kandel

2001 Leland H. Hartwell "for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle"

Sir Tim Hunt

Sir Paul M. Nurse

2002 Sydney Brenner "for their discoveries concerning 'genetic regulation of

organ development and programmed cell death'"

H. Robert Horvitz

Sir John E. Sulston

2003 Paul Lauterbur "for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance

imaging"

Sir Peter Mansfield

574
2004 Richard Axel "for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the
organization of the olfactory system"

Linda B. Buck

2005 Barry J. Marshall "for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter

pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease"

J. Robin Warren

2006 Andrew Z. Fire "for their discovery of RNA interference - gene silencing
by double-stranded RNA"

Craig C. Mello

2007 Mario R. Capecchi "for their discoveries of principles for introducing

specific gene modifications in mice by the use
of embryonic stem cells."
Sir Martin J. Evans

Oliver Smithies

2008 Harald zur Hausen "for his discovery of human papilloma viruses
causing cervical cancer"

Françoise Barré-Sinoussi "for their discovery of human immunodeficiency virus"

Luc Montagnier

2009 Elizabeth H. Blackburn "for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected
by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase"

Carol W. Greider

575
 Jack W. Szostak

2010 Sir Robert G. Edwards "for the development of in vitro fertilization"

2011 Bruce A. Beutler "for their discoveries concerning the activation

of innate immunity"

Jules A. Hoffmann

Ralph M. Steinman "for his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role
in adaptive immunity"

2012 Sir John B. Gurdon "for the discovery that mature cells can
be reprogrammed to become pluripotent"

Shinya Yamanaka

2013 James E. Rothman "for their discoveries of machinery

regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system in
our cells"
Randy W. Schekman

Thomas C. Südhof

2014 John O'Keefe "for their discoveries of cells that constitute a

positioning system in the brain"

May-Britt Moser

Edvard I. Moser

2015 William C. Campbell "for their discoveries concerning a novel

576
 therapy against infections caused by roundworm
Satoshi Ōmura
parasites"

Tu Youyou "for her discoveries concerning a novel

therapy against malaria"

2016 Yoshinori Ohsumi "for his discoveries of mechanisms for autophagy"

2017 Jeffrey C. Hall "for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms

controlling the circadian rhythm"

Michael Rosbash

Michael W. Young

2018 James P. Allison "for their discovery of cancer therapy by inhibition of

negative immune regulation"

Tasuku Honjo

2019 William Kaelin Jr. "for their discoveries of how cells sense and adapt to
oxygen availability"

Peter J. Ratcliffe

Gregg L. Semenza

2020 Harvey J. Alter "for the discovery of Hepatitis C virus"

Michael Houghton

Charles M. Rice

577
 In Mathematics the art of proposing a

question must be held of higher value

than solving it.

― Georg Cantor

A mathematical proof should

resemble a simple and clear-cut

constellation, not a scattered

cluster in the Milky Way.

― G.H. Hardy

578
 "{Replying to G. H. Hardy's suggestion that the number of a taxi (1729) was 'dull', showing

off his spontaneous mathematical genius}

No, it is a very interesting number; it is the smallest number expressible as a sum of two cubes in

two different ways, the two ways being 13 + 123 and 93 + 103."

— Srinivasa Ramanujan

Source of Information:

 https://www.wikipedia.org

579