Guidance Counselling in Education - MAEdu

GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
IN EDUCATION
MA [Education]
Second Semester
EDCN 805E
[ENGLISH EDITION]
Directorate of Distance Education

TRIPURA UNIVERSITY
Reviewer
Dr Shruti Kant Pandey
Assistant Professor, Amity Institute of Education, Noida
Author
Neeru Sood
Copyright © Reserved, 2016
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SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
Guidance and Counselling in Education
Syllabi Mapping in Book
UNIT I
Meaning Nature Principles, Aims and Objectives, Types and Unit 1: An Overview: Guidance and
Areas of Guidance & Counselling. Difference between Counselling in Education
Guidance and Counselling and Counselling & Psychotherapy. (Pages 3-40)
Needs & Type, Sources, Collection & Dissemination of
Information-educational & Occupational.
UNIT II
Records-kinds, Reliance, Testing Techniques-Intelligence, Unit 2: Testing and Non-Testing
Achievement, Interest, Aptitude, Adjustrnent & Interpersonal Techniques
Relations, Personality (Objective, Self-report, Projective). (Pages 41-89)
Sociometric devices. Non-Testing Techniques-Systematic Case
Study. Interview-counselling interview, Observation-role &
Method. Diagnosis in Counseling. Follow-up.
UNIT III
Organization of Guidance Service at Different Levels of Unit 3: Guidance Services
education. Essentials of Good Guidance Programme. Kinds of (Pages 91-133)
Services-Information, Testing Counseling, follow-up. Role of
Personnel in Guidance Programme.
UNIT IV
Psychology of Careers & Dynamics of Vocational Unit 4: Vocational Development
Developments Job Analyses. Job Description & Job (Pages 135-176)
Satisfaction, Work & Productivity. Decision-Making and Group
Counseling. School Guidance Programme. Behavioral
Counseling for vocational Decisions.
UNIT V
Unit 5: Role of Counselling
Counseling & Irter-professional Interaction. Selection & in Education
Training of Counseling. Professional. Issues in Counseling.
(Pages 177-210)
Counseling Process-Relationships & its Characteristics.
Parental Counseling. Student Counseling-High School. Role of
Parent Teacher & Counselor in Guidance Programme.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
UNIT 1 AN OVERVIEW: GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING IN EDUCATION 3-40

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Unit Objectives
1.2 Concept of Education
1.3 Guidance
1.3.1 Nature
1.3.2 Types and Areas of Guidance
1.3.3 Aims of Guidance: Kothari Commission
1.3.4 Objectives
1.4 Counselling
1.4.1 Areas of Counselling
1.4.2 Principles of Counselling
1.4.3 Types of Counselling
1.4.4 Theory of Self
1.5 Difference between Counselling and Guidance
1.5.1 Difference between Counselling and Psychotherapy
1.6 Occupational and Educational Information
1.6.1 Sources
1.6.2 Collection
1.6.3 Dissemination
1.7 Summary
1.8 Key Terms
1.9 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
1.10 Questions and Exercises
1.11 Further Reading
UNIT 2 TESTING AND NON-TESTING TECHNIQUES 41-89

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Unit Objectives
2.2 Records
2.3 Testing Techniques
2.3.1 Psychological Tests and their Types
2.3.2 Socio-metric Devices
2.4 Non-testing Techniques
2.4.1 Diagnosis and Follow-up in Counselling
2.5 Summary
2.6 Key Terms
2.9 Further Reading
UNIT 3 GUIDANCE SERVICES 91-133

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Unit Objectives
3.2 Organization of Guidance Services at Different Levels of Education
3.3 Guidance Programmes
3.4 Kinds of Guidance Services
3.5 Role of Personnel in Guidance Programmes
3.6 Summary
3.7 Key Terms
UNIT 4 VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 135-176

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Unit Objectives
4.2 Psychology of Careers and Dynamics of Vocational Development
4.2.1 Career Development Theories
4.2.2 Career Burnout
4.2.3 Importance of Career Development
4.3 Job Analysis, Job Description and Job Satisfaction
4.3.1 Job Analysis
4.3.2 Job Description
4.3.3 Job Satisfaction
4.4 Decision-Making and Group Counselling
4.5 School Guidance Programme
4.6 Behavioural Counselling for Vocational Decisions
4.7 Summary
4.8 Key Terms
UNIT 5 ROLE OF COUNSELLING IN EDUCATION 177-210

5.0 Introduction
5.1 Unit Objectives
5.2 Counselling and Interprofessional Interaction
5.3 Selection and Training of Counsellors
5.3.1 Professional Issues in Counselling
5.4 Counselling Process
5.5 Parental Counselling
5.5.1 Student Counselling-High School
5.5.2 Role of Parents, Teachers and Counsellors in Guidance Programme
5.6 Summary
5.7 Key Terms
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Guidance and counselling have come to play a significant role in the field of NOTES
education. Guidance, in simple terms means, to direct or provide assistance to
someone who needs help. Counselling refers to professional services provided to
an individual who is facing a problem and needs help to overcome the problem.
Counselling is considered to be an integral and central part of guidance.
With the increased advancement in technology and globalization, several
techniques have been developed to impart guidance and counselling in education.
These techniques are divided into two—testing and non-testing techniques. The
testing techniques include intelligence test, achievement test, interest test, aptitude
test and so on. The non-testing techniques include case study, interview, observation
and so on.
Guidance and counselling is oriented to helping students understand
themselves, become self-sufficient in making realistic and positive selections and
grow in human relationships and concerns. Guidance, hence, should prepare
students for adult life as well as help them acquire appropriate attitudes and values
that facilitate them to become productive and dynamic members of their
communities. Primarily, the guidance programme should help young people and
children to develop a positive self-image and a sense of identity, create a set of
beliefs and a value system that will guide their behaviour and actions.
This book, Guidance and Counselling in Education, has been divided
into five units. The book will enable students to understand the meaning and nature
of guidance and counselling in the field of education, the various testing and non-
testing techniques of guidance and counselling, the organization of guidance service
at different levels of education, the significance of guidance and counselling in
vocational development and the role of parents, teachers and counsellors in
guidance programmes.
Self-Instructional Material 1
An Overview: Guidance and
UNIT 1 AN OVERVIEW: GUIDANCE Counselling in Education
AND COUNSELLING IN
NOTES
EDUCATION
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Unit Objectives
1.2 Concept of Education
1.3 Guidance
1.3.1 Nature
1.3.3 Aims of Guidance: Kothari Commission
1.3.4 Objectives
1.4 Counselling
1.4.2 Principles of Counselling
1.5 Difference between Counselling and Guidance
1.6 Occupational and Educational Information
1.6.1 Sources
1.6.2 Collection
1.6.3 Dissemination
1.7 Summary
1.8 Key Terms
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Guidance and counselling have become an integral part of the education system
because of the changing face of the education across the globe. Guidance and
counselling are essential at educational and vocational levels for students so that
they can choose the right courses and careers. The need of guidance and counselling
can be stated in simple terms to assist and help individuals adjust to their personal,
emotional, educational and occupational environment.
Counselling in Education 1.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:

NOTES  Explain the concept of education
 Define guidance
 Discuss counselling
 Differentiate between counselling and guidance
 Interpret educational and occupational information
1.2 CONCEPT OF EDUCATION
Education in simple terms means learning. Education, more formally, can be defined
as a process of acquiring knowledge, skills, beliefs, values and habits. Education is
essential to live in the society. It is essential for everyone to receive education so
that an individual is aware of his rights, duties and responsibilities. Most people
associate education with what is learnt in school from a young age. However, the
concept of education goes beyond what is learnt within the four walls of a school.
Education can be referred to anything that one learns in an environment. A person
can learn from other people around, from experiences, from interactions and many
other ways. All this adds to what a person learns in school or educational institutions.
Hence, education can be divided into the following types:
 Formal education: Formal education is the education that takes place in a
structured environment like a school or an education institution. Formal
education begins at a very young age and usually continues till college. In
most cases, formal education is mandatory till schools while higher education
or education imparted in colleges is considered to be optional. Formal education
is imparted in schools or educational institutions on the basis of a specific or
formal curriculum. The main characteristic of formal education is that it is
imparted by qualified teachers or trainers who themselves have previously
received formal education. Formal education, however, is not limited to only
what is taught in the classrooms but also included activities outside the
classroom. Nevertheless, these activities are concerned with reinforcing what
has been learnt in the classroom. Formal education lays down a strict and
disciplined format of learning.
 Vocational education: Vocational education is imparted to teach a specific
art or skill. It is based on practical training and may be imparted in a formal or
an informal manner or a combination of both.
 Special education: Special education is education imparted to those who
are disabled in some form or the other. The disabled have special education
needs and cannot learn using the normal methods and formats of teaching.
Therefore, they need to be taught using special tools and techniques and,
therefore, education imparted to them is referred to as special education.
4 Self-Instructional Material
Special education focuses on giving instructions to the disabled in a manner An Overview: Guidance and
Counselling in Education
that would enable them to learn and develop functional skills.
 Informal education: Informal education is knowledge that one learns
spontaneously. There is no conscious effort involved in learning when it comes
to informal education. One can learn by observing others, by listening to NOTES
others or by just conversing with someone. Informal education is not imparted
in formal educational institutions and can be learnt anywhere. There is no
prescribed curriculum for informal education. Informal education is ‘the
process, by which a person imbibes attitudes, develops skills, cultivates values
and acquires knowledge, without there being any organization or system about
it. This would include the deliberate attempts of parents and elders in the
family and community to help the young ones grow and adapt themselves to
the environment. Informal education would also include all incidental learning
that takes place while at work or at play and during travels-as well as
spontaneous learning through films, radio and television.’
 Self-directed education: Self-directed education involves learning on one’s
own. Self- directed education is basically self-study or education that a person
acquires by observing and reading resources in libraries or even on educational
websites. Self-directed learning does not involve a formal educational structure
and is also not imparted by teachers or trainers. This type of education is a
conscious effort by the learner and may sometimes require the learner to
interact with others to acquire the required knowledge.
K-12 education system is the most widely accepted education system across the
globe, especially, in countries like the India, the United States of America (USA)
and Canada. The K-12 education system is different from the conventional approach
to teaching especially in terms of the student- teacher interaction. This education
system covers education from kindergarten to class 12. The K-12 system has its
premise in the fact that it allows for a lot of student-teacher interaction with the
teacher encouraging question- answer sessions and assignments to encourage learning
among children. The teaching method of this system is different from the conventional
approach wherein the teacher was responsible for making the students learn. In the
K-12 system, the teacher encourages the child to learn on his own by practically
applying the concepts being taught by the teacher. The teacher acts as a guide
rather than a trainer. One of the main features of this system of education is that for
every concept that the students learn, they are encouraged to add value to the
concept in terms of their personal views and ideas and, thus, the system encourages
value-based education as well. The content and learning resources of the K-12
system are created in a manner which facilitates self- learning and development
with little reliance on the teachers. This, however, does not mean that there is no
classroom activity. The teachers do teach in the classroom but in a manner which
enables the students to learn on their own which enables them to develop life skills,
practical skills as well as learning abilities.
The aim of the K-12 education system is to develop students into self-reliable
and independent individuals. The system encourages optimum learning through various
An Overview: Guidance and resources that it has to offer. Optimum learning does not include only curriculum
teaching but also enables the students to develop other skills as well that are essential
for life.
NOTES
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Define education.
2. What do you understand by the term informal education?
1.3 GUIDANCE
Guidance in simple terms means to direct or provide assistance to someone who

needs help. In the broader perspective, guidance is provided at all levels to human
beings by one person or the other. For instance, in a family, the head of the family
may guide other family members to act in a certain manner. In other words, guidance
can help a person solve a personal, vocational, educational or any other problem for
which he is unable find a solution on his own. Thus, guidance has emerged as both
a process and a concept.
Guidance is, therefore, interpreted in different ways, especially, when it comes
to education. As a concept, guidance deals with maximum development of an
individual to ensure that the individual can take his own decisions. As a process,
guidance involves making an individual aware of his capabilities and skills. Guidance
as a process helps an individual to make the right decisions in various aspects of life
so that a balanced development of the individual can be facilitated.
Guidance is considered an integral part of education. Guidance helps to achieve
the goals of education which include enabling a person to realize his inner potential.
The main objective of education is the overall development of an individual and
guidance helps to realize this objective. According to the Education Commission
(1964–66), ‘Guidance should be regarded as an integral part of education and not as
a special, psychological or social service which is peripheral to educational purposes.
It is meant for all students not just for those who deviate from the norm in one
direction or the other.’
According to author of Principles of Guidance, Arthur J. Jones, ‘All guidance
is education but some aspects of education are not guidance. Their objectives are
the same the development of the individual but methods used in education are by no
means the same as those used in guidance.’
National Vocational Guidance Association of United States of America (USA)
defines guidance as, ‘Guidance is the process of helping a person to develop and
accept an integrated and adequate picture of himself and of his role in the world of
work, to test this concept against reality and to convert it into reality with satisfaction
to himself and benefit to the society.’
Moser and Moser’s define guidance as a term with many meanings. It is a An Overview: Guidance and
point of view on a group of services, a field of study which we should be required to
choose as one of the emphasized service would pre- dominate’.
According to author of Guidance Methods for Teachers, Clarence Clifford
Dunsmoor and Leonard M. Miller, ‘Guidance is a means of helping individuals to NOTES
understand and use wisely the educational, vocational and personal opportunities
they have or can develop and as a form of systematic assistance whereby students
are aided in achieving satisfactory adjustment to school and in life.’
Guidance can, therefore, be considered as a helping service. Guidance
encompasses problem-solving and understanding one’s abilities and environment so
that his development can take place in tandem with the environment. Guidance
involves undertaking multifaceted activities to ensure that the developmental goal is
achieved.
1.3.1 Nature
The nature of guidance has been defined by Mohein as, ‘Guidance seeks to create
within the child the need and power to explore and understand himself in order to
prepare a balance sheet of his assets and liabilities so that he is able to plan out his
future growth and activities in a manner that offers maximum likelihood of success
and satisfaction.’
Guidance is based on certain basic principles which are described as follows:
 Guidance aims at the holistic development of an individual: Guidance
aims at the development of a person as a whole. The aim of guidance is not
just achieving academic excellence for an individual. It focuses on the physical
and social aspects of development of individuals as well.
 Guidance recognizes the individuality of every person: Guidance is
based on the principle that every individual is different from the other and that
every person is unique. Guidance emphasizes the fact that every person needs
to be shown respect as the dignity of an individual is supreme. In other words,
the dignity and respect for a person should not be affected by factors like
age, gender and appearance.
 Guidance manoeuvres individual behavioural processes: Guidance
affects the behaviour of an individual and enables a person to gain better
control over his behaviour in terms of likes, dislikes, weaknesses and so on.
 Guidance is based on cooperation: As a helping service, guidance is based
on cooperation in the sense that the person seeking help must be ready to
cooperate with the one providing help for the best results. Guidance cannot
be forced upon an individual. In addition, if guidance is forced upon someone,
the person may not cooperate and may even become stubborn.
 Guidance is a continuous and sequential process: Guidance is a continuous
and sequential process aimed at achieving a single goal that is, overall
development of a person. As a lifelong and continuous process, guidance
begins at home and then is available at school and also in the community.
An Overview: Guidance and In other words, there are several people who guide an individual into imbibing
the right values and attitude to develop as an individual.
The authors of An Introduction to Guidance, Lester. D. Crow and Alice Crow
have laid down the following principles of guidance which are accepted, especially,
NOTES when it comes to education.
 Principle of all-round development: According to this principle, guidance
must take into consideration the overall development of an individual, when it
aims to bring about developmental adjustment in the individual.
 Principle of human uniqueness: According to this principle, guidance takes
into consideration the fact that every individual is unique and his distinct
characteristics facilitate his development. Guidance, therefore, meets the
developmental and help needs of each individual in a different manner.
 Principle of holistic development: Guidance must focus on the total
development of the personality of an individual. Guidance must take into
consideration every aspect of the personality of an individual that affect his
development.
 Principle of cooperation: According to this principle, no individual can be
forced into guidance. To be guided, the consent and cooperation of the person
seeking guidance is must.
 Principle of continuity: According to this principle, guidance must be provided
to an individual needing help in all stages of life and, therefore, is a continuous
process.
 Principle of extension: According to this principle, guidance is not limited
to only children who are studying in schools. In fact, guidance must be provided
to people of all ages especially those who need it. The principle of extension
says that guidance must be provided to all people who can benefit from it
directly or indirectly.
 Principle of elaboration: This principle states that when guidance is provided
as an integral part of education, the curriculum and teaching techniques must
be elaborated in such a manner that guidance can turn out to be an effective
process.
 Principle of adjustment: This principle states that guidance must aim at
helping an individual adjust to his physical, mental and social needs and
environment.
 Principle of individual needs: According to this principle, the needs of
every individual are different and so guidance must be provided in accordance
with these needs and demands. Guidance must enable an individual to take
decisions that meet his needs.
 Principle of expert opinion: According to this principle, serious problems
related to guidance must be directed at people who are experts and can help
an individual with their opinion.
 Principle of evaluation: This principle states that guidance programmes An Overview: Guidance and
must be evaluated for their effectiveness. If a guidance programme is not
effective, improvements must be brought about to make it effective and
efficient.
 Principle of responsibility: According to this principle, guidance is the NOTES
responsibility of qualified professionals who offer their services to help others.
 Principle of periodic appraisal: According to this principle, guidance
programme must be appraised at periodic intervals so that these can be
improved for them to be effective and work in a proper manner.
Guidance is considered important for the following reasons:
 It promotes self-understanding and self-direction.
 It promotes optimal development of an individual.
 It helps an individual solve different problems.
 It helps in academic growth and development.
 It helps in making vocational choices.
 It promotes social as well as personal adjustment of an individual.
 It promotes better family life.
 It promotes optimal use of resources.
 It promotes national development.
Guidance is, therefore, considered important not only for students, but also
for parents, teachers, administrators and community members. When it comes to
education, guidance covers the whole spectrum of the educational world. Guidance
includes all types of education— formal, informal, vocational and special. With relation
to education, guidance can, thus, be viewed as follows:
 A specialized service which helps an individual solve his problems by opting
for the right solution to his problem among the various options available.
 A general service which is similar to education and the various educational
processes.
 A sub-process of education which focuses on developmental needs of the
learners.
According to Secondary Education Committee (1952–53), ‘Guidance involves
the difficult art of helping boys and girls to plan their future wisely in the full light of
all the factors that can be mastered about themselves and about the world in which
they are to live and work.’
Guidance, as stated, has always been an integral part of education. However,
over the last few years, the need for guidance has increased because of advancement
in technology, social change, globalization, need for outstanding leadership, changes
in morality and integrity, lofty aspirations and so on. Guidance, therefore, needs to be
made available at the very basic and ground level in educational institutions so that
an individual can adjust to his environment socially, physical, mentally and emotionally.
An Overview: Guidance and Considering the fact that guidance is needed by every individual, it has a very
wide scope and covers all aspects of an individual.
NOTES The following are the types of guidance and the areas where guidance is needed the
most:
 Personal: Personal guidance helps in the emotional, physical, spiritual, social
and mental development of an individual. Personal guidance maybe needed
by students who face personal problems. These problems can be related to
family, friends, parents, teachers and so on. If personal guidance is not provided
to the students at the right time, they may develop low self-esteem which will
eventually make them feel insecure in whatever they do. Thus, personal
guidance helps an individual to understand himself and deal with personal
problems in a mature manner. It enables an individual to take the necessary
decisions based on right judgment. Personal guidance also helps an individual
to view the social world in the right perspective and make the necessary
social and personal adjustments to lead a happier life. Personal guidance is
required in all stages of life and must be furthered by educational institutions
as a mandatory part of education. At the elementary school stage, personal
guidance helps the individual to deal with insecurity, social acceptance and
discipline and enables an individual to be expressive enough to deal with
personal problems.
At the secondary stage, personal guidance plays an important role in the lives
of adolescents who undergo social, physical and attitudinal changes. Personal
guidance at this stage helps the individuals to adjust personally as well as
socially. At the tertiary stage, personal guidance enables an individual to address
personal problems in the context of family. It enables an individual to adjust
mentally, physically and emotionally with various people who form a part of
the family and this in turn helps the individual to adjust with the kinds of
people existing in the society. Thus, the scope of guidance at this stage is the
widest. Personal guidance in essence helps an individual to address the various
problems that are confronted in life at the various stages. It enables an individual
to emerge as a stronger person both physically and mentally.
 Educational: Educational guidance addresses the several educational
problems that the students face during the years when they receive education
in educational institutions. Educational guidance is associated with every aspect
of education. It covers curriculum, the methods of instruction, extra-curricular
activities, disciplines, problems with teachers and so forth. Educational guidance
is provided to students so that they can understand their potential with respect
to the various fields of education. Educational guidance also helps the students
to know about the various educational opportunities available to them and
enables them to make the right choices amongst these opportunities.
Educational guidance also plays an important role in helping students make
the right choices when it comes to schools, colleges, courses and the co-
curricular activities.
The main aim of educational guidance is to enable students to make an An Overview: Guidance and
educational plan based on their abilities, goals and interests. Educational
guidance also helps students develop good study habits and to adjust to the
school or college environment. This type of guidance also helps the students
to take part in the various educational activities and develop social and NOTES
leadership qualities. Educational guidance also helps the students to keep
track of their progress. At the elementary level, educational guidance enables
students to make a good beginning in the educational field. At this stage,
educational guidance helps to prepare students for secondary education in
schools and helps to identify special needs of the students and also the
difficulties they face. At the secondary stage of education, educational
guidance helps the students to understand the different aspects of the school,
the different courses offered and their implications and also the vocational
implications of the various subjects taught in the school. At the tertiary level,
educational guidance must help students know about the higher study options
available and the scope of these studies. It is, therefore, essential for each
college or university to have a special guidance unit.
 Vocational: Technological development has opened the avenues for several
occupations and specialized jobs. This leads to an increased need for vocational
guidance. Vocational guidance deals with assisting an individual opt for the
right occupation or job. Vocational guidance helps an individual choose the
right occupation and then also prepare for it and track his progress accordingly.
The main aim of vocational guidance is to help individuals build a better future
and choose the right career. Vocational guidance helps an individual to realize
his potential and skills and then on this basis decide the right career. It also
helps an individual to develop the right attitude towards work.
Vocational education helps an individual to evaluate every job and career
option available critically and then choose the right one. At the elementary
stage, no formal vocational guidance may be required but training can be
provided to develop skill that are of vocation significance like cooperation,
use of hands, respect for manual work, development of interpersonal
relationships and so on. At the secondary stage, vocational guidance can be
provided to help students identify their areas of vocational interest and to
develop employment readiness. At this stage, vocational guidance can help
the students to take the right decisions related to their career. At the tertiary
stage, vocational guidance must be provided in a more formal manner. At this
stage, guidance must be provided to students to inform them about the various
career options available, the career options that match their skills, the training
facilities available in relation to the various career options and also the various
apprenticeship programmes available. Vocational training must enable the
students choose the right career option and develop the essential skills that
would prepare them to enter the career field opted by them.
An Overview: Guidance and 1.3.3 Aims of Guidance: Kothari Commission
Thus, on the basis of the need of guidance at various stages of life and education,
the Kothari Education Commission has specified the following aims of guidance at
NOTES the secondary school level:
 It helps the adolescents to know about their skills and abilities and also develop
the same in an effective manner.
 It enables the students to understand their strengths and weaknesses. It also
helps the students to do scholastic work as per their abilities and skills.
 It helps students in making educational and vocational choices which are
realistic in nature.
 It aims at helping students in acquiring information about various educational
opportunities.
 To help the students to adjust to their personal as well as social space and
environment.
 To help the school authorities to understand students so that the educational
programmes can be designed and delivered in an effective manner.
At the higher education stage, Crow and Crow have listed the following aims of
guidance:
 Guidance aims to help the students to choose the curriculum according to
their abilities, interests and future needs.
 It enables students to develop work and study habits which guide them towards
success.
 It encourages students to understand the purpose and the function of the
school in fulfilling their needs.
 Guidance aims to help students in finding out what the school has to offer in
terms of study plans.
 It facilitates the students to identify the schools that they may want to attend
to acquire higher education.
 It aims to help the students to select and try out the various courses that they
may be interested in.
 It aims to help the students in developing leadership qualities by allowing
them to participate in various school activities.
 It aims to help the students to develop and maintain fitness levels that can
help them to continue their studies.
 Guidance enables students to develop an attitude to continue their studies in
the chosen educational institution.
The aims of guidance can, thus, be summarized as follows:
 Guidance aims to help the individual in realizing his potentialities and to make
maximum contribution towards the society.
 It aims to help the individual to solve his problems and make proper choice An Overview: Guidance and
and adjustment.
 It provides help to the individual to lay a permanent foundation for sound and
mature adjustment.
NOTES
 To help the individual to live a well-balanced life in all aspects— physical,
mental, emotional and social.
It has already been said that guidance is integral to education and is needed at all
levels of education. The objectives of guidance, thus, keep changing with each level
of education. At the primary level of education not much formal guidance is needed
by the students. At the secondary and the higher stage, however, students need
formal guidance from peers, teachers and trainers and also professional counsellors.
Aims of Vocational Guidance
Jones summarizes the aims of vocational guidance as follows:
 It aims at assisting the student to acquire knowledge of the characteristics
and functions, the duties and rewards of the occupation of his choice.
 Vocational guidance enables students to find out about the general and specific
abilities and skills required for a job or a vocation and also acquire information
about the qualifications, age and preparation and other factors required for
the specific job.
 To enable students to experience work conditions in and out of school so that
they get practical knowledge about the work environment. This enables the
individual to develop the essential skills and abilities for the job as well.
 It aims to help the individual realize the importance of hard work.
 It enables an individual to gather vocational information and to analyse the
information in a critical manner so that a final decision about a vocation can
be taken.
 It enables the student to identify his skills and abilities related to a specific
vocation or occupation.
 It helps the handicapped as well as the economically weak individuals to
develop skills to find a job and make the right vocational choices.
 It helps the students in finding out information about vocational training offered
in schools and colleges and also information related to how to enter these
training institutions and what are the outcomes of the same.
 It encourages an individual to adjust in his work environment and enables the
individual to understand the relation of workers with the society with regards
to the vocation of his choice and also that of other vocations.
 To help the students to be aware of the consequences of making the wrong
vocational choices and choosing the wrong training courses.
 Avocational: The time a student spends at home or in other activities other
than the time spent in school needs to be managed in an effective manner so
An Overview: Guidance and that it can contribute to the optimal development of the student. This is where
avocational guidance plays an important role. Avocational guidance helps an
individual to manage and use his leisure time in an effective manner. Avocational
guidance is essential as co-curricular activities play an important role in the
NOTES development of the student. It helps the students choose the right activities in
which their energies can be properly channelized. This type of guidance
enables the individual to participate effectively in co-curricular activities and,
thus, helps them to develop interpersonal skills and also widen their outlook.
 Social: Most students face a lot of problems when it comes to social
relationships. Students develop their social interactions and social relationships
in schools where they meet others from different backgrounds, different
economic and social status and, therefore, some students may face problems
adjusting to the environment. Social guidance plays an important role here as
it helps the individuals to develop feelings of social acceptance and social
adjustment. Social guidance teaches individuals to be tolerant towards others
and helps them to develop a feeling of social security. Social guidance can be
provided formally in educational institutions whereas informal social guidance
can be provided by the family, media and so on. Social guidance must be
provided at the very basic level in the family so that individuals learn to adjust
with various people in the society.
 Moral: Moral guidance plays an important role in shaping the ideals and
beliefs of the students. Moral guidance prevents students from being affected
by factors that lead them to indulge in undesirable practices. This type of
guidance must be provided at all stages of life so that an individual remains on
the right path and also facilitates the all-round development of the individual.
 Health: Health guidance aims at preventive and curative health of individuals.
Health guidance is essential for students as it enables them to develop healthy
eating habits and for them to know about various diseases including HIV/
AIDS. Health guidance must be provided at all stages of life to students and
must form a part of education right from the elementary level. Imparting
education and information relating to health must be made mandatory in schools
for proper and healthy development of the students. Health guidance given to
students must be a cooperative effort on the part of principals, doctors and
psychologists.
1.3.4 Objectives
At the primary education stage, the objective of guidance can, thus, be summarized
as follows:
 It assists the students in developing a better attitude towards school activities.
 It enables the children to adapt to the school traditions and regulations of the
school.
 It assists the students in developing their physical and emotional stability in a
balanced manner.
 It enables the students to identify their problems regarding adjustment with An Overview: Guidance and
the school environment.
 To make the students independent.
 It ensures cooperation among the students. NOTES
 It facilitates the transition of students from primary to high school.
 It provides information to children regarding high school.
At the secondary stage, the objectives of guidance are listed as follows:
 Its main objective is to familiarize the students with their school environment
and enables them to cooperate with their classmates.
 It enables the students to critically analyse the subject options and to help
them choose the best according to their aptitude.
 It encourages the students to participate in co-curricular activities according
to their skill set for their overall development.
 To ensure that the students grow in a healthy environment and have a healthy
mind and body.
 To meet the individual and social needs of adolescents.
 Guidance endeavours to create an environment feasible for the healthy growth
and development of the students.
The objectives of guidance at the higher level of education include the following:
 It aims to inform the students about the process of admissions to colleges and
universities.
 It provides information to students about the co-curricular activities they can
participate in their college or university.
 It aims to help the students choose subjects and programmes that can help
them build a bright future.
 Guidance aims to help the students get vocational advice so that the students
can choose a career for themselves.
 It aims to develop an environment conducive to the educational and social
needs of the students.
Guidance plays an important role in the development of an individual. Guidance,
thus, has a developmental function associated with it which helps in self-realization
and self-development of an individual. Guidance also helps in national development.
Another important function of guidance is adjustive function. Guidance helps
individuals to adjust to their environment which can be their school, college, workplace
or even home. Hence, by helping individuals to adjust, guidance works to ensure that
an individual can live peacefully in his environment. Oriental function of guidance
enables the students to be oriented with the required information that can help solve
various problems that they may face. Guidance orients an individual to career planning,
educational, personal and social aims.
An Overview: Guidance and Guidance services, therefore, today form an important part of schools, colleges
and universities across the globe. These services help the students to adjust to all
aspects of their life and development and develop into responsible citizens of society.
These guidance services undertake guidance programmes based on the unique needs
NOTES of the students and take into consideration the fact that each individual has different
social, personal and emotional needs. These programmes basically aim at the complete
adjustment and overall development of an individual which is the basic aim of
education and guidance.
Example: Providing guidance to child care providers
Here are some basic guidance tips for child care providers for guiding the behaviour
of the children.
The child care providers must keep the rules simple and easy to understand
for the children. They must discuss the rules with the children and repeat them as
often as possible so that the students follow the said rules. A few rules that work
well with children include the following:
 The children must help each other.
 The children are required to take care of their toys.
 The children must say ‘please’ and ‘thank you’.
 The children must be kind to each other.
The child care providers must say what they mean and use ‘do’ instead of
‘do not’ as this inculcates positive behaviour among the students. The day care
providers must not make use of negative sentences but must use sentences like the
following:
 ‘Slow down and walk’ instead of ‘stop running’
 ‘Come hold my hand’ instead of ‘don’t touch anything’
 ‘Keep your feet on the floor’ instead of ‘don’t climb on the table’
 ‘Use a quiet voice inside’ instead of ‘stop shouting’
The child day care providers must make sure to keep the sentences simple
and short. They must also make sure to talk to the children rather than shouting at
them. When talking, the day care providers must maintain eye contact with the
children and should not lecture them at length. They must give the children time to
respond and their views should not be overlooked.
Children at day care learn by observing. They observe the behaviour of the
day care providers and, therefore, it is essential that the day care providers set good
examples by using the right words and behaving in the right manner. The children
must also be encouraged to set a good example for each other since a lot of learning
takes place by observing each other at the day care.
At the day care, to inculcate good behaviour in the children, the children must
be given simple and clear choices and must not be forced to do something. When
children are forced to do a thing, they generally respond in a negative manner and do
not behave in a positive manner.
The children must be shown respect and must not be punished for their An Overview: Guidance and
misbehaviour in front of everybody. Instead, the day care providers can talk about
the behaviour of the child in isolation and guide him to behave in the right manner.
The day care providers must always appreciate the children when they are
good rather than just punishing them for their naughty acts. This will further encourage NOTES
the children to behave in the right and positive manner.
The day care providers must act like good coaches and guides and guide the
children as to what is right and what is wrong. The providers must appreciate the
children when they are good and must encourage the children to do the same often.
At the day care centre, the children must be taught social skills and good
manners in a play way method. The providers must think of games that enable the
children to learn good manners and identify the feelings of others. This enables the
children to apologize easily and say sorry when required. This is something that
cannot be taught forcefully.
The children must be taught as to how they can change their behaviour and
behave in the right manner. When a child does not behave in the right manner or
misbehaves, the providers must make sure to talk to the child and guide him not to
misbehave. However, the provider must make sure that he does not make use of a
negative tone and instead helps the child to change his behaviour to a positive one.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

