DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL

Secunderabad
NACHARAM/ MAHENDRA HILLS
MATHEMATICS Class: X
Key Concepts
REAL NUMBERS
• FTA (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic) : Every composite number can be
expressed as a product of primes, and this expression (factorization) is unique, apart
from the order in which the prime factors occur.
• Let p be a prime number. If p divides a2 , then p divides a, where a is a positive integer.
• √𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 is irrational. √2 , √3,√5 ………. are irrational numbers.
• The sum or difference of a rational and an irrational number is irrational.
• The product or quotient of a non-zero rational number and an irrational number is
irrational.
• For any two positive integers a and b, HCF (a, b) × LCM (a, b) = a × b.
LCM
HCF is always a factor of LCM. So. is a natural number.
HCF
• HCF(p, q, r) × LCM(p, q, r) ≠ p × q × r, where p, q, r are positive integers. However, the
following results hold good for three numbers p, q and r:
𝒑.𝒒.𝒓.𝑯𝑪𝑭(𝒑,𝒒,𝒓)
𝑳𝑪𝑴(𝒑, 𝒒, 𝒓) = 𝑯𝑪𝑭(𝒑,𝒒)𝑯𝑪𝑭(𝒒,𝒓)𝑯𝑪𝑭(𝒑,𝒓)

𝒑.𝒒.𝒓.𝑳𝑪𝑴(𝒑,𝒒,𝒓)
𝑯𝑪𝑭(𝒑, 𝒒, 𝒓) = 𝑳𝑪𝑴(𝒑,𝒒)𝑳𝑪𝑴(𝒒,𝒓)𝑳𝑪𝑴(𝒑,𝒓)

POLYNOMIALS
• x = a is a zero of polynomial p(x), if p(a) = 0
• If x = a is a zero of p(x) then (x – a) is a factor of p(x) & vice versa
• nth degree polynomial has maximum ‘n’ zeroes.
−𝑏 𝑐
• If α & β are roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 then 𝛼 + 𝛽 = and  = 𝑎 .
𝑎

• Quadratic polynomial with α & β as roots is k(x – α) (x – β) or 𝒌[𝒙𝟐 − (𝜶 + 𝜷)𝒙 + 𝜶𝜷]

• If (x – a) and (x – b) are factors of p(x), then (x – a)(x – b) is also a factor of p(x).
• If graph of a polynomial cuts the x-axis at ‘n’ points, then no. of zeroes of the
polynomial are ‘n’.
• If one zero of a quadratic polynomial is negative of the other zero, then sum of the
−𝒃
zeroes of the polynomial is zero i.e., 𝜶 + 𝜷 = 𝟎  =𝟎𝒃=𝟎
𝒂

• If one zero of a quadratic polynomial is reciprocal of the other zero, then the product of
𝒄
the zeroes of the polynomial is 1 i.e., 𝜶𝜷 = 𝟏 =𝟏𝒄=𝒂
𝒂

• If α, β, γ are roots of ax3 + bx2 + cx + d then:

−𝑏
𝛼+𝛽+𝛾 = 𝑎
𝑐
𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛾𝛼 = 𝑎
−𝑑
𝛼𝛽𝛾 = 𝑎

• Cubic polynomial with zeroes α, β, γ is : k [x3 – (α + β + γ)x2 + (αβ + βγ + γα)x – αβγ]

PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES
• ax + by + c = 0 is where a, b and c are real numbers, 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ≠ 0, is the standard form of
a linear equation in 2 variables. It represents a straight line in 2D cartesian plane.
• Equation of x axis is y = 0 and equation of y axis is x = 0. The equation of a line parallel
to x axis is y = constant and equation of a line parallel to y axis is x = constant.
• There are three types of pair of lines :

