Robert Hooke was the first to discover cell (1665).

• Leeuwenhoek was the first to discover free living cells in pond water (1674).

• Robert Brown discovered the nucleus (1831).

• Purkinje coined the term ‘protoplasm (1839).

• Schleiden (1838) and Schwann (1839) proposed the Cell Theory. Virchow
(1855) made further addition to the cell theory.

• The discovery of electron microscope (1940) made it possible to study the

structures of cell organelles.

• Structure of Cell
o Shape and size - Cells come in all shapes and sizes. While most of the cells are
spherical in shape, cells of various other shapes are also found. Most of the cells
are microscopic in size, i.e. it is impossible to see them with naked eyes. Some
cells are fairly large, e.g. a neuron in human body can be as long as 1 meter.
The egg of an ostrich is the largest known cell of a living animal and an average
egg is 15 cm long and 13 cm wide.
o Cell wall - Cell wall is made of cellulose. It is somewhat hard but permeable to
most of the substances. Cell wall is available in plant cells and in cells of
bacteria and fungi.
o Plasma membrane - Plasma membrane is a semi-permeable membrane. It is
composed of bilayer of lipid and protein.

• Functions of cell membrane

o It maintains the shape of the cell. It separates the cellular contents from
the external environment.
o It helps in absorption of mechanical shocks and protects the cell from
injury.
o It allows the movement of some substances into and out of the cell.
Movement of substances through this semi-permeable membrane can be
by the process of diffusion, osmosis etc.
o It forms the membrane for various cell organelles.
o It keeps the adjacent cells in contact.
o Its infolds help in absorption of materials by the process of pinocytosis or
phagocytosis.
o Its outfolds increase the area for absorption
• Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell - Based on the level of organization of nuclear
material, a cell can be categorized as prokaryote or eukaryote. In some organisms, the
true nucleus is absent. This means that the DNA and RNA are not bound by a
membrane. Bacteria are examples of prokaryotes. When genetic materials are bound
by a membrane, it is termed as true nucleus. In this case, the cell is called eukaryotic.
Organisms other than bacteria are eukaryotes. Eukaryotes are considered as more
advanced than prokaryotes.
• Nucleus
 o Nuclear membrane - Nuclear Membrane This is a double-layered membrane
which separates the nucleoplasm from the cytoplasm. The nuclear membrane
has minute pores which allow the selective transfer of material between the
nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.
o Nucleoplasm - Within the nuclear membrane, completely filling up the space,
is a clear, semi-solid, granular substance or matrix called the nucleoplasm. The
nucleolus and the chromatin network lie suspended in the nucleoplasm.
o Nucleolus - This dense, spherical granule found in the nucleus contains RNA
(ribonucleic acid) which is responsible for protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
o Chromatin Network - These are very fine thread-like, coiled filaments
uniformly distributed in the nucleoplasm. At the time of cell division, the
chromatin becomes thick and ribbon like and are known as chromosomes. The
chromosomes contain genes, which are composed of DNA (deoxy-ribonucleic
acid). Genes are responsible for storing and transmitting hereditary
characteristics from one generation to another. A gene is the functional unit of
a chromosome. Genes are arranged in single linear order along the
chromosome. One gene may be responsible for a single characteristic, or a
single characteristic may be transmitted by a set of genes
• Functions of nucleus
• Nucleus controls all the activities of the cell.
• As the nucleus carries genetic information in the form of DNA, it plays a major
role in cell division and cell development. The functional segments of DNA are called
genes.
• Nucleus plays an important role in protein synthesis and transmission of
characters from one generation to another generation.
• Cytoplasm - The part of the cell between the cell membrane and the nuclear
membrane is called the cytoplasm.
o The cytoplasm consists of the matrix and the organelles. The matrix is a
transparent semi fluid substance.
o When active, it is always in a state of movement. The organelles are found
embedded in the cytoplasm. They have definite shape, structure and function.
All the metabolic activities of the cell such as synthesis, secretion, digestion
and energy generation, are performed by the different cell organelles. Cell
organelles can be seen only with the help of an electron microscope