3. What is guidance?
4. What is personal guidance?
5. Define educational guidance.
1.4 COUNSELLING
Counselling refers to professional services provided to an individual who is facing a

problem and needs help to overcome the problem. Counselling is considered to be
an integral and central part of guidance. The process of counselling helps an individual
find solution to a problem and also helps in the overall development of an individual.
Counselling is a process that involves two people—one is the counsellor and the
other is the person wanting help or counselling. Counsellor is the professional who
offers counselling services. According to Willey and Andrew, ‘Counselling involves
two individuals one seeking help and other a professionally trained person helped
solved problems to orient and direct him to words a goals.’
Wren says, ‘Counselling is a dynamic and purposeful relationship between
two people who approach a mutually defined problem with mutual consideration for
each other to the end that the younger or less mature, or more troubled of the two is
aided to a self- determined resolution of his problem.’
According to Arbuckle, ‘Counselling is helping a person to come to see who
he really is, what he has and does not have, what he can do easily, what he can do
An Overview: Guidance and with difficulty and what he cannot do at all. It is a close sharing of a human relationship
with one who has for him a high regard; one who can offer him unconditional
acceptance, but one who has no guarantees, no answers.’
According to authors Shertzer and Stone, ‘Counselling is an interaction process
NOTES which facilitates meaningful understanding of self and environment and result in the
establishment and or clarification of goals and values for future behaviour.’
Edwin C. Lewis, the author of The Psychology of Counselling, defines
counselling as, ‘Counselling is a process by which a troubled person (client) is helped
to tell and behave in a more personally satisfying manner through interaction with an
uninvolved person (counsellor) who provides information and reactions which
stimulate the client to develop behaviour which enable him to deal more effectively
with himself and his environment.’
Thus, counselling has emerged as a two-way process that involves two
individuals and mutual cooperation between them. Counselling enables an individual
to gain self-understanding and develop self-acceptance. In this sense, the aim of
counselling is same as guidance in that counselling also helps an individual adjust to
his environment and conditions and lead a happier life.
Counselling is, thus, a process that involves giving information, advice and
counselling. This, however, does not mean that counselling is limited to a single
activity. Hence, counselling cannot be considered as:
 Judgemental
 Restricted to giving advice
 Attempting to solve the problem
The three main activities that make up counselling include the following:
 Informing: Informing is an activity wherein the counsellor gives information
to the client or the person needing help.
 Advising: Advising entails the counsellor suggesting the right course of action
that must be taken to solve the problem.
 Counselling: Counselling involves helping the client understand his needs
and providing the necessary help so that the client can take the right decision.
Therefore, counselling entails assisting a person so that the individual can
face any challenging situation with a positive frame of mind. Counselling helps to
alleviate negative responses to a problem and enables an individual to overcome the
problem.
According to authors of Therapeutic Psychology: Fundamentals of
Actualization Counseling and Psychotherapy, Lawrence M. Brammer and Everett
L. Shostrom, ‘Counselling is a purposeful reciprocal relationship between two people
in which a trained person helps the other to change himself or his environment.’
According to author Wrenn, ‘Counselling is a dynamic and purposeful
relationship between the people in which procedures vary with the nature of the
students’ need, but in which there is always mutual participation by the counsellor
and the student with the focus upon self-classification and self-determination by the An Overview: Guidance and
students.’
Hence, the characteristics of counselling can be summarized as follows:
 Counselling is a mutual relationship between two people. NOTES
 It involves discussion.
 Counselling is a face-to-face relationship.
 It has a professional aspect to it.
There are several spheres of life in which people need counselling. The following
are the areas where counselling is needed the most:
 Education: Students during their school and college years may face several
problems related to education, learning and teaching. Such problems are
addressed by educational counselling and by counsellors who are experts and
experienced in this specific area.
 Marriage: Marital counselling is often required by those who face problems
in their married life. These problems may begin as soon as the question of
spouse selection comes to the fore. Marriage counsellors handle such problems
and provide the necessary solutions to the problem.
 Personal: Many people face several problems in their life which bring about
changes in their attitude and are often considered a hindrance in leading a
normal life. Personal counselling looks into the personal problems of an
individual and enables an individual to overcome these problems.
 Social: Social problems may be faced by individuals wherein they are unable
to maintain social relationships and fail to adjust to the society and its ways
and norms. Social counselling is provided to such people so that they can
develop the skills of social acceptance, tolerance towards others and are able
to lead a life in tandem with the society.
 Rehabilitation: Sometimes, the life of an individual is disrupted because of
accidents, mishaps and so on. Such people often develop depression, low
self-esteem and in most cases are unable to get over the disruption of life.
Rehabilitation counselling is provided to such people so that they can develop
life skills that can enable them to lead a normal life.
 Vocational: Most people face problems in deciding about the right career
option and are unable to adjust to their work area, the people around and also
the work environment. Such people are not able to work productively.
Vocational counselling is made available to such people so that they can make
the right career choices and are able to adjust to their work environment so
that they are able to work productively.
An Overview: Guidance and 1.4.2 Principles of Counselling
According to authors McDaniel and Shaftal, the following are the basic principles of
counselling:
NOTES  Principle of acceptance: This principle says that every person seeking
counselling must be treated as an individual who has unique needs. In other
words, no two people in general seek counsel for the same reason and this
fact must be accepted by the counsellor.
 Principle of permissiveness: According to this principle of counselling, the
process of counselling must permit the environment to be developed as per
the individual’s needs. Also the process of counselling must develop optimism
in the individual.
 Principle of respect: This principle states that counselling must respect an
individual’s feelings. In other words, respecting the feelings of the person
seeking a counsellor must be integral to the process of counselling.
 Principle of thinking with the individual: Counselling as a process
emphasizes on thinking with the individual. In other words, a counsellor must
be able to think in a manner that matches the thought process of the individual
because only then can the counsellor work collectively with the individual to
find a solution to the problem.
 Principle of learning: As per this principle, counselling as a process entails
learning and is also based on learning and several elements associated with
learning.
 Principle of consistency with ideals of democracy: Counselling and all
its other principles are associated with the ideals of democracy. The ideals of
democracy basically emphasize on accepting an individual and showing
respect. In fact, respect is considered to be the right of an individual when it
comes to the ideals of democracy. Counselling as has already been stated
accepts and respects an individual and his unique needs and, thus, is based
upon the ideals of democracy. Counselling also respects the different needs
and behaviours of the various individuals who seek counselling.
Counselling as has been stated is a professional service and, therefore, must
be governed by certain ethical principles as well. The following are the ethical
principles of counselling:
 Being Trustworthy: According to this principle, a counsellor must be
trustworthy in the sense that he must act in accordance with the client’s trust
shown in him. Since during counselling, a client reveals details to the counsellor,
the counsellor must regard the confidentiality of the client as an obligation
and, therefore, must not share any information about the client with anyone.
 Autonomy: This principle emphasizes the client’s right to be self-governing.
In other words, the principle of autonomy says that the client must be willing
to participate in the counselling process. The client must voluntarily participate
in the process and the counsellor has no right to manipulate his clients.
 Beneficence: This principle says that the counsellor must carry out counselling An Overview: Guidance and
that promotes the well-being of the client. The counsellor must work in the
best interests of the client and for this must make use of the available resources
in the best possible manner.
 Non-maleficence: This principle states that the counsellor must ensure that NOTES
the client is not harmed in any manner. Non-maleficence basically suggests
that the client must not be exploited in any manner— financially, emotionally
and sexually. This also implies the fact that the counsellor must avoid indulging
in any kind of malpractices.
 Justice: The principle of justice says that the counsellor must provide the
best services to the clients based on their different needs. The principle also
emphasizes fair and impartial treatment of all clients in the most competent
manner by the counsellor. It also entails the counsellor providing adequate
services to all clients based on the different needs and reasons for counselling.
 Self- respect: According to this principle, the counsellor must foster self-
respect by imbibing sufficient and significant knowledge about profession
and also by caring for self. This is essential to boost the confidence of the
counsellor and for enabling him to indulge in the profession in the best possible
manner.
The aims of counselling can be summarized as follows:
 It aims to help clients manage their problems effectively.
 It enables clients to make efficient use of unused or underused opportunities.
Counselling can be categorized into the following three types based on the role of
the counsellor and the nature of the counselling function.
1. Directive counselling: The chief exponent of directive counselling is B.G.
Williamson. Directive counselling is counsellor oriented as the counsellor plays
a major role in solving the problem. The counsellor identifies, defines, diagnoses
the problem and then provides a solution. The counsellor has a major role to
play in directive counselling as he directs thinking by informing, explaining,
interpreting and advising the client. The counsellor in directive counselling
performs the following activities:
 The counsellor conducts an analysis, which entails collecting data from
various sources so that the problem of the client can be understood.
 He puts together data which involves interpreting and organizing the data
collected to know about the client’s strengths, weaknesses and so on.
 He identifies the nature of the problem and also what causes the problem.
 He conducts a prognosis which involves predicting the development of
the problem in the future.
 Counselling which involves taking steps to help the client adjust to the
problem and eventually overcoming it.
An Overview: Guidance and  He conducts a follow-up which involves helping the client time and again
or when the client faces the same type of problem again.
The merits of the directive counselling process are as follows:
 It is economical and does not take much time.
NOTES
 The client gets a solution to the problem for sure.
 The method focuses on intellectual adjustment of the client rather than
emotional adjustment.
The following are the demerits of this approach:
 The process is counsellor oriented and, therefore, the client becomes
dependent on the counsellor.
 The approach is undemocratic as it does not give any rights to the client.
 The client in most cases becomes helpless and waits for the counsellor to
provide a solution.
2. Non-directive counselling: Carl Rogers, an American psychologist, is the
chief exponent of this type of counselling. Non-directive counselling is client-
centred counselling where the client is allowed free expression and the
counsellor only directs and guides. The counsellor asks a few questions to the
client so that he can think of the possible solutions. The counselee is an active
participant, who discusses his problem with the counsellor, and with the help
of the counsellor arrives at a solution and takes a decision. The role of the
counsellor is a passive one. The main role of the counsellor is to create an
atmosphere where the client is able to work on his own and find solution to
the problem. This approach focuses on the emotional aspect of the client
rather than the intellectual one.
The merits of the non-directive counselling approach are the following:
 This approach provides freedom to the person seeking counselling.
 It provides a tension free and stress free environment wherein the client
can work at ease.
 The counsel seeker is not dependent on the counsellor for finding solution
to the problem and, therefore, works towards self-acceptance.
 Since the counsel seeker gets a positive atmosphere, he can confront his
weaknesses easily.
The demerits of non-directive counselling are the following:
 It is a time-consuming process as the counselee is not a professional who
can quickly find a solution.
 Since the process is client-centred, the solution to the problem may not be
accurate because the judgment and wisdom of the client cannot be relied
upon entirely. This is because the client is the one facing the problem and
he may be under stress and tension and, therefore, may arrive at the
wrong solution.
 Non-directive counselling relies on discussion of the problem with the
counsellor and then finding a solution through discussion. However, all
problems cannot be solved simply by discussion and may need other An Overview: Guidance and
techniques and tools as well.
3. Eclectic counselling: The chief exponent of eclectic counselling is F. C.
Throne. Eclectic counselling revolves around the use of coordinative methods.
The client and the counsellor cooperate and work actively in finding a solution NOTES
to the problem. The process focuses on the personality and the needs of the
client and then finds techniques that can be used to find a solution to the
problem faced by the counselee. Some techniques that can be used in this
process may include reassurance, testing, case history and providing the
essential information to the client so that the problem can be solved. The
steps involved in eclectic counselling are the following:
 The counsellor studies the needs and personality of the client.
 The counsellor selects the appropriate techniques after consulting the
client.
 The techniques are applied to solve the problem.
 The techniques and the counselling process are evaluated to know whether
it has been effective or not.
 Counselling is then done by the counsellor.
 The counsellor seeks the opinion of the client on whether the technique
and counselling provided have been of help or not.
The merits of eclectic counselling are as follows:
 The counsellor as well as the counselee is active and so a more practical
solution can be arrived at.
 The approach is applicable practically in most cases.
 The approach enables the counselee to get a better insight of his strengths
and weaknesses.
The demerits of eclectic counselling are as follows:
 The approach is considered to be vague and opportunistic.
 There is no rule that states the extent of freedom that can be given to the
client when it comes to finding a solution to the problem.
 Many people are of the view that both the counselee and counsellor cannot
be given equal rights and cannot be active at the same time in finding a
solution to the problem.
The ‘theory of self’, put forward by Carl Rogers, is a theory applied to counselling
and revolves around the following concepts:
 The theory states that the counselee has the ability to determine the problem
and the underlying cause of the problem. The counselee also has the ability to
solve his own problem.
 The theory states that for counselling, a comfortable and acceptable
atmosphere needs to be set so that the counselee is at ease in discussing his
problem and working towards solving the problem.
An Overview: Guidance and  The theory also states that the counselee is mature enough to understand his
personality and is also able to identify his strengths and weaknesses.
 The theory states that the counsellor’s intervention is minimal when it comes
to finding a solution for the problem.
NOTES
According to the theory of self, the role of the counsellor can be outlined in the
following ways:
 The counsellor should present himself as an open, genuine and consistent
person.
 He should respect the client.
 He should be able to understand the client’s viewpoint and adapt to his process
of thinking.
Carl Rogers’s theory is based on nineteen propositions which are as follows:
1. All individuals are the centre of a changing world and, therefore, continually
keep evolving along with their environment.
2. Every individual reacts to a field or stimulus as it is perceived and experienced.
This field is what is called reality for the individuals.
3. The individual or an organism reacts as an organized whole to the reality.
4. When a person reacts to the reality, a part of the reality becomes a differentiated
part of the person or the individual.
5. An individual forms a structure of the self when he interacts with the reality
and with others. This self, therefore, plays an important role in forming the
pattern of relationships and interactions with others.
6. Every individual or organism has the basic tendency to strive and actualize.
The organism does this to maintain and enhance itself in the changing
environment.
7. The best manner in which the behaviour of an individual or an organism can
be understood is by understanding the internal self of the individual.
8. Behaviour is nothing but the goal-directed attempt of an individual or an
organism to satisfy its needs.
9. Behaviour is always accompanied by an emotion which further facilitates the
maintenance and enhancement of the organism.
10. Every individual experiences values. These values may be experienced directly
or by taking over or observing the values of other organisms.
11. Experiences are a part of the life of an individual and as these occur, they are
symbolized, perceived and organized into some relation to the self, or ignored
and denied symbolization because the experiences are considered inconsistent
with the structure of the self.
12. Organisms adopt a specific behaviour that becomes consistent with the concept
of the self of an organism or individual.
13. Sometimes, an individual may behave in a specific manner because of certain An Overview: Guidance and
experiences and this behaviour is not consistent with the self.
14. Every individual needs psychological adjustment especially when all
experiences of an individual are consistent with the concept of the self of the
individual. NOTES
15. Psychological maladjustment may also take place when an individual denies
all the experiences that take place around him as not being related to or
consistent with the concept of self. This leads to psychological tensions which
an individual may often experience.
16. When an experience is not considered consistent with the concept of the self
of an individual, it is considered to be a threat. These threats make it difficult
for an individual to maintain his self-esteem.
17. When threats are absent, certain experiences that were previously considered
inconsistent with the concept of self can be revised and assimilated as an
experience of the self.
18. An individual after perceiving and accepting all consistent and inconsistent
experiences as a part of the self-concept can understand the fact that he is
different from other individuals and also understands the fact that all individuals
are separate and unique.
19. When an individual assimilates several experiences in his concept of being,
he undergoes a change in the system of values acquired by him.
The theory was basically developed as the foundation of therapy which involved
the emotional state of an individual. According to Carl Rogers, the attitude and the
contribution of the counsellor plays an important role in making a therapy effective.
Example: Need of counselling for students
Counselling services in schools and colleges need to be administered to meet the
administrational and educational needs of the students. Counselling is needed by
students for the following reasons:
 Counselling helps in the overall development of the student.
 It ensures that the students make proper choices of courses.
 It ensures that the students make proper career choices and do not go wrong.
 It facilitates the students in their vocational development.
 It motivates the fresh graduates to carve a niche for themselves in society.
 Guidance and counselling services are necessary to help students face the
situations of life and adjust to their environment physically, mentally as well
as emotionally.
 It motivates students from weaker sections of the society to perform well at
the educational and vocational levels.
 It encourages the students to take the right decisions in case of confusion
and turmoil.
An Overview: Guidance and  To prevent wastage and stagnation of educational and vocational resources.
 To identity the students who need special help and assistance.
 Counselling ensures that students spend their leisure time and time spent
NOTES outside the classroom in a productive manner.
 It helps to minimize indiscipline among students.
Example: School guidance and counselling in Manitoba
The guidance and counselling of students is an integral component of the educational
mission of the school in Manitoba (Canadian province). Guidance and counselling
services and programmes promote the personal, social, educational and career
development of all students.
Information for schools, students and families
In school, the school counsellors have specific duties and responsibilities and carry
out several activities that address the needs of the following:
 Students
 Parents/guardians
 Colleagues and professional associates
 School and community
Working with students
The main responsibility of the school counsellor is towards the students in the school.
The school counsellors offer their professional services to meet the educational,
academic, career, personal and social needs of all students within the school setting,
from kindergarten to class XII. The school counsellors develop and deliver a guidance
and counselling programme.
School counsellors need to address the diverse needs of the students for
which they require specific expertise. Moreover, they need to work within their
defined school and professional boundaries of competencies by providing only those
services for which they are qualified by training or experience. When the school
counsellor feels that he cannot meet the needs and demands of the students or come
across students who need special services, they refer such students to the appropriate
outside counsellors.
Working with parents/guardians
The role of parents/guardians is important in the life of their children. School
counsellors, therefore, need to collaborate with the parents in the best interests of
the students. However, the role of school counsellors is not to provide family
counselling. The main motive of school counsellors is to help in the personal, social,
educational and career development of the student. The school counsellors provide
parents with the necessary information related to education and careers of their
children. The school counsellor may, however, not share personal or confidential
information of the student with the parents unless required.
Working with colleagues and professional associates An Overview: Guidance and
The main aim of guidance and counselling services is to enhance the success of all
learners keeping the broader perspective of the society in mind. The school counsellor
is responsible for maintaining and establishing relationships with school staff and
NOTES
several other service providers who work with students of the school. The school
counsellors share student information with these professionals to promote the overall
development of the students.
The information shared, however, follows the principle of confidentiality and
is for the betterment of the students. The school counsellors are required to work
within the limits of the law and professionals ethics.
Working with the school and community
The school counsellors act as educators as well as counsellors. They help students
in guidance activities and also offer counselling services. The counsellor must,
however, keep the counselling services separate from those dealing with promoting
education of the students. The school counsellor on one hand may offer personal
counselling to the student and, on the other, may teach certain skills to the students
that may help the students to face the educational challenges. The role of the school
counsellor is, thus, also to integrate guidance and counselling services to address
school and community needs.
The school counsellor coordinates with the school team to develop a
comprehensive guidance and counselling programme so that the programme so
developed is in alignment with the goals and mission of the school. During the
development of the counselling and guidance plan, the school counsellor identifies
needs, implements and monitors the programmes and adjusts the programme as per
the developmental needs of the students. Regular evaluation of the plan is also
carried out.
Consultation support provided
School counsellors are professional school staff members who work with other
teachers and professionals to help learners succeed and adjust to their learning
environment. School counsellors provide education, guidance and counselling to all
students and carry out activities such as the following:
 Direct instruction
 Guidance education
 Team teaching
 Group and individual counselling
 Student support team planning
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

6. Define counselling.
7. What is directive counselling?
Counselling in Education 1.5 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COUNSELLING AND
GUIDANCE
NOTES Guidance and counselling are both involved with the development of an individual.
Both help an individual in facing and solving the problems and moving towards self-
realization and self-empowerment. However, despite the fact that both guidance
and counselling are aimed at helping an individual in finding solution to his problems,
there are some differences between the two, especially in terms of how the processes
are carried out and implemented.
Counselling as a process involves a lot of sessions wherein the counselee and
the counsellor talk to each other, discuss the problem and share information to find
the best possible solution to the problem. In counselling, the individual is allowed to
understand the problem and find a solution and take decision about the course of
action that best solves the problem. At the end of the counselling session, the counselee
has gained a better perception about his problem and is able to take better decisions
to solve the problem. The counselling process gives the counselee or the client the
upper hand and makes the counselee strong enough to tackle his future problems as
well. The role of the counsellor is limited to providing assistance.
Guidance is a process that involves listening to the problems that an individual
faces. In this process, the professional discusses and suggests possible ready-made
solutions to the problem that the individual faces. It is up to the individual whether he
wants to adopt the solution provided and get over with the problem. The process of
guidance can be repeated several times so that the individual can understand the
problem at hand and then decide whether to opt for the solution or not.
While many people view guidance as an integral part of counselling, there are
others who consider counselling to be a vital part of guidance. In fact, guidance and
counselling often go hand-in-hand.
The differences between guidance and counselling can, thus, be summarized as
follows:
 Counselling is an inward analysis of the individual whereas guidance involves
an external analysis of the individual and his problems.
 Counselling in an in-depth analysis and has a narrower perspective wherein
the individual understands his problems in depth whereas guidance is a broader
and a more comprehensive approach.
 Counselling is generally provided for personal and social issues whereas
guidance is usually provided for education and career related problems.
 Counselling focuses on making the individual understand the problem and,
therefore, brings about behavioural changes in the individual so that he can
adjust to the problem. On the other hand, guidance focuses on finding a solution
to the problem whereby the solution may bring about a change in the attitude
of the individual.
 In counselling, the counsellor is not the decision maker while in guidance the An Overview: Guidance and
professional who offers guidance services is the decision-maker.
 While counselling lays emphasis on both learning as well as feelings, guidance
gives no place to feelings and is more of an intellectual process.
NOTES
 Counselling leads to what may be termed as self-discovery of the individual
whereas guidance does not lead to self-discovery of an individual.
Psychotherapy basically focuses on helping and treating people who have mental
and emotional problems. The person who faces the problem consults a psychotherapist
who after discussing the problem with the individual tries to find a solution.
Psychotherapy is basically talk-therapy which involves the application of validated
scientific procedures to help people develop healthier habits so that they can lead a
healthier life. It is a collaborative treatment that is based on the relationship of an
individual and a psychotherapist.
There are several approaches that can be used in psychotherapy to help an
individual improve his life. The various approaches to psychotherapy include cognitive-
behavioural approach, interpersonal approach and talking therapy. Psychotherapy
focuses on working with an individual as long as the person does not feel mature
enough to face his problems.
Counselling and psychotherapy are often used interchangeably and counselling
may be offered as a part of psychotherapy. However, there are a few differences
between counselling and psychotherapy. Counselling is short-term treatment that
enables a person to overcome his problems. Psychotherapy, on the other hand, is a
long-term process.
Psychotherapy enables an individual to examine the feelings, actions and
thoughts and then make adjustments wherever necessary. Counselling, however,
enables an individual to explore personal development and bring about adjustments
in the life so that the problem can be overcome.
Counselling enables people to identify their problems and take positive steps
to resolve such issues. Psychotherapy basically helps people to identify and solve
psychological problems that they have developed over a long period of time.
Counselling is, thus, a therapeutic treatment for people who already have an
understanding of their well-being. Psychotherapy focuses on helping people develop
habits that will promote their well-being.
Counselling as a short-term process encourages behavioural changes so that
a person can make adjustments to overcome problems. Psychotherapy as a long-
term process enables a person to understand his feelings, actions and thoughts in a
better manner and helps the individual to face his emotional issues and problems.
Counselling focuses on the problem and then on the basis of the problem will
look for a solution, while psychotherapy focuses on the reason and causes that
underlie the problem and focuses on changing the thought process of the individual
so that the problem can be faced.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
8. Mention the various approaches that can be used in psychotherapy to
NOTES help an individual improve his life.
9. List two differences between guidance and counselling.
1.6 OCCUPATIONAL AND EDUCATIONAL

INFORMATION
Occupational information refers to information about work. It includes information

related to various jobs available, training and preparation for jobs available, entry
into an occupation, salaries, work conditions, emoluments, employee outlook and
prospects. Occupational information forms an important part of vocational guidance
and counselling services. The need for occupational information is mentioned as
follows:
 Occupational information is essential for career planning. It provides all
necessary information related to various career prospects available and, thus,
helps an individual to analyse and use the information to choose the right
career.
 Career development is also dependent upon the available occupational
information. Occupation information makes available information related to
the essential skills, attitudes, interests and abilities which are needed for career
development. Using this information, an individual gets accurate information
about a specific job or career and, thus, can develop his skills accordingly.
 Occupational information when made available at an early stage of career
choices helps an individual to widen vocational thinking. Such information
enables the individuals to explore the vocational world and, thus, choose the
best occupation.
 Occupational information when made available to an individual helps to change
the perceptions of an individual. Sometimes, an individual may have wrong or
distorted notion about a specific job. When occupational information is made
available, an individual’s perception related to the specific job changes.
 Occupational information also helps in placement of an individual. Occupational
information provides the essential information related to a specific job and,
thus, an individual can develop the required skills which help him to get the
job.
1.6.1 Sources
There are several information sources that can provide occupational information.
Primary sources are the direct or original sources of occupational information. Primary
sources make available all relevant information about a vocation. Some examples of
primary sources of occupational information include information collected from an
employer, employee or worker and government agencies.
Secondary sources of information, also called indirect sources, are those An Overview: Guidance and
sources which make use of occupational information collected or published from
primary sources. Examples may include advertisements in newspapers related to a
specific vocation or occupation.
There are several international, national and local agencies and bodies that NOTES
bring out publications related to occupations and provide the essential information.
For example, the International Labour Organization (ILO) brings out publications
related to occupations and jobs available with the agency.
1.6.2 Collection
Occupational information can be collected using the following methods:
 Follow-up surveys: Follow-up surveys can be conducted to gather the
necessary information about the various employment opportunities available
in a community. Such surveys also collect information related to the specific
skills required for a specific job. These surveys help individuals to plan their
careers in a realistic manner.
 Community occupational surveys: Community occupational surveys can
be conducted to enumerate the description of the various jobs available in a
community. Such surveys provide occupational information about community
specific occupations, manpower trends and requirements. These surveys also
provide relevant information on name and address of the organization, existing
occupations, manpower requirements that is, job openings, eligibility,
requirements and salary.
 Want ad survey: Want ad survey is the cheapest and the best available
option to get occupational information. It is a periodic tabulation of the job
openings as advertised in newspapers. In most cases, want ads and situation
vacant advertisements appear in local newspapers. Want ads provides
information regarding job openings, situation vacant advertisements provide
data of supply of workers for possible job openings.
Once collected, it is important that occupational information be disseminated
so that it can be used by those who need it. There are several techniques using
which occupational information can be disseminated. These are the following:
1. Group techniques: Group techniques are used in groups to inform people
about the various vocational choices they have available. The group techniques
commonly used are as follows:
 Career talk: Career talk is in fact the most effective manner of sharing
occupational information. The topic of career talk must be chosen keeping
in mind the age group, the interests of those seeking the information and
the educational level. Career talk provides information related to the general
and specific nature of work, the working conditions, salary, qualifications
required, employment outlook and other related information.
 Group discussion: In a group discussion, the participating members share
information collected by each one of them on a specific occupation.
An Overview: Guidance and  Field trips: Field trips provide first-hand and practical information about
an occupation as it involves the interested people to visit the industries
and offices. Field trips are considered an enjoyable and interesting method
of gaining the relevant occupational information.
NOTES  Career exhibitions: Career exhibitions are considered to be most
effective techniques of disseminating occupational information related to
several vocations at the same time. A wide variety of information materials
are used for providing the relevant occupational information.
 School assemblies: In schools, assemblies are a regular feature and so
these can offer an avenue to effectively disseminate occupational
information to students at the secondary and higher level of education.
 Subject teaching: At the secondary school level, subject teaching can
be one of the most effective techniques of disseminating occupational
information wherein the information provided by the teacher motivates
the students to explore the various avenues and gather more information.
 Publications: Publications can be published periodically to provide
occupational information relevant for the students and those seeking an
entry into an occupation.
2. Individual techniques: Individual techniques of disseminating occupational
information helps individuals to make career related decisions in the right
manner. Individual counselling sessions can be arranged to provide the
necessary information to the person seeking the information. However, the
person disseminating the information must be an expert and must have the
essential knowledge and skills to provide the relevant information. Individual
counselling sessions are usually one-to-one sessions and, thus, may or may
not be successful depending on whether the person seeking information found
the information useful or not. The process is also a time-consuming and an
expensive one.
Educational information is information related to educational courses,
graduation, education administration departments and other related aspects
of education. Such information is essential for students at all ages and even
for the working people who want to pursue their studies along with a career.
Educational information is collected and provided by the educational institutions
that offer the specific educational course. Such educational institutions have
special cells that work to acquire all essential information related to the course
and other associated aspects. These cells ensure that only relevant information
gets collected so that the information is of help for the students.
1.6.3 Dissemination
Educational information can be disseminated in different ways. Some of these include
the following:
 Talks and lectures: Talks and lectures can be organized for students who
are interested in a specific educational course. Such talks and lectures provide
information regarding the requirements of the course, the institutions offering
the course, fee structure and any other relevant information.
 Education exhibitions: Education exhibitions and fairs are important means An Overview: Guidance and
of disseminating educational information. Generally, such fairs and exhibitions
provide information about several courses and other educational information
under one roof and so cater to the needs of a large number of people.
 Publications: There are several educational institutions that take out NOTES
publications related to the various courses offered by them. Such publications
offer the most relevant educational information.
 Schools and colleges: Schools and colleges are avenues that can be used
to provide educational information to students who need it. Seminars and
assemblies can be arranged in schools and colleges to help disseminate
educational information required by the students.
 Individual counselling: Educational information can also be disseminated
by individual counselling of students where they are provided information
about educational courses that best match their skills, abilities and knowledge
level.
Apart from the above mentioned techniques, teachers, parents and peers can
also provide relevant educational information to the students who need it.
Example: Occupational Outlook Handbook
The Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH) is a career resource which offers
information related to hundreds of jobs and occupations in the United States of
America (USA). Each occupation has with it associated an occupation profile that
describes the duties, work environment, education and training needed for the job
and the salary associated with the job. The profile for each occupation is stated in a
very simple manner which makes it easy for the job searchers to understand the job
profile.
Sections of occupational profiles
 Summary
 What they do
 Work environment
 How to become one
 Pay
 Job outlook
 State and area data
 Similar occupations
 More information
 Summary: The summary section contains facts about the job. These facts
are presented in a tabulated manner and pertain to:
 Median pay: This is the median pay which the workers earned while working
on the job. This tells the information seeker about the salary that he can
expect from the job.
An Overview: Guidance and  Typical entry-level education: This information pertains to the educational
qualifications needed for the job by most workers to enter into the occupation.
 Work experience in a related occupation: Some employers may give
preference to workers who have already worked in the same or related
NOTES occupations. This is preferable so that the job providers can save on training
and education.
 On-the-job training: This section provides details about the on-job training
that may be provided to the job seekers when they take the job so that the
necessary skills and abilities can be developed and promoted in the individual..
The summary section briefly describes all of the sections included in each
occupational profile.
 What they do: This section basically gives basic information on what an
individual is required to do in the job.
A list of all duties and tasks to be performed in the job are specified for all
jobs in the OOH. This section also provides information related to the
equipment, tools, software, or other items that may be used. The section also
lists the people with whom the individual is required to interact while working.
 Work environment: This section provides information related to the work
environment or the work conditions that will be available for the person to
work. The section provides details related to the workplace, the amount of
time to be spent working and also the physical activity involved in the work.
The section also states whether the employees are required to travel at some
time or not. The section may even list activities that may be considered
hazardous. It even lists the types of equipment and gear that the workers
may be required to wear when working.
 Work schedules: This section provided detailed information about the
schedule of the workers during the working hours. The section states whether
the employment is full-time or part-time. It also states whether the work is
seasonal or whether the work is continuous in nature. The section also states
the amount of time that the workers need to spend in a week at work.
 How to become one: This section typically lists how an individual can enter
into the job. The section lists the essential education requirements for a specific
type of job. The section also provides the qualities and the skills that the
workers must possess to get entry into the desired job. The section also
provides details about work experience, certifications as well as registrations
required to be able to enter the job.
 Education: The education section gives a detail of the educational
requirements for a job. Some jobs require formal education while others do
not require formal education. There are some occupations that need people
from different educational background coordinating and working together.
This section provides all such details. The section may even list details about
the subjects that most people study to get into a particular occupation. The
section may even list special courses and training programmes that the workers
can opt for before entering the job to refine their abilities and skills.
 Work experience in a related occupation: This section provides details An Overview: Guidance and
of work experience required for a specific occupational profile. Some jobs
require an individual to have prior work experience in the same or related
field while others may take fresh graduates who do not have any work
experience. All such details and years of experience are all listed in this NOTES
section.
 Training: The training section provides information related to on the job
training that the individuals may have to go through so that they can develop
the requisite skills and abilities to work in an effective manner. On the job
training may be essential to improve the productivity of the workers.
This section also provides information about apprenticeships, internships, and
residency programmes that the workers may require taking up before or
during their job tenure.
 Other experience: This section provides information related to other types
of experiences and works that may be helpful in performing well at the present
job. Sometimes, some occupations require vocational training or voluntary
work to be an added advantage for the job and any such extra experience
also adds to the resume of the job seekers.
 Licenses, certifications and registrations: This section provides
information related to licenses, certifications, and registrations that may be
needed for a specific job or a specific type of an occupation. The section also
describes how a job seeker can earn these credentials.
Licenses may be issued to some people by the State so that they can continue
practicing their profession. Most workers to become licensed need to appear
for an exam and qualify in it. The workers may also need to have basic
educational qualifications and may even need to follow some eligibility criteria.
The requirements to obtain a license may vary from one State to another and
may be different for even the same occupation.
For some occupations, it is essential for the worker to have a certificate. In
other words, a person must be certified to work in the specific job or
occupation. The certification may require the workers to demonstrate how
they perform the said task or job. Sometimes, the workers may need to show
that they possess the required skills and may even need to pass an examination
for the certificate. Certain educational requirements also need to be met for
a worker to get the required certification.
The section provides details of requirements that are essential for obtaining
the license and certificates. The section also provided information on how a
worker can obtain the specific license or certificate and the exams that need
to be cleared for the same.
 Important qualities: This section defines the essential characteristics and
qualities that a worker must possess to work in the specific occupation or job.
The section also describes as to why these qualities would be useful in the
specific job. The qualities may specify the requisite skills, the personal traits
An Overview: Guidance and of the worker essential for the job and also specific technical or other skills
that the worker must possess to work in a particular vocation.
Advancement: The advancement section describes any advanced skills or
certifications or education that may be required for the job. It also describes
NOTES the advancement opportunities that the workers may get when working with
the chosen organization. The opportunities for advancement may come from
within the job or occupation or when a person becomes self-employed.
 Pay: Almost all occupational profiles in the OOH show median wage data
for wage and salary workers in the occupation. The data are obtained from
the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)— Occupational Employment
Statistics (OES) program. Profiles typically include median wages and the
wages earned by the top 10 per cent and bottom 10 per cent of workers in the
occupation. Many profiles also include wages earned by workers in selected
industries—those in which most of an occupation’s workers are employed.
The wage data by industry also are from the OES survey.
The Pay section also provides information related to the work schedule and
the work environment and may even provide information is essential about
worker unions.
 Job outlook: This section provides information related to how the job or
employment is expected to grow or decline and the factors that affect the job
outlook. The section may also provide details about the job prospects and the
changing business practices that can help a job seeker to decide the job which
suits him the best in the long run.
 State and area data: This section provides links to sources for employment,
wages, and projections data by State and area. Included are links to data
maps from the BLS Occupation Employment Statistics (OES) program for
the occupation(s) covered in the profile. External links go to Projections Central,
which contains state employment projections developed by Labor Market
Information (LMI) or by individual State Employment Projections offices;
and to Career InfoNet, which includes occupational profiles and tools to find
employment and wage data by State and metro area.
 Similar occupations: This section provides links to jobs that are similar in
nature especially in terms of the skills and duties.
Some occupations have similar job duties or similar required skills. This section
provides links to those occupations.
 More information: This section provides information about associations
and organizations that provide job seekers with additional information related
to the various jobs and occupations.
The section also includes links to the Occupational Information
Network (O*NET) system for the occupation or occupations included in the
profile. State employment service offices use O*NET to classify applicants
and job openings. For each occupation, O*NET lists a number of descriptors,
including common tasks, necessary knowledge and skills, and frequently used
technology.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
10. What does occupational information deal with?
11. Mention the group techniques of disseminating occupational information. NOTES
1.7 SUMMARY
 Guidance and counselling have become an integral part of the education system
because of the changing face of the education across the globe.
 Education in simple terms means learning. Education more formally can be
defined as a process of acquiring knowledge, skills, beliefs, values and habits.
Education is essential to live in the society.
 K-12 education system is the most widely accepted education system across
the globe especially in countries like India, United States of America (USA)
and Canada.
 Guidance in simple terms means to direct or providing assistance to someone
who needs help. In the broader perspective, guidance is provided at all levels
to human beings by one person or the other.
 When it comes to education, guidance covers the whole spectrum of the
educational world. Guidance includes all types of education— formal, informal,
vocational and special.
 Avocational guidance helps an individual to manage and use his leisure time
in an effective manner. Avocational guidance is essential as co-curricular
activities play an important role in the development of the student.
 Guidance plays an important role in the development of an individual. Guidance,
thus, has a developmental function associated with it which helps in self-
realization and self-development of an individual. Guidance also helps in national
development.
 Counselling refers to professional services provided to an individual who is
facing a problem and needs help to overcome the problem. Counselling is
considered to be an integral and central part of guidance.
 Guidance and counselling are both involved with the development of an
individual. Both help an individual in facing and solving the problems and
moving towards self-realization and self-empowerment.
 However, despite the fact that both guidance and counselling are aimed at
helping an individual in finding solution to his problems, there are some
differences between the two, especially in terms of how the processes are
carried out and implemented.
 While many people view guidance as an integral part of counselling, there are
others who consider counselling to be a vital part of guidance. In fact, guidance
and counselling often go hand-in-hand.
An Overview: Guidance and  Psychotherapy basically focuses on helping and treating people who have
mental and emotional problems. The person who faces the problem consults
a psychotherapist who after discussing the problem with the individual tries to
find a solution.
NOTES  There are several approaches that can be used in psychotherapy to help an
individual improve his life. The various approaches to psychotherapy include
cognitive-behavioural approach, interpersonal approach and talking therapy.
 Counselling and psychotherapy are often used interchangeably and counselling
may be offered as a part of psychotherapy. However, there are a few
differences between counselling and psychotherapy.
 Occupational information refers to information about work. Occupational
information, therefore, includes information related to various jobs available,
training and preparation for jobs available, entry into an occupation, salaries,
work conditions, emoluments, employee outlook and prospects.
 Individual techniques of disseminating occupational information helps individuals
to make career related decisions in the right manner. Individual counselling
sessions can be arranged to provide the necessary information to the person
seeking the information.
 Guidance and counselling are provided by most schools and colleges these
days as these services help students to adjust to their educational and
vocational environment. These services are also provided at an individual
level to people so that they can make the necessary adjustments to their
environment. Guidance and counselling enable individuals to understand
themselves better and identify their problems and the causes and solve them
with the help of professionals.
1.8 KEY TERMS
 Formal education: It is the education that takes place in a structured

environment like a school or an education institution.
 Eclectic counselling: This process focuses on the personality and the needs
of the client and then finds techniques that can be used to find a solution to
the problem faced by the counselee.
 Psychotherapy: It is the treatment of mental disorder by psychological rather
than medical means.
 Vocational counselling: It is a set of services designed to develop the skills
and ability to practice a vocation in a productive way.
 Self-directed education: This refers to the education acquired by an individual
on his own.
1.9 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’ Counselling in Education
1. Education is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, beliefs, values and

habits. NOTES
2. Informal education is what one learns spontaneously.
3. Guidance means to provide assistance to someone who needs help.
4. Personal guidance helps in emotional, physical, spiritual, social and mental
adjustment of an individual.
5. Educational guidance helps students to understand and overcome problems
faced at various levels of education.
6. Counselling refers to professional services provided to individuals who face
problems and need help to solve the problems.
7. Directive counselling is the one in which the counsellor plays a major role in
solving the individual’s problem.
8. The various approaches that can be used in psychotherapy to help an individual
improve his life include cognitive-behavioural approach, interpersonal approach
and talking therapy.
9. Two differences between guidance and counselling are as follows:
 Counselling is an inward analysis of the individual whereas guidance
involves an external analysis of the individual and his problems.
 Counselling in an in-depth analysis and has a narrower perspective wherein
the individual understands his problems in depth whereas guidance is a
broader and a more comprehensive approach.
10. Occupational information deals with information related to various jobs
available, training and preparation for jobs available, entry into an occupation,
salaries, work conditions, emoluments, employee outlook and prospects.
11. The group techniques of disseminating occupational information include the
following:
 Career talk
 Group discussion
 Field trips
 Career exhibitions
 School assemblies
 Subject teaching
 Publications
Counselling in Education 1.10 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
NOTES
1. Write a short note on the K-12 education system.
2. What are the principles of guidance?
3. What are the types and areas of guidance?
4. Mention the aims of guidance as stated by the Kothari Education Commission.
5. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Non-directive Counselling
(b) Avocational Guidance
6. Briefly discuss the difference between counselling and psychotherapy.
7. How is occupational information collected?
8. What are the ways of disseminating educational information?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Explain the concept and system of education?
2. ‘Guidance covers the whole spectrum of the educational world.’ Discuss.
3. Describe the areas of counselling where it is needed the most.
4. Discuss the principles of counselling.
5. Explain the difference between counselling and guidance.
1.11 FURTHER READING
Bengalee, M. D. 1984. Guidance and Counselling. Bombay: Sheth Publishers.