(i) Intersecting (ii) Parallel (iii) Coincident

• In two given pair of linear equations lines : a1x +b1y + c1 = 0

a2x + b2y + c2 = 0

𝑎 𝑏
Lines are intersecting if 𝑎1 ≠ 𝑏1 and they have unique solution.
2 2

𝑎1 𝑏 𝑐
Lines are parallel if = 𝑏1 ≠ 𝑐1 and they have no solution.
𝑎2 2 2

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Lines are coincident if 𝑎1 = 𝑏1 = 𝑐1 and they have infinite solution.
2 2 2

• Lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 & a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 are said to be consistent and independent if
they have an unique solution.
 • Lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 & a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 are said to be consistent and dependent if
they have infinitely many solutions.
• Lines are said to be inconsistent if they have no solution.
• Graphically, the solution is the intersection point of the two lines.
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
• Formulas to remember:
• Standard form of a quadratic equation is 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑏, 𝑐 are real
numbers.
−𝑏±√𝐷
• Roots or solutions of quadratic equations are 𝑥 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷 = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐.
2𝑎
−𝑏−√𝐷 −𝑏+√𝐷
• If 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 are two roots of quadratic equation, then 𝛼 = ,𝛽 =
2𝑎 2𝑎
• Sum of roots = –b/a
• Product of roots = c/a
• If roots of a quadratic equation are given, then the quadratic equation can be represented
as:
• 𝑥 2 − (𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑥 + (𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠) = 0
• If D > 0, then roots are real and distinct.
• If D = 0, then roots are real and equal.
• If D < 0, then roots are unreal.
Word problems on downstream and upstream:
If speed of boat in still water = x kmph
And speed of stream = a kmph

Speed of boat for downstream = (x + a) kmph

Speed of boat for upstream = (x – a) kmph

𝑑
Always write the distance, speed and time related word problems in terms of time. 𝑡 = 𝑠

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS
Formulas to remember:
• Common difference(d) = 𝑎2 − 𝑎1
• nth term of an AP is 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
• In the finite AP, nth term from last = 𝑙 − (𝑛 − 1)𝑑, where l is last term of the given AP.
• Middle term of an AP with n terms:
𝑛+1 𝑡ℎ
➢ If n is an odd number, then there exist one middle term and it is ( ) term.
2
𝑛
➢ If n is an even number, then there exist two middle terms and they are (2 )th term
𝑛
and (2 + 1)th term.
𝑛
• Sum of n term s of an AP 𝑆𝑛 = 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
 𝑛
• If a and l are the first last terms of an AP with n terms, then sum of n terms = (𝑎 + 𝑙)
2
𝑛(𝑛+1)
• Sum of first n natural numbers = 2
• If 𝑆𝑛 is sum first n terms of A.P then 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑆𝑛 − 𝑆(𝑛−1)
Selection of terms in AP
Number of terms Terms Common difference
2 a – d, a + d 2d
3 a – d, a, a + d d
4 𝑎 − 3𝑑, 𝑎 − 𝑑, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 3𝑑 2d
5 𝑎 − 2𝑑, 𝑎 − 𝑑, 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑 d

TRIANGLES
• Conditions for similarity of two polygons
Two polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if
(i) all the corresponding angles are equal and
(ii) all the corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).
The same ratio of the corresponding sides is referred to as the scale factor (or the
Representative Fraction) for the polygons.
If one polygon is similar to another polygon and this second polygon is similar to a third
polygon, then the first polygon is similar to the third polygon.
• Note: if corresponding angles of two triangles are equal, then they are known as
equiangular triangles.
Greek mathematician Thales gave that:
The ratio of any two corresponding sides in two equiangular triangles is always the same.