• Endoplasmic Reticulum - It is a network of tubules and flattened sacs perform

various activities in the cell. The space inside the endoplasmic reticulum is called as
lumen. Endoplasmic reticulum serves as a channel for the transport of proteins
between various regions of the cytoplasm. Two types of endoplasmic reticulum are
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER).
• Difference between RER and SER
ROUGH SMOOTH
ENDOPLASMIC ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM RETICULUM
These are rough at These are smooth at
surface and are surface and are
associated with associated with Golgi
ribosomes. bodies.
 These are responsible These are responsible
for the synthesis of for the synthesis of
proteins and enzymes. glycogen, lipids etc.
These take part in the
These provide structural
synthesis of fats in
framework for the cell.
adipose cells.
These also act as
These can also detoxify
channels for quick
drugs and some poisons.
transport.
These help in the
These help in the
formation of rhodopsin
synthesis of membranes.
from vitamin A.
• Golgi apparatus - These cell organelles are named after the biologist, Camillo Golgi,
who first described it. The Golgi consists of a stack of membrane-bounded cisternae
located between the endoplasmic reticulum and the cell surface.
• Functions of Golgi apparatus
o It synthesises certain biopolymers
o It also consists of some processing enzymes which alter some proteins and
phospholipids synthesised by endoplasmic reticulum.
• Lysosomes - Lysosomes are membranous sacs filled with enzymes. The enzymes are
hydrolytic enzymes which are capable of digesting cellular macromolecules. When
the cell gets damaged, the lysosome may burst and its enzymes may digest thecell
itself. Hence, lysosomes are called as ‘suicidal bags’.
• Functions of lysosomes
o Help in killing foreign cells referred to as pathogens.
o Help in destroying the diseased cells.
• Mitochondria: These are cellular organelles termed as ‘power houses of the cells’.
These are bounded by a double membrane. The outer membrane is smooth while the
inner membrane is thrown into folds called as cristae. The cristae increase the area of
cellular respiration. Cristae on their surface possess structures called oxysomes.
Oxysomes are rich in ATP synthetase enzyme. Both the membranes are separated by
intermembrane space. Mitochondrial matrix is rich in respiratory enzymes.
Mitochondria have their own DNA, RNA and ribosomes to synthesise respiratory
enzymes. The enzymes in the mitochondria oxidise glucose molecules to produce
energy in the form of Adenosine Triphosphate or ATP.
• Functions of mitochondria
o These synthesise energy rich ATP molecules.
o These help in the synthesis of fatty acid, amino acids, and steroids by
providing them with biological intermediates.
• Vacuoles: Vacuoles are membrane bound compartments present in both plant and
animal cells. These organelles store water, waste products, and substances like amino
acids, sugars and proteins. The fluid in the vacuoles is called ‘cell sap’. A vacuole is
covered by a living membrane called “tonoplast”. Vacuoles also provide buoyancy to
the cell.
• Functions of vacuoles
o They help the cell to maintain its buoyancy and turgidity.
 o They play an important role in the growth of the cell
• Plastids: These are major organelles found only in the cells of plants and algae. These
are of three types namely, Chloroplasts, Chromoplasts and Leucoplasts.

a) Chloroplasts are one kind of plastids present mainly in plant cells. Chloroplasts
contain green pigment called as chlorophyll. Chlorophyll absorbs energy from the
sunlight necessary for photosynthesis.
b) Chromoplasts are the organelles which provide bright colours to the plant structures
like buds, flowers etc.
c) Leucoplasts are the organelles which store starch, oils and protein granules.
• Functions of plastids
o Plastids are responsible for synthesis of food.
o Plastids are responsible for colouration of different parts of the plant.
o Plastids are responsible for storage of food molecules

• How is a prokaryotic cell different from a eukaryotic cell?

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Most prokaryotes are unicellular. Most eukaryotes are multicellular.

Size of the cell is generally small (0.5- 5 Size of the cell is generally large (50- 100
µm). µm).

Nuclear region is poorly defined due to Nuclear region is well-defined and is

the absence of a nuclear membrane or the surrounded by a nuclear membrane, or true
cell lacks true nucleus. nucleus bound by a nuclear membrane is
present in the cell.

It contains a single chromosome. It contains more than one chromosome.

Nucleolus is absent. Nucleolus is present.

Membrane-bound cell organelles such as Cell organelles such as mitochondria, plastids,

plastids, mitochondria, endoplasmic endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, etc. are lysosomes, etc. are present.
absent.

Cell division occurs through binary Cell division occurs by mitosis.

fission

Prokaryotic cells are found in bacteria Eukaryotic cells are found in fungi, plants, and
and blue-green algae. animal cells.