Sharma, A. 2006. Guidance & Counselling. Guwahati: DVS Publishers and
Distributors.
Yadav, S. 2005. Guidance & Counselling. New Delhi: Anmol Publishing.
Nayak, A. K. 1997. Guidance & Counselling. New Delhi: APH Publishing
Cooperation.
Gibson, D. 2007. Introduction to Counselling and Guidance. New Delhi: Pearson
Education.
Testing and Non-Testing
UNIT 2 TESTING AND NON- Techniques
TESTING TECHNIQUES
NOTES
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Unit Objectives
2.2 Records
2.3 Testing Techniques
2.4 Non-testing Techniques
2.5 Summary
2.6 Key Terms
2.9 Further Reading
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The central focus of all guidance and counselling programmes is an individual. To

ensure that guidance and counselling are carried out in a proper manner, information
about the individual needs to be collected using various techniques. Testing and non-
testing techniques are used in guidance and counselling to gather the required
information about the individual so that the person may be assisted in the required
manner. In this unit, you will study about the importance of maintenance records,
testing techniques and non-testing techniques used while providing guidance and
counselling services.
2.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

 Analyse the significance of maintaining records while providing guidance and
counselling services
 Explain the testing techniques used in providing guidance and counselling
services
 Discuss the non-testing techniques used in providing guidance and counselling
services
Techniques 2.2 RECORDS
Guidance and counselling are considered important as they help individuals in facing
NOTES and overcoming their problems. The main aim of providing guidance and counselling
services is to enable individuals to make adjustments in their life and bring about
behavioural changes so that the individual can lead a happier and a healthier life.
Records and record-keeping are central to guidance and counselling programmes
as they help the counsellor and the guidance professionals to get access to important
and reliable information.
Guidance and counselling practitioners maintain records of their clients for
the benefit of the clients. In fact, to maintain records of clients is one of the main
duties of the practitioners. The following are the reasons why maintaining records is
considered important:
 Records help the practitioners to document and review the counselling and
guidance services provided.
 Records protect the practitioners from legal liability especially in the event of
the practitioners becoming the subject of legal proceedings.
 Records provide relevant information that the practitioners utilize when
providing counselling and guidance services.
The records maintained by the practitioners are confidential and are available
only to the client. The clients need to be informed about the fact that their records
are being maintained for the purpose of record-keeping. In effect, practitioners in
most cases need the consent of the clients so that they can maintain records. The
counselling and guidance professionals may also not withhold records, if the client
does not want them to do so.
Client records may contain any information that can help to document the
nature, delivery, progress and results of the guidance and counselling services
provided. Records typically contain the following:
 Data about the client
 Referral information
 Date and types of services provided along with the fee
 Details of the services provided
 Details of the counselling or guidance contract
 Consultation notes
 Assessment and other tests and their reports
The responsibility of creating and maintaining client records is that of the
practitioner. The counselling and guidance professionals may create and maintain
records using different media. However, it must be ensured that the records are
maintained in a manner that ensures their confidentiality. The records should be so
maintained that timely retrieval is possible. The maintenance of the records should
be done in such a manner which facilitates the guidance and counselling services in
an effective manner. The security of client records is also the responsibility of the Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
counsellor. The practitioner may make use of several security techniques to limit
access to the records.
The client records happen to be the most reliable information about the client.
These records provide the essential information about the progress of the guidance NOTES
and counselling sessions and how these have helped the client. The practitioner
must ensure to create and maintain the records in an unbiased manner.
Example: Types of records maintained by a school counsellor
Cumulative record folder: The cumulative record folder is the most important
type of record maintained by a school counsellor. A single record id maintained per
student and all information related to the student is available in this record. The
cumulative record also holds all other records and any data that is considered important
for the welfare of the students.
Report sheets/card: This report card or sheet is basically a detail of scores of the
students in various exams, assignments, projects and tests. The report card also
contains the marks of the examination conducted at the end of the year. The report
card is, thus, a record of the academic performance of a student.
Transcript: The transcript is another important type of record maintained by the
school counsellor. The transcript records the student’s behaviour, performance and
development during the period of his stay in the school. Most schools offer this
record at the end of a session or sometimes in the middle so that remedial measures,
if essential can be taken to bring about a change in the behaviour or the performance.
The transcript may even be provided to the students when they are transferring
from one school to another.
Health record: The health record provides information related to the student’s
health, the physical fitness level and also the physical appearance of the student.
Attendance record: The attendance record gives information about the student’s
attendance i.e. how many days a student was present in the class and how many
days he was absent. The attendance record also gives a record of the punctuality of
the student.
Use of school records: The school records maintained by the school counsellor
can be reliably used for the following purposes:
 School records give the necessary information about the student’s performance
and progress in the school.
 The counsellor can use the data to help the students to adjust to the school
environment. The counsellor, thus, helps the students to learn in an effective
manner.
 The information from the records can be used to help the students understand
their intellectual abilities and skills and also understand their behaviour for
social development.
Testing and Non-Testing  The information from the records can be used by the teachers and parents so
Techniques
that they can understand the students and their needs and help in the overall
 The records maintained by school counsellors can help the students to take
NOTES decisions about the future. The information helps the students to take the
right decisions.
 The records also provide information about the school and its functions and
how these functions can help the students to fulfil their needs.
 The school records also act as reference points. These are used when a
student has to be referred to another counsellor or another school when the
student is being transferred.
The following are the essential elements and attributes of a good record so that they
can be used in an effective manner to extract the required information.
 Good records must be easy to keep in the sense that the record-keeping and
maintenance must take less time of the teacher’s busy routine.
 An important quality of a good record is that it must maintain the information
in the right manner and must be informative even years later when it is retrieved
for use.
 The records must be easy to explain to teachers and so must be based on
knowledge and procedures that all teachers are aware of and can relate to. A
record is said to be effective only if the teachers and the record users can
easily understand them. If the records are stored in such a manner that they
are not understood by the teachers, then they are of no use.
 Records must be constructive in nature and must provide all the necessary
details pertaining to the student and his development. The records should
provide enough details about the strengths and weaknesses of the student,
social behaviour, the manner in which he uses the abilities and skills and also
the cognitive aspect of the student. The record can only then be used for
judgment by the teachers.
 Good records must be versatile. One must be able to use these records in an
easy manner whenever required. Also a versatile record is the one that can
serve more than one objectives so that it can save time and energy.
 One main feature of records is that every record must have a purpose. The
records are maintained for specific purposes and these must fulfil the specific
purpose in an effective manner.
 Records must always be cross-indexed. An overall record pointing to the
various records must be maintained for easy retrieval and access. Cross-
indexing provides a quick reference about the record in a brief manner and so
it can be known what the record was about and how the conclusions were
arrived at.
Example: American Association Code of Ethics related to Record- Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
Keeping and Maintenance
Confidentiality of records
The counsellors who maintain the records must ensure that the records are kept NOTES
secure. The counsellors must keep the records at a safe location and ensure that
only authorized people have access to the records. Unauthorized access to records
must not be allowed as it breaches the confidentiality of the records.
Permission to record
While maintaining records, it is the duty of the counsellors to obtain permission from
the clients to maintain the record of the sessions. The session may be recorded
using various media but the client must be aware of the same.
Client access
The counsellors must provide the client access to the records when asked for the
same. In most cases, the counsellors provide complete access to the records. However,
if the counsellors feel that the information in the records can harm the clients, they
may allow only partial access to the records. When counsellors are working with a
group of clients, they provide the individuals only the records pertaining to them and
not the entire group. The records are confidential and so their access is limited.
Disclosure or transfer
When the records have to be transferred to a third party or another counsellor, the
counsellors need to obtain the permission for the same from the clients beforehand.
Since the records carry sensitive information, the counsellors must ensure that the
record transfer takes place in a sensitive manner so that no unauthorized access
takes place.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. State the essential features of the records maintained by guidance and
counselling practitioners.
2. What is the main aim of providing guidance and counselling services?
2.3 TESTING TECHNIQUES
As discussed earlier, guidance and counselling help the individual to overcome

problems. To be able to help the client, guidance or counselling professional must be
able to know about the individual. There are several techniques that can be used by
the practitioners to know their clients in a better manner. Of these, testing techniques
are the most commonly used techniques that can be used by practitioners to know
their clients and then decide about the guidance and counselling services needed by
the client.
Testing and Non-Testing Counselling and guidance professionals make use of several tests for the
Techniques
assessment, guidance and appraisal of clients. Using these techniques also increases
the confidence of the client. Moreover, it also helps the clients in improving their
behaviour and adjusting to their problems and leading a healthier life.
NOTES
Process of Testing
The process of testing includes the following steps:
 Selecting the test: Once it has been decided that the client needs to undergo
a test, the counsellor or the practitioner finds out about the various possible
testing options that can be used. For this, the practitioner may make use of
test manuals and other information resources that provide details on how to
perform the test, what does the test do and how to analyse the results of the
test.
 Administering the test: Test administration can be done using the standard
norms that require the practitioner to follow the specific manual steps to
carry out the test. A practitioner may even carry out the test in a non-
standardized format wherein the practitioner can experiment with the client
and, therefore, the test becomes an internal norm of the practitioner. The
tests can be administered either in groups or individually. The administration
of the test also depends on the client taking the test and the purpose for which
the test is being conducted.
 Scoring of test: In the most general cases, machine based test scoring is
carried out. Machine based scoring is considered better than manual scoring
since it is not biased. The scoring of the tests must be carried out on the basis
of instructions provided in the manual of the tests.
 Interpreting the test: Interpretation of the test is based on the instructions
provided in the manual guide for the test. Based on the type of the test carried
out, the interpretation of the test may be brief and superficial or it may be
detailed and theory based. Interpretation of the test is best carried out by the
practitioner. Interpretation may be carried out by a machine as well but this
type of interpretation is too rigid.
 Communicating the test result: The process of testing ends in providing
the test results to the client. The test results can be communicated using
verbal and non-verbal techniques by the practitioner. The practitioner also
has to ensure that the test results are understood by the client.
The main issue in testing is that of confidentiality. When a test is conducted
by guidance or a counselling practitioner, it must be ensured that the test is conducted
in complete confidentiality and that the test results must be communicated only to
the client and no one else. In addition, if the information about the tests needs to be
shared then it must be done with the consent of the client. The issue of confidentiality
needs to be discussed with the client before the test is administered. When the
confidentiality issue has already been discussed with clients, they take part in the
tests more actively and are also more open to undergo counselling services.
Before a test can be administered, it is also essential for the counsellor or the Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
practitioner to be prepared for the test. The counsellor must have a detailed know-
how about the tests. The counsellor must make sure that he knows how the test is to
be conducted, how the results have to be interpreted and to understand the reliability
of the test. It is always better if the counsellor has already conducted the test NOTES
beforehand or has supervised the administration of the test. This will help the
counsellor to gain exact knowledge about how to conduct a specific test.
Psychological tests are tests that are conducted to know about the abilities, attitudes,
motivations and needs of individuals. According to Anne Anastasi, a famous
psychologist, ‘Psychological test can be defined as a sample of an individual‘s,
behaviour, obtaining under standard conditions and scored according to a fixed set
of rules that provide a numeric score.’
In a standardized psychological test, the scores of the individual are compared
with test scores obtained from samples of tests that were conducted when the test
was first developed. Psychological tests can be conducted in various ways. These
may require the individual to answer in Yes/ No or Right/ Wrong or in some cases
these tests may require the individual to give detailed information about their tendencies
and dispositions. Generally, psychological tests are conducted and interpreted on the
basis of a manual that gives detailed information regarding the test, its accuracy and
reliability.
Psychological tests can be used to assess various behavioural traits of a person.
On the basis of the behavioural trait being assessed, psychological tests can be
categorized into several types of tests. These include the following:
 Tests of intelligence
 Tests of abilities
 Tests of interests
 Tests of personality
 Tests of achievement
Each of these tests has a defined purpose and assesses different traits and
attitudes of the individual.
Any psychological test to be of use to the counsellor as well as the client must
have the following characteristics:
 The test must be reliable in the sense that it must give accurate and consistent
results every time it is used.
 The test must be valid in the sense that it measures exactly what it is intended
to measure.
 The test must be practical and usable in the sense that it can be easily
administered in a cost- effective manner. The test must also be conducted in
such a manner that it takes very less time.
Testing and Non-Testing According to Lee Joseph Cronbach, an American educational psychologist,
Techniques
psychological tests are undertaken for the following purposes:
 Prediction: The various psychological tests that the individual undertakes
provide a basis for predicting the decisions that the individual will take at a
NOTES later stage in order to overcome the problem.
 Selection: Psychological tests are often administered by various organizations
and institutions to know the skills and abilities that an individual possesses. On
the basis of these skills and abilities, the individual may be selected for a job
or a course.
 Classification: Psychological tests are used to classify individuals on the
basis of their aptitude and attitude. For example, students may need to undertake
psychological tests to classify those with high aptitude levels as one group.
 Evaluation: Psychological tests are also undertaken to assess and evaluate
programmes, methods and techniques to know whether these are effective in
application or not.
1. Intelligence tests
Intelligence is one of the most commonly used psychological term that has been
used to distinguish people. Intelligence is basically an understanding of how well the
individual understands a complex process and learns from it and other experiences.
On this basis, a person who is able to understand the complex processes well and
use them equally well is considered to be an intelligent person.
Intelligence, however, cannot be measures only on the basis of a single entity.
In fact, intelligence tests measure a variety of mental functions and abilities of the
individual. Intelligence tests are, thus, based on nine different and independent
intelligences. These multiple intelligences have been proposed by Howard Gardener,
an American developmental psychologist, in his Theory of Multiple Intelligences.
According to Gardener, these nine different and independent intelligences interact
and work together to enable the individual to find a solution to his problems. Thus,
the Theory of Multiple Intelligences states that intelligence is not a single entity and
a person’s intelligence cannot be measured on the basis of excellence at a specific
task.
The following are the nine types of intelligences as described by Gardener in
his Theory of Multiple Intelligences:
 Linguistic intelligence: Linguistic intelligence refers to the ability of the
individual to make use of language he knows in expressing his thoughts and in
understanding others.
 Logical mathematical intelligence: Logical mathematical intelligence refers
to the ability of the individual to think logically and critically to manipulate
symbols and solve mathematical problems.
 Spatial intelligence: Spatial intelligence refers to the ability of a person to
form, transform and use mental images. It is spatial intelligence that enables
a person to understand relationships of objects in space.
 Musical intelligence: Musical intelligence is the capability of the individual Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
to create, produce and manipulate musical patterns.
 Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence: Bodily intelligence refers to the
individual’s ability to make use of his body structure and muscles in a
coordinated manner to facilitate movement and to do various tasks in a routine NOTES
manner.
 Interpersonal intelligence: Interpersonal intelligence is the ability of the
individual to relate with other people and understand the behaviour, attitudes
and emotions of other people. This type of intelligence enables a person to
find out why the other person behaves in a specific manner.
 Intrapersonal intelligence: Intrapersonal intelligence is the individual’s
ability to understand his inner self. It enables a person to identify his strengths
and weaknesses so that the person can relate with others on this basis.
 Naturalistic intelligence: Naturalistic intelligence refers to the ability of a
person to understand the nature and the environment that surrounds the person.
It enables a person to identify the beauty of the nature and also makes a
person aware of the importance of environment to lead a healthy life.
 Existential intelligence: This intelligence refers to the ability of a person to
understand the basics of human existence and answer several questions about
the existence of mankind.
With the emergence of the concept of multiple intelligences, the intelligence
tests today require a person to perform several tasks. There are four basic intelligence
tests that are used to measure the intelligence of a person. These are as follows:
Binet-Simon scale: The Binet-Simon intelligence test was first devised in 1905
and then revised in 1908 and 1911. The test was developed by psychologists, Alfred
Binet and Theodore Simon, who believed that intelligence, was a learned entity. The
test was basically formulated to test the intelligence of children according to their
age. The test was conducted on children in the age group of three to twelve years to
measure their intelligence. The original test devised in 1905 included the following:
 ‘Le Regard’
 Prehension provoked by a tactile stimulus
 Prehension provoked by a visual perception
 Recognition of food
 Quest of food complicated by a slight mechanical difficulty
 Executing simple commands and imitating simple gestures
 Verbal knowledge about objects
 Verbal knowledge of pictures
 Naming of designated objects
 Immediate comparison of two lines of unequal lengths
 Repetition of three figures
Testing and Non-Testing  Comparison of two weights
Techniques
 Suggestibility
 Verbal definition of known objects
NOTES  Repetition of sentences of fifteen words
 Comparison of known objects from memory
 Exercise of memory on pictures
 Drawing a design from memory
 Immediate repetition of figures
 Resemblances of several known objects given from memory
 Comparison of lengths
 Five weights to be placed in order
 Gap in weights
 Exercise upon rhymes
 Verbal gaps to be filled
 Synthesis of three words in one sentence
 Reply to an abstract question
 Reversal of the hands of a clock
 Paper cutting
 Definitions of abstract terms
The child was requires to take several tests and his score was based on the composite
score across the various tests. The Binet-Simon Scale basically measured the mental
age of the child against the chronological age. Chronological age of the child is the
age that corresponds to a specific level of performance. Based on this, the results of
the tests were classified as follows:
 Average: An average score meant that the mental age and the chronological
age match each other.
 Advanced: An advanced score meant that the mental age was higher than
the chronological age.
 Retarded: A test score of retarded meant that the mental age was lower than
the chronological age.
Stanford-Binet scale: The Stanford-Binet scale was developed in 1916 by an
American psychologist, Lewis Terman. Lewis Terman revised the Binet-Simon scale
and expanded it to formulate the Stanford-Binet scale. This scale gave the test
scores in terms of intelligence quotients. Intelligence quotient is calculated by dividing
the mental age by the chronological age and then multiplying the result by 100. This
test allowed children of different age groups to be compared on the basis of their IQ
scores. The Stanford-Binet scale measured the factors in different test categories
as shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Factors Measured by the Stanford-Binet Scale Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
Fluid Quantitative Visual-spatial Working
Knowledge
reasoning reasoning processing memory
Non-verbal Form board NOTES
Delayed
quantitative and form
Early reasoning Vocabulary response
reasoning (non- patterns
(non-verbal)
verbal) (non-verbal)
Procedural
Verbal Verbal quantitative Position and Block span
knowledge
absurdities reasoning direction (non-verbal)
(non-verbal)
Picture
Verbal Memory for
absurdities (non-
analogies sentences
verbal)
Object series
matrices (non- Last word
verbal)
The Stanford- Binet scale has emerged as a standard test for measuring intelligence.
However, the approach does have some problems. One problem is that IQ for
different age groups is different and so people from different age groups cannot be
compared or it would be wrong to compare people of different age groups. The IQ
system and the scoring system did not work well for adults. In fact, the test works
best for people ranging between two to thirteen years of age. To overcome these
shortcomings, the test was revised in 1937, 1960, 1973 and 1986.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): American psychologist David
Wechsler published the first test to assess the intelligence of adults in 1939. This test
is designed to assess the non-verbal reasoning abilities of adults. This scale indicates
the scores separately for verbal intelligence, non-verbal intelligence and also scores
of the overall intelligence of a person. In this test, the IQ curve of a person represents
the area in which the person falls in the normal distribution of IQ scores. The latest
edition of this test released in 2008 is composed of ten core subtests and five
supplementary subtests that indicate the overall IQ of a person. These tests basically
test the following attributes of the individual’s intelligence:
 Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI)
 Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI)
 Working Memory Index (WMI)
 Processing Speed Index (PSI)
Testing and Non-Testing Table 2.2 shows the subtests that are carried out under the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Techniques
Scale.
Table 2.2 Subtests under the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
NOTES
Verbal Description Proposed abilities measured
Comprehension
Similarities The participants are The test is a measure of abstract verbal
given two words or reasoning.
concepts. The
participants then
have to find the
similarities between
the concepts or the
words.
Vocabulary In this test, different The test measures how well one has been able
tasks may be to learn, comprehend, use and express the
assigned to the vocabulary taught.
participant. The
participants have to
name the objects and
pictures that are
given to them.
Information In this test, the The test measures how much general
participants are information a person has acquired from
questioned about culture.
general knowledge.
(Comprehension) This text measures a person’s ability to deal
with abstract social conventions, rules and
expressions.
Perceptual Proposed abilities measured

Reasoning
Block Design This is a test that can measure a person’s spatial perception. It also
helps to measure the visual processing abilities and also
problem-solving abilities of a person.
Matrix Reasoning This is a test of measuring the individual’s non-verbal abstract
problem-solving abilities and also to measure the inductive
reasoning and spatial reasoning abilities.
Visual Puzzles The visual puzzles best measure the spatial intelligence.
(Picture This test checks how quickly the individual perceives visual details.
Completion)
(Figure Weights) Quantitative and analogical reasoning is measured in this test.
Working Memory Description Proposed abilities measured Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
Digit span forwards In this test, the The abilities measured by the test
participants are include learning, memory, attention,
required to recall encoding and auditory processing.
a series of
numbers in order. NOTES
Digit span backwards The participants The test measures an individual’s
have to recall the working memory. It also measures how
numbers in a effectively an individual can transform
backward fashion information and the visual and spatial
or series. imaginary skills.
Digit span sequencing In this test, the
participants are
required to retain
a sequence and
then later recall it
in an ascending
order.
Arithmetic This test is a measure of the quantitative
aptitude and the concentration and
mental manipulation abilities of an
individual.
(Letter-Number In this test, the The test is a measure of an individual’s

Sequencing) participants are attention abilities. It also tests the
required to retain concentration and mental abilities of an
numbers and individual.
alphabets and then
recall the numbers
in an ascending
order and letters
in an alphabetical
order.
Processing Proposed abilities measured

Speed
Symbol Search This test measures the visual perception abilities of a person. The test
also checks how well a person can analyse the visuals and the scanning
speed as well.
Coding The coding test tests how well an individual can coordinate his visual
perceptions and motor skills. The test also measures the working
memory and the mental skills of an individual.
(Cancellation) This test checks how well an individual can perceive visuals.
Wechsler primary and preschool scale of intelligence: This is an intelligence