• BPT (Basic Proportionality Theorem):

If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two sides in
distinct points, then these two sides are divided in the same ratio.
BPT is also known as Thales Theorem
• Similarity of Triangles
Two triangles are similar, if
(i) their corresponding angles are equal and
(ii) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).
Criteria for similarity of triangles- (i) AAA or AA (ii) SSS (iii) SAS
 NOTE: Perpendicular drawn from the vertex of the right angle of a right triangle to its
hypotenuse divides the triangle into two triangles which are similar to the whole triangle
and to each other.
∆ ADB ~ ∆ ABC so, AB2 = AD. AC

∆ BDC ~ ∆ ABC so, BC2 = DC. AC

∆ ADB ~ ∆ BDC so, BD2 = AD. DC

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

• Distance Formula:
d = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 (OR) d= √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2
Note: The Distance of a point (x, y) from X – axis is y units and from Y axis is x units.
The Distance of any point from origin is√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
The Distance between the points (x,0) and (0,y) is√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

We use distance formula:

i. To find the type of triangle or quadrilateral when coordinates of vertices are given.
ii. Equidistant problems
Note: Point on x-axis is in the form of (x, 0) and point on y-axis is (0, y)
• Section Formula

𝑚𝑥2 +𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2 +𝑛𝑦1

P(x, y) = ( , )
𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛

Never change the order of given points in the question based on section formula.
To find the ratio use 𝑘: 1

• Midpoint Formula:

If P is the midpoint of AB
 A (x1,y1) P B (x2,y2)
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
then P = ( , )
2 2

Note: To find missing vertex in a parallelogram use Midpoint formula only.

(Diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other)

• Centroid:

If A(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) , B(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and C(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) are the vertices of a triangle then centroid

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 3 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦3
G=( , ).
3 3

INTRODUCTION TO TRIGONOMETRY

T- Ratios:
𝑺𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒕𝒐 ∠𝑨 𝑩𝑪
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 = =
𝑯𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝑨𝑪

𝑺𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒂𝒅𝒋𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 ∠𝑨 𝑨𝑩
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨 = =
𝑯𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝑨𝑪

𝑺𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒕𝒐 ∠𝑨 𝑩𝑪
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑨 = 𝑺𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒂𝒅𝒋𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 ∠𝑨 = 𝑨𝑩

Reciprocal Ratios:
1 1 1
(i) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 (ii) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 (iii) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
Quotient Ratios:
sin𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
(i) tan 𝜃 = (ii) cot 𝜃 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

• The values of trigonometric ratios of an angle do not vary with the lengths of the
sides of the triangle if the angle remains the same.
• If one trigonometric ratio of an angle is given, the other trigonometric ratios of the
angle can be determined.
• The value of sin 𝜃 or cos 𝜃 never exceeds 1, whereas the value of sec A or cosec A is
always greater than or equal to 1.
• The value of tan 𝜃 increases on accelerating mode as the value of 𝜃 increases.
Specific Angles:
 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
sin𝜃 0 1 1 √3 1
2 √2 2
cos𝜃 1 √3 1 1 0
2 √2 2
tan𝜃 0 1 1 √3 𝛼
√3
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 𝛼 2 √2 2 1
√3
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 1 2 √2 2 𝛼
√3
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 𝛼 √3 1 1 0 • For 0 ≤ θ ≤90o if (i) sin 𝜃
√3 = cos 𝜃 ,then 𝜃 = 45 o
(ii) sin2𝜃 =2sin𝜃 , then 𝜃 = 0 o
Trigonometric Identities / Pythagorean identities:
(𝑖) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1
(𝑖𝑖) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 1 for 0° ≤ A < 90°
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 −𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 = 1 for 0° < A ≤ 90°
• If tan 𝜃 + cot 𝜃 = 2, then 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 = 2
• If sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃 = 𝑝, then sec 𝜃 - tan 𝜃 = 1/𝑝
• If cosec 𝜃 + cot 𝜃 = 𝑝, then cosec 𝜃 - cot 𝜃 = 1/𝑝
SOME APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY:
Line of sight: It is the line drawn from the eye of an observer to the points in the object viewed
by the observer.
The angle of elevation of an object viewed is the angle formed by the line of sight with the
horizontal when it is above the horizontal level, i.e., the case when we raise our head to look at
the object.

The angle of depression of an object viewed is the angle formed by the line of sight with the
horizontal when it is below the horizontal level, i.e., the case when we lower our head to look at
the object.
Sun’s elevation or sun’s altitude: Angle between the length of the shadow of the object and line
joining the top of object to the end point of the shadow of the object.

Possible situations with respect to angles of elevation:

Possible situations with respect to angles of depression:

Situational problems on combination of angle of elevation & angle of depression:

CIRCLES
• Tangent is perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact.
• Only two tangents can be drawn to a circle from an external point.
• Lengths of tangents from an external point to a circle are equal.
• Angle between the tangents drawn from an external point is supplement to angle
subtended by the line joining the point of contact at the centre of the circle.
 ∠𝐴𝑃𝐵 + ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 = 180°.
• The tangents drawn at the ends of a chord of a circle make equal angles with the chord.

∠𝑃𝐴𝐵 = ∠𝑃𝐵𝐴 (since PA = PB)

• The diameter AB of a circle bisects all those chords which are parallel to the tangent at
point
1
• Area of a triangle = 2 𝑝𝑟. Where p is the perimeter of the triangle and r is radius of the
circle inscribed in the triangle.

• If a, b, c are the sides of a right triangle where c is the hypotenuse, then the radius r of the
𝑎+𝑏−𝑐
circle which touches the sides of the triangle is given by 𝑟 = .
2
• If a quadrilateral circumscribes a circle, then the sum of its opposite sides are
equal to each other. Opposite sides subtend supplementary angle at the centre of a
circle.
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐵𝐶
∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 + ∠𝐶𝑂𝐷 = 180° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐴𝑂𝐷 + ∠𝐵𝑂𝐶 = 180°.
• If angle between the tangents drawn from an external point to a circle is 60°, then the
distance between the external point and the centre of a circle is two times to radius of a
circle.
• If angle between the tangents drawn from an external point to circle is 90°, then the
distance between the external point and the centre of a circle is √2 times to radius of a
circle.
For example, in the given figure AP and AQ are tangents from external point A to circle.
OPAQ is a square.
OA = 5√2 𝑐𝑚.
• If angle between the tangents drawn from an external point to circle is 120°, then the
distance between the external point and the centre of a circle is two
times to length of tangent drawn from external point to circle.

OB = 2BC = 2BD or OB = BC + BD

AREAS RELATED TO CIRCLES

2𝜋𝑟𝜃 𝜋𝑟𝜃
1.Area of a Circle = 𝜋𝑟 2
1) Length of arc AB(𝑙) = =
360 180
𝜋𝑟𝜃 2. Circumference (Circle) = 2𝜋𝑟
2) Perimeter of sector = 2𝑟 + 𝑙 = 2𝑟 + 180
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜃 𝑙𝑟 3. Area of ring or annulus = 𝜋𝑅 2 − 𝜋𝑟 2
3) Area of sector = or where ′𝑙′ is length of arc = 𝜋(𝑅 + 𝑟)(𝑅 − 𝑟)
360 2
12) Common Sectors – semicircle , quadrant
𝜋𝑟 2
Area of semicircle = 2

Perimeter of semicircle = 𝜋𝑟 + 𝑑
𝜋𝑟 2
Area of Quadrant = 4
2𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑟
Perimeter of Quadrant = +𝑟+𝑟 = + 2𝑟
4 2

1
5) Area of segment = Area of sector – ar (∆) (where ar (∆) = 2 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

𝜋𝑟 2 𝜃 1
= − 2 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
360

𝜋𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑟 2 (360 − )
2
1
Note: If corresponding sector is a quadrant of a circle, 𝜃 = 90° and area of triangle = 2 𝑟 2

√3 2
If 𝜃 = 60° or 120° , then area of triangle = 𝑟 .
4

𝑑2
6) Area of square = 𝑠 2 𝑜𝑟 where d is diagonal and d = √2 × 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
2

7) Area of triangle in different situations.

1
a) ar (∆) = 2 𝑏ℎ when altitude h is given

b) ar (∆) = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) when sides ‘a’ b, c, are given.