test designed for children aged between two years six months and seven years
seven months. The test was designed by David Wechsler in 1967. This test contains
of seventeen sub-tests and the score of all such tests is accumulated to get the IQ of
the child. The subtests fall into the following categories:
 Block design
 Information
 Matrix reasoning
Testing and Non-Testing  Bug search
Techniques
 Picture memory
 Similarities
NOTES  Picture concepts
 Cancellation
 Zoo locations
 Object assembly
 Vocabulary
 Animal coding
 Comprehension
 Receptive vocabulary
 Picture naming
The results of this test are categorized in the following manner:
 Below 70 is extremely low
 70-79 is borderline
 80-89 is low average
 90-109 is average
 110-119 is high average
 120-129 is superior
 130+ is very superior
The advantages of intelligence tests are as follows:
 These tests are the best tests that have been developed to test a variety of
human behaviours in the most effective manner.
 These tests offer a standard and uniform means of comparing the intelligence
levels of people.
 These are excellent predictors of academic performance.
 These tests effectively outline the strengths and weaknesses of people.
 Intelligence tests provide information on cultural and biological differences
among people.
The disadvantages of intelligence tests are as follows:
 Most intelligence scores provide a single score which cannot be used to
measure the multidimensional facets of intelligence.
 These tests cannot predict or evaluate non-academic intellectual abilities.
 The tests may not always be relevant to people of all classes and backgrounds.
Example: Types of questions that can be found in general intelligence tests Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
The following are the types of questions that are generally found in an IQ test:
 Analogies (mathematical and verbal)
 Pattern driven (spatial and mathematical) NOTES
 Classification
 Visual
 Spatial
 Logical
While those are the general areas that an IQ test might examine, it is useful to see
more specific questions. Here are a few test questions that one comes across in an
IQ test:
1. Which number comes next in the following pattern?
37, 34, 31, 28
Answer: 25, the numbers are decreasing by 3
2. Choose the correct analogy:
Book is to Reading as Fork is to:
a. drawing
b. writing
c. stirring
d. eating
Answer: d.
3. Two groups of words are given. Find two words – one from each group
which are closest in meaning:
Group A
talkative, job, ecstatic
Group B
angry, wind, loquacious
a. talkative and wind
b. job and angry
c. talkative and loquacious
d. ecstatic and angry
Answer: c. Talkative and Loquacious
4. Point out the correct option that can be arranged as a 5-letter English word?
a. H R G S T
b. R I L S A
c. T O O M T
d. W Q R G S
Testing and Non-Testing Answer: b. rails and c. motto
Techniques
5. Find the number that completes the ratio:
8:4 as 10:
NOTES a. 3
b. 7
c. 24
d. 5
The answer is 5 because 4 is half of 8, and 5 is half of 10.
Other types of questions could be encountered as well. These questions could be
any of the following:
 Questions related to pictures. For example, a picture of dice and ask which
one is different.
 Questions related to picture shapes and asking the tester to point out the
different one.
 Questions with pictures of unfolded cubes with designs on each cube face.
The participant may be required to point out which image would be the right
choice if the cube was to be folded.
 Questions related to finding the missing numbers. This requires the test taker
to analyse logically to find the missing number.
 Questions related to images of folded shapes and identifying which shape
does not belong to the given shapes.
 Questions asking the test taker to unscramble the words and identify the
category to which the word belongs.
 Questions related to the identification of missing pieces of a diagram or a
block.
 Questions related to series of figures and finding which figure comes next in
the sequence.
The number of questions you answer correctly is then used to score the test
and provide a measure of your intelligence.
Example: Practice of intelligence testing in India
Intelligence testing in India has been the premier testing strategy for most educators
and psychologists. Almost 40 per cent tests that are developed in India are related to
intelligence. Till 1988, 42 per cent tests were related to academic intelligence whereas
only 2 per cent were related to social intelligence.
The use of psychological tests in India was first initiated by Christian
missionaries. It was Dr. Rice who first attempted the standardization of the Binet-
Simon Test in India in Urdu and Punjabi.
In 1934, Mahalanobis (an Indian scientist and applied statistician) was the
first one to attempt to devise and administer a group test of intelligence tests in
Bengali in India.
The National Library of Educational and Psychological Tests (NLEPT) at Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) aim at collecting
Indian and foreign tests. They also bring out periodical publications that give
information about the various Indian tests. The NLEPT also works at critically
reviewing the intelligence tests and publish these reviewed tests in the bulletins. NOTES
The NLEPT has also published Indian Mental Measurement Handbook; Intelligence
and Aptitude Tests. The NLEPT provides information on forty-three published
intelligence tests in India and five unpublished tests. Out of these tests, the maximum
number of tests (51 per cent) was available in Hindi, followed by non-verbal (19 per
cent) and English (14 per cent) tests. Only 5 per cent of the tests were available in
Guajarati and 2 per cent each in Bengali, Marathi and Tamil. Further, the majority of
tests (81per cent) were administrable in group settings.
School counsellors in India do the job of both school psychologists and
vocational counsellors. The following have been reported with regard to the particulars
of intelligence tests used in their day-to-day practice:
The school counsellors mentioned only four tests— Raven’s Standard
Progressive Matrices (SPM) (96 per cent), the test of General Mental Ability by
Jalota (27 per cent), Bhatia’s Performance Battery (22 per cent), and an Indian
adaptation of the Stanford-Binet test by Kulshrestha (4 per cent).
However, the counsellors did not feel very satisfied with the performance of
the tests. Additional efforts were made to develop more dependable measures of
intelligence. In this pursuit, more than one intelligence test was used. The counsellors
also suggested the use of scholastic achievement tests, teacher’s rating, students’
interview, observation of students’ behaviour and parental interview to measure the
intellect of a person.
Example: Intelligence tests
Children’s pictorial measure of social cognitive abilities (CPMSCA) by Dr. Kiran
Kumar A Salagame (Retired Professor, Department of studies in Psychology,
University of Mysore) and Archana Bhat Kallahalla (Department of studies in
Psychology, University of Mysore) (English): This test measures social cognition
abilities of the children from Ist to VII class through ten different pictures. This test
consists of a series of eleven pictures (one sample picture and ten test pictures).
Each picture is shown to children and they asked to report the event in it and, the
responses are systematically analysed and the social cognitive abilities are measured.
Group test of intelligence by Pramila Ahuja (English): This 110 items questionnaire
measures general mental ability of nine to thirteen years aged students. This test
consists of seven subtests: scrambled words, analogies, classification, disarranged
sentences, same-opposite, series and best answers. Total time required is twenty-
five minutes.
Test of General Intelligence for College Students by S. K. Pal and K. S
Mishra (Hindi/English): This test is designed to measure the intelligence of graduate
and postgraduate students. It consists of six sub tests i.e. word meaning, analogy,
classification, number series, code transformation and syllogism. Total time required
is forty minutes.
Testing and Non-Testing Mixed Type Group Test of Intelligence by P.N. Mehrotra (Hindi/English): The
Techniques
verbal and non-verbal test items will measure the IQ of ten to eighteen year
adolescents for a time limit of twenty minutes. Verbal items contain; analogy, number
series, classification, vocabulary and reasoning, whereas non-verbal part contains
NOTES analogy, arrangement, classification, digit symbol and part fitting test.
2. Achievement tests
Achievement is what one accomplishes in a specific field, area or domain in which
one is considered to be an expert. Achievement tests assess the knowledge and
skills that a person has gained. Typically, achievement tests are taken by students to
assess how well they have been able to acquire skills and knowledge that have been
taught to them. There are several types of achievement tests that are carried out
and each of these tests is used for a different purpose and to assess a different skill
of a student. Most of the achievement tests provide information about academic
proficiency of a student.
Achievement tests are categorized as follows:
 Formative and summative tests: Formative tests are the tests that assess
the knowledge and skills gathered before and during instructions. Summative
tests are usually given at the end of training or course instruction to assess
the outcome of the instructions. In other words, these tests assess how much
knowledge has been gained once the course has been completed.
 Prognostic tests: Prognostic tests are also called readiness tests. These
tests basically assess as to how much the individual will gain from the training
that will be provided related to a specific area.
 Diagnostic tests: Diagnostic achievement tests measure the performance
of a student in different subjects thereby identifying the strong and the weak
areas of the students. Typically, these tests assess students in arithmetic,
language ability and reading.
In general, achievement tests are criterion referenced or norm referenced.
The criterion referenced and norm referenced tests differ on the basis of their
intended purpose, the manner in which a test is selected and how the results are
assessed and evaluated. Criterion referenced achievement tests determine the
strengths of the test taker. These tests basically assess what a person taking the test
can do and his knowledge. These tests are not comparison tests. These tests inform
as to how well the individual is performing with respect to pre-determined performance
levels.
Norm referenced tests are the achievement tests that are designed to compare
achievement differences among people. The main aim of these tests is to rank
achievers from high achievers to low achievers and compare how well the individual
performs in comparison to others.
Achievement tests can be teacher made tests and standardized tests. A
teacher made test is an evaluation technique used in classrooms. These tests are
designed by teachers to measure the outcome and content of the local curriculum
that the teachers impart to the students in the class room. A teacher made test can Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
be easily developed and can be adapted to any subject or material. In teacher made
achievement tests, the materials of the test, the time limit and the scoring procedure
vary from one test to the other. In other words, no two teacher made tests are the
same. Such tests also do not require sophisticated techniques for development. NOTES
Standardized tests are the achievement tests that are developed using a specific
procedure. In standardized tests, there is uniformity with respect to scoring procedures,
administration of the tests and also interpretation of the test results. C.V. Good has
described a standardized test is that ‘for which content has been selected and checked
empirically for which norms have been established, for which uniform methods of
administering and scoring have been developed and which may be scored with a
relatively high degree of objectivity.’
Standardized tests are developed by experts and so have high technical
standards. These tests are highly reliable as compared to other tests of the same
type and nature. The results and data obtained from achievement tests can be used
to promote, classify, diagnose and evaluate students.
The advantages of achievement tests are as follows:
 These tests provide information regarding the extent of learning and the rate
of learning.
 These tests highlight the relative performance of the individual or a student.
 Achievement tests help to identify the strengths and weaknesses of students
in specific subjects.
The disadvantages of achievement tests are as follows:
 Achievement tests are not reliable in assessing job satisfaction and job success.
 These tests often fail to provide the correct information.
 These tests do not take into account factors like mood, fatigue and so on that
can affect the performance in these tests.
 Achievement tests typically focus on cognitive development and do not indicate
anything about emotional and personality traits.
Example: Peabody individual achievement test
The peabody is a standardized, nationally norm referenced achievement test. It is
individually administered by a trained examiner. The assessment takes place in the
following fields: general information, reading recognition, reading comprehension,
mathematics and spelling. The assessment is based on the scores of each subtest
and the composite score indicates the grade level and percentile ranking of a test
taker in relation to the several other test takers. The test is not a written but an oral
one and is in a conversational format so that the students find it easy to take the test.
The duration of the test is between sixty to ninety minutes. However, the subtests
and the exam in general are not timed. The test can be administered all through the
year to assess K-12 grade levels.
Testing and Non-Testing Individual testing
Techniques
Individual tests are administered in a non-bracketed fashion. This means that the
students can take the test as per their abilities and skills. The students are not required
to answer questions that are fixed as per the grade level. The assessment of the
NOTES
child takes place using materials relevant to the age and the grade of the child. The
students are required to take the test of a higher level only when he answers at least
five out of seven questions in a correct manner.
Peabody subtests and scoring
 General information: The general information subtest tests the student’s
general information and knowledge related to fields like science, social science,
history and humanities. As has already been mentioned, the test is an oral one
and so the questions are read out loud and the student answers them. The
child’s factual and reasoning knowledge are assessed in this subtest.
 Reading recognition: Reading recognition is an oral test of the reading
skills of the students. The test assesses the student’s ability to recognize
sounds of words and alphabets and also the vocabulary of the student.
 Reading comprehension: Reading comprehension is a subtest that
measures the student’s ability to understand what he has read. The child
develops his vocabulary through this test. Usually, a student reads out a
sentence and then chooses the picture that relates to the sentence in the best
way.
 Mathematics: This subtest assesses the mathematical ability of the students.
The test may assess the number recognition skills, the clarity of concepts
related to geometry and trigonometry. Most of the questions are simple and
do not require the students to do a lot of calculations. However, students are
allowed to make use of paper and pencil to answer the questions.
 Spelling: The spelling test is a multiple-choice question type test wherein
the student is required to choose the correct spellings. The examiner speaks
aloud various spellings of a particular word and the student is required to tell
the correct spelling of the word.
 Scoring: The scores of each subtest are calculated instantaneously and are
combined to give a cumulative score for the student. This indicates the grade
level and the knowledge of the student.
3. Interest tests
Interest tests are tests that assess the interests of the individual. It has been proved
that interests are related to academic success and also job satisfaction. Therefore, it
is essential to know the interests of the individual or a student. Interests basically
refer to activities that a person enjoys and likes to indulge in. Interest tests are
classified into formal assessment techniques and informal assessment techniques.
Formal assessment techniques: Interest inventories are the formal tools that Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
are used to identify the interests of the individual. The Strong Vocational Interest
Bank is an interest inventory that is based on the assumption that the individual with
interest in an occupation will find satisfaction and will also enjoy success in that
specific occupation. In this interest inventory, a test taker has to differentiate between NOTES
different activities as L(Like), I (Indifferent) and D (Dislike). Thus, this interest
inventory is termed as category-response type assessment. Kuder Preference Record
is an interest inventory developed by G. Frederick Kuder, a pioneer in vocational
guidance. The Kuder Preference Record enables one to assess preferences for
specific activities. Each activity listed in the records has three choices and the test
taker has to select one of the three choices as the first choice and another as the
third choice. This type of assessment is also called forced choice pattern type as the
test taker is required to specify which activity he likes the best and which he likes
the least and the reason for disliking that activity.
The most common type of interest test that is conducted is career test. This
test helps people find careers that match their interests. The career test typically
asks a few questions about the career interests of the individual and the results of
the test point out, as to whether the career is right for the person or not. The test is
based on the premise that a person should opt for a career that interests him because
only then can one enjoy the work and achieve success in that field.
Interest tests are typically carried out for the following reasons:
 This test provides teachers, parents and counsellors information related to
the preference and aversions of the students so that they can be understood
better.
 It enables the parents, teachers and counsellors to assist the student in a
better manner in terms of his educational and vocational interests.
 This test also helps in selecting the right person for the right task and, hence,
increasing the productivity.
Interest tests simply show what interests a person and not the strengths of a
person. As such, interest test results should not be used alone to decide which
vocation or educational field is best suited for a person. Interest tests on their own
have very less significance and so their results must be combined with other tests
like achievement and aptitude tests to help a person to make the right educational
and career choice.
Example: HOPE test of interests
Online HOPE Interest Tests are field-tested, reliable and valid. These tests have
been developed by a trained psychometrician of Boston University. These tests are
duly copyrighted with the Government of India. These tests are now available online,
not only in English but also in Hindi and Tamil and can be administered anywhere in
the world. Students, therefore, have the option to take the online tests in their preferred
language. These tests are designed for individual students who want to know about
their level of intelligence, vocational aptitude and personality. These tests are specially
Testing and Non-Testing recommended for students in the X class to help them select proper course groups
Techniques
in XI class and for students in the XII class to select appropriate courses in higher
studies. The tests are also recommended for undergraduate and graduate students
and students pursuing professional degrees. These tests help these students in
NOTES identifying careers in which they will be successful. These tests help educational
and vocational institutions, to identify careers/vocations in which the students would
excel.
4. Aptitude tests
Aptitude is considered as the natural tendency of a person to do something. Aptitude
is also sometimes known as the special ability or a cluster of abilities of a person. It
is on the basis of the aptitude that a person is considered to be good at something.
Aptitude of the individual is the natural ability that can be extended and improved by
learning and experience but cannot be extended beyond a limit. An aptitude test
assesses the potential of the individual to achieve or excel in a given activity.
The reasons why aptitude tests are conducted are as follows:
 Aptitude tests help to bring to fore potentials and abilities that the individual is
unaware of.
 These tests encourage the development of a specific ability.
 These tests provide information that can be used by the individual in deciding
about an educational field or a specific career.
 These also help in predicting and evaluating academic and vocational success.
Aptitude tests are available to test almost anything and everything. These are
of various types which include the following:
 Verbal Tests: These are the most basic types of aptitude tests that assess
logical reasoning of the individual. Verbal tests may involve spelling tests,
identifying antonyms or synonyms, identifying analogies, filling words to
complete sentences or interchanging words in a given sentence. Example:
The relationship between WORD and SENTENCE is best expressed similarly
by which of the following pairs of words?
A. ENGINE and CAR
B. BIBLE and BOOK
C. CELL and ORGANISM
D. SONNET and TEXT
E. STEM and FLOWER
 Numerical Tests: These aptitude tests assess numeracy and logical thought
of the individual. The test may typically involve completing a number series,
simple arithmetic calculations, interpreting charts, diagrams or graphs.
Example: Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
What is the sum of the following? 5/9 + 3/4 + 5/7 =
A. 1
B. 2 NOTES
C. 3
D. 4
E. 5
 Non-Verbal Tests: The non-verbal aptitude tests assess the memory, thinking
and reasoning abilities of a person. Such tests typically include diagrammatic
reasoning, memory tests and inductive and abstract reasoning.
 Accuracy, Speed and Attention Tests: These aptitude tests require data to be
organized and compared so that the objects can be placed in the right order.
These usually test the speed, attention and accuracy of the individual in relation
to the various aspects.
 Spatial Tests: These are tests that assess the awareness of 3-dimensional
and 2-dimensional spaces.
The advantages of aptitude tests are as follows:
 These tests provide a uniform and standard quantitative metric for objective
comparison of individuals.
 These are by far the most efficient and effective tools to assess the aptitude
of the individual.
The disadvantages of aptitude tests are as follows:
 Aptitude tests do not measure all areas of intelligence and ability.
 These tests do not fairly assess intelligence levels.
Example: Differential aptitude test
Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) is an aptitude test that can be used to assess the
general cognitive abilities and aptitudes across a wide range of occupations. DAT
tests also serve as assessment tools to predict success in a training programme and
overall job performance. The use of DAT reveals the following:
 General cognitive abilities
 Perceptual abilities
 Clerical and language skills
Each DAT test is used to assess aptitudes suitable for various occupations.
Techniques Test What It Does J obs/Fields Max Time
Verbal reasoning is a measure of the

Verbal
general cognitive ability especially in Any 20 minutes
Reasoning
NOTES terms of thinking skills.
Numerical ability tests are the tests that Project Manager,

Numerical are used to assess the individual’s ability Bookkeeper,
20 minutes
Ability to understand numerical relationships and Statistician,
handle the various numerical concepts. Shipping Clerk
Abstract reasoning is a non-verbal test. Skilled Trades,

This test is used to measure the Computer
Abstract
individual’s ability to find relationships Programming, 15 minutes
Reasoning
between different and abstract figure Drafting,
patterns. Auto Repair
Mechanical reasoning is like the Bennett

Carpenter,
Mechanical Comprehension Test. The aim
Mechanic,
Mechanical of this test is to measure the ability of the
Maintenance 20 minutes
Reasoning individual to understand and apply basic
Worker,
mechanical principles of machinery, tools
Assembler
and motion.
Drafting,
Space relations is a test which is used to Architecture,
assess the individual’s ability to identify Die-making,
Space and visualize 3-D objects, figures and Carpentry,
15 minutes
Relations patterns and identify how the objects Clothing, Design,
would look if these are rotated, flipped or Art,
moved in some manner. Decorating,
Dentistry
Language usage is a test of the

Language individual’s ability to use grammar, detect
Any 12 minutes
Usage errors in grammar and also to identify
punctuations and capitalization.
Example: Employment aptitude tests in India

eLitmus was launched in 2005 and is one of the best employment aptitude tests. It is
also called pH test (Hiring Potential Test). The aim of the test is to recruit new
employees or freshers. It is conducted and organized by eLitmus Evaluation Private
Limited, an organization in Bangalore. eLitmus has collaborated with over 200
companies that make use of this test to recruit the right candidates for the right jobs.
eLitmus test is considered to be the most effective employability test in India
and assesses a candidate on various criteria. The various parameters are evaluated
and test scores are based on how the candidate performed at these levels. The
score is known as the pH score and grades are awarded on the basis of these tests.
The eLitmus test is a written test of two hours. The test is divided into three
sections— quantitative, verbal and analytic sections. The number of questions in
each section is twenty and so the candidate has to answer a total of sixty questions Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
in the test. The questions are multiple-choice questions. Each section has twenty
questions making a total of sixty questions. The maximum marks in the test are 600
if answers are wrong, negative marking also takes place. On the basis of the
performance in the test, average and percentile scores of a candidate are calculated. NOTES
The test can be administered especially for candidates who have little
experience and the questions are based on topics like General Mental Aptitude,
English Communication, Behavioural Skills and Domain Knowledge.
AMCAT stands for Aspiring Mind’s Computer Adaptive Assessment. The
test is considered as one of the best employability tests in India. The test is
administered to choose the right candidates for the right jobs. The test assesses the
candidates in subjects— English, Quantitative Ability and Logical Ability. The test
also assesses personality and behaviour of a candidate.
Example: Academic Aptitude and Achievement Test (AAT)
The Academic Aptitude and Achievement Test (AAT)is India’s largest and most
popular scholastic aptitude test. The test is aimed at assessing over 1,50,000 students
from all across the world. Since the last twelve years, the exam has been used by
top companies and organizations to hire the right talent. The AAT is a cost-effective
test and has been devised after proper research in a scientific manner. The test is
also offered as a student guidance service by the IPEM (Institute of Psychological
and Educational Research), the pioneer in the field of psychometric and educational
research in India. This test is specifically meant for the students of classes VI to XII
of all CBSE and CISCE Schools. The test can be administered in English and Hindi.
The Institute of Psychological and Educational Measurement (IPEM),
Allahabad developed the test to help the parents and the students to choose the right
educational courses by assessing the area in which the child can perform the best.
The test basically assesses the scholastic abilities of students. The information and
score of the test helps the students to get information that can help the students,
teachers and parents to decide about the academic future of the students.
The academic aptitude and achievement tests are designed to measure three
important aspects of a student’s academic life:
 The student’s potential for academic work
 The knowledge of the student in different subject areas
 The ability of the student to make use of that knowledge
Parts of the test:
The AAT is an objective test with multiple-choice answer questions. The test is
diagnostic and holistic in nature. The various sections of the AAT are as follows:
 Aptitude test: The aptitude test is a test of two hours duration. The aptitude
test assesses the verbal and quantitative reasoning abilities of students. Verbal
and quantitative reasoning are considered as important tools that can determine
the success of a student at a higher level of education.
Testing and Non-Testing  Achievement test: The achievement test is a test of two-three hours
Techniques
duration. The aim of the test is to determine the student’s achievement and
performance in the subjects learnt in school. The test assesses the
comprehension abilities and analytical abilities of a student learnt in the school
NOTES rather than just theoretical knowledge.
 Interest test: The interest test is a separate test and is more like a value
added test. The test is meant for students of classes VII to XII. The aim of
the test is to assess the areas of interest of the students. This information is
then used to decide the future course of action for the students in terms of
academic and career plans. The students are assessed in the following six
areas— literary, social, numerical, mechanical, life sciences and art & musical.
The test scores and results help the counsellors and parents to know the
interest of the students and so help them to decide about the right course of
action and offer them proper educational and career guidance.
Example: Aptitude test questions
1. Which of the following is least like the others?
A. Cube
B. Sphere
C. Pyramid
D. Circle
2. Consider a language which uses the following set of characters:
Small set: { a b c }
Large set: { A B C }
Punctuation set: { x y }
This language must follow the following rules:
1. A punctuation character must end all series.
2. A series can have up to but no more than 4 characters, including
punctuation characters.
Does the following series follow all the rules of the language defined above?
axBy
A. Yes
B. No
3. Consider the following flow chart for a customer: Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
NOTES
The person in No.1 is:

A. Married, with children
B. Married, with at least one son
C. Unmarried, with at least one daughter
D. Unmarried, with at least one son
E. Unmarried, with no children
4. Susan can type 10 pages in 5 minutes. Mary can type 5 pages in 10 minutes.
Working together, how many pages can they type in 30 minutes?
A. 15
B. 20
C. 25
D. 65
E. 75
5. Consider the following series:
3, 4, 6, 9, 13, ____ What comes next?
A. 15
B. 16
C. 17
D. 18
E. 19
5. Attitude tests
Attitude tests are the tests that assess the attitudes of people with respect to other
people and society. These tests assess how well the individual adjusts to the social
norms and how he manages interpersonal relations. Basically, attitude is an expression
of how much one likes or dislikes a thing or a person. Based on the attitude, a person
approaches things or people he likes and rejects things or people that are not liked.
Attitudes are basically learnt and adopted and are not natural capacities of a person.
Testing and Non-Testing To test the attitude of a person, various scaling techniques have been developed.
Techniques
One such technique is known as equal-appearing intervals. This method was
developed by Thurstone and Chave( scaling theorists). The scale consists of several
statements. The score of a person is calculated based on the psychological continuum
NOTES of the scale value. If the score falls in the middle range of the psychological continuum,
the person’s attitude to a statement and, thus, a concept is regarded as neutral. If the
score falls towards the favourable end of the psychological continuum, the attitude
is considered favourable and unfavourable otherwise.
The other method is that of summative ratings. As per this method, each
statement has arbitrary weights associated with it, which are as follows:
 5 strongly agree (SA)
 4 agree (A)
 3 undecided (U)
 2 disagree (D)
 1 strongly disagree (SD)
The individual who shows favourable attitude for the statement uses this
weight series. On the other hand, the weights 1,2,3,4,5 are used by people who
oppose the statement or who show unfavourable attitude. The score is then determined
by summing up the ratings of all items.
Attitude tests are used to assess the level of adjustment of the individual with
the people around him. These tests are also used to assess how good a person is at
developing and maintaining interpersonal relationships.
6. Personality tests
Personality can be defined as a unique pattern of traits that the individual possesses.
It is these unique traits that distinguish the person from others and provide a consistent
way in which the person interacts with the environment. Personality is the sum total
of emotional, motivational, interpersonal, attitudinal and even moral aspects of a
person. Personality tests are tests which are conducted to assess the personality of
the individual.
It is important to conduct personality tests due to the following reasons:
 Personality plays a vital role in determining the vocational and educational
success of a person. It is, therefore, essential to know the personality traits so
that the individual can make educational and occupational adjustments as
required.
 Personality tests help the individual to overcome emotional conflicts. When
personality tests are conducted, the individual gets to know what traits are
becoming a problem in managing emotional issues and, so can work on
improving them thereby resolving emotional issues.
 Personality tests are also important for social counselling.
There are several tools and techniques that are used for testing the personality. Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
Some of them are as follows:
 Self-report measures: Self-report measures are personality tests that require
the individual to answer a series of questions regarding his characteristic
behaviour. During these tests, a person answers several questions about NOTES
himself in a true/ false manner. These tests can be used to measure several
personality traits including attitude, emotions, feelings and so on.
 Projective techniques: The projective techniques help to focus on the
personality of the individual as a whole. When taking these tests, a person
needs to project his personality in the test exercise. The idea behind projection
of personality in these tests is to unearth the inner motives and personality
traits that are otherwise hidden. These tests, therefore, make the individual
aware of whatever he does not know about himself.
To take the test, the individual has to respond to several stimuli like a series of
pictures, ink-blots, or other such stimuli. The interpretation of such results is
carried out by professionals who are trained to do so. The interpretation also
takes a long time.
 Behavioural assessment: Behavioural assessment is a personality test tool
that assesses the way the individual behaves under certain conditions. This
behaviour is an indicator of the personality of a person.
Advantage of personality tests:
 These tests help to understand the individual and acquire information about
him in detail.
The disadvantages of personality tests include the following:
 Personality tests are not based on adequate norms.
 The information and results of the test can be interpreted only by skilled and
trained professionals.
Example: Personality test
Personality questionnaires are used to assess the personal behavioural preferences.
The questionnaire helps a person to know how he likes to work. The test is not
aimed at assessing the abilities of a person but the aim of the test is to enable a
person to see how he relates to others, when it comes to solving problems and
dealing with emotions and feelings. In a personality questionnaire, there are no right
or wrong answers. The only thing he has to do is to choose the option that best
describes the person’s feeling or his liking and disliking for a particular thing or
concept.
Personality questionnaires can be in two formats. In one type, a person is
required to rate himself and in the other format, the person is required to choose
statements that he feels relate to his personality.
Testing and Non-Testing Rating statements
Techniques
In this format of personality test, a person may be asked to rate himself on a number
of phrases or statements. After reading each statement, the person may mark the
answers as follows:
NOTES
Select circle 1 If you strongly disagree with the statement
Select circle 2 If you disagree with the statement
Select circle 3 If you are unsure
Select circle 4 If you agree with the statement
Select circle 5 If you strongly agree with the statement
In the following example, the first statement has been completed; the person has
agreed that ‘I enjoy meeting new people’ is an accurate description of himself. Try
rating yourself on the other example questions. Remember there are no right or
wrong answers.
1 I enjoy
meeting new
people.
2 I like helping
people.
3 I sometimes
make
mistakes.
4 I'm easily
disappointed.
5 I enjoy
repairing
things.
Making choices
In this format of personality questionnaires, a person is given several blocks of
statements. The person has to choose the block of statements that best describe his
behaviour. A person is required to choose one of the columns marked ‘M’ for most
and ‘L’ for least.
The first statement below has been completed; the person has indicated that
he likes most trying out new activities and does not like at all understanding the
underlying theory. Try choosing which statements are most and least liked by you in
the following example questions. Remember there are no right and wrong answers.
M L Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
1 A I try out new
activities.
B I consider other
people’s NOTES
feelings.
C I like to
understand the
underlying
theory.
M L
2 A I have highly
original ideas.
B I am prepared
to tell people if
they are
mistaken.
C I am modest
about what I
have achieved.
M L
3 A I conceal my
feelings.
B I am nervous
before big
events.
C I review work
critically.
M L
4 A I like meeting
new people.
B I enjoy setting
long-term
goals.
C I usually feel
relaxed.
Example: Personality test for employees

The test contains several groups wherein each group contains four statements
expressing personal viewpoints. The test taker is required to select the one statement
that reflects his viewpoint.
Techniques A Sometimes it is better to lose than to risk hurting someone.
B I am generally good at making ‘small talk’.
C Established practices and/or standards should always be followed.
1 D I sometimes lose control of my workday.
NOTES A I rarely have second thoughts about decisions I have made.

B I am very careful not to be aggressively demanding of others.
C I usually stop at yellow lights, rather than race through them.
2 D People will often take advantage of you without giving it a second thought.
A I think managers worry too much about the feelings of other people and not enough about the bottom
line.
B I work best in situations where I am in control.
C Even when winning might be at stake, it is better not to be too forceful.
3 D I sometimes worry about things that I cannot control.
A I need immediate results.

B People’s dislike does not really bother me.
C If I follow my preset objectives, I may not take care of the really important things.
4 D If something has worked in the past, it is better to stick with it.
A If threatened, I will back off rather than fight.

B Most people would never intentionally deceive you.
C Once I give priority to a project, I follow it through.
5 D If I cannot do something quickly, I get frustrated.
A I do not let day-to-day difficulties affect me.

B I look forward to a good party with lots of people.
C Most people are trustworthy.
6 D I will risk untried but promising ways rather than follow safe proven ways.
A When I am with people who I do not know, making small talk is quite difficult.
B People who act too slowly are an annoyance to me.
C I have no regrets about things that I have done.
7 D Even if something new sounds good, I tend to prefer what is already established.
A I prefer knowing exactly how something should be done before I begin.

B I sometimes have difficulty getting started after I have been criticized.
C I would rather run my own business, and take the chance of failing, than be an executive in a
well-established, secure firm.
8 D A good manager’s decisions should not be overly influenced by the feelings of others.
A I am willing to be pushy in order to get what I want to be done.

B I work best when I can decide what to do and how to do it.
C Too much empathy can often hinder a negotiation.
9 D I base my decisions on facts and not ideas.
A Time management is not one of my key strengths.

B I am always cool, calm and collected.
C The best part of a party is meeting new people.
10 D I never hesitate to take quick action.

Socio-metric devices are qualitative tools used for measuring the nature of social
relationship of a person within a group. The socio-metric technique is based on the
premise that the individual’s functioning is affected by the way his peers view and
influence him. Therefore, to know the status of the individual in relation to others, it
is essential to about the viewpoint of others about that person. Socio-metric technique
was developed by leading psychiatrist and psychosociologist Jacob L. Moreno and
was adapted by H. H. Jenning for the study of students in a classroom.
According to (Professor of Education, Butler University) John W.Best, Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
‘Sociometry is a technique/or describing the social relationships among individuals in
a group. In an indirect way, it attempts to describe attractions or repulsions between
individuals by asking them to indicate whom they would choose or reject in various
situations. Children in a school classroom may be asked to name in order of preference NOTES
(usually two or three) the child, children that they would invite to a party, eat lunch
with, sit next to, work on a class project with, or have as a close friend. Although
some researchers object to the method, it is also common to ask the children to
name the children, again in order of preference, that they would least like to invite to
a party, eat lunch with, sit next to, and so forth.’
American developmental psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner states that,
‘Sociometry is the method for discovering, describing and evaluating social status,
structure and development through measuring the extent of acceptance or rejection
between individuals in groups.’
In a socio-metric test, every student in a group is required to write about his
first, second and sometimes, even the third choice about a significant social setting
and pick out a name from the group itself.
For example: A student may be asked questions such as the following:
 Who would you like to be the president of your dramatic club?
 Whom would you like to sit next to you in the class, in the bus or while going
for a picnic?
 With whom would you like to work in the science laboratory?
 With whom do you enjoy most in a social gathering?
To administer the socio-metric test, the following must be kept in mind:
 Before the test is administered, it is required to build a relationship with the
class which will improve the usefulness of the test.
 The information to be gathered from the test must be decided beforehand.
 The questions must be framed in an easy and clear manner.
The advantages of socio-metric techniques are as follows:
 This technique helps to identify patterns of choice and rejection among students
who make up the group.
 It helps in the appraisal of the adjustment level of students in a classroom
setting.
 It helps to identify leaders, isolates, mutual choices, rejections and so on.
 These techniques help to form a group of students to carry out specific
activities in a classroom.
 These help to identify the characteristics of an individual who is liked or
disliked in a group.
Testing and Non-Testing Example: Socio-metric test for assessing acceptance of students with
Techniques
respect to their seating, work and playing companions
Name: _______________________
NOTES Some new arrangements will be made for sitting, working in small groups and playing
group games. I would like to know the names of those children you would like to sit
with, to play with you and to work with you. You may choose anyone in your class
you wish, including those students who are absent. Your choices will not be seen by
anyone else. Make the choices carefully so that the groups can be arranged the way
you really want them. At times, it is not possible to give everyone their first choice so
make sure you give three choices for each question. I would choose to sit with those
children.
I would choose to sit with these children.
1. ___________ 2. ____________ 3. ____________
I would choose to work with these children.
1. ___________ 2. _____________ 3. ____________
I would choose to play with these children.
1. ___________ 2. _____________ 3. ____________
The socio-metric data so collected is provided in the form of a sociogram which
shows attractions and repulsions within a group and helps the teacher and the
counsellor in discovering the problems of students in relation to the group.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

3. State the essential features of a psychological test.
4. Who invented the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)?
5. List two advantages of an achievement test.
6. Mention the advantages of socio-metric techniques.
2.4 NON-TESTING TECHNIQUES
Guidance and counselling are concerned with the individual and, therefore, for guidance
and counselling programmes to be carried out successfully, it is essential to gather
information about an individual using various techniques. Non-testing techniques are
techniques used in guidance and counselling to collect information about an individual.
These techniques are also used for the appraisal of an individual.
The following are the various non-testing techniques used in guidance and
counselling:
 Interview
 Case study
 Observation
 Cumulative record Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
 Questionnaires
1. Interview: It is one of the most reliable non-testing techniques that can be
used to collect information about the individual. Interview is also referred to
NOTES
as ‘conversation with purpose’. An interview establishes a direct relationship
between an interviewer and an interviewee. In guidance and counselling,
interviews can be of several types such as the following:
 Diagnostic interview is used to secure information about the individual.
 Administrative interview is used for self-explanation, warning, punishing
or for modifying the behaviour of the individual.
 Employment interview is used to determine whether the individual is fit
for a specific job or not.
 Admission interview is used to determine whether the individual is fit for
a specific course or not.
 Informative interview aims at imparting information to the interviewee.
 Research interview aims at discovering facts and figures about a topic.
 Counselling interview is used to help the individual solve his problems.
A counselling interview is an interview of a counselee by the counsellor.
According to an American psychiatrist and psychologist, Milton H. Erickson,
‘A counselling interview is a person-to-person relationship in which one
individual with problems and needs turns to another person for assistance.’
The main functions of a counselling interview include the following:
 It facilitates the counsellor to have face-to-face contact with the counselee
and assisting him.
 It assists in collecting information from the counselee.
It enables the counselee to identify his interests and other personality
traits which he is unaware of.
 To help the counselee solve vocational, educational and psychological
problems faced by him.
Before a counselling interview can take place to explore the problem of the
counselee and to assist the counselee to face and overcome the problem, the
counsellor needs to prepare himself. The counsellor must have a clear picture and
idea about the counselee including his background, environment, strengths and
weaknesses. The counsellor must also be clear about the method to be used for the
interview and the purpose of the interview. In addition, the counsellor needs to
ensure that the confidentiality of the interview is maintained.
For a counselling interview, the counselee must be willing to take part in the
interview voluntarily else the interview cannot be successful. Steps of a counselling
interview include the following:
 Preparation of the interview and building a rapport: To prepare for the
interview, the counsellor must plan the schedule of the interview in advance.
The counsellor also needs to decide about the physical setting of the interview
and ensure that all the necessary material is properly organized. The physical
Testing and Non-Testing setting of the interview must be such that it makes the counselee feel
Techniques
comfortable. To establish a rapport with the counselee, the counsellor must
conduct a pre-interview conversation. This will help in developing friendliness,
respect and sincerity between the counsellor and the counselee.
NOTES  Arrive at the problem: To arrive at the problem that the counselee faces,
the counsellor can make use of methods like observation, talking and listening.
These methods will help the counsellor to know the problems that the counselee
is facing and the underlying causes of the problem.
 Working jointly on the problem: The counsellor and counselee must work
jointly on the problem to find a solution to the problem. While working together
in solving the problem, the counsellor can make use of techniques like
sympathy, assurance, humour, personal references, non-personal references,
threat and approval.
 Closing the interview: A counsellor must never end an interview abruptly.
In fact, the counsellor must ensure that the counselee is satisfied and then
end the interview. At the end of the interview, the counsellor must possess all
the information for which the interview was conducted.
 Evaluation: A counselling interview is often evaluated on the basis of the
physical setting, the counsellor, the counselee and the outcome of the interview.
 Follow-up: Follow-up must be initiated by the counsellor to know whether
the counselee’s problem has been solved or not. Follow-up also helps to
improve the interview techniques.
A counselling interview should typically cover the following areas:
 The reason for conducting the interview
 Previous work history
 Educational history
 Hobbies
 Interests
 Family situation and background
 Social Activities
 Physical conditions
 Self-evaluation of appearance, abilities and personality
The advantages of a counselling interview are as follows:
 It is the best technique using which information about the individual can be
gathered.
 It is more like a conversation and so the counselee feels comfortable.
 It is very easy to conduct.
 It helps the counselee to get an insight and solve his problems.
The disadvantages of the counselling interview are as follows: Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
 It is subjective and time-consuming.
 The interview needs to be conducted by experts.
 In some cases, it is difficult to interpret the results. NOTES
 It may not always produce the desired results.
Example: Questions asked in initial counselling interview
The following are typical questions that may be asked by a counsellor when the
counselee first requests for a counselling interview:
Interviewer ______________________ Date______________
Note the identified problem:
Is the student seeking help? Yes / No
If the student has not come for help, what were the circumstances that brought the
student to the interview?
__________________________________________________________
Questions for student to answer:
Student’s Name _______________________________
Age _____
Birthdate ___________
Sex: M/F Grade ________
Current placement ______________________
Ethnicity __________
Primary language ____________________
We are concerned about how things are going for you. Our talk today will
help us to discuss what is going OK and what is not going so well. If you want me to
keep what we discussed as confidential, I will do so except for those things that I
need to discuss with others in order to help you.
(1) How would you describe your current situation? What problems are you
experiencing? What are your main concerns?
(2) How serious are these matters for you at this time?
a) Very serious
b) Not too serious
c) Not at serious
(3) How long have you been facing these problems?
a) 0-3 months
b) 4 months to a year
c) more than a year
Testing and Non-Testing (4) What do you think originally caused these problems?
Techniques
(5) Do others (parents, teachers and friends) think there were other causes? If
so, what causes do they term as real reasons for the problem?
NOTES (6) What other things are currently making it hard to deal with the problems?
(7) What have you already tried in order to deal with the problems?
(8) Why do you think these things did not work?
(9) What have others advised you to do?
(10) What do you think would help solve the problems?
(11) How much time and effort do you want to put into solving the problems?
a) Not at all
b) Not much
c) Only a little
d) More than a little
e) Quite a bit
f) Very little
If you answered 1, 2, or 3, why don’t you want to put much time and effort
into solving problems?
(12) What type of help do you want?
(13) What changes are you hoping for?
(14) How hopeful are you about solving the problems?
a) Very hopeful
b) Somewhat hopeful
c) Not too hopeful
d) Not at all hopeful If you’re not hopeful, why not?
(15) What else should we know so that we can help? Are there, any other areas
which need to be discussed as well?
Example: What happens at an initial counselling interview?
How is the session structured?
The counsellor must structure the counselling interview session in a proper manner.
The aim of the counsellor is to establish and build a strong relationship with the
counselee. The first session of a counselling interview is aimed at finding the issues
that the client is facing. It is in the first session that the role of the counsellor is also
defined and the client and the counsellor establish a confidential relationship. The
counsellor listens to the client and then tries to react in a proper manner. The counsellor
then proceeds with the interview with what the client wants to talk about.
During the structuring of the counselling interview, the counsellor also has to
decide about the time limit. The length and time of the interview usually depends on
the age of the client and the issue that the client is facing. For example, when a
counsellor is interviewing school children aged 12 and above, the interview generally Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
takes place for an hour. For young adults, the counselling interview may last for two
hours.
Before starting the counselling interview, the counsellor must tell the client
about the length of the interview. This is essential so that the client can prepare NOTES
himself and set the pace for the interview to ensure that he is able to discuss all his
problems with the counsellor. This also helps the client to collect enough personal
details and information relevant for the interview and discussion. If the time limits
are not specified by the counsellor, the client may hold back some information,
making it difficult for the interview to go on at a smooth pace. To ensure that the
client is not able to manipulate the interview, the counsellor also has to tell the client
about how much time is left by the end of the interview, so that the client and the
counsellor can also raise unfinished questions or issues that are considered important.
The counsellor, therefore, often keeps a track of the time when the counselling
session is under progress.
The duration of the counselling interview or the number of sessions is also
usually defined in the first sessions. However, this decision may be taken even after
one or two sessions depending on the type of help the client is in need of.
How to start the session?
Once the counsellor and the counselee are familiar with each other after the first
session, the counsellor tries to talk about various social topics so that the client feels
comfortable while discussing the same with the counsellor. This also helps the
counselee to remain at ease and tension free. However, this does not allow the
counsellor to spend too much time talking about casual things. Usually, a counsellor
begins a session differently for clients who are self-referred and for clients who
have been referred by someone else. When a counsellor is dealing with a self-
referral client, the counsellor can begin the session with the following.
‘We have about a half hour to talk and I would like to ask you what brings you
to counselling.’
‘We have an hour and I would like to listen to issues or anything you would
like to share.’
The counsellor must make sure that he conveys to the client that the time
limit set would be used in a meaningful manner.
Counselees are often referred for counselling by parents, teachers and other
counselling therapists. When clients are referred by a third party, the clients are
usually resistant to counselling and are more difficult to handle. This is why the
counsellors need to structure the sessions for these clients in a very careful manner.
The counselling session must be thoroughly planned and structured to deal with such
clients.
The counsellor must always come across as a warm and accepting person to
the client for whatever reason the client may come to the counsellor. The counsellor
must always ask the client about his reasons for attending the counselling session,
Testing and Non-Testing but should never be judgemental. The counsellor must, therefore, never choose
Techniques
what to discuss in the counselling session. The topics to be discussed should be put
forward by the client.
NOTES Goals to be achieved during the first session