 √3 2 √3
c) Area of equilateral triangle = 𝑎 and altitude h = 𝑎
4 2
1
8) Area of Rhombus = 2 𝑑1 𝑑2 .

𝑑 𝑑
Side of a Rhombus = √( 21 )2 + ( 22 )2 where d1 and d2 are diagonals

9) Area of Parallelogram = bh

1
10) Area of Trapezium = 2 ℎ(𝑎 + 𝑏)

11) Distance moved by a Wheel in 1 revolution = Circumference of Circle.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑

Number of Revolutions = 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

12) Angle made by a minute hand in a Clock in 1 minute = 6° and 5 minutes = 30°.

Note :

• If the sum of the areas of two circles with radii R1 and R2 is equal to the area of a circle of
radius R, then R12 + R22= R2
• If the sum of the circumferences of two circles with radii R1 and R2 is equal to the
circumference of a circle of radius R, then R1 + R2 = R
• If the circumference of a circle and the perimeter of a square are equal, Area of the circle
and Area of the square are in the ratio 4 : π
• The area of the largest triangle that can be inscribed in a semi-circle of radius
r units is r2 sq. units.
• If a circle is inscribed in a square, then the diameter of the circle is equal to the
side of the square.

• If a square inscribed in a circle then the diagonal of a square is equal to diameter

of a circle.
 • A circle is inscribed in a square of side ‘a’ units and another circle is
circumscribing the square. The area of the outer circle is two times the area of the
inner circle.

• A square is inscribed in a circle of diameter (d) and another square is

circumscribing the circle. The area of the outer square is two times the area of the
inner square.

SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES

Note: We never subtract surface areas to find the combined solids surface areas.

• Surface area = TSA of cube + CSA of HS – Base area of HS

= 6𝑎2 + 2𝜋𝑟 2 − 𝜋𝑟 2
OR
= 6𝑎2 + 𝜋𝑟 2 sq. units
Note: In both the cases formula remains the same.

• Surface area = CSA of HS + CSA of cylinder + CSA of HS

= 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 2𝜋𝑟 2
= 2𝜋𝑟(ℎ + 2𝑟) sq. units
Volume = Volume of HS + Volume of cylinder + volume
of HS
2 2
= 3 𝜋𝑟 3 + 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ + 3 𝜋𝑟 3
1
= 3 𝜋𝑟 2 (4𝑟 + 3ℎ) cubic units

• In this case the surface area is the same as above case.

Volume = Volume of cylinder – 2(volume of HS)
2
= 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ − 2 (3 𝜋𝑟 3 )
1
= 3 𝜋𝑟 2 (3ℎ − 4𝑟) cubic units
 • When conical cavity of the same height and same diameter is hollowed out from a solid
cylinder then surface area of remaining solid = CSA of cone + CSA of
cylinder + base area
= 𝜋𝑟𝑙 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 𝜋𝑟 2
= 𝜋𝑟(𝑙 + 2ℎ + 𝑟) sq. units
Volume = volume of cylinder – volume of cone
1
= 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ − 3 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
2
= 3 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ cubic units

• Surface area = CSA of cone + CSA of cylinder

= 𝜋𝑟𝑙 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
= 𝜋𝑟(𝑙 + 2ℎ) sq. units

STATISTICS

Measures of Central Tendency:

Mean of Grouped Data:

To find the mean of grouped data, it is assumed that the frequency of each class interval is
centred around its mid-point.

Direct Method:

Class interval Class mark (𝒙𝒊 ) Frequency (𝒇𝒊 ) 𝒇𝒊 × 𝒙𝒊

∑ 𝑓 𝑖 𝑥𝑖
Mean (𝑥̅ ) = ∑ 𝑓𝑖
, where the 𝑥𝑖 (class mark) is the mid-point of the ith class interval and 𝑓𝑖 is the

corresponding frequency.

𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕+𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕

𝒙𝒊 = 𝟐
Assumed Mean Method:

Class interval Class mark (𝒙𝒊 ) 𝒅𝒊 = 𝒙𝒊 − 𝒂 Frequency (𝒇𝒊 ) 𝒇𝒊 × 𝒅𝒊

∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖
Mean (𝑥̅ ) = 𝑎 + ∑ 𝑓𝑖
, a is the assumed mean and 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑎 are the deviations of 𝑥𝑖 from a

for each i.

Step-deviation Method:

Class Class mark 𝒅𝒊 𝒅𝒊 Frequency 𝒇𝒊 × 𝒖𝒊

𝒖𝒊 =
interval (𝒙𝒊 ) = 𝒙𝒊 − 𝒂 𝒉 (𝒇𝒊 )

∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖 𝑥𝑖 −𝑎
Mean (𝑥̅ ) = 𝑎 + ( ∑ 𝑓𝑖
) × ℎ , where a is the assumed mean, h is the class size and 𝑢𝑖 = .
ℎ

If the class sizes are unequal, the formulas can still be applied by taking h to be a suitable divisor
of all the di ’s.

Mode of Grouped Data:

• To find the mode of grouped data, locate the class with the maximum frequency.
• This class is known as the modal class.
• The mode of the data is a value inside the modal class.
• Mode of the grouped data can be calculated by using the formula:
1 0 𝑓 −𝑓
Mode = 𝑙 + [2𝑓 −𝑓 ]×ℎ
−𝑓 1 0 2

Median of ungrouped data:

Median of ungrouped data of ‘n’ observations, arrange the observations in the ascending order or
descending order.
 𝑛+1 𝑡ℎ
Case(i): If n is an odd number, then there exist one middle term and it is ( ) term and this
2
term is called median.
𝑛
Case(ii): If n is an even number, then there exist two middle terms and they are ( 2 )th term and
𝑛 𝑡ℎ
( 2 + 1) term. Median is the average of these two middle terms.

Median of Grouped Data:

• Cumulative frequency table – the less than type of the grouped frequency distribution.
• If n is the total number of observations, locate the class whose cumulative frequency is
𝑛
greater than (and nearest to) .
2

• This class is called the median class.

• Median of the grouped data can be calculated by using the formula :
𝑛
−𝑐𝑓
2
Median = 𝑙 + [ ]×ℎ
𝑓

Note: To find mean any method can be used unless mentioned.

Empirical Relationship between three measures of central tendency:

3 Median = Mode + 2 Mean

(or)

Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean

PROBABILITY

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

1) P(E) = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
2) Range of probability 0≤ P(E) ≤1
3) P(E1) = 1-P(E) where E1 is the complementary event of E
4) Sample space for random experiments

(a) 1 coin = {𝐻, 𝑇} = 2

(b) 2 coins = {𝐻𝑇, 𝑇𝐻, 𝐻𝐻, 𝑇𝑇} = 22 = 4
𝐻𝐻𝐻, 𝐻𝐻𝑇, 𝐻𝑇𝐻, 𝑇𝐻𝐻
(c) 3 coins = { } = 23 = 8
𝐻𝑇𝑇, 𝑇𝑇𝐻, 𝑇𝐻𝑇, 𝑇𝑇𝑇
 (d) 1 dice = {1,2,3,4,5,6} = 61 = 6

(1,1)(1,2) − − − −(1,6)
(e) 2 dice = { (2,1) (2,6) } = 62 = 36
(6,1) − − − − − (6,6)

(f) 3 dice = 63 = 216

(g) Deck of cards (52)

Red (26) Black (26)

2 suits 2 suits

Diamond (13) Heart (13) Spade (13) Clubs (13)

A, 2, 3, ------ 10
K, Q, J
Number of face cards = 12, Number of numbered cards =36,Cards of honour = 16.
• Non-leap year = 52 weeks + 1 day
• Leap year = 52 weeks + 2 days