The main goal of the first session of a counselling interview is for the counsellor to
develop a rapport with the counselee. The counsellor and the counselee must be
open and honest when communicating with each other. The counsellor must be able
to interpret the underlying causes of concern of the client. The client must also
ensure to furnish all necessary information to the counsellor so that the counselling
interview can take place in the right manner in the subsequent sessions.
Termination of the initial interview
The termination of the first interview may end with a decision of the counsellor and
counselee to continue the relationship or not. The counsellor may also refer the
counselee or the client to another counsellor, if he feels that the problem of the client
cannot be handled by him. This is typically true for clients who need specialised
services.
2. Case study: It basically involves studying about the individual in detail. A case
study is a systematic process that aims at complete and intense study of the individual
including his family background, physical, social, emotional and intellectual
environment. According to American psychologist, Ruth Strang, ‘The case study or
history is a synthesis and interpretation of information about a person and his
relationship to his environment collected by means of many techniques.’ Case study
is an assessment method that typically studies learning difficulties, emotional
disturbances and, other behavioural problems that the individual faces in his normal
routine, which is detrimental to his overall development.
The following information needs to be collected for a case study:
 Preliminary information: This information is about the name, age, sex,
parent’s age, education, occupation, income, number of children and social
status of the individual.
 Past history: Past history refers to any information that has affected the
development of the individual. For instance, information about past history
may include information related to the individual’s social, physical, mental
illness or relationship with others.
 Present condition: Information about the present condition of the individual
may be related to his physical, medical, intellectual, emotional, social and
interest information.
The information so collected is used by a counsellor or a practitioner to find out the
problem that the individual is going through and also the underlying causes of the
problem.
The following steps are taken when preparing a case study: Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
 Locating the case
 Forming a hypotheses
 Collecting the essential information NOTES
 Identifying the factor that create the problem
 Application of remedial measures and treatments to solve the problem
 Follow-up to check the effectiveness of the remedial measures
The main elements of a case study are diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Diagnosis
refers to identifying the problem by collecting the essential information. Treatment
involves application of remedial measures and treatments. Follow-up is done in a
case study to know the effectiveness of the measures used to solve the problem.
The characteristics of a good case study are as follows:
 A case study must be complete which means that it must collect complete
information about the individual.
 A case study must use reliable and valid data and information.
 A case study must be dynamic and not static. It should also not be cross-
sectional and must provide complete information about the person.
 A case study must keep the information confidential.
 A case study must use scientific techniques for analysis of the information.
Advantages of a case study are as follows:
 It can be used as a basis for diagnosis and treatment of the individual.
 It gives in-depth information about the individual.
 It enables a person to make suitable adjustments for overall development.
Disadvantages of a case study are as follows:
 It is a very time-consuming process.
 A case study is a subjective technique.
 It is a difficult method that can be carried out by experts and professionals.
 Interpreting the results of a case study is also a tough task.
Example: Dropout student
The case study is about a drop out student with the following details:
Name of the student: G. Sathish (Dropout class VIII)
Father’s name: Bengalurappa
Occupation: Tea Stall (Business)
Now passed: Class X (First Division) (Marks: 362/600) (2009/2010)
Siblings: The student has two brothers. His elder brother is currently doing his
B.Ed and younger brother is physically handicapped.
Testing and Non-Testing Family background: Sathish’s father studied up to class III and his mother is
Techniques
uneducated. Since the family is very poor cannot it is unable to provide education to
all children. The father runs a tea stall at Gudupalli cross. The shop is the only
source of income and the land they own is very small and the earning from the land
NOTES is not sufficient enough to support the family.
Motivation: Agastya, a foundation that helps to guide students and parents in poor
families to take up education because of the several advantages sent its volunteers
to request Sathish’s parents to send Sathish to school. However, his parents did not
want to do so because they were already spending huge money on the education of
their eldest child. Also, since the younger brother of Sathish was handicapped, the
parents were unable to support education of Sathish. Sathish had to discontinue his
studies after class VIII so that he could manage the tea stall and earn to support the
family.
At Agastya, a drop-out in-charge pursued Sathish’s father to let him attend night
dropout classes after finishing his work at the tea shop. Sathish was given basic
training so that he could build his confidence at the Agastya Kodathanapalli dropout
centre. Sathish was able to join ZPHS, Kodathanapalli and complete his class X.
Help of agastya: Agastya— whose volunteers made Sathish study, provided him
with the required notebooks and also paid his school fees amounting to ‘ 775/. The
volunteers helped Sathish to learn subjects like Mathematics, Science, English and
other basic fundamental principles in different subjects. Sathish learnt a lot of new
things about life and also attended regular school as well as dropout night classes to
learn in a more effective manner.
Opinion of the school teacher: The school teachers and authorities also
appreciated the fact that the Agsatya volunteers helped Sathish and also visited the
school regularly to know about the progress of Sathish.
Villagers: The village to which Sathish belongs has appreciated the help of the
Agastya dropout facility centre that also helps other students realize their dreams of
studying and completing school.
3. Observation: It is one of the most effective methods of collecting information
about the individual. Observation is the most commonly applied technique for
information collection in guidance and counselling. Observation basically entails
observing the behaviour of the individual. Behaviour is considered to be reflection of
the personality and so when the behaviour of an individual is observed, a counsellor
or a practitioner can learn a lot about the personality of the individual. The following
are the two types of observations:
 Natural observation: In natural observation, the specific behavioural
characteristics of the individual in a natural setting are observed. This means
that during observation, the individual does not get conscious of someone
observing his behaviour. Thus, this type of observation can help to observe
the real behaviour of the individual and, hence, brings out the hidden aspects
of his personality.
 Participant observation: In this type of observation, the observer becomes Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
a part of the group which he wants to observe. The observer builds a rapport
with the group and the group members are not aware of his intentions and so
behave in a natural manner.
Observation to be done in a systematic and objective manner must be done with NOTES
proper preparation and training. Training for observation includes training in writing
the observation descriptively, recording field notes and validating the observations.
Preparation for observation requires mental, physical, intellectual as well as
psychological preparation.
A god observation must, therefore, have the following characteristics:
 It must be planned: For an observation to be of help, it must be planned.
The observer must know what has to be observed and the purpose of
observation. The observer must also decide about the time of observation,
the tools and techniques to be used for observing as well as recording of the
information.
 It must be properly executed: An observation must be properly executed
in the sense that the observer must ensure that the physical settings are
accurate. An observer must have sufficient skills to carry out the observation
discreetly for its proper execution.
 It must be recorded: An observation is of use only when it is recorded.
Recording of the observation can be done simultaneously with observation or
it may be done after the observation is over. In both cases, proper recording
devices and techniques must be used.
 It must be interpreted: The results of the observation must be interpreted
using the appropriate tools and techniques.
Rules for making observation
When making observations, a counsellor or a practitioner must follow the following
rules:
 The observer must be descriptive in taking notes.
 The observer must gather information from different perspectives.
 The information collected must be validated and triangulated.
 The observer must separate description from judgement.
The advantages of the observation method are the following:
 These are reliable, valid and scientific.
 Observations are the most economical method of data collection.
 Observations can be flexibly used in various situations.
 Observations can be applied to people of all ages.
 Observations can be applied to groups as well the individual.
 These do not require much training.
Testing and Non-Testing The disadvantages of the observation method include the following:
Techniques
 Observations are subjective.
 These can be used to observe the external behaviour and not the internal
NOTES feelings.
 The observation records many not be accurate and may be biased.
 Sampling and observer error may take place in observations which make the
information invalid and unusable.
Counselling is a process wherein the counselee and the counsellor talk to each other
to discuss the problem that the counselee is facing. The process of counselling
requires the active participation of the counselee to find the causes of the problem
and through discussions with the counsellor bring about changes in his or her behaviour
to overcome the problem for healthy development. The main aim of counselling is to
help the individual solve his problems.
Diagnosis is a process wherein the counsellor and the counselee try to identify
the problem and the underlying causes of the problem. Diagnosis typically requires
the counselee to focus on the following:
 How the counselee views himself
 The counselee’s perception of the world around him
The process of diagnosis helps the counsellor and the counselee to identify
the strengths and weaknesses of the counselee. The counselee and the counsellor
arrive at the decision by discussion and talking. This enables the counselee to
understand himself better. It is through the process of diagnosis that the counselee
assisted by the counsellor can find a solution to the problem on his own. Diagnosis
helps a counselee in the following ways:
 It helps the counselee in understanding himself.
 The counselee gains an insight into his strengths and weaknesses.
 He becomes conscious of his character and feelings.
 It further enables the counselee to use the knowledge acquired to bring about
changes in his life.
On the basis of the diagnosis, the counsellor suggests remedial measures and
treatments so that the individual can overcome his problem.
Follow-up in counselling is done to verify how effective the remedial measures
have been. Follow-up is always done by the counsellor to know whether the remedy
or treatment he suggested has been effective or not. If the measures are not
considered to be effective, the counsellor and the counselee again go through the
diagnosis process and find other measures.
Techniques
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
7. Name the non-testing techniques used in guidance and counselling.
8. What are the essential areas which should be covered by a counselling NOTES
interview?
9. List the essential characteristics of the observation method.
2.5 SUMMARY
 The central focus of all guidance and counselling programmes is the individual.
 Testing and non-testing techniques are used in guidance and counselling to
gather the required information about the individual so that the individual may
be assisted in the required manner.
 Records and record-keeping are central to guidance and counselling
programmes as they help the counsellor and the guidance professionals to get
access to important and reliable information.
 The client records happen to be the most reliable information about the client.
These records provide the essential information about the progress of the
guidance and counselling sessions and how these have helped the client.
 There are several techniques that can be used by the practitioners to know
their clients in a better manner.
 Psychological tests are tests that are conducted to know about the abilities,
attitudes, motivations and needs of individuals. On the basis of the behavioural
trait being assessed, psychological tests can be categorized into several types
of tests. These include the following:
o Tests of intelligence
o Tests of abilities
o Tests of interests
o Tests of personality
o Tests of achievement
 With the emergence of the concept of multiple intelligences, the intelligence
tests today require a person to perform several tasks. There are four basic
intelligence tests that are used to measure the intelligence of a person. These
are as follows:
o Binet-Simon Scale
o Stanford-Binet Scale
o Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
o Wechsler Primary and Preschool Scale of Intelligence
 In general, achievement tests are criterion referenced or norm referenced.
Achievement tests can be teacher made tests and standardized tests.
Testing and Non-Testing  Interest tests are tests that assess the interests of the individual. It has been
Techniques
proved that interests are related to academic success and also job satisfaction.
Therefore, it is essential to know the interests of the individual or a student.
 Aptitude is considered as the natural tendency of a person to do something.
NOTES Aptitude is also sometimes known as the special ability or a cluster of abilities
of a person. An aptitude test assesses the potential of the individual to achieve
or excel in a given activity.
 Attitude tests are the tests that assess the attitudes of people with respect to
other people and society. These tests assess how well the individual adjusts
to the social norms and how he manages interpersonal relations.
 Personality is the sum total of emotional, motivational, interpersonal, attitudinal
and even moral aspects of a person. Personality tests are tests which are
conducted to assess the personality of an individual.
 Socio-metric devices are qualitative tools used for measuring the nature of
social relationship of a person within a group. The socio-metric technique is
based on the premise that the individual’s functioning is affected by the way
his peers view and influence him.
 Non-testing techniques are techniques used in guidance and counselling to
collect information about the individual. These techniques are also used for
the appraisal of the individual. The following are the various non-testing
techniques used in guidance and counselling:
o Interview
o Case Study
o Observation
o Cumulative Record
o Questionnaires
The main aim of counselling is to help the individual solve his problems.
Diagnosis is a process wherein the counsellor and the counselee try to identify
the problem and the underlying causes of the problem.
2.6 KEY TERMS
 Linguistic intelligence: Linguistic intelligence refers to the ability of the

individual to make use of language he knows in expressing his thoughts and in
understanding others.
 Sociogram: It is a diagram consisting of nodes and lines which represent the
relationships within a group of people or animals.
 Socio-metric devices: These are qualitative tools used for measuring the
nature of social relationship of a person within a group.
 Interest tests: These tests assess the interests of the individual.
 Differential Aptitude Test (DAT): This is an aptitude test that can be used Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
to assess the general cognitive abilities and aptitudes across a wide range of
occupations.
NOTES
2.7 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’
1. The essential features of the records maintained by guidance and counselling

practitioners include the following:
 Data about the client
 Referral information
 Date and types of services provided along with the fee
 Details of the services provided
 Details of the counselling or guidance contract
 Consultation notes
 Assessment and other tests and their reports
2. The main aim of providing guidance and counselling services is to enable
individuals to make adjustments in their life and bring about behavioural changes
so that the individual can lead a happier and a healthier life.
3. The essential features of a psychological test are as follows:
 The test must be reliable in the sense that it must give accurate and
consistent results every time it is used.
 The test must be valid in the sense that it measures exactly what it is
intended to measure.
 The test must be practical and usable in the sense that it can be easily
administered in a cost- effective manner. The test must also be conducted
in such a manner that it takes very less time.
4. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) was invented by an American
psychologist, David Wechsler.
5. Two advantages of an achievement test are as follows:
 These tests provide information regarding the extent of learning and the
rate of learning.
 These tests highlight the relative performance of the individual or a student.
6. The advantages of socio-metric techniques are as follows:
 This technique helps to identify patterns of choice and rejection among
students who make up the group.
 It helps in the appraisal of the adjustment level of students in a classroom
setting.
 It helps to identify leaders, isolates, mutual choices, rejections and so on.
 These techniques help to form a group of students to carry out specific
activities in a classroom.
 These help to identify the characteristics of the individual who is liked or
disliked in a group.
Testing and Non-Testing 7. The non-testing techniques used in guidance and counselling are as follows:
Techniques
 Interview
 Case study
 Observation
NOTES
 Cumulative record
 Questionnaires
8. The essential areas which should be covered by a counselling interview are
as follows:
 The reason for conducting the interview
 Previous work history
 Educational history
 Hobbies
 Interests
 Family situation and background
 Social Activities
 Physical conditions
 Self-evaluation of appearance, abilities and personality
9. The essential characteristics of the observation method are as follows:
 It must be planned
 It must be properly executed
 It must be recorded
 It must be interpreted
2.8 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. Why is maintenance of records considered essential in providing counselling
and guidance services?
2. Name the various kinds of psychological tests that are conducted to understand
individuals.
3. Briefly discuss the nine types of intelligence tests outlined by Gardener in his
theory of multiple intelligences.
4. Why is it considered essential to conduct interest tests?
5. Give examples of the various types of aptitude tests.
6. Write a short note on the use of socio-metric devices used measuring the
nature of social relationship of a person within a group.
7. What is a case study? Mention the essential information required for conducting
a case study.
Long-Answer Questions Testing and Non-Testing
Techniques
1. Discuss the process of testing.
2. Explain the factors measured by the Stanford-Binet scale.
3. What is an achievement test? Describe its categories. NOTES
4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of personality tests.
5. Analyse the steps involved in conducting a counselling interview.
6. ‘Observation is the most commonly applied technique for information collection
in guidance and counselling.’ Elucidate.
7. Evaluate the importance of diagnosis and follow-up in counselling.
2.9 FURTHER READING

Distributors.
Cooperation.
Education.
Guidance Services
UNIT 3 GUIDANCE SERVICES

Structure NOTES
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Unit Objectives
3.2 Organization of Guidance Services at Different Levels of Education
3.3 Guidance Programmes
3.4 Kinds of Guidance Services
3.5 Role of Personnel in Guidance Programmes
3.6 Summary
3.7 Key Terms
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Guidance and counselling services are integral part of the education system and are
provided in schools and colleges for the academic, personal and vocational
development of the students. Most schools and colleges these days implement a
guidance programme with help of experts so that they can cater to the needs of all
students laying emphasis on the fact that each child is unique and has needs different
from another one. In this unit, you will study about the organization of guidance
services at different levels of education, guidance programmes, kinds of guidance
services and the role of personnel in guidance programmes.
3.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

 Explain organization of guidance services at different levels of education
 Analyse the guidance programme
 Describe the kinds of guidance services
 Discuss the role of personnel in guidance programmes
3.2 ORGANIZATION OF GUIDANCE SERVICES AT

DIFFERENT LEVELS OF EDUCATION
Guidance is an integral part of education these days. Guidance is provided at all

levels of education—schools, colleges and universities. The aim of guidance is to
help students adjust to their educational environment. Many students face problems
in adjusting to their school or college life and are unable to cope up with these
Guidance Services problems. Guidance services typically entail helping such students to face and
overcome their problems so that they can attain holistic development in their
educational environment
Guidance provided to students can be classified into the following kinds:
NOTES
 Educational guidance
 Vocational guidance
 Personal guidance
1. Educational guidance: It is concerned directly with the student or the pupil.
Educational guidance is very important and an integral part of a student’s life. The
aim of educational guidance is to enable a student to adjust to the educational
environment in an effective manner. Educational guidance enables students to
coordinate with the school or college environment and also develop the necessary
awareness and sensitivity that is required for the overall development.
There are times when students may not understand what is being taught in
the class. Sometimes, students fail to do well in examinations, suffer from lack of
concentration and may not perform well in the academic sphere. These problems
may also lead to the unhealthy development of the students and may hamper their
growth in several ways. Therefore, it is imperative that students be assisted in
overcoming and solving these problems.
According to author Arthur A. Jones, ‘Educational guidance is concerned
with assistance to be provided to the pupils which is expected for their adjustments
in the schools, selection of curricula and school like.’
To be able to provide the right kind of educational guidance, it is important
that the guidance provider knows about the students, his interests, abilities and study
habits.
The objectives of educational guidance in the sphere of education are as follows:
 To know about the academic progress of the students.
 To enable the students get acquainted with the curriculum.
 To identify students who are academically strong, backward, weak and
creative.
 To help the students get information about further education i.e. a level higher
than their present level.
 To identify the learning difficulties and disabilities of the students.
 To help the students to overcome the problems they face in their educational
environment at home as well as the educational institution.
The need for educational guidance at the various levels of education can be
attributed to the following:
 Diversified courses: Education has now changed from including a simple
course to several diversified courses. Often students, get confused as to
which course to choose. This is typically true for schools or colleges that are
multilateral. For students who are being taught only a single curriculum,
educational guidance may not be required. Educational guidance is, thus, Guidance Services
provided to students so that they can choose the right type of educational
course.
 Failure: Students may fail at a specific course or may not perform well
academically. Educational guidance must be provided to these students so NOTES
that they do not dropout from school and also to ensure that they do not
develop depression. Such students often need the sympathy of their parents
and teachers who can guide and motivate them to perform better at their
studies. If educational guidance is missing in such cases, the students may
tend to develop negative attitude towards their study material, their teachers
as well as parents.
 Unsatisfactory progress: Educational guidance is needed more by students
who do not show satisfactory progress in academics and related activities.
To ensure that such students perform well and do not develop a complex of
being poor at a specific course, educational guidance must be provided by
teachers and sometimes also experts.
 Undesirable behaviour: Sometimes, students develop undesirable behaviour
in a particular course. Such students may not be interested in the course and,
thus, develop undesirable behaviour. In doing so, the students may even become
the cause of distraction for others in the class and, thus, hamper the learning
process of others as well. Educational guidance may be provided to such
students to alter their behaviour and to ensure that they learn in an efficient
and effective manner.
 Individual differences: In a classroom, there are several students in a class
who differ in their abilities as well as interests. Educational guidance enables
students to choose a course according to their abilities. Educational guidance
also ensures that the students perform to the best of their abilities in the
selected course.
 Adjustment of students: When entering school or college, many students
have problems adjusting to the new environment. One of the main reasons
for this maladjustment is that the students are not properly oriented towards
the school or college. Educational guidance enables students to adjust to the
school or college as it provides complete orientation to the students about
their educational institution. Sometimes, students also fail to adjust because
they are not treated properly when they enter their school or college. The aim
of educational guidance in such cases is, thus, to ensure that the students can
adjust to their environment.
 Guiding gifted and academically backward students: Educational
guidance is also essential for students who are gifted or perform academically
well. Educational guidance in this case motivates such students to perform
even better. For the academically backward students, educational guidance
is essential because it enables them to perform better at academics.
Educational guidance enables the students to cope up with academics
according to their abilities.
Guidance Services  Check dropouts: Educational guidance is essential to check the number of
dropouts from school or college. Several times, students face numerous
problems in their educational environment and tend to avoid going to school
or college and may dropout. Educational guidance, if provided to such students
NOTES can guide them to overcome and prevent failures and, thus, it prevents them
from dropping out of school.
Educational guidance at the different levels of education:
 Elementary stage: At the elementary stage, the student is just a beginner
and, therefore, may not need any specialized educational guidance services.
The aim of educational guidance at this stage is to ensure that the students
develop a healthy and a positive outlook. Educational guidance at this stage
prepares the students for the secondary stage of education.
 Secondary stage: At the secondary level of education, educational guidance
is mandatory for the students. It is essential for all schools to offer educational
guidance services at this level. The main reason why educational guidance
must be provided at this level is that the students can think and are aware of
their surroundings and the environment. The aim of educational guidance at
this level is to help students to select the right curriculum. Educational guidance
is also required to motivate the students so that they can make progress in
their studies in the right manner.
 Higher stage: At the higher educational level, educational guidance is
mandatory. At this stage, college students and those in universities often need
guidance as to which course to choose so that they can perform well in
academics.
Example: Education at higher level at the Indian School, New Delhi
At the Indian School, the aim is not only to prepare the students academically but
also at guiding them towards a rewarding and satisfying career. The school
understands how imperative it is for students to identify their aptitudes, interests,
career goals and aspirations in order to make well-informed decisions regarding
their higher education. To help students in this task, the student counsellor, Ms
Sukhmeen Kaur (part of the school faculty) guides and counsels students in the field
of higher studies.
Additionally, the schools has also tied up with a university—a Singapore
based organization that mentors students to ensure that they have multiple higher
study options (both domestic and international) to choose from. The university provides
a support system to the school counsellor to manage all the senior students in a
systematic manner. The students and the parents can interact with the team of
experts at the university through an online system linked to the school’s website to
get the required counselling and guidance.
Students are typically counselled in the following arenas: Guidance Services
 Students are counselled about the various career options available to them.
 Counselling enables the students to finalize a course and a country of study
which could be in another country as well (USA, UK, Canada, Singapore and NOTES
other popular destinations).
 It helps the students to prepare for the various tests.
 It assists in interpreting the deadlines related to admissions and tests.
 It provides guidance about scholarships.
With the help of the university, the school also started the higher education
support system in the academic year 2013–14. In this programme, several sessions
were organized to guide the students on how to utilize the online support system and
to create profiles, ask questions and seek the guidance of the counsellors.
Example: Educational guidance in government schools in Delhi
A study was conducted to find out the status of guidance and counselling programme
running in various secondary and the senior secondary schools under Directorate of
Education, Delhi. In this study, a self- constructed questionnaire was given to every
EVGC (Educational Vocational Guidance Counsellors) appointed in the different
schools. The aim was to get all the necessary information about the availability of
various resources and the duties performed by the EVGs. The questionnaire also
required the EVGs to tell what problems they faced in administering the programme
and also about the effectiveness of guidance services provided by them. According
to the results of the study, the EVGs said that they were provided with the necessary
resources to perform their duties and also the services they offered were effective
in spite of the fact that they had shortage of time and were over-burdened with
work. The EVGs tried to provide guidance and counselling to maximum number of
students they could reach out to. The study also concluded that that the guidance
and counselling services need to be improved so that maximum students could be
benefited..
2. Vocational guidance: This entails providing assistance to students so that they
can opt for the right vocation or career. Vocational guidance helps students to make
decisions related to future career plans. Vocational guidance also enables the students
to adjust to the vocational environment. According to the authors of An Introduction
to Guidance, Lester. D. Crow and Alice Crow, ‘Vocational guidance usually is
interpreted as the assistance given to the learners to choose, prepare for and progress
in an occupation.’ According to Professor Emeritus of Education, University of
Michigan, G. E. Myers, ‘Vocational guidance is the process of assisting the individual
to do for himself certain definite things pertaining to his vocation.’
The objectives of vocational guidance for students include the following:
 To help students to get the right information about all aspects of the vocation
of their interest.
Guidance Services  To help students understand their own abilities and skills and to help them fit
these to their chosen vocation.
 To help students develop an attitude towards work.
NOTES  To teach students the importance of cooperation and its necessity to adjust in
a group with other co-workers.
 To help the students to become proficient in the vocation of their choice.
 To assist students to critically analyse the various vocations they can opt for
to take the right decision.
The need of vocational guidance:
 Choosing the right profession: When a person chooses the wrong
profession, he cannot succeed in it, which eventually leads to economic as
well as psychological loss. Therefore, vocational guidance must be provided
so that the right profession can be chosen for economic as well as personal
satisfaction.
 Personal and social values: Vocational guidance has with it associated
several personal and social values. Right vocational guidance helps to achieve
happiness of the student, professional as well as personal development and is
also helpful in building social relationships.
 Maximum utilization of human potentialities: Vocational guidance
motivates workers to perform better and thereby coerces them to use their
potentialities to the best extent. This leads to personal as well as professional
satisfaction.
Vocational guidance at different levels of education:
 Elementary level: At the elementary level, not much formal vocational
guidance is needed by the students. In fact, at this level the teacher can act
as a guide and help the students to develop respect for work and develop a
positive attitude towards work. The teacher can help the students to learn
how to use hands, develop eye-hand coordination, encourage the students to
do neat and systematic work and also develop coordination among themselves.
 Secondary level: At the secondary level of education, vocational guidance
can be provided to students to develop familiarity with the nature of work and
make the right choice. It also helps the child to identify his abilities so that the
right career choice can be made at a later stage.
 Higher level: At the college level of education, formal vocational guidance
must be provided to the students. Vocational guidance aims at helping students
to relate their studies to the vocation they may choose later. Vocational guidance
can also be used to help the college students to analyse the various career
options they have and also helps them to make the right career choice.
Example: A comparative study of vocational guidance services in various Guidance Services
secondary schools in Mumbai

The objectives of the study include the following:
 To study the existing system of vocational guidance services in various NOTES
secondary schools.
 To study the dissemination of information concerning various occupations.
 To study the availability of counselling services.
 To compare the existing systems of vocational guidance services in the various
secondary schools.
The study was conducted in the metropolitan city of Mumbai. The educational
institutions included were Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), Central
Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) and School Service Commission (SSC)
aided and unaided schools.
For the study, the researcher listed down the assistant officer for vocational
guidance and counselling, eighteen principals, 120 teachers and 600 students from
six schools each of ICSE, CBSE and three schools each from School Service
Commission (SSC) aided and unaided schools.
The data required to be collected was from the following areas:
(a) Assistant officer for Vocational Guidance and Counselling IVGS, Mumbai
(b) Principals of ICSE, CBSE and SSC Schools
(c) Teachers of ICSE, CBSE and SSC Schools
(d) Students of ICSE, CBSE and SSC Schools
Questionnaire and interview schedule was the most appropriate data gathering
device.
The questionnaire was aimed at gathering information from the teacher and
students about the existing system of vocational guidance services in the various
secondary schools. The tool consists of close ended questions to teachers and
students.
The interview method of data collection has a great deal in common with the
questionnaire method. Data was collected from assistant officer of Vocational
Guidance and Counselling and school principals through interviews.
The results: According to the analysis of the answers of the questionnaire
and the interviews, it was concluded that vocational guidance has a challenging role
to play in every developing economy. The word of work is in a state of continuous
change. Some careers are disappearing while new and alternative careers are coming
to the fore. Life has become more complex. Innumerable problems exist within the
social context and one’s occupation has become increasingly prestigious. Vocational
guidance is assuming responsibility in every direction — selection of educational
courses, profitable occupations, jobs, placement, higher level of education, training,
improvement of study skills, personal adjustment, even identifying gifted and backward
students and helping them to achieve the maximum. It is imperative to match the
Guidance Services changing values of an individual with a new set of career possibilities, to assess the
needs of the labour market and match them with the need of the individual.
A vocational guidance service is highly significant due to the following reasons:
NOTES  Students get greater insight into the various new occupations and careers and
build true self-concept and measure self -appraisal in the job.
 It enables teachers to disseminate information easily.
 Principals to help in preparing the student community to contribute better.
 Society and nation-building— vocational guidance aims at efficient use of
manpower and greater economy in the execution of work in industry, business
and government offices.
Example: Vocational guidance at the Indian School, New Delhi
At the Indian School, the faculty are conscious that they are responsible for not only
teaching the students but also prepare them for the next stage in life especially,
regarding their career. The faculty at the Indian School helps the students to prepare
for higher academic education at a college or university in India as well as abroad.
The faculty also guides the students about various career options like services,
business and industry or even in sports, media, performing and fine arts. Vocational
guidance forms an integral part of the school. Self- assessment is encouraged from
an early stage and is now a page in their report card.
The Discovery learning project is programmed to do just that. Over the years,
students learn to identify and understand their own inclinations and aspirations and
eventually arrive at the choices they wish to make. Aptitude tests are conducted at
regular intervals to assist students in making choices and our teachers and in-house
counsellors work in close coordination with both the students and their parents.
Career advice is given through the annual career melas held in September each
year, where talks are arranged with senior professionals from trade and industry.
The talks are aimed at increasing awareness of specific careers and typical qualities
and educational inputs sought by organizations when recruiting young people.
Attempts are also being made to coach students in practising on appearing
for interviews, preparing presentations, writing CVs and covering letters. Such
guidance, it is felt, would be invaluable in helping the student to chart out a map for
life whether it is for higher education in a university overseas or preparing for a
vocation.
The school is also working on a scheme to send students of class XII on
Internship programmes during the summer vacations to multinational companies,
banks, law firms, retail outlets to acquire first-hand work experience.
Example: Pratham Institutes
The Problem
The youth of India faces a major problem in terms of unemployment and
underemployment. The main cause of these problems is that a lot of students dropout
from school and do not receive proper education. Many students from low income
groups have to leave their schooling to support their family. Also, the youth does not Guidance Services
have the required information about the job market and also lack the basic skills that
most employers seek in their employees. Most young people are also unaware of
the opportunities that are available to them and indulge in daily wages jobs leading to
underemployment. NOTES
What is the Pratham Institute's role?
The Pratham Institute was set-up in 2005 with the aim of providing practical skills to
the young people. The institute offers education and vocational training and helps
the youth develop skills to get the necessary employment in industry and to foster
entrepreneurship. The objectives of the institute are as follows:
 The institute aims to provide training to youth from economically weaker
sections. The training is vocational training and helps the youth to find the
necessary job opportunities and get a job that supports them in every way.
 The institute provides training to the youth to enable them to develop foundation
skills essential for success in their chosen vocations.
 The institute prepares the youth to meet the demands of the labour and the
industrial market.
 The institute also provides mentorship and financial support to the youth to
start their own businesses.
Major Programmes
The Pratham Institute aims to address India's growing demand for skilled manpower
in the following three ways:
Pratham Arora Centre for Education (PACE)
At the PACE centres, industry specific programmes are provided. These programmes
help the youth to prepare for the following industries— hospitality, construction,
bedside assistance, and automotive.
The curriculum for these programmes has been developed in collaboration
with leading corporations like the Taj Group of Industries, Larsen and Toubro and
Tata. The course is so designed that the students can get theoretical as well as
practical training on how to work in these industries.
For these programmes, students are usually selected from rural areas, urban
slums and minority communities. These students are trained for a period of three
months. The students are trained in fields where their interest lies. In other words,
the criterion is not based on the educational or academic achievements of the students.
At the end of the course or even during the course of the programme, the students
are even offered job opportunities.
Entrepreneurship programmes
The Pratham Institute also runs an entrepreneurship programme. The programme is
meant for the youth and especially women who wish to set-up their own businesses.
The institute selects talented and interested youth and trains them in the required
Guidance Services manner and also mentors them as to how to begin a business and achieve success in
it. The institute has two programmes operational— the Beauty Entrepreneurship
Programme and Tailoring Entrepreneurship Programme.
NOTES General skilling centres

The centres set-up by the institute train the youth and help them develop employment
readiness skills. The centres provide training in areas like retail, desktop publishing,
tally, hardware and networking, mobile repair, white goods repair and driving so that
the youth can develop the necessary skills.
Example: A school life enrichment programme by Youngbuzz—India’s
premier career guidance company
Most students rely on their parents, teachers, friends and most often their academic
performance to select the right career and one of their choice. YoungBuzz, however,
believes that one must choose career appropriate to one’s aptitude, interest and
personality that enables one to be more productive at work.
YoungBuzz has developed a programme that aids the students during their
schooling. The programme is, in fact, integral to the schooling years of the students.
The programme is called ‘The School Life Skill Enrichment Programme’ which
must form a part of the curriculum of every school.
The programme is divided into six parts, which can be customized to suit the
needs of every school.
i. Career guidance: The careers of most students are based on their academic
achievements rather than on their interests and passions. YoungBuzz conducts
aptitude-interest-personality test to help to find out the interests of the students
related to their vocational choices. The test helps the students to identify their
strengths, weaknesses and areas of their interests enabling them to choose a
career of their choice. The counsellors at YoungBuzz can also guide parents
and teachers to further guide the students into choosing the right career options.
ii. Life skill enhancement: YoungBuzz runs personality development
programmes and finishing schools to help the students develop the necessary
life enhancement skills. These programmes help the students to develop
confidence, communication skills, teamwork, creativity and memory.
iii. Academic enhancement: The academic enhancement programme is meant
for students who do not perform at the required level in their class. The
counsellors at YoungBuzz assess the students on their academic performance
and then create education plans for every student. However, the only two
subjects that are assessed are mathematcis and language.
iv. Workshop for parents: Since parents play an important role in the lives of
students, even the parents need to develop sufficient skills to guide the children
in the right manner. YoungBuzz provides workshops for parents wherein the
parents are trained to parent effectively and help their children in the best
possible manner.

v. Workshop for teachers: Teachers also need to have specific skills and Guidance Services
qualities so that they can guide and teach the students in an effective manner.
Also, teachers are motivated more when they feel they have achieved or
accomplished something. The Motivator programme is provided by YoungBuzz
to help teachers enhance their skills. The programme helps the teachers to: NOTES
 Perform better
 Develop self-esteem and a positive attitude
 Deal with stress
 Improve their communication and interpersonal and class management
skills
vi. Counsellor at school: YoungBuzz also provides the facilities of a unique
career cell programme. This programme aids the schools in providing career
guidance information to the students within the school premises.
Under this programme, teachers and counsellors are trained to assist in the
following ways:
 They guide the students in making the right career decisions.
 They provide information to students about careers in science and art and
commerce.
 They carry out the Aptitude – Interest – Personality assessment tests and
evaluate them, if necessary.
 They interpret the results of the various assessment tests in the schools.
 They provide counselling services as and when required to the students.
Benefits of the Programme
The programme benefits both teachers as well as the students in the following
ways:
 It enables the students and teachers to develop self-esteem and confidence.
 It helps students to develop enthusiasm for learning.
 It helps the students and teachers to develop communication and positive
social skills.
 It helps the students to develop critical thinking and decision-making skills.
 It enables the teachers as well as students to work with peers and in teams.
 It assists the students to handle peer pressure.
 It facilitates the students in taking the right career decisions.
 It helps the students to understand the consequences of wrong decisions and
bad influence.
3. Personal guidance: This may be provided to students so that they can easily
adjust to their social and psychological environment. There are several personal
problems that students may face in school or in college. These problems may be
related to their academics, relationship with parents, teachers, friends, emotional

Guidance Services problems and so on. Personal guidance helps the students to face and overcome
these problems so that students can develop in a healthy emotional and social
environment. The main aim of personal guidance is to enable students adjust to their
social, emotional, moral, physical and spiritual environment.
NOTES Personal guidance is needed by the students for the following reasons:
 It helps students in personal adjustment.
 It enables students to avoid interpersonal conflicts and tensions.
 It facilitates students take decisions related to their personal problems.
 It helps students to develop in a happy and healthy environment.
Example: Student development services by St. Anthony’s College
St. Anthony’s College offers student guidance services which aims to guide students
regarding their personal, educational and vocational environment. The aim of the
guidance services is to promote the overall and balanced development of the students.
The college believes that students need proper educational and vocational guidance
so that they can make the right decisions for their future and teaching alone cannot
achieve this goal. The college, therefore, offers guidance services to help students
acquire the necessary life skills. The college offers its services to the students in
North-East India where the students are not provided with enough facilities to explore
their potentials. Guidance services are necessary for these students so that they can
exploit their potential and channelize their energy in the right manner to achieve their
goals in life. Professionals offer help to guide and counsel the students so that they
may develop in the right manner and move in the right direction.
Educational guidance
Educational guidance is offered by the college so that the students can be guided as
to choosing the right courses. A separate department at the college provides
information to the students about the various courses and subjects available and also
guides the students into choosing the right options according to their interest and
aptitude. The counselling services are also offered to those students who have poor
learning habits, lack of concentration, who do not fare well at academics, so that
these students can be encouraged to learn more effectively.
Vocational/Career guidance
The college also offers vocational guidance wherein the students are provided
information related to the various career choices that they have. The students are
told about the various requirements for different jobs and also what they are required
to do in the job. The students are offered guidance so that they can analyse the
various job options and choose the right one.
Personal guidance
The college offers personal guidance that enables the students to understand
themselves better. This also helps the students to adjust to their environment in an
easier manner.
The personal guidance department at the college holds several programmes where Guidance Services
the students:
 Understand the teaching-learning process and also how it affects their
development. The students are also encouraged to get an insight into their
behaviour. NOTES
 Learn about their abilities, skills and aptitudes.
 Learn to adjust to their environment and also learn how to solve their personal
problems. The students are also encouraged to learn how to take the right
career choices depending upon their interests.
 Get training to appear for professional and competitive exams.
Counselling in problem areas
In the North-East, the youth faces problems of drugs, alcohol and AIDS. These
problems are spoiling the lives of many young people as well as their families and
are affecting the society also as a whole. In the North-East, there is a need to
address these problems and spread general awareness about these problems. The
only way in which these problems can be prevented and eradicated is by educating
the young people. The youth must be made aware of the consequences of these
problems so that they can take the necessary preventive measures. It is also essential
to identify the root cause of the problems so that these can be prevented.
In the college, it is the responsibility of the teachers as well as the guidance
and counselling professionals to educate the students about these problems so that
these may be eradicated.
To bring about awareness in youth, the guidance department at the college
undertakes programmes to provide information to the students about alcoholism,
drug abuse and AIDS. The counsellors and professionals try to build a rapport with
the students and make them aware of these problems so that necessary preventive
measures can be taken.
Programmes Conducted by Student Development Services (SDS)
MBA entrance examinations coaching programme
At the college level, MBA Entrance Examinations Coaching Programme is carried
out every year. In this programme, several students are invited by the Indian Institute
of Managements (IIMs) and other reputed business schools for group discussions
and interviews.
The programme is conducted over a period of five months so that the students
can be trained to appear for MBA entrance examinations. In the programme, the
students are given personalized attention by the teachers and are trained in areas
like: quantitative ability, reading comprehension and verbal ability, critical reasoning
ability which are required for an MBA exam. The students are also provided training
on how to participate in a group discussion and appear for a personal interview. The
students are provided customized and high quality test material and are trained to
take the CAT for admissions in the top B schools.
Guidance Services Workshop on development of communication skills
The college also conducts The Communications Skills Development Programme.
The programme aims at improving the communication skills of the students. The
counsellors work on ways in which students communicate and help the students to
NOTES
develop self-confidence and self-esteem. Also, good communication skills boost the
confidence of students so that they can easily participate in job interviews and group
discussions instead of feeling hesitant to do the same.
Career information talks
Career information talks are conducted every week by experts in different career
fields to provide information to the students related to different career options. These
talks cater to several students from other colleges as well. The information provided
is related to aptitudes, job requirements, selection procedure, preparation required
for different careers and so forth. These sessions are always interactive in nature
and help the students to clarify their doubts.
Awareness building programmes
Awareness programmes are also conducted by the college so that the college students
can be made aware of issues like drug abuse, alcoholism, AIDS, premarital sex,
abortion and so on. These programs are usually conducted by experts and medical
professionals who also clarify the doubts of the students and offer them guidance
and counselling related to these issues. The students are also made aware on how to
prevent these problems and how to eradicate these from the society.
Example: Kaaiser global education, New Delhi
Kaaiser Global Education offers the best educational and career counselling services
to students for free. The services are offered by Mr Kapil Chandok. The aim of the
services is to make information available to students related to international education
options available. The expert guides the students to choose the correct college,
course as well as the country where a student can pursue his studies. Career guidance
services are also offered. The professional guidance helps one to make the right
choice.
Kaasier Global Education helps the students in the following ways:
 It offers unbiased and expert counselling to the students.
 It offers assistance in meeting deadlines in terms of admission applications.
 It helps in getting student visas and filing for the visas.
 It prepares the students for the interviews.
 It provides arrangements for the accommodation of students.
 It offers career guidance services.
Choose the correct course
At Kaasier Global, a student is counselled regarding the best course option for him.
The expert guidance enables students to choose a course which best match his
abilities, aptitudes and interests.
Choose the correct college Guidance Services
The expert services also help the students to choose the right college in terms of the
rank and courses available there.
Choose the correct country NOTES
The guidance services also help the students to choose the right country for pursuing
their education. The students are often advised to opt for countries which permit
working along with pursuing their studies.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is the aim of educational guidance?
2. What is vocational guidance?
3.3 GUIDANCE PROGRAMMES
Guidance programmes are needed by people belonging to various backgrounds so

that they can adjust to their personal, emotional as well as social environment.
Guidance plays an important role in the lives of students in schools and colleges. In
fact, many schools, colleges and universities today have separate guidance cells that
offer guidance services to the students so that they can attain all round development.
Developing guidance programmes for students is not an easy task and it must
be ensured that the guidance programmes so developed help students adjust in all
spheres of their life. Guidance programmes, therefore, must focus not only on how
students can improve their performance at the academic level but also must assist
the students to adapt to their social, personal and psychological environment. Thus,
a guidance programme must provide guidance in personal, educational, vocational,
social, avocational and psychological areas to a student.
A guidance programme must be based on the following assumptions:
 All students need guidance and assistance with regards to specific knowledge
and skills and providing this assistance is the main objective of the guidance
programmes.
 Guidance programmes are essential to guide students in educational, personal
and vocational areas.
 Guidance programmes are essential to assist students who have special needs
for development in specific areas.
 The various educational programmes and staff involved with these educational
programmes require support which can be provided by guidance programmes
only.

Guidance Services Essentials of a Good Guidance Programme
A guidance programme typically has the following components:
 Guidance curriculum is one of the most important components of the guidance
NOTES programme. The guidance curriculum links the school with the social and
economic system of the community, the needs of the students with the needs
of the community and helps the students to prepare a formal plan for their
future. The curriculum is delivered by guidance counsellors with the support
of the teachers in the classrooms or through specific school events.
 Individual planning is the component that aims at helping the students to know
about themselves in detail. This component is implemented at the middle and
high level of schooling. This component helps the students to devise career
plans and also to adjust to the school life in every possible manner.
 Responsive services: Responsive services are components that include
preventive programmes that prevent students from making wrong choices
with respect to educational and career goals. These services also include
remedial measures to help students who have already made wrong choices.
 System support: The system support component includes staff development,
community resource development, policy development, budget and facilities.
The characteristics of a good guidance programme are as follows:
 It must be designed and developed as a school programme with defined
outcomes for students from kindergarten to class XII.
 It must include achievable and measurable outcomes in each of the four
student programme domains: personal, social, educational and career.
 It must be developmental, in that activities appropriate to student maturity
levels are systematically presented.
 It must outline roles for all members of the school community.
 It should include the establishment of an advisory group comprising the
guidance counsellor, educators, parents, students, support staff and community
representatives.
 It must be implemented by a qualified guidance counsellor who manages and
coordinates the programme and delivers components of the programme that
require particular professional expertise.
Example: Guidance Programme at District Level for Schools in India
The main aim of school counselling programmes is to provide all students with
academic, career and personal counselling so that they can develop the required
skills to learn in a proactive and effective manner.
The four main areas of development that school counselling programmes aim
at include academic, career, personal and community involvement of the students.
The aim of the school counselling programme is to enable the students to adjust to
their academic, personal as well as career environment.

The aims of the Comprehensive Guidance and Counselling Programme are as follows: Guidance Services
 It addresses the various education and vocational needs of all students.

 It offers developmental and remedial services to students.
 It conducts an annual review of the performance of the students. NOTES
 It offers developmental programmes for the staff as well so that they are
able to provide educational programmes in an effective manner.
 It collaborates and coordinates with the school staff, teachers, parents and
the community in general.
 It offers services of school counsellors to the students on a regular basis
within the school premises.
The school counselling programme benefits the students, teachers and the community.
The benefits to students include the following:
 The programme prepares the students for challenges in their academic, social
as well as vocational environments so that they can adjust to these
environments.
 The students learn life-enhancing skills and learn the art of self-management.
 The programme prepares the students in achieving their future goals and
dealing with failures.
 The programme provides knowledge to the students about the changes taking
place around them in the world.
 The programme prepares the students for a career and helps them to plan
their future.
The benefits to parents include the following:
 It helps the parents in planning their children’s future in a systematic manner.
 The programme provides the parents with the required support so that they
can advocate the education and career paths of their children and also help in
the personal development.
 The programme increases the school-parent interaction.
 Parents have better and easy access to the school community.
The benefits to teachers include the following:
 The programme ensures that the academic activity of students is supplemented.
 The teachers get to work with a team of professionals so that they can support
and help students in academics as well as in career planning.
 The programme also provides training and counselling for teachers so that
they can perform their roles in an efficient manner.
The benefits to school counsellors include the following:
 The programme helps the school counsellor to work on students in an individual
manner as per the needs and requirements of the students.

Guidance Services  The programme presents the counsellor as an advocate of the students.
 The programme clearly defines the roles and functions of the school counsellor.
 The counsellor is able to work in alignment with the mission and goals of the
NOTES school.
The benefits to administrators include the following:
 The counselling programme is run as a part of the academic mission of the
school and so the goals can be achieved more effectively.
 The administrators do not have to work on the programme content and structure
as it is already provided.
 The administrators can easily evaluate the guidance and counselling
programme.
Benefits to the community include the following:
 The programme ensures that the students get the required support from the
community for their success.
 Since the programme develops students for career and quality work, the
economic development of the community is enhanced.
 The community members get more opportunities to interact with the schools
and know about their missions and programmes.
 The programme makes the community as well as the schools sensitive to the
needs of each other and fosters a better relationship between the two of
them.
Benefits for business and industry include the following:
 The school counselling programmes develop workforce with decision-making
skills, pre-employment skills and necessary work skills thereby making it easy
for the industry to hire skilled workers.
 The programme allows prominent business houses and industries to participate
in the career development programmes of the schools.
 Businesses and industries can collaborate and coordinate better with counsellors
and communities.
Example: Guidance and Mentorship Programme
GAME is a group-based mentoring programme. The aim of the programme is to
support the development of the young people who are at a risk of being disengaged
from school. The programme typically works with children in the age group of
thirteen to sixteen years.
Programme Description:
 During the course of the programme, young children are engaged in activities
that enrich their skills and help them to develop in a holistic manner.
 It provides the youth with interactive sessions with the mentors through emails,
phone calls and other mediums.
 The programme is group based mentoring programme. Guidance Services
 The mentors offer holistic guidance and counselling to the students.

Target group: Indian youth between thirteen to sixteen years of age
Criterion: To benefit from the programme, the youth needs to be referred by a NOTES
school counsellor.
Trained & qualified volunteers: During the programme, the sessions are
conducted by trained volunteers who provide the right guidance to the youth so that
they can develop the necessary skills.
Enhanced programme: The programme is a structured learning programme of six
months and is supported by Positive Youth Development and Social Emotional Learning
structures.
Provision of resource materials: The programme also ensures that all the children
are provided with the required resource material in terms of books.
Evaluation to assess participant’s performance: The program also includes a
pre-and post -evaluation assessment test to keep track of the performance of the
youth.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

3. What are the essential components of a guidance programme?
4. List the characteristics of a good guidance programme.
3.4 KINDS OF GUIDANCE SERVICES
The central focus of the education system is the student. Every student faces some
problem or the other during his years of education in school or college. This is where
guidance services play a significant role. Guidance services must form an integral
part of the education system. Guidance services must be provided to students as
and when they need them to help solve their problems. Guidance services help
students to develop their potential so that they can be successful in their studies and
career. There are several types of guidance services that are required by the students
at various levels in school and college.
The guidance services can be categorized as follows:
1. Pre-admission services: Pre-admission services are typically provided to
students who have appeared for their class X and XII board exams or their college
exams and are waiting for their results and want to know about the admission process
to various colleges. Pre-admission services are provided to students so that they can
learn about the various high schools, colleges and universities and the various courses
offered by these institutions. Such services help the students to know the various
options available to them. The aims of pre-admission services include the following:

Guidance Services  To ensure that the academic achievements of students are related to their
occupational and study plans in the future.
 To ensure that the academic and occupational plans of students match with
their abilities and skills.
NOTES
 To make the students aware of the disadvantages of choosing the wrong
course and subjects.
 To inform the students of the current trends and also about the various courses
and admission processes.
Counsellors in schools and colleges offer pre-admission services wherein they provide
complete information to the students about the various courses available and the
admission process to various institutions. The counsellors provide information through
various sources like printed sheets, brochures, emails and other mediums. Counsellors
through pre-admission services help students to plan their immediate and long-term
goals.
The counsellors consider the academic achievements and aspiration of the
students to help them select the right course and institution. It is the job of the
counsellors to ensure that the students complete and submit all admission and financial
applications within the specified deadlines.
Pre-admission services by counsellors are especially important for students
belonging to backward and low-income families.
Example: Pre-admission services provided by Eklavya Overseas, Delhi
Eklavya Overseas offer pre-admission services in the best possible manner so that
an individual does not face any issues while completing the admission formalities.
Eklavya Overseas has come up with the idea of providing pre-admission guidance
services to clarify the doubts and confusion of students regarding the best career
choice.
Creating awareness
Eklavya Overseas, conveys a mission so as to be able to create awareness among
the fraternity of all students and parents that it is possible to smoothen the admission
process only by staying informed about the right kind of information. The aim behind
making available the admission guidance process is to let all concerned parents
realize that the overall admission procedure is not so difficult and we help in assisting
the same. While benefiting all concerned students about the admission procedure,
we focus on a few steps such that the admission takes place in the right and timely
manner.
Details furnished
Their team of professionals will offer various details pertaining to the mode of
payment, application fees, deadlines so that the student faces minimum problem in
these matters. The student, will further be encouraged in seeking our services by
learning that our team of professional experts inform about the different locations
where the documents needs to be sent, in order, to benefit your cause in the right
direction. Engaging in a detailed discussion along with our professionals will also Guidance Services
assist the student in staying informed about the list of documents required at the time
of admission.
Exhaustive process adopted NOTES
Their team of professionals understands the fact that it is important to be guided
through the entire process of admission and take the additional responsibility in doing
so. The company also understands that successful admission can only be ensured, if
the whole process is performed in an exhaustive and detailed way.
Pre- Admission guidance is offered in the right way by means of evaluating,
finalizing and developing a list of colleges/educational institutions from which the
individual can always make a choice. Also, the student is offered the facility of
paying a visit to the college/educational institutes, in order, to be able to determine, if
the same proves to be a perfect match as per his requirement.
Admission services: Admission services are offered to students so that
they can choose the right course according to their abilities and skills. Sometimes,
students choose the wrong course which does not match their abilities and so are
unable to do well in the course. Such students drop the course which leads to wastage
of their time, effort and money. Admission services are provided to ensure that
students do not make such mistakes and that they get admission in the right course.
Once the admission services help the students to choose the right course, there are
several steps that need to be taken to ensure that the admission process takes place
smoothly.
The following are the basic steps of an admission process:
 Filling of an application form: The application form must be completely
filled accurately and must be supported by all essential documents so that the
chances to secure admission are increased. Providing all the essential
documents also reduces the inconvenience that colleges might face with
regards to incomplete information or missing documents.
 Obtaining information: The students must secure the required information
about the course structure, the course fee, the faculty members, student-aid,
infrastructure, evaluation systems and other information that the students
find essential for pursuing the course must be collected by the students from
faculty members, teachers and guidance officers. Some institutions also have
separate seats for various categories of students. This information must also
be provided to the students by the guidance officers so that they know their
prospects of getting admissions in the college of their choice.
 Obtaining information and entrance exams: For some courses, students
need to appear for common entrance examinations after their university or
board exams. The students need to obtain all the necessary information about
these entrance exams, the procedures and the results. This helps the students
to take the right decision at the right time.

Guidance Services  Getting information about the course syllabus: Most institutions provide
the details of the syllabus on the websites or publish these in papers. This
helps the students to know the scope of the course and decide about their
vocational plans in the future.
NOTES Off late, online admission procedure has been started by several colleges and
universities along with online admission guidance. Such procedures are proving to
be quicker and more satisfactory.
Example: AdmissionAssist programme by AdmissionzCampuz, New Delhi
AdmissionAssist is a personalized and unbiased college admission support service
based in New Delhi. The services aim at guiding the students on how to secure their
admissions in colleges in India. The service is provided by means of a computerized
application of Admizzionz Campuz. The application has a large database that stores
instructions in it and formats of admissions to different courses and colleges in India.
AdmissionAssist offers a one-to-one session with the students and parents so that
they can avail the following information:
 It helps in selecting colleges in which the students are seeking admission.
 It provides information pertaining to dates of issue of application forms and
their submission date.
 It facilitates in keeping track of all admission related information.
 It provides information about the dates when entrance examinations are to be
conducted and the counselling dates of various colleges.
 It helps the students in making choices about their future education goals.
 It keeps the students informed about the cut-off lists of various courses and
colleges.
The various benefits offered by the AdmissionAssist Programme include the following:
 The programme provides updated information to the parents and students
regarding admissions to higher education courses.
 The programme provides support to the students so that they can be successful
while seeking admissions to colleges.
 Since the programme provides the application forms and all other necessary
information about admissions, it saves a lot of time of the students as well as
the parents.
 The programme provides support in correct filling of the application form. It
also ensures that all formalities are completed so that the form is not rejected.
 Since the programme handles all the admission related steps, the students
can focus more on their preparation to exams of higher levels.
 The programme provides all information related to the fee structure also well
in advance and so parents can manage and plan their finances in advance.

Example: What to expect at an orientation session Guidance Services
The main aim of colleges to start orientation is to familiarize the newcomers with the
college and to ease the tension of transition from school life to college life. Orientation
sessions are ways in which students meet other students, get familiar with what the
NOTES
college campus has to offer and also to register for different classes and activities
that the college has to offer.
Generally, most colleges earlier conducted orientation only for students.
However, off late the need for orientation of parents is also considered essential.
This enables the parents to know what the college has in store for their children and
how the college can help in shaping the future of their children.
Student orientation is, in fact, a student’s first experience of the college wherein
the student gets to know about college life and prepares for the same.
Preparing for the orientation sessions:
To be ready for the orientation sessions, the parents as well as the students must
read all the information that the college has provided or sent online. The students
and parents must make efforts to read about the college and its facilities from online
publication and college magazines or periodicals. Though the parents and students
are made aware about all facets of the college during the orientation, it is better for
them to know a little beforehand prior attending the orientation session. When coming
to attend the orientation session, the parents and the students must carry all the
necessary documents that have been asked for.
Many times, colleges ask the students to register for extra-curricular activities
or other courses at the orientation. It is, therefore, important for the parents and
students to be aware of the courses that are offered by the college. This saves time
and effort for both the college as well as the students.
What happens during an orientation session?
At the orientation session, the students and the parents get to know about the life in
the selected college. The session also includes ‘getting to know you’ session wherein
the students are encouraged to share information about themselves and, thus, get to
know about other students as well. Sessions are also conducted on providing
information about various courses and other facilities in the college and may also
attend advisory sessions wherein counsellors advise the students as to the right
course options. During the orientation sessions, the students get to know about the
ethics and codes of conduct adhered to in the college, the mission and vision of the
college and, also the sports and extracurricular activities that are conducted by the
college for the students. Once the students attend orientation, they usually do not
have problems navigating the campus.
During the orientation, information is also provided regarding any organizations
and clubs that the college is running for the leisure of the students. At the orientation,
the students are encouraged to register in some organization or club so that they can
attain all round development. Students can opt for anything they feel is of their
interest and matches their attitude and aptitude.

Guidance Services 2. Student information services: The main aim of student information services is
to make available information to students for their personal, social, emotional and
spiritual adjustment and development. Student information services are considered
essential for students so that they can make the right career and educational decisions.
NOTES Student information services involve collecting information about the students
and maintaining records in a systematic manner so that the information can be easily
retrieved and utilized when essential. Student information services are generally
provided by professional counsellor or guidance officers who work full-time or part-
time with the educational institutions.
Student information services provide educational and occupational information
to the students. Such information may be collected from various sources like
newspapers, magazines, periodicals and publications of companies and institutions.
The guidance personnel may also collect such information from various tests including
personality tests, aptitude tests and observations. The student information services
help the students to know about their abilities, skills, interests, achievements, social
skills, aspirations, mental health and so on. These services must be promptly available
to the students, parents and teachers.
3. Counselling services: Counselling services are considered an integral part of
guidance services in schools and colleges. The counselling services are essential for
the educational, personal and vocational development of the students. Counselling
services must be provided by full-time counsellors in academic, career and personal
as well as social areas. These services help students to identify and solve challenges
that may be faced by the students at various levels during their educational journey.
These services help students to resolve their social, emotional as well as mental
issues so that they can adjust to their educational institutions as well as careers.
Counselling services help students to get clear focus and sense of direction in life.
Counselling services are essential for students due to the following reasons:
 These services enable students to understand their abilities and skills.
 These services help students analyse and understand the choices available
and choose the best option.
 Students are able to identify problems and difficulties and learn ways to handle
them.
 It strengthens the abilities and skills of the students.
 These services facilitate students to make decisions and future plans according
to their abilities and skills.
There are several methods that can be used by counsellors to offer counselling
services to the students. The two methods that are most commonly used by counsellors
include the following:
 Group counselling sessions
 Individual counselling sessions

Group counselling sessions are conducted by school counsellors in small groups to Guidance Services
address various issues of students that may be related to family, academics,
adjustment, and society. Individual counselling sessions may also be conducted by
school or college counsellors. These sessions enable students to express themselves
in a better manner so that they can solve their problems. The main aim of such NOTES
sessions is to help students adjust to their personal, social and educational environment.
Example: Indian Institute of Technology counselling Services
Counselling is considered by the Indian Institute of Technology as a process to help
clients. The main aim of the counsellor is to build a relationship with the client so that
the counsellor can help the client in a focused manner and help the client to bring
about changes in his lifestyle. The counsellor needs to have specific skills so that he
can bring about a change in the thinking process of the clients and encourage overall
and healthy development of the clients. A counsellor must work in a professional
manner to help the client overcome the problem but can help only, if the client is
willing and agrees to seek the help of the counsellor.
The Indian Institute of Technology Counselling Services offers counselling in
areas as follows:
 Problem management
 Decision-making
 Crisis management
 Support and life skills training
Confidentiality
The institute also refers clients to other counsellors when the counsellors at the
centre feel that they cannot handle the problems of the client. The institute also
requires the counsellor to maintain confidentiality of the information shared as per
the prescribed laws and ethics. The counsellor under no circumstances is allowed to
share the client information with any other person.
The Indian Institute of Technology Counselling Services offers counselling services
as follows:
 Individual counselling which involves individual counselling of a client.
 Group counselling in which a group is counselled on an issue.
 Co- counselling in which each partner is allowed to listen to the other with
empathy.
 Peer self- help groups in which groups of peers are formed wherein they
discuss the problems that each of them is facing and try to find a solution.
 Referrals in which the client is referred to another counsellor who is more
specialized to handle the problem of the client.
 Group therapy is like group counselling wherein a group participates to find a
solution to the problem.

Guidance Services  Relationship counselling wherein partners are counselled into developing a
healthy relationship.
 Problem-solving sessions and life skill training wherein the clients are
encouraged to find solutions to their problems and develop the essential life
NOTES skills.
 Personality testing and development which includes test for self- assessment
followed by self -help techniques.
 Workshops and interactive sessions are conducted for all students who face
problems especially for those staying in hostels.
 Institute level workshops for students are carried out to develop different
skills in the students and to help them adjust to their environment.
 Speech therapy and communication skills are offered so that the students can
develop the necessary communication skills and techniques to build confidence
and self- esteem.
Example: Online counselling services offered by HotCourses India
HotCourses India offers students the luxury of going through the most comprehensive
and up-to-date database of courses offered by institutions in the USA, UK, Australia,
Singapore, Malaysia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Ireland and the Netherlands. With
so many options available, it is very easy to get confused or make a wrong choice
that could affect future career plans of students.
When other study abroad agencies charge fee for their services, this institute
is transparent and frank in its dealing. This institute offers overseas admission
counselling services free of cost. This includes the following:
 Counselling via phone/Skype/direct interview
 Profile analysis and course and institution recommendation
 Assistance in completing the admission application form
 Assistance in completing the Statement of Purpose and writing curriculum
vitae (CVs)
 IELTS/TOEFL preparation classes conducted by certified English language
experts
 Mock student visa interviews
 Recommendation of available scholarships
 Integrated support provided online and over the phone
4. Placement services: Placement services help students to obtain employment.
Career and placement services must be provided to the students to ensure that they
get placed in the right job according to their skills and abilities. These services provide
complete information related to the various companies and organizations that recruit
students. These services also provide information about the various career options
available and any related information that can help students get the best job. According
to Downing, ‘Placement is a service, designed to assist students in selecting a suitable
courses, extra-class activities and part-time or full-time employment.’
Placement services involve the following three stages: Guidance Services
 Assessing the abilities, skills and aptitudes of the students.

 Assessing the various career options available and analysing them.
 Relating the relevant careers with the skills of the students. NOTES
Placement services have two dimensions associated with them:
 Educational placement: These services assist students in selecting the
suitable curriculum, courses, training programmes and co-curricular activities.
These services must aim at providing educational placement information related
to the career that the student many choose in the future.
 Vocational placement: Vocational placement is provided by a guidance
officer to assist the students in selecting the right occupation or training
programme. The aim of vocational placement is to help students find part-
time or full-time employment once they have finished their studies. To ensure
that the students get the right information about the various career options,
the guidance officer must have up-to-date information about the career options.
Example: Training and placement services at Sandip Foundation,
Maharashtra
Training & Placement (T&P )cell at Sandip Foundation has come up with a unique
way of training the students. This training facilitates the students in not only finding
a placement in the private sector but also in getting a job in the government sector.
Moreover, the institute also enables the students to develop a smart personality and
choosing a perfect career.
The institute provides soft skill training right from the first year. This training
is provided by in-house faculty, industry experts and professional trainers. All of
them unanimously contribute in grooming and shaping the students to face the
competitive industrial world. T&P cell also assists in various projects of enhancing
technical skills of engineering students by entering MOU with various Technical
Training Institute.
Example: Placement Cell at Angadi Institute of Technology and
Management, Belgaum
The Department of Placement and Training set-up at the Angadi Institute plans and
implements value added programmes. The institute offers programmes like PDP
programmes, Technology Training programmes and Bridge courses. These courses
are usually conducted in areas where employment opportunities exist. The
programmes offered add to the credibility of the students and trains them to be good
engineering professionals.
Placement and Training Department has also been established. The
department aims to provide pre-placement training to the pre-final year students.
The department organizes career talks wherein the pre-final year students are
provided training by the final year students about the various industries and career
options and how to get into the industry of their choice. The placement department
Guidance Services also organizes seminars wherein different professionals share their views with the
students and inform the students about the likely prospects of higher education and
how to succeed in competitive exams like CAT, GMAT and other tests.
In 2011, the department of placement and training was established as a separate
NOTES entity and was able to help almost 140 students by collaborating with about thirty
organizations. The number of organizations has increased rapidly since the inception
of the department. Today, the campus has about 100 to 120 renowned organizations
visiting them for recruitments.
The department aimed at providing information about placement to the students
who needed the information. The department which was started in one big room is
now functioning with facilities like seminar hall for company presentations, group
discussion rooms and conferencing facilities, interview and discussion rooms. The
department has been divided into several administrative blocks so that the recruitment
process can be made simple for the students and that the students can be provided
the required information in an effective manner.
The department functions with the help of dedicated and committed staff.
The staff of the department makes every effort to ensure that the deserving students
get placements from the good organizations. The department also conducts aptitude
and soft skills test for the students to know about their abilities and aptitudes before
they can benefit from the campus recruitment programme.
Example: Placement services and their need in schools
Before discussing the need and importance of placement service, it is necessary to
explain about the task of counselling in brief. Counselling advises the students about
the right course or industry to be pursued as per their aptitude and skill. The placement
service in guidance helps them in getting recruited at the desired places.
 After completing class XII, a student may like to pursue a course of study
with certain elective subjects in a college or university. However, due to lack
of knowledge about institutions of higher education most pupils experience,
frustration and aimlessness in their life. Sometimes, students do not know
when to contact, whom to contact and how to prepare for admission in the
institution of their choice.
 After completing education or leaving the school, a student may look for a
right type of job.
 Placement service is needed to assist the student in acquiring vocational skills.
 A pupil may like to continue his vocational training in a vocational institute
which would enhance his future prospects.
 An organized placement service is needed in every school or secondary school
to assist students in their placement in a vocational training institute.
The Placement service is applied in three areas or types of guidance. These are
personal, educational and vocational.

Placement service in personal guidance Guidance Services
In this type of guidance, placement service renders assistance to pupils to find

themselves rightly placed at home, in the school and in the society as a whole. They
come to enjoy the company of like-minded people. They have a friendly atmosphere
NOTES
all around them. They have a place in their peer groups. They are liked by the
parents. They are well-settled in family. Certainly, the students find themselves in
places where they can perform to the best of their ability and capacity.
Placement service in educational guidance
In this type of guidance, the placement service provides assistance to the students
by ensuring that the students gain admission in the schools which are most appropriate
for them. They are able to pursue the courses of their choice. They get to participate
in the extra-curricular activities of their choice.
Placement service in vocational guidance
This service is meant for the persons who join jobs. The students are yet to reach
this stage. Nevertheless, they are only preparing for that phase. Certainly, this service
helps the individuals find the right kind of job that should be to their liking. It can help
the individuals who work, earn and learn. It takes them to the part-time job they can
do that should not take all the time they have. To work— is a means for them and to
learn is the end they seek to achieve.
In view of the above discussion, it can be said that the placement service in
all the three types of guidance in schools assists the students to be their best in all
arenas of life. At home, they are loving children to their parents to whom they pay
their due regards. In schools, they do well in studies. They adjust well with their
friends and teachers. In society, they find themselves well placed in all kinds of
activities that happen throughout the day. Hence, the placement service brings the
best to the students.
5. Remedial services: Remedial services are offered by school counsellors with
the assistance of teachers to enable students to develop their full potential. Sometimes,
students face problems in reading and mathematics. Most secondary school students
need remedial services to read effectively as they face several problems in reading.
Remedial services are provided so that the students can develop the required skills
to compete in the educational and vocational fields. There are many students who
have learning disabilities and problems and they need remedial services to develop
the essential educational skills.
Example: Institute for Remedial Intervention Services (IRIS)
IRIS is an institution that provides consultancy and training services to schools,
parents, organizations, governmental agencies that work for the betterment and
development of people with special needs. The main aim of the institute is to work
with people who suffer from behavioural disorders including Autism and Asperger's
Syndrome. IRIS aims to promote the cause of autism and help students who need
special help. The institute aims to develop infrastructure for students who need

Guidance Services special education. The institute also aims at training professionals who can foster
special education of the children who need special help.
IRIS was founded on 15 August 1998.It is basically a private resource centre
which has been set-up to promote the cause of special education, especially for
NOTES those affected with autism and other behavioural disabilities in India.
The slogan of this institute is ‘Every child counts’. The professionals and the
staff at IRIS work to fulfil the mission statement which says ‘Excellence, Ethics
and Empowerment’.
Excellence: IRIS believes that excellence can be provided by providing child-centred
services so that the child and his family can live with autism throughout life.
Ethics: IRIS follows the basic ethics and code of conduct in delivering its services
and working for the cause of the children who suffer from autism. Every team
member at IRIS is responsible and accountable for the lives of several children that
they influence through their various programmes.
Empowerment: At IRIS, the team works together to achieve the objectives and
the mission for which the institute has been established.
Since the group that IRIS works with is that of individuals with special needs,
the assessment provided are usually home based so that the students can enhance
their performance at their own pace. IRIS has established a strong network to
support the students who are benefited from the programmes that are carried out by
the professionals at IRIS. Several community based programmes are also carried
out by IRIS for furthering the cause of autism and individuals with special needs.
The idea of IRIS is to establish inclusive and Least Restrictive Environment
(LRE) for the children with special needs. For this, IRIS conducts regular classes
for the students with special teachers recruited who understand the special needs of
the students.
Example: V-Excel Remedial Centre, Chennai
The V-Excel Remedial Centre was started in September 2002 with its main objectives
as follows:
 To enable the students develop the essential study skills and habits.
 To provide training to students so that they can develop organizational skills.
 To train the students and help them to develop test taking skills.
 To offer instructions to students on one-on-one basis in the areas of language
skills and mathematics.
 To help students who have learning difficulties to raise their standards of
performance and improve at the academic front.
 To identify the creative and gifted students and to promote their creativity by
conducting workshops and seminars.

The centre caters to the needs of students in the age group of five to twenty-one Guidance Services
years and focuses on realizing and optimizing their potential in every possible manner.
The centre conducts one-to-one programmes for the students to help them develop
the essential skills.
NOTES
Remedial teaching
The essential features of remedial teaching are as follows:
 It offers individual counselling or counselling in small groups.
 It works systematically by following series of steps including observing,
diagnosing, remedy and evaluation.
 It works with students in an exhaustive manner to attain a specific goal.
 It helps the students as per their needs and demands.
 It helps the students in acquiring skills so that they can cope with learning
disorders.
 It ensures that adequate information is available to all those involved in remedial
teaching.
Remedial education basically aims at ensuring that students who do not perform
at par with their peers are provided support, so that they can improve their level of
academic achievement. Remedial teaching aims at helping students who need
pedagogical or didactic assistance. It also assists students who function at a lower
level as compared to their peers or in comparison to their grade and knowledge
level. Usually, these students suffer from learning and behavioural disorders and so
remedial teaching helps these students to reach a higher level or develop skills to
come to par with their peers.
The need of remedial education mainly arises because of the fact that many
students do not get proper education. Also, there are many students who get exposure
to selective subjects. Hence, students do not get the required training in developing
analytical and language skills. Sometimes, the students lack the abilities to learn in a
proper manner. Therefore, such students need remedial teaching.
Remedial teaching is offered by remedial teachers one or twice in a week.
Remedial teaching may be provided to students in school or in class.
To teach students using remedial education measures, the students are given
assessments so that their competency can be checked. On the basis of the test
scores, the students are grouped in classes which will prove to be most beneficial
for them. The size of class is kept small so that each student can be given the
necessary attention
Example: Remedial services for students at HSR Layout, Bangalore
As the word Advaitam means, we believe every child is UNIQUE. Hence, the
teaching methods need to differ to suit every child. The education system in India is
slowly becoming conscious of this reality. While it is impossible for schools to provide
individualized teaching to each child, however, they are aware that not all children

Guidance Services can grasp the one-suit-fits-all teaching approach. These children, thus, face challenges
in a wide variety of areas like handwriting, grammar, speech and concentration.
This, if not identified and intervened at the appropriate time, could hamper the child’s
academic performance.
NOTES The remediation programme is designed for children who are unable to meet
grade-level expectations. Remedial sessions are conducted by an inclusive educator
who is certified by a recognized government institution of Karnataka. The approach
follows individualized remedial programme for each child. This involves analysing
the child’s concern area to get a clear picture of the existing status. This is followed
by creation of the individualized learning programme specifically for the child.
The time required for each child will vary as they respond in their distinct
ways. The programme is constantly modified based on the child’s response level.
Parents play a critical role in this process. Parents are constantly updated on the
intervention techniques and are advised specific activities to be carried out at home.
This approach has helped in providing remediation in a casual and free environment
without putting the child under any psychological pressure.
We undertake remediation in the following areas:
 Reading and Listening Comprehension
 Written Expression
 Grammar and Spellings
 Concentration
 Multisensory tool
 Games designed to improve concentration and memory
6. Follow-up services: Follow-up services begin before the students leave the
school or college. The aim of follow- up services is to check the effectiveness of
educational and vocational adjustment of the students. The follow-up services can
be incidental, systematic or flexible and must be organized so as to assist the students
as well as the institution. The major objectives of follow-up services include the
following:
 Follow-up services help to gather information about the performance of the
students after they complete their education.
 They help to appraise the school or the college programme.
 They facilitate in appraising the guidance and counselling services provided
in schools and colleges.
 They help in planning the improvement of courses and guidance and counselling
services, if required.
Example: Follow-up services in schools—Their functions and methods of
implementation
Follow-up service refers to systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of the guidance
programme in general and placement service in particular. Once the student is suitably

placed in an institution or has taken up a job, the teacher-in-change of guidance Guidance Services
activities studies the progress of the student for a specific period of time. This study
provides feedback to the guidance personnel about the effectiveness of his guidance.
This is what we call follow-up service which is quite useful in minimizing the wastage
of manpower. Follow-up services aim at evaluating the placement and other guidance NOTES
services. It ascertains the changes in occupational interests of the students and
assists them in making adjustments as would be necessary. Follow-up services are
also helpful in reorganizing and improving educational programmes.
The follow-up services are the component of a complete and compact guidance
programme. The children are left at proper places and do what they can. There is a
follow-up action. It may be called a monitoring service. It looks into the things that
pupils are rightly placed or not. Do they need some sort of guidance to do well? Do
they need guidance to change their line of action as a whole? How can they still do
better if they are doing well? It is all that the follow-up service is expected to do.
Functions of Follow-Up Service
The follow-up service performs the following functions:
 It ensures personal contact and correspondence with the student even after
he leaves the school.
 It helps to keep contact with the employer and heads of other institutions.
 It helps to collect information about the student during the post-placement
period.
 The information collected about the progress of the students in the job or
course of study provides feedback about the effectiveness of guidance
programme.
 Follow-up service also paves the way for modifying and improving the guidance
programme of the school.
 It may help in replacement or change of subjects/occupation, if the situation
arises.
Ways to conduct follow-up service programme
The follow-up services can be organized for students studying in schools or students
who left in the middle of the school session and for former students. Students even
after leaving the school can come to the school for help and guidance. The school
knows most about the student and it is in a better position to render proper guidance.
It is through follow-up services that the school can keep in touch with its
students. The purpose of follow-up service is to help in keeping an efficient guidance
programme for its students who have passed out of school. However, the school
after receiving proper information about the various problems of its former student
can effectively organize follow-up services to help them.
Follow-up programme can be conducted in a number of ways which are
given as follows:
 The guidance personnel maintain a list of all the students who have received
placement service.
Guidance Services  The guidance personnel keeps in touch with the educational institution and
the organization which has given employment to the student.
 He collects information from the student about his progress and difficulties
relating to his education, vocational training and employment.
NOTES
 Such information can be collected by personal contact with the student which
may be incidental or deliberate, through mailed questionnaire, postal
correspondence or group meeting of passed out students.
 The feedback received about the student creates grounds for modifying,
improving and restructuring the guidance programme of the school.
Research services: Research services in guidance and counselling must be
conducted to check if school counselling has been effective or not. To carry out the
research services, data must be collected from various schools and colleges that
offer guidance and counselling services. The data so collected must be analysed to
know whether the guidance and counselling services are of use to the students,
teachers and the institution.
Example: Research questions in research services conducted in schools
and colleges
Some research questions that are used in the research service of a school or college
are as follows:
 Does the school and college guidance and counselling service help the students
in developing positive attitudes towards the school or the college and how
especially as compared to students who do not attend guidance and counselling
programme?
 Does group counselling offered by school counsellors bring about a change in
the aggressive and hostile behaviour of the students?
 Do students report that they are being helped by student counsellors in schools
when they experience family problems?
 Do school counsellors effectively help reduce student victimization and student
bullying in schools and colleges?
 Do school counsellors offer effective assistance to the students who are
looking for higher education options?
 Are the school and college guidance and counselling programmes supported
by principals and other staff of the school?
 Are services like individual counselling, small-group counselling, classroom
guidance and consultation activities helpful in contributing to the performance
of the students in and outside the class?
 Are school counsellors successful in involving the parents of troubled students
in the counselling sessions and helping such students to find solutions to their
problems?
 Are the counselling services effective in preventing students from dropping-
out of school or college programmes?
 Do students who attend counselling sessions report feeling positive and develop Guidance Services
feelings of positivity and belongingness to school?
 Are the school and college counsellors effective in influencing the behaviour
of the students especially related to their higher educational expectations?
NOTES
Once data has been collected on these questions, the data can be analysed
and the effectiveness of guidance and counselling services can be evaluated.
Evaluation services: Evaluation services are conducted to check the effectiveness
of the guidance and counselling programmes and sessions. Evaluation services
generally involve the following:
 Evaluation of the guidance and counselling personnel to evaluate the
counsellors.
 Evaluation of the guidance and counselling programme to assess, if it has
been implemented in an effective manner or not and whether it has been of
use or not.
 Evaluation of guidance and counselling results to know the impact that these
services have on the students, teachers as well as the community.
There are several areas of guidance and counselling services that need to be
assessed at regular intervals of time which include the following:
 Guidance and counselling services need to assess the lack of trained personnel
and teachers to provide guidance and counselling to students.
 They need to assess the lack of a full-time counsellor.
 They need to assess the lack of training facilities for guidance personnel.
 They need to assess the apathetic attitude of teachers, students as well as
guidance personnel.
 They need to assess the lack of easily available and standardized tests.
 They need to assess the lack of operational research in guidance.
 Conservative and rigid mind set of parents and students regarding guidance
and counselling services.
Example: Evaluation of effectiveness of guidance and counselling on
college students
Introduction: One of the main issues faced by college students is the fact that they
cannot adjust to the environment. Most students often face problems like depression
and concentration problems as well. These are issues that most college students
need to deal with and so efforts are to be made to prevent such issues. Counselling
services are, thus, offered to help the college students to adjust to their social and
emotional issues and adjust to their educational, vocational and personal problems.
A study was conducted to examine the relationship between the college counselling
experience and the academic performance in few students who are freshers.
Aim: The aim of the study was to explore the relationship and the effect of counselling
on the academic performance of college students.
Guidance Services Objective: The objective of the study was to find out the relationship between
counselling and academic performance and also to find out how the number of
counselling sessions had an effect on the academic performance.
Material and methods: For the study, fifty-four First MBBS college students of
NOTES the SBMCH 2007-2008 batch were selected. The students went through interviews
conducted with the college faculty members. These students were given questionnaires
and an analysis was done to find out the responses of the students and the effect of
counselling on their academic performance.
Result: The results of the study showed that the students who underwent counselling
showed an increase in the average marks by about 15–25 per cent. The study also
showed that the more the number of sessions, the better the academic performance
of the students was.
Conclusion: This study proved that counselling services in colleges are essential to
help students improve their academic performance. Also the counselling sessions
helped the students to overcome several difficulties and that the sessions had a
positive impact on the academic performance of a majority of students.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

5. State the aims of pre-admission services.
6. Name the two dimensions associated with placement services.
3.5 ROLE OF PERSONNEL IN GUIDANCE

PROGRAMMES
There are different personnel roles in guidance and counselling services. With the
assistance of the teachers of the school, the guidance personnel make it possible to
implement guidance and counselling programmes in an effective and efficient manner.
Guidance personnel need to carry out different activities at different levels during
the guidance programme. They also need to make sure that they possess the essential
skills and abilities and have complete information and knowledge on how to help
those who seek their assistance. The following personnel are integral to a guidance
and counselling programme:
 Guidance director
 Guidance counsellor
 Psychometrician
 Researcher
 Auxiliary personnel
Guidance director is responsible for the overall implementation of the guidance
programme. The guidance director guides and assists all the other personnel to
perform their activities for the effective implementation of the guidance programme.
Guidance directors need to have strong work ethics, organizational skills and must
have knowledge of computers as well. The guidance directors must be able to work Guidance Services
with ease and flexibility and also coordinate the efforts of all the other personnel.
The main responsibilities of the guidance director include the following:
 He reviews the guidance programme and makes necessary changes and
adjustments to improve the guidance programme at the end of each year. NOTES
 He conducts meeting with parents, students and heads of institutions as well
as teachers to guide and inform them about the guidance programmes.
 He establishes a mutually beneficial and cordial relationship with other
personnel.
 He attends various conferences at various levels related to guidance and
counselling.
 He organizes and attends administrative meetings and prepares reports
regarding the effectiveness of the guidance programmes.
 He provides counselling to personnel and advisers who meet the needs of the
students.
 He prepares and approves the guidance programme budget.
Guidance counsellor assists the individual to identify and solve the problem
that he faces. The guidance counsellor does not solve the problem but assist the
individual in finding the apt solution to the problem. The guidance counsellor performs
the following activities:
 Individual counselling is offered to students to offer personal, educational and
vocational guidance.
 Group counselling is provided to a group of students to help them solve their
problems and in educational planning.
 Group guidance is provided by counsellors to a group of students so that they
can know themselves better. Group guidance mainly focuses on self-concept,
study skills, friendship and related issues.
 Student appraisal is done by the guidance counsellors so that they can get
information about the students’ interests, abilities, behaviour and achievements.
 Counsellors also act as referral agents and help parents and students to get
assistance from other programmes and services.
 Consultation is also provided by the guidance counsellors to students and
parents so that the right counselling services can be chosen from and planned.
 Coordination is practiced by the counsellors so that the guidance programme
can take place in a smooth and efficient manner.
A guidance counsellor must have intellectual competence and knowledge
about various areas so that they can guide the students and the parents in the right
direction. Guidance and counselling is an emotionally demanding field and so guidance
counsellors must be full of energy so that they can provide the necessary support
and promote the goodwill of the students as well as the parents.

Guidance Services A psychometrician is one who develops tests related to the guidance
programmes. The tests may be varied and may be conducted to collect information
from students and parents. The various activities undertaken by the psychometrician
NOTES  He identifies and selects tests in coordination with the guidance director.
 He prepares test schedules either individually or in groups.
 He administers the test, check the test and interpret the results.
 He provides the test results to the counsellors.
 He prepares the test material and other related activities.
 He maintains a record of test materials and test results.
Researcher is the person who formulates and conducts research activities
and projects. A researcher carries out the following activities:
 He defines research activities.
 He develops a methodology to carry out the research.
 He develops and tests theories.
 He gathers information related to the research project.
 He prepares reports on the basis of the findings and disseminates the
information.
Auxiliary personnel include the following:
 Guidance secretaries who manage appointments, files of those seeking
guidance and also write letters and answer phone calls.
 Psychologists study the human mind and the human behaviour and, thus, help
the students to adjust to their mental and emotional environment.
 Clinical psychologists work to reduce psychological distress and promote the
well-being of those seeking guidance.
 Counselling psychologists provide counselling services after gathering the
required information about the students.
 School psychologists are experts at special education and assist the students
who need special guidance in education.
 Developmental psychologists work to ensure the overall and healthy
development of the students in all aspects.
 Psychiatrists help students deal with their mental and emotional problems.
 Social workers work with the vulnerable groups or people who are socially
isolated and backward providing them the essential guidance services.

Example: Role of guidance counsellor at fairview Junior High School Guidance Services
The guidance counsellor performs the following responsibilities:

 He works with the school and community to develop and implement an effective
guidance programme. NOTES
 He provides personal, social, academic and career counselling to individuals
and small groups.
 He provides consultation services to parents.
 He maintains and disseminates information on guidance related topics.
 He helps in building and promoting a positive and nurturing school atmosphere.
 He assists students from diverse cultures and traditions.
 He assists in mediation and conflict resolution.
 He assists staff in identifying students who require programming adaptations.
 He works with staff and administration to identify and support ‘at risk’ students.
 He is an active member of the school’s Crisis Intervention Team.
 He presents or assists in class or group presentations in guidance-related
issues.
 He communicates with agencies such as community services, public health
and so on.
 He makes referrals to both school board personnel and outside agencies.
 He coordinates guidance related programmes, workshops and services.
 He registers all incoming students.
 He organizes and manages all student files.
 He assists class IX students with high school registration and course selection.
 He visits elementary feeder schools to meet with incoming class VI students
and facilitate transition meetings with elementary staff.
 He coordinates orientation for incoming class VI students.
 He performs other tasks requested by the administration.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

7. Name the personnel who play an indispensable role in a guidance and
counseling programme.
8. What are the main responsibilities of the guidance director?

Guidance Services
3.6 SUMMARY
 Guidance and counselling services are integral part of education system and
NOTES are provided in schools and colleges for the educational, personal and vocational
 Guidance is an integral part of education these days. Guidance is provided at
all levels of education—schools, colleges and universities.
 Guidance provided to students can be classified into the following kinds:
o Educational guidance
o Vocational guidance
o Personal guidance
 Guidance programmes are needed by people belonging to various backgrounds
so that they can adjust to their personal, emotional as well as social
environment. Guidance plays an important role in the lives of students in
schools and colleges.
 The main aim of school counselling programmes is to provide all students
with academic, career and personal counselling so that they can develop the
required skills to learn in a proactive and effective manner.
 The central focus of the education system is the student. Every student faces
some problem or the other during his years of education in school or college.
This is where guidance services play a significant role.
 The main aim of colleges to start orientation is to familiarize the newcomers
with the college and to ease the tension of transition from school life to college
life.
 Orientation sessions are ways in which students meet other students, get
familiar with what the college campus has to offer and also to register for
different classes and activities that the college has to offer.
 Remedial services are offered by school counsellors with the assistance of
teachers to enable students to develop their full potential. Sometimes, students
face problems in reading and mathematics.
 Follow-up services begin before the students leave the school or college. The
aim of follow- up services is to check the effectiveness of educational and
vocational adjustment of the students.
 There are different personnel roles in guidance and counselling services.
With the assistance of the teachers of the school, the guidance personnel
make it possible to implement guidance and counselling programmes in an
effective and efficient manner.
 Guidance counsellor assists the individual to identify and solve the problem
that he faces. The guidance counsellor does not solve the problem but assist
the individual in finding the apt solution to the problem.

Guidance Services
3.7 KEY TERMS
 Responsive services: These are components that include preventive

programmes that prevent students from making wrong choices with respect NOTES
to educational and career goals.
 Life skill: It refers to a skill that is necessary or desirable for full participation
in everyday life.
 Psychometrician: He is a person who practices the science of measurement.
1. The aim of educational guidance is to help students adjust to their educational

environment.
2. Vocational guidance refers to guidance provided to students in deciding upon
the right career path or choice.
3. The essential components of a guidance programme are as follows:
 Guidance curriculum
 Individual planning
 Responsive services
 System support
4. The characteristics of a good guidance programme are as follows:
 It must be designed and developed as a school programme with defined
outcomes for students from kindergarten to class XII.
 It must include achievable and measurable outcomes in each of the four
student programme domains: personal, social, educational and career.
 It must be developmental, in that activities appropriate to student maturity
levels are systematically presented.
 It must outline roles for all members of the school community.
5. The aims of pre-admission services are as follows:
 To ensure that the academic achievements of students are related to their
occupational and study plans in the future.
 To ensure that the academic and occupational plans of students match
with their abilities and skills.
 To make the students aware of the disadvantages of choosing the wrong
course and subjects.
 To inform the students of the current trends and also about the various
courses and admission processes.
6. The two dimensions associated with placement services are educational
placement and vocational placement.

Guidance Services 7. The personnel who play an indispensable role in a guidance and counselling
programme are as follows:
 Guidance director
 Guidance counsellor
NOTES
 Psychometrician
 Researcher
 Auxiliary personnel
8. The main responsibilities of the guidance director are as follows:
 He reviews the guidance programme and makes necessary changes and
adjustments to improve the guidance programme at the end of each year.
 He conducts meeting with parents, students and heads of institutions as
well as teachers to guide and inform them about the guidance programmes.
 He establishes a mutually beneficial and cordial relationship with other
personnel.
 He attends various conferences at various levels related to guidance and
counselling.
 He organizes and attends administrative meetings and prepares reports
regarding the effectiveness of the guidance programmes.
1. State the objectives of educational guidance.
2. Write a short note on personal guidance.
3. Mention the essentials of a good guidance programme.
4. Briefly discuss the role of follow-up services in schools.
1. What is the need for providing educational guidance at the various levels of
education?
2. ‘Counselling services are considered an integral part of guidance services in
schools and colleges.’ Give reasons for your answer.
3. Analyse the significance of remedial services.
4. ‘Guidance director is responsible for the overall implementation of the guidance
programme.’ Elucidate.

Guidance Services

Sharma, A. 2006. Guidance & Counselling. Guwahati: DVS Publishers and NOTES
Distributors.
Cooperation.
Education.

Vocational Development
UNIT 4 VOCATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
NOTES
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Unit Objectives
4.2 Psychology of Careers and Dynamics of Vocational Development
4.3 Job Analysis, Job Description and Job Satisfaction
4.3.1 Job Analysis
4.4 Decision-Making and Group Counselling
4.5 School Guidance Programme
4.6 Behavioural Counselling for Vocational Decisions
4.7 Summary
4.8 Key Terms
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Vocational development is essential for an individual. This is because it has been

observed that the individual often changes career path. For instance, having worked
in the logistics industry, the he person moves on to the banking industry. This change
affects his personal life as well. Hence, individuals need to ensure that they choose
careers that offer satisfaction to them.
A school guidance programme helps the individual to know about the
educational, personal and vocational choices that are available to him. School guidance
programmes are typically designed to make sure that the students adjust to their
social and educational environment. Such an adjustment is essential so that the
students can attain all round development and can make the right decisions with the
assistance of the guide. In this unit, you will study about the psychology of careers
and dynamics of vocational development, job analysis, job description and job
satisfaction, decision-making and group counselling and behavioural counselling for
vocational decisions.

Vocational Development
4.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

NOTES  Discuss psychology of careers and dynamics of vocational development
 Describe job analysis, job description and job satisfaction
 Analyse the application of decision-making and group counselling
 Assess the working of a school guidance programme
 Interpret behavioural counselling for vocational decisions
4.2 PSYCHOLOGY OF CAREERS AND DYNAMICS

OF VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
With the changing technology and the availability of more jobs in a wide range of
fields, it becomes quite confusing for the individual to choose a specific career.
Psychology of career deals with finding out which career suits ones abilities the best
or, in simple terms, which career one must choose. Psychology of careers is directly
influenced by the psychology of individuals in the sense that the careers that people
choose often depends on what they think and expect from a career. Different people
have different psychology when it comes to careers. While some people choose
careers that offer them job satisfaction, there are others who choose careers wherein
they can earn a lot of money irrespective of their working hours or the fact that they
get job satisfaction or not.
There are several things that come to mind when a person thinks of a career
like required education, job description, the salary, personal outlook and so on. The
following factors influence the career choices of the individual:
 Abilities and skills: When it comes to choosing a career, the skills and
abilities that one possesses play an important role. It has been generally
observed that when job profiles are created, there are certain specific skill
and abilities associated with it. Therefore, an individual must make sure to
choose a career which matches his skills and abilities as only then can a
person perform well in his career. It is also essential to choose a career that
matches ones skills and abilities so that one can enjoy his work and gain
satisfaction from it.
 Personality type and interest: The personality and interests of the individual
also influence the career choices of the individual. The individual must always
choose a career which satisfies his interest. When the individual is not interested
in something which he is pursuing, then he does not perform that task up to
the mark.
 Life roles: The individual’s role as a worker is a part of his life roles. The
way one perceives his role as a worker also influences the career decision.
For example, if one considers himself as a person who is fit for odd jobs, then

one must choose a career of the same type so that the requisite role can be Vocational Development
fulfilled in an effective manner.
 Previous experiences: Previous experiences of a person in a particular
field often influence his choice of that career. It has been observed that those
who have had a good experience in a specific career choose to continue with NOTES
the same career or choose to opt for careers of the same type, so that they
can perform well and continue doing good work. This ensures job satisfaction
for the individual.
 Culture: The culture of an individual, the ethnic background and the society
that a person comes from all influence the career choices of the individual.
The culture of a person often influences the expectations and values that a
person has from a career or a job. Thus, the cultural background of a person
influences his choice of career.
 Gender: Gender often influences the career choices of the individual. Gender
often influences the barriers and opportunities which are available to the
individual. In addition, the roles of men and women are different at the
workplace which in turn influences the choice of career.
When so many factors influence the career choices that one has, the individual
may often get confused regarding the right career option. In most cases, people
often make wrong career decisions which wastes their time, effort and money. This
is where career counselling is considered to be important. Vocational guidance and
counselling today have become important so that the individual can choose the right
career option and get maximum job satisfaction.
Career development today is to a large extent based on the choice of the right
career. When it comes to choosing the right career, vocational guidance and
counselling play a significant role. The objectives of vocational guidance and
counselling include the following:
 It enables the individual to know the characteristics, functions and duties,
requisite skills and abilities of an occupation of his choice.
 It enables the individual to know how to conduct an analysis of the various
career options available before opting for a specific career.
Vocational or career development deals with how the individual adjusts to his
career choice and how the individual grows in his career. Career development is
based on the premise that change is natural and required when it comes to choosing
and opting for careers. Career development begins at an early age in schools when
students are allowed to realize their potential and pursue courses that can help them
to choose the career of their choice. Career development has the following goals:
 Self-development: It is essential for the young people to understand their
abilities, achievements and potentials so that they can make the right career
choices.
 Career exploration: Career exploration enables people to locate and identify
the various career opportunities available to them. These opportunities are
then analysed so that the right decision can be taken.
Vocational Development  Career management: Career management is essential for individuals to
make the right career choices, manage their life by adjusting to the career
choice and also manage transitions and changes in their careers.
It is essential for individuals to get a basic understanding of their skills and
NOTES their chosen careers so that they can manage their careers in the right manner. It is
also essential to know about career details so that the individual can develop in the
chosen career based on his skills and abilities. When the right career path is not
chosen, the individual ends up exhausting his abilities and energy.
The most widely used and accepted theories of career choice and development are
as follows:
 Roe’s theory of personality development: Anne Roe’s theory of
personality development states that there is a direct relation between the
personality of a person and his career choice. Anne Roe was an American
clinical psychologist and researcher who studied creativity and occupational
psychology. According to Roe, people worked not only to earn money but to
fulfil other various needs which included physiological needs, safety needs,
need for belonging and love, need for importance, respect, self-esteem,
independence, need for information, need for understanding, need for beauty
and a need for self-actualization. Roe also stated that early relations in the
family had an impact on the career choices of an individual. Thus, Roe classifies
occupations as person-oriented or non-person oriented depending upon the
level of interactions required. In her theory, Roe also developed a list of eight
occupational groups including service, business contact, technology, outdoor,
organization, science, general culture, arts and entertainment and with each
of these groups, she associated six levels of responsibility, skills and capability
that were essential for the occupation to be carried out. Roe’s theory of
personality development was, however, not validated but has proved to be
useful in understanding why careers and occupations are essential in the lives
of individuals.
 Social learning theory of career choice and counselling: The social
learning theory of career choice and counselling was developed by John
Krumboltz, an established career theorist. In this theory, Krumboltz states
that there are two major types of learning experiences that affect the
individual’s choice of careers. These include instrumental learning experiences
and associative learning experiences. On the basis of his theory, Krumboltz
listed the group of factors that affected the career choice of the individual as:
factors that influence preferences with an educational or occupational
preference, factors influencing career decision-making skills with propositions
explaining how these particular skills are acquired and factors influencing
entry behaviour into educational or occupational alternatives. The theory has
been criticized for not being developmental but has had a major influence on
research in career counselling.

 Social cognitive behaviour theory: Social cognitive behaviour theory was Vocational Development
developed by psychologist Albert Bandura. According to this theory, three
major learning experiences influenced the individual’s behaviour and skills
that in turn influenced the individual’s way of functioning. These learning
experiences included— instrumental learning experiences, associative learning NOTES
experiences and vicarious experiences. Lent, Brown and Hackett refined
this theory of social cognitive theory and summarized the following propositions
of the theory:
i. The occupational or academic interests of the individual reflect the
person’s own beliefs and outcome expectations.
ii. The vocational interests of the individual depend on his abilities for the
occupation.
iii. However, the beliefs of the person often affect the occupational interests.
iv. The beliefs of a person always affect the goals and the actions of a
person either directly or indirectly.
v. Outcome expectations affect choice goals and actions both directly and
indirectly.
vi. Individuals always try to enter the occupations or academic fields which
are of interest to them.
vii. Individuals enter vocational and educational fields which help in the
achievement of the goals of the individuals. In other words, the individuals
must be committed to their goal and ensure that the goals are stated
clearly.
viii. The interests of the individuals always affect the behaviour of people
either directly or indirectly and also affect the choice of goals.
ix. The beliefs of the individual also affect the career as well as academic
performances.
x. However, the expectations or outcomes affect the performance only
indirectly.
xi. The abilities and aptitudes of the individuals affect career as well as
academic performances directly as well as indirectly.
xii. The abilities and aptitudes also affect the beliefs of the individual.
The beliefs of a person are developed from performances, accomplishments,
learning as well as physiological reactions. The beliefs are also dependent
upon the educational and occupational activities of the individual. The outcome
expectations are also affected by educational and career activities of the
individual.
Outcome expectations may also be determined indirectly by the beliefs of the
individual and also affects the success and the failure of the individual.
 Sociological theory: The sociological theory was based on how social status
affected the level of schooling achieved which in turn affected the occupational
level achieved by the individual. The occupations were roughly classified on
the basis of socio-economic status of individuals. The theory, however, was
Vocational Development not considered to be valid and was refined to give way to several other theories
that were based on the level of occupation achieved on the basis of the social
and economic status of a person.
 Trait and factor theory: Frank Parson, American professor, social reformer,
NOTES and public intellectual, developed this theory. The theory stated that the process
of selecting a particular career involved understanding the characteristics of
the occupation or the job and matching the individual with the occupation.
The trait and factor theory is used as a foundation for career counselling. The
theory is, however, considered limited in scope as it does not take into account
changes in values, interests, skills, achievements and personality over a period
of time.
 Holland’s personality theory: This theory was developed by John L.
Holland, an American psychologist and professor Emeritus of sociology at
Johns Hopkins University. Holland’s theory states that every individual had
one of the six basic personality traits and, therefore, exhibits and manifests
behaviour associated with that type of personality. In this theory, Holland also
defined six types of environments and stated that environments are influenced
by people who occupy them. His theory was based on the following
assumptions:
i) People can be categorized as one of the six types— realistic, artistic,
investigative, social, enterprising and conventional.
ii) There are six kinds of environment— realistic, conventional, artistic,
social, enterprising and investigative.
iii) People look for environments that enhance their skills, abilities, attitudes
and values. They search for environments that help them to assume
agreeable roles.
iv) Behaviour of the individual is determined by the interaction of the
personality and the environment.
According to Holland, the definitions of the various personalities are as follows:
‘Realistic people are the people who have preferences for activities.
These activities may be related to the explicit, ordered, or systematic
manipulation of objects, tools, machines, and animals. Realistic people
are defined as people who are averse to activities that involve educational
and therapeutic methods.’
‘Investigative people are the people who perform the activities that are
observational, symbolic, systematic and creative in nature. These people
observe physical, biological and cultural phenomena so that they get the
power to control such phenomena after completely understanding the
phenomenon. Investigative people are those who do not learn persuasive,
social and repetitive activities.’
‘Artistic people are the ones who learn in an ambiguous, free,
unsystematic manner and perform such activities that involve the
manipulation of physical, verbal, or human materials. These materials
are manipulated so that the people can create art forms or products.
Artistic people are the ones who do not learn through explicit, systematic Vocational Development
and ordered activities.’
‘Social people are those people who learn through information, training,
development, cure, or enlightenment. Social people do not learn through
explicit, ordered, systematic activities.’ NOTES
‘Enterprising people are the people who manipulate other people for
organizational and economic gains. Enterprising people do not learn by
observation and have an aversion to symbolic and systematic activities.’
‘Conventional people are people who learn through explicit, ordered,
systematic manipulation of data. These people usually indulge in activities
like keeping records, filing materials, reproducing materials, organizing
written and numerical data according to a prescribed plan, operating
business machines and data processing machines to attain organizational
or economic goals. Conventional people cannot learn using ambiguous,
free, exploratory, or unsystematic activities.’
According to Holland’s theory, when the individual chooses an occupation
on the basis of his personality and environment, it results in better
congruence, consistency and persistence.
Holland’s theory provides a basis for career exploration these days. It
is, in fact, the most used theory of career choice and development in the
modern day vocational arena.
 Super’s theory of career development: This theory was developed by
American psychologist Donald E. Super. Super’s theory of career development
can be defined as ‘loosely unified set of theories dealing with specific aspects
of career development, taken from developmental, differential, social,
personality, and phenomenological psychology and held together by self-concept
and learning theory’. Super defines fourteen propositions that define the role
of abilities and interests, self-concepts, life stages, and person-situation
interactions in the life of a person. These propositions are as follows:
1. The theory claims that most people are different with respect to their
abilities, personalities, needs, values, interests, traits and self-concepts.
2. The abilities and skills of a person help decide the occupation suitable
for him.
3. Any occupation requires the individuals to have different abilities and
skills. Therefore, for every individual there are several occupational
opportunities and in each occupation, a variety of people can be found.
4. With time, the vocational preferences and competencies of people
change. This also brings about a change in the lives, work and beliefs of
the people. Self-concept of the individual, however, remains consistent
for several years which show consistency in their choice of education
and career options. This also helps the individual to adjust easily.
5. The change takes place in different stages that include growth,
exploration, establishment, maintenance and decline. This change cycle
is often termed as maxi-cycle. A small cycle of change called mini-
Vocational Development cycle also takes place when the individual moves from one stage to
another. This transition can take place because of several reasons like
changes in type of manpower needs, illness or injury, or other socio-
economic or personal events.
NOTES 6. The individual’s career pattern is often determined by parental, socio-
economic level, mental ability, education, skills, personality and career
maturity. Career patterns may often change when the individual gets
exposure to career options which were not previously experienced by
him.
7. The success of the individual in a career depends on the readiness of
the individual to cope up with the demands and the changing needs of
the career. The individuals, thus, experience career maturity. Career
maturity is based on the physical, psychological and social characteristics
of the individual. Career maturity requires the individuals to deal with
various stages of career development.
8. Career maturity is a complex and a hypothetical construct. It is not
easy to provide a functional definition of career maturity. Career maturity
does not increase in terms of monetary benefits and so it cannot be
measured using unitary symbols.
9. The individual can develop through all his life stages, if he is guided to
make use of the abilities and interests in a proper manner. The
development across life stages can also be aided by furthering the notion
of self- concept of the individual.
10. Career development entails nothing but developing and implementing
an individual’s self-concepts related to his career or vocation. Career
development is a concept that is based on the aptitudes, interests, physical
aspects of an individual career options and opportunities available and
also the role of the individual and how individuals learn in an interactive
manner.
11. The individual’s self- concept and reality often interact with each other
and a compromise between the two can be achieved. This happens
when the individual learns from the feedback that is offered to him.
12. The individual’s satisfaction at work and in life is dependent upon how
well is the individual able to apply his abilities, values, interests, personality
traits, and self-concepts in real life.
13. The degree of satisfaction from work of the individual is dependent
upon and is proportional to the degree to which the individuals have
been able to apply their self-concepts and beliefs.
14. The type of work performed by the individual influences his behaviour
and personality.
The propositions laid out by Super form the basis for career exploration
especially for the younger generation. In his theory, Super also laid out
a measure of career maturity that provide a yardstick for measuring the
individual’s development through various stages of his or her career

and life. Super also defined five developmental tasks within the Vocational Development
exploratory stage as follows:
i) Vocational choice
ii) Increased vocational information NOTES
iii) Consistency of vocational choice
iv) Identification and crystallization of traits relevant to career choice
v) Increased understanding of vocational preferences
Career Development Stages: Career development takes place in stages.
This is because individuals change several fields in their career and this is
when career management becomes important for them. Hence, career
development is an essential skill that individuals must learn and develop. There
are six stages in career or vocational development:
i. Assessment: In the first stage, an individual gets ready for work life.
At this stage, the individual is not sure about his strengths, weaknesses
and values with regards to the vocational arena. Hence, the individual
needs to work with a career counsellor to understand and analyse his
strengths and weaknesses and choose the right career path.
ii. Investigation: In the investigation stage, the individual is investigating
the various career options available to him. Usually in this stage, the
individual is confused and does not know which career to choose.
Therefore, it is vital that the individual does some research work about
the various career opportunities before taking the final decision.
iii. Preparation: In the preparation stage, the individual prepares himself
to step out into a particular field or job. This stage involved gaining
knowledge and experience about the kind of work done in a particular
job. It is in this stage that an individual sets his career goals.
iv. Commitment: In the commitment stage, the individual is firm in his
mind about the career option. Here, the individual carries out job searches,
analyses the various jobs available and then accepts a job which he
feels is right.
v. Retention: In the retention stage, the individual is comfortably settled
in his career. Here, the individual remains committed to his career and
also builds a professional network. In this stage, the individual tries to
perform well and achieve his career goals.
vi. Transition: In the transition stage, the individual may experience
discomfort with his career and may be unhappy. It is during this stage
that the individual may decide to change his career.
Burnout basically means long-term exhaustion and diminished interest in an activity.
In essence, career burnout means losing interest in a career and feeling the need of
career change. Psychologists Herbert Freudenberger and Gail North gave twelve
phases of burnout, which are not necessarily followed sequentially:
Vocational Development i. A person finds it mandatory to prove himself.
ii. A person tries to work harder.
iii. A person may neglect his needs.
NOTES iv. A person often fails to understand the cause of distress and faces several
internal conflicts.
v. A person undergoes a phase of value change wherein the importance of
friends or hobbies is completely dismissed.
vi. A person does not accept the fact that he is facing a problem. As a result, he
may become intolerant and may not like being social.
vii. A person exhibits withdrawal symptoms.
viii. A person may often show obvious behavioural changes that are noticeable.
ix. A person does not show any personal feelings.
x. A person experiences inner emptiness.
xi. A person experiences depression.
xii. Burnout syndrome becomes common.
The following are the indicators of career burnout:
 Depression
 Lack of energy
 Lack of desire
 Decreased productivity
 Increased absence from work
 Boredom
 Anger or resentment at workplace
 Sleep disorders
It is essential to deal with career burnout. The individual can take the help of
others, organizations or can conduct self-assessment and help to deal with career
burnout. It is important to handle career burnout so that the individual productivity is
not affected in any manner. Handling career burnout enables an individual to develop
healthily in the vocational environment as well.
Career development is considered important for various reasons. Career development
helps in better vocational and overall development of the individual. It also enables
one to achieve success in professional as well as personal goals.
Career development has a direct impact on the individual’s educational,
vocational and lifestyle choices. People who manage their careers in a positive
manner are able to achieve the following:
 Able to earn higher incomes
 Able to make job and education choices
 Able to cope with changes Vocational Development
 Less stressed
 Open to new opportunities
 Well- informed and successful
NOTES
Example: Career development programmes at Dell, India
Just as you work hard every day to provide technology and solutions that give people
the power to do more, Dell provides programmes to power your career growth and
development. Their programmes help team members emerge as leaders through
mentorship, encouragement and opportunities that are just the right blend of rewards
and challenges. The organization invests in its people and has developed a series of
special programmes that enables an employee to pursue a career that fulfils his
ambitions and potential. From one-on-one meetings with mentors to regular 360-
degree feedback and routine check-ins with a long-term career plan, these
programmes give an employee ample opportunity to climb the path towards leadership.
Example: Career development centre
Career Development Centre (CDC) is a joint initiative of Hindustan Coca-Cola
Beverages Pvt. Ltd (HCCBPL), NIIT Foundation and Gram Niyojan Kendra. The
aim of the CDC is to provide vocational training to educated, unemployed and
undertrained youth. The CDC carries out job oriented training so that the right person
can get the right job. The CDC uses a curriculum that aims at helping those looking
for jobs to gain skills that can increase their employability potential. Once the people
finish their training, they are offered job interviews for entry levels. The youth are
also given an option to start their own entrepreneurial ventures. The CDC offers
complete facilities to the young trainees who are provided training by NIIT certified
trainers. The CDC offers job oriented and training courses in basic IT, service
industry and soft skills. The mode of training involves classroom training as well as
practical training.
In the first year of its operation, the CDC provided jobs to more than 158
students. The CDC has collaborated with well-known and prominent employers
including EasyDay, Big Bazaar, McDonalds and KFC.
Example: Career development at Nestle, India
Nestle values its employees the most because it believes that it is the employees that
play a vital role in the success of the company. The company has fostered an
environment that puts emphasis on diversity, innovation and growth of the employees
which ultimately helps in the growth of the company. At Nestle, three factors play
an important role in the career growth of its employees.
These factors are as follows:
Core factors: Core factors are the qualities that the employees of Nestle must
possess, if they have to explore the opportunities that Nestle has to offer. These
qualities include the performance of the employees which must be sustainable in
nature, the knowledge, the leadership and work skills that employees have and the
manner in which they can handle critical experiences and situations at work.
Vocational Development Accelerators: Accelerators are the qualities in an employee that determine how
fast and how far employees can grow. These qualities determine how flexible the
employees are to sustain the job, if necessary. Accelerators also include how quickly
employees can establish their networks.
NOTES Opportunities: Opportunities are the factors that are provided within the functional
roles and the jobs of the employees within the company. Opportunities can arise in
any manner—from new projects, from promotions, from outside clients and so on.
Talent assessment and succession planning
Talent assessment and succession planning is carried out by Nestle so that the
employees who have the talent can be nurtured in a proper manner. Nestle always
provides opportunities to talented employees who work well within the organization.
The talent assessment and succession planning is a process that is carried out at
Nestle to identify the talented employees. This identification is done by assessing
their talents and then providing the necessary plans for the success of these
employees. Succession planning is carried out by Nestle for the career development
of the employees. The talent assessment and succession plan is carried out by the
organization in a very planned manner. The succession plan helps Nestle choose the
right employees for the various roles in the organization. With this plan, the successors
for key positions are also identified and the management keeps a track of the
performance and the progress of such employees. The process is an internal one
and helps to identify the best people according to the business needs.
The succession plans are created with care and with the help of inputs from
a large number of sources. The talent reviews of the employees help the senior
management as well to know about employees who have the potential. Based on
this review, the management carries out development of such employees. The aim
of succession plans is to ensure the continuity of business so that the company has
employees always ready to take the key positions and roles.
Revealing the potential
Nestle provides a learning environment to its employees. To ensure that the employees
learn at each stage, Nestle provides learning opportunities to its employees and
encourages its employees to actively participate in these opportunities. Learning is
offered in the form of on-the-job training to the employees. Learning is both
relationship and education based. Nestle follows the 70/20/10 model to provide the
essential learning opportunities to its employees. This model is based on the premise
that on-the-job training has the highest impact on the performance of the employees,
the relationship of the employees and also the personal development of the employees.
Keeping this in mind, the learning programmes are developed to explore the potential
of the employees.
Experience-based development
Nestle also carries out experienced based development of its employees. The
employees gain experiences through assignments that are to be carried out within
the company or in the field. The employees are also assigned projects, assignments
and overseas missions so that they can progress and develop in their roles. At Nestle, Vocational Development
job rotations are also carried out so that the employees get exposure as to how
others work and carry out their jobs and respective roles.
Relationship-based development NOTES
Nestle also runs the Corporate Mentoring Programme. This programme aims to
helping employees develop on the basis of their relationships and the support that
they get from others in the organization. This programme also helps the employees
to experience the roles that are not in their current line of action.
SPARKZ is the development centre that has been established at Nestle. The centre
carries out talent assessment of the employees and also provides feedback so that
the high performing employees can be identified. Once such employees have been
identified, the centre nurtures and develops the employees to handle the roles meant
for their talent. The employees also have to undergo battery assessment in which
employees are required to work in an environment simulated on the real-life
experiences. The performance of the employees in these assessments provides a
basis for the developmental plans of the employees.
Education-based development
Education based development is also carried out at Nestle. The education based
development programmes are based on international standards and are delivered
through Rive Rein and internationally recognized business school, IMD. Nestle
provides its employees with education based developments and has collaborated
with London Business School for the same.
Nestle also has collaborated with Indian Institute of Management (IIM) Kolkata
so that the high performers can achieve academic success and progression. Nestle
also offers distance learning programmes like Executive General Management
Programme (EGMP) and Advanced General Management Programme (AGMP)
for the growth of its employees at different levels.
Example: Inalsa—Why career development for our employees?
Inalsa believes that there are several advantages of career development. Therefore,
Inalsa provides career development opportunities to its employees so that the
employees can progress within the organization and can reap the benefits of the
programme which include the following:
Retain top talent: Inalsa understands that it is important to retain the top talent of
the organization. However, for most companies the cost of retaining top employees
is a lot. There are other several costs involved with retention of employees. When
companies do not retain employees of the organization and look elsewhere to give
key roles to outsiders, the employees of the organization lose the motivation to work.
Career development programme conducted at Inalsa aims at retaining employees in
an organization especially when the employees desire job shift.
Boost engagement and productivity: Career development programmes at Inalsa
ensure that the employees can achieve their personal as well as career goals in a
productive manner. Employees who have access to career development opportunities
Vocational Development within the organization are more indulged and engaged in working for the organization.
Career development plans boost the morale of the employees to work in a more
productive manner.
Strengthen the succession pipeline: Inalsa believes that it is important for the
NOTES organization to identify the successors for various jobs and roles from within the
organization. Career development programmes help the organization to create a
pipeline of successors for a given job or vacant posts and jobs at Inalsa.
Generate knowledge transfer and retention: It is important for Inalsa to retain
its seasoned and talented employees and to do so career development plans play an
important role. Career development programmes help the organization to share
information and knowledge about the talented employees and ensure that information
and knowledge is used by the organization to retain its best employees.
Fill internal skill and role gaps: Career development helps the organization to
identify the employees who have the talent and skills to perform at high level and
critical posts. Career development programmes help the organization to fill key roles
and gaps in the organization with the most skilled employees and create internal
mobility. This helps the organization to save on costs of hiring and training employees
from outside the organization.
Create positive employer branding: Career development for its employees makes
Inalsa an organization that truly cares for its employees. Inalsa ensures that career
development programmes are carried out for employees at all levels and that the
employees can perform roles that they are desirous of and are capable of handling.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. State the three goals of career development.
2. List the factors which influence the career choices of an individual.
4.3 JOB ANALYSIS, JOB DESCRIPTION AND JOB

SATISFACTION
Job evaluation is the process that determines the comparative worth of a job in a
systematic and analytical manner. The worth of a job is determined in relation to
other jobs in terms of the skills needed, the responsibility level involved, efforts
required and also the environment in which the job is performed. Job evaluation
attempts to measure these requirements for jobs and place them in a relative order.
Job evaluation is concerned with only the evaluation of jobs and not the human
resources who perform the jobs. It is also not concerned in quantitative or qualitative
aspects of the output or the performance of the workers. However, job evaluation
does have its benefits. One of the main benefits of job evaluation is the fact that it
helps to develop a rationale wage structure. This in turn reduces the grievances
relating to wages and improves the industrial relations. Job evaluation can also be
used to write a job description which can then be used with the objectives of
recruitment, training, promotion and so on.
4.3.1 Job Analysis Vocational Development
Job analysis is a step of the job evaluation process. Job analysis is the process of
analysing the job in detail. The idea of job analysis is to find out all relevant facts
about the job through various tools and techniques. The information gathered in job NOTES
analysis includes information related to skills in performing the job, responsibilities
involved in the job and the environment in which the job is performed. While most of
the information is collected through interviews and questionnaires, observation is
also a tool used to gather the required information. The information so collected is
recorded in what is known as a job analysis sheet. American organizational theorist,
Ordway Tead, defines job analysis as, ‘The scientific study and statement of all the
facts about a job which reveals its content and modifying factors which surround it.’
Job analysis is a systematic process of collecting, evaluating and analysing
information about a job. Job analysis basically provided information on the following:
 Educational qualifications, training, experience, skills, traits, aptitudes required
to perform a job. This information is essential so that the right person can be
placed at the right job.
 Structure and design of job to make it meaningful and enhance the job holder’s
performance. Job analysis provides information that helps to design the job in
a logical manner.
 Plans for future human resource requirements and career planning. In fact,
information provided through job analysis provides a basis for recruitment in
an organization for various jobs.
 Placement of the right person on the right job to utilize the skills and abilities
of the person. Job analysis provides all the facts about a job and so it becomes
easy for an organization to match the job with the skills of the personnel and,
therefore, utilize human resources in the right manner.
 Performance standards are established by the information provided by job
analysis. Job analysis provides in-depth information of how the job will be
performed to achieve the required goals and targets. The proficiency with
which one works to achieve the goals and targets determine the standards of
performance of the person and for the job as well.
The job analysis process: The steps involved in the job analysis process are as
follows:
 Determining how each job fits in the organization: Before a job analysis
can be carried out, it is essential to understand the organizational structure.
Organizational structure refers to the placement of people within an organization
and the reporting relationships that exist among people. It is also essential to
understand the various processes of an organization as this gives information
related to the importance of every job in an organization which is essential for
carrying out job analysis.
 Determining how job analysis information will be used: The information
collected in job analysis can be used for several purposes and this purpose
Vocational Development has to be determined. Job analysis may be necessary due to the following
reasons:
i) The jobs are not clearly defined
ii) The jobs are not logically grouped together
NOTES
iii) The reporting relationships are not clear
iv) There is an overlap of responsibilities
v) There are salary or wage grievances
 Carrying out the analysis: The purpose of analysis must be clear. It is also
not easy to analyse all jobs at the same time as it is a time-consuming process.
When carrying out job analysis, critical and specific jobs are picked up. To
gather information about job analysis, a questionnaire must be prepared. The
data so collected is used to prepare the job specification and the job description.
A questionnaire which is used to collect the information in job analysis must
contain questions related to the following aspects:
 The type of job and its work history.
 The relevance and significance of the job for the society.
 How many people are engaged in this particular job as workers?
 The current trends of the need of more workers and personnel.
 The nature of work of the job and the duties and tasks involved along with the
tools, machines and materials used.
 What qualifications are needed by the workers in terms of the physical, mental,
educational and social qualities including age, level of physical fitness, prior
experience and so on.
 How the workers must prepare to get the job and then to retain it. This may
include preparation related to education, training, physical fitness, technical
training and other aspects.
 The ways in which people can make use of the several employment agencies
to get their desired job.
 How long does it take for workers to get accustomed to the job and acquire
the necessary skills?
 What opportunities do workers have for advancement and promotion in their
jobs.
 The earnings that a worker can expect.
 The number of hours a worker needs put in on a daily basis, shifts available
for work and policies related to overtime work.
 The associated health and accidental hazards.
 Details of the organization including its employers and employees.
 The areas where employees are required to work.
 Any other information related to the job.

Application of job analysis: The information collected through job analysis may Vocational Development
be utilized for a variety of purposes:
 Job analysis can be used for preparing job description. The job description
tells about the details of the job like the activities and tasks to be performed,
qualifications needed and so on. NOTES
 Job analysis can be used to develop job specifications. The job specifications
tell in detail about the different skills and qualifications essential for employees
to perform the job. On the basis of job specifications, the process of recruitment
and selection is carried out.
 Job analysis helps to define the targets and the goals that need to be achieved.
The employee usually has to complete the given goals in a specified time
period.
 Job analysis can help the management in developing employee training and
development programmes. Job analysis is useful in providing information related
to how employees can progress from one stage to another. This information
helps in the development of training programmes for employees so that they
can easily handle job rotation.
 Job analysis is used to define a compensation structure within an organization.
The compensation that the employees receive depends on their duties and
tasks involved in the job. It is necessary that all employees in the same level
of job get the same compensation.
 Job analysis is also helpful in job evaluation which in turn can be used for
classification of jobs.
 Job analysis helps the organization to develop strategic plans. It helps in the
identification of jobs that must be changed or restructured because of the
changing business dynamics.
 Job analysis can be used for performance appraisal as it defines a performance
standard for each job. Thus, the performance of an employee can be appraised
by comparing his performance with the standards that have been set.
Example: Job analysis questionnaire sample
Position Title
Contact Details Contact Name
Current Position Title
Location
Signature
Contact details
Date
Supervisor’s name
Supervisor position and level

Vocational Development Proposed duration Permanent or Temporary?
of position If temporary specify the dates.
Full-Time or Part-Time?
NOTES Approval Details Principal / Manager / Director Name
Position Title
Signature
Contact details
Date
Instructions
The aim of this job description questionnaire is to help in the description of the
current roles so that the duties and responsibilities of the person can be defined
accurately and in a precise manner. The questionnaire must be filled by those
people who understand the roles and responsibilities of the position and also the
person who currently holds the job in consultation with their Director/Principal/
Manager.
The following must be kept in mind when answering the stated questions:
i. It is important to concentrate on the job being described and not the person.
ii. The answers must be helpful and provide necessary information to the
evaluators related to what roles, duties and responsibilities are involved in the
work.
Questionnaire about the new role/proposed upgrade to a role:
i. What is the level of knowledge and the skills that are required to fulfil the
duties related to the positions?
(For example: formal training, work experience, mandatory or desired tertiary
qualification)
ii. What is the relation of the position to the level of knowledge and skills required?
(For example: Is the position focused on a single goal of the organization,
does the person who has the position perform tasks in isolation or in relation
to others, how can the person function to achieve the broad objectives of the
organization?)
iii. What are the various inter-personal skills required to perform the tasks of the
position?
(For example: What level of communication is required, negotiation and
consultation?)
iv. Does the position have an effect on the various methods, standards, systems,
policies and procedures of the organization?
(For example: The extent to which position must modify or develop existing
parameters.)

v. Does the position involve decision making and to what extent? Vocational Development
(For example: Is the person completely responsible in decision-making of the

organization or does the person need to consult and advise others as to what
decisions must be made for the organization?)
NOTES
vi. When and how does the position use methods like analysis, conceptualization,
interpretation, evaluation and problem-solving?
(For example: level of judgment and reasoning applied.)
vii. What exact delegation does the person at the position hold?
(For example: Is the person in the role of operational, staff or HR
management?)
viii. Does the person working at the post have any control in distribution of the
various resources of the organization? Does the person manage the resources
of the organization?
(For example: Can the person practice independence in using and delivering
the various services or products of the organization?)
ix. How is the person in the position accountable to achieve the organizational
goals?
(For example: KPIs, service level agreements.)
x. Is the person at the position responsible for advising others in the organization?
(For example: Can the person offer professional, technical, specialist, strategic
or policy advice to others in the organization? )
xi. Does the position affect the range and quality of services offered by the
organization?
(For example: Is the person at the position free to develop and deliver services
and also provide information to others?)
xii. Is the current position comparable to other positions in the organization?
(For example: Is the role similar to an existing position in another business
unit or institute?)
Job description is written on the basis of the information collected during job analysis.
Job description is a detail about what the job entails, and the skills and abilities
needed for the job. Job description is a presentation of the job facts which facilitates
job evaluation. Job description contains a section that lists the duties associated with
the job. Another section states the requirements of the jobs in terms of the skills,
responsibilities, physical and mental effort to carry out the job in an efficient manner.
A job description provides the following information:
 Position details: This section contains general information about the job
including the current or requested classification, working title, pay range,
exemption status, department name and number, position number, percentage

Vocational Development of effort, the job description summary, comparable positions and so on. The
working title of the job must focus on the main function or the role of the job.
The working title must describe both the responsibility and the role of the job.
The job description summary must be only one or three paragraphs long and
NOTES must summarize the main points of the job description including the job
responsibilities, functions and duties and skills and education required.
 Job duties: The job duties section is the main and the most important part of
a job description. The job duties section lists the complexity, scope and level
of responsibility of a job. The three main elements of job duties section include
key accountabilities, duty statements and percentage of time. The key
accountabilities consist of the main responsibilities of the job. The duty
statements provide additional information about a specific job responsibility.
 Performance standards: This section lists the expectations of the job,
mentions the skills, knowledge and abilities essential to carry out the job and
also provides a basis for measuring the performance. There is a performance
standards section associated with every key accountability.
 Job factors: The job factors section outlines the knowledge and skills essential
to successfully carry out the job. Job factors cover a variety of areas for a job
like level of education and experience, analytical skills required for the job
and also the abilities essential for performing the job.
Job description is a powerful tool that can be used for the following functions:
 It can be used to communicate the job expectations to the employee.
 It helps to focus on recruitment efforts.
 It assists in managing employee performance.
 It facilitates in setting employee and organization goals.
 It assists in workload management.
 It is helpful in succession planning.
 It helps in creating training and development plans.
 It facilitates the process of job evaluation and classification process.
 It helps to establish fair, competitive pay rates for the staff members.
 It enables to develop career paths and opportunities for job growth.
Example: Job description for a marketing manager
Job Title: Marketing Manager
Department: Marketing
Reports To: President
Summary
The marketing manager will be responsible for planning, directing and coordinating
the marketing of the products and services of the organization. The manager can do
this directly or through subordinates and needs to perform the following tasks.
The list includes the essential duties and tasks of the marketing manager who Vocational Development
may be assigned other duties as well, if needed.
 The marketing manager must establish marketing goals. This is essential so
that the organization can enjoy share of the profits earned by marketing the
products and services. NOTES
 The manager will be responsible for developing and executing the various
marketing plans and programmes. These plans must be long-term as well as
short-term so that the focus is on increasing profits.
 The manager must also research and analyse the financial and demographic
factors which help the organization to find new markets for the products and
services.
 The marketing manager is also responsible for planning and overseeing the
advertising and promotional activities of the organization.
 The marketing manager must build relations with the advertisers by
communicating with them as and when necessary. The marketing manager
must also oversee the various on-going campaigns for the organization.
 The marketing manager must also develop and design promotional materials
by coordinating with the writers, artists and designers.
 The marketing manager also develops and executes a pricing strategy that
will be able to hold the product or the service in the market for a longer
period.
 The market manager is also responsible for achieving a significant market
share in relation to the general and specific trends of the specific industry in
the market.
 The marketing manager must evaluate the marketing plans and results and
must also take corrective actions as and when necessary.
 The marketing manager must manage to bring about the necessary changes
in the marketing and advertising policies in reaction to the trends of the market.
 The marketing manager must conduct surveys and bring out new marketing
campaigns.
 The marketing manager is also responsible for preparing the activity reports
related to the marketing strategies of the organization.
Supervisory responsibilities
 The marketing manager must manage at least three subordinate supervisors
who in turn manage five employees in the marketing department.
 The marketing manager is responsible for the overall functioning and
performance of the marketing department.
 The marketing manager must carry out the supervisory duties in accordance
with the policies of the organization.

Vocational Development  The marketing manager is responsible for interviewing, hiring and training
employees.
 The marketing manager also has to direct the work of the employees, assign
work and perform performance appraisal.
NOTES
 The marketing manager must also listen to the problems of the employees
and take effective measures to solve these problems.
Qualifications
The job of the marketing manager requires the person to have essential skills that
help him to perform the required duties in an effective manner.
Education
The person must have Master’s degree (M.A.) or equivalent.
Experience
An experience of four-ten years is required. However, training in the same or related
field is also beneficial.
Language skills
 The marketing manager must have skills that enable him to interpret and
analyse scientific and technical journals, financial reports and legal documents.
 The marketing manager must be able to respond to complaints and inquiries
of the employees, customers and regulatory agencies.
 The marketing manager must be able to write the required reports in the
format and style required.
 The marketing manager must be able to present the necessary information to
the management, customers and agencies.
Mathematical skills
 The marketing manager must have mathematical skills that enable him or her
to apply advanced mathematical concepts such as exponents, logarithms,
quadratic equations, and permutations in marketing strategies.
 The marketing manager must also be able to use operations frequency
distribution, variance, correlation techniques, sampling theory, and factor
analysis when analysing and evaluating marketing reports and performance.
Reasoning ability
 The marketing manager must have the ability to collect data, analyse it and
then draw valid conclusion related to the marketing plans and strategies.
 The marketing manager must be able to present the marketing strategy and
the results in a diagrammatic format using abstract and concrete variables.

Example: Job description for finance manager Vocational Development
Summary: The finance manager is responsible for planning and directing the activities
related to the finance department of the organization. The manager must perform
the following duties directly or through a team of subordinates.
NOTES
Essential duties and responsibilities
 The finance manager develops and implements goals related to financial
management, budget, accounting and payroll.
 The finance manager is responsible for preparing various financial reports
and statements.
 The finance manager has to maintain a record of all receipts and expenditures
of the organization.
 The finance manager is responsible for maintain accounting books, ledgers,
accounts of operating expenses and other expenses.
 The finance manager is responsible for carrying out cost and financial analysis.
 The finance manager is responsible for preparing reports related to future
costs and revenues of the organization.
 The finance manager is responsible for conducting internal audits.
 The finance manager controls the financial systems and also defines
procedures to improve the established financial systems and even introduces
new ones.
 The finance manager is responsible for reviewing the financial statements.
Competency: A person must be competent in the following areas, to be able to
perform the role of a finance manager:
 Analytical skills: The person must be able to collect and analyse data related
to finance of an organization. The person must be able to make use of the
data for the right purposes in the organization.
 Problem-solving: The person must be able to identify and solve problems in
a timely manner. The person must also be able to devise alternative solutions
in a skilful manner.
 Project management: The person who is appointed as a finance manager
must be able to develop and implement projects within timeline and budget
and also manage and coordinate the activities of the project.
 Interpersonal: The person must have inter-personal abilities so that he can
resolve any conflicts faced by him. The person must be open to new ideas
and must listen to the opinion of his employees.
 Communication skills: The person must have good communication skills
both verbal and written. He should be able to communicate with the employees
and the top management in a positive manner. The person must have good
writing skills and must be able to write reports in a clear and error free
manner.
Vocational Development  Teamwork: The person must be able to manage a team and coordinate the
working of the team so that the organizational goals can be achieved in the
desired manner. The person must put the success of the team above his own
interests.
NOTES  Change management: The person must be able to implement change plans
effectively in the organization. He must seek cooperation from the required
people to bring about the necessary changes.
 Delegation: The person must be able to delegate work to the employees as
per their skills and abilities. The person must make sure that the employees
can work independently and in cooperation with each other.
 Leadership: The person must also exhibit leadership qualities. As a finance
manager, the person must be able to provide inspiration and motivation to
employees to work to achieve the goals of the organization.
 Managing people: The person must be able to manage people or employees
directly under him. The person must be able to help the staff work in an
environment feasible for more productive results. The person must evaluate
the performance of the employees and give them the necessary feedback as
well.
 Quality management : The person must assure that the quality of work is
not compromised in any manner and that the work done is thorough and
accurate.
 Diversity: The person must have knowledge of various financial concepts.
The person must also be able to clear the doubts of the employees, if necessary
about the various concepts.
 Ethics: The person who works as a finance manager must follow the work
ethics. He must treat the employees with respect and ensure the dignity of all
employees working under him.
 Organizational support: The person must be able to get the support of the
organization while preparing policies. He must follow the organization
procedures when functioning and must always work for the benefit of the
organization.
 Adaptability: The person must adapt to changes as and when required. The
changes may take place in the work environment or sometimes, in the duties
and responsibilities as well. The person must be able to accept these changes
with a positive frame of mind.
 Dependability: The person working as the finance manager must follow the
instructions of the management. He should be able to take responsibility for
his actions and must be committed to working in alignment with the policies
of the organization.
 Innovation: The person must be innovative and must be able to display his
creativity and innovative thinking. The person must give creative and genuine
suggestions and must bring about new ideas and implement them in a
successful manner.
 Judgment: The person must be able to take decisions on his own. The person Vocational Development
must be able to exhibit accurate judgement skills and must be able to make
timely decisions.
 Motivation: The person who works as a finance manager must demonstrate
the ability to motivate the employees to achieve the set goals. NOTES
 Professionalism: The person must exhibit professionalism in all aspects. He
must be able to work in a tactful manner and approach and communicate
with all others especially under pressure. The person must be accountable
for his actions.
 Quality: The person must be able to suggest ways in which the quality of the
work can be improved so that the work can be done in an accurate manner.
 Safety and security: The person working as finance manager must observe
all the safety and security procedures. The person must be able to work
within the stated guidelines and must be able to make use of equipment in the
right manner.
Qualifications
The person must have specific qualifications to ensure that he can perform the job in
a satisfactory manner.
Education
To work as a finance manager, the person must have at least a Master’s degree of
Management (M.B.A.) or equivalent.
Experience
Four to ten years of experience is required. However, training in the specific field is
always an added advantage for the job.
Computer Skills
The person must be able to exhibit computer skills to perform the job well. He
should be proficient in using Microsoft Word, Excel, Platinum accounting software,
ADP payroll systems and Explorer or Netscape internet software. The person must
also be able to make use of the Internet.
Job satisfaction basically means that a person must be happy with his job. Job
satisfaction, in simple terms, is the attitude of the individual towards the job. When a
person exhibits a positive attitude towards his job, it leads to job satisfaction whereas
a negative attitude can lead to job dissatisfaction. Robert Hoppock, recognized as a
pioneer in the field of vocational counselling, has defined job satisfaction as ‘any
combination of psychological, physiological and environmental circumstances that
causes a person truthfully to say I am satisfied with my job’.

Vocational Development Job satisfaction is influenced by several factors. Job satisfaction is influenced
by demographic traits like gender, age, tenure, position and so on. Motivating factors
that influence job satisfaction include achievement, recognition and promotion.
Maslow’s theory of needs states that the individual’s sense of satisfaction is
NOTES influenced and closely connected with the maintenance of classified needs which
include physiological needs (eating, drinking, resting and so on), security needs
(pension, health insurance and so on ), the need to love (good relations with the
environment, friendship, fellowship, to love and to be loved), need to self-esteem
(self-confidence, recognition, adoration, to be given importance, status and so on)
need of self-actualization (maximization of the latent [potential] power and capacity,
development of abilities and so on).
Example: Job satisfaction questionnaire
The objective of a job satisfaction questionnaire is to decide which factors of a job
are rewarding and which ones dissatisfy a person at work. The answers of the job
satisfaction questionnaire will enable one to know which factors lead to career
satisfaction.
PART I
General information
Occupation: ______________________________________
How long have you worked for the company? ______________________
List the previous positions that you have held for the company? ______________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Specify the job title? ________________________________
For how long have you been holding the current position? _________________
Describe responsibilities that you have at the workplace:
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
PART II
1 2 3 4 5
not satisfied somewhat extremely
at all satisfied satisfied
Using the scale shown above, rate your level of satisfaction with the following
aspects of your job.
General working conditions
_____ Hours worked each week
_____ Flexibility in scheduling

_____ Location of work Vocational Development
_____ Amount of paid vacation time/sick leaves offered

Pay and promotion potential
_____ Salary NOTES
_____ Opportunities for Promotion
_____ Benefits (Health insurance, life insurance and other facilities)
_____ Job Security
_____ Recognition for work accomplished
Work relationships
_____ Relationships with co-workers
_____ Relationship(s) with your supervisor(s)
_____ Relationships with your subordinates (if applicable)
Use of skills and abilities
_____ Opportunity to utilize your skills and talents
_____ Opportunity to learn new skills
_____ Support for additional training and education
Work activities
_____ Variety of job responsibilities
_____ Degree of independence associated with your work roles
_____ Adequate opportunity for periodic changes in duties
Other Aspects of the Job Relating to Your Level of Satisfaction
Enlist the items for which the ratings were 4 or 5:
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
The ratings describe the factors that lead to job satisfaction. When a career change
has to take place, a person must make sure to check for these factors in the new
job.
Enlist the item for which the ratings were 1 or 2.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
These are the job factors which dissatisfy the worker the most. When changing
jobs, these are the factors that one must ensure are not present in the new job.

Vocational Development Example: Job satisfaction among the employees of Life Insurance
Corporation of India, Vellore division, Tamil Nadu, India
A study was conducted to check the job satisfaction levels among employees of
Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC)-Vellore Division, Tamil Nadu, India. The
NOTES study was based on the inputs received from twenty-two branch managers, forty
officers and 138 clerks. The study showed that the branch managers and the officers
experienced high levels of job satisfaction. On the other hand, the clerks were highly
dissatisfied with their jobs. This is because the organizational policies of LIC are
more inclined to meet the needs and demands of the top management. The officers
are also not satisfied in terms of recognition for work, interpersonal relationship,
supervision and other aspects. The significant factors that lead to dissatisfaction
included pay, grievance handling procedure and other financial facilities. Thus, the
study concluded that only the branch managers were the ones who experienced job
satisfaction of the highest level. LIC must, therefore, realize that it is essential for all
employees to be satisfied with their jobs. This is essential for a better relationship
between the employees and the management. As a result, LIC must take steps to
remove the unfavourable work environment factors, so that more and more employees
are satisfied with their jobs.
Example: A study on job satisfaction among employees in an automobile
sales and service company
An organization which has employees in a service industry has employees working
at the front end as well as the back end. For service industry organizations, it is very
important to ensure that job satisfaction among the employees is high so that
employees can exhibit more productivity. This in turn affects the sales as high
productivity leads to more sales. A study was conducted to check the job satisfaction
levels of employees based on various factors. The study focused on how factors
like age, gender, department, tenure, and job role of the employee affect the job
satisfaction levels of the employees. The study also took into consideration the
suggestions of the employees as to how job satisfaction could be improved. The
study showed 89 per cent of the employees were either satisfied or were very
satisfied with their current job. The major factors that led to high job satisfaction
rate included the following—relationship with the supervisor, pay, benefits and
development, work environment, leadership and support, prioritized values, security,
and clarity of communication. The study also showed that factors like age, gender,
work tenure and the job role did not affect the level of job satisfaction in a significant
manner.
Job satisfaction has a direct impact on the work ability and productivity of
individuals. It has been observed that those employees who are satisfied with their
job show higher productivity rates as opposed to employees who are dissatisfied
with their jobs. Productivity simply means the amount of work that an employee can
get done in a specified period. There are several ways in which productivity can be
improved at workplaces. These include the following:
 Tracking and limiting the time that the employees spend on a task.
 Taking regular breaks so that concentration can be improved.
 Setting self-imposed deadlines so that the job can be completed and the targets Vocational Development
are achieved.
 Following the ‘two minute rule’ which states that a task that can be completed
in less time must be done almost immediately. This is because it takes less
time to complete these tasks. NOTES
 Avoiding unproductive meetings.
 Holding standing and quick meetings to improve group performance.
 Taking advantage of the bonus time and utilize it to finish odd-jobs.
 Taking exercise breaks and exercising has a positive impact on the productivity.
 Being proactive and not reactive.
 Minimizing interruptions.
Increased productivity at work improves the way the employees function and
also enables them to work in an efficient manner to work towards the achievement
of the organizational goals. Increased productivity at work also ensures that the
employer-employee relationship is maintained and that the employees are accountable
for their duties and tasks. Improved productivity also leads to more efficiency at
workplace and enables employees to save time and also improve the effectiveness
of the job rules and regulations.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

3. What is job evaluation?
4. Define job satisfaction.
4.4 DECISION-MAKING AND GROUP

COUNSELLING
Group counselling, also known as group therapy, is a counselling technique which

involves the counsellor and a group of counselees to interact with each other to
solve the various problems faced by them. In group counselling, the counsellor
becomes a part of the counselling group and interacts with all the members of the
group to identify their problems and solve them. Group counselling enables the group
members to:
 Get a clear understanding of their aptitudes, abilities, interests, ambitions,
resources and limitations.
 Get knowledge of the requirements and conditions of success, advantages
and disadvantages, compensation, opportunities, and prospects in different
lines of work.
Group counselling, therefore, helps group members to take educational, personal as
well as vocational decisions. Decision-making can, thus, be regarded as a consequence
of counselling.

Vocational Development H. B. Gelatt, a pioneer in the application of decision-making theory, has applied the
former to counselling practice. According to this theory, all decisions have the same
characteristics which include the following:
 The individual makes a decision
NOTES
 For every decision, there are two possible courses of action
 Decision is to be made on the basis of information
In effect, counselling decisions are of two types:
i. Terminal decisions, which are final decisions
ii. Investigatory decisions, which require more information to be gathered
In group counselling, the role of the counsellor is to help the group members take the
decision in a systematic manner. To reach the final decision, the counselee with the
help of the counsellor needs to assess the possible alternatives, outcomes and
probabilities so that the right decision can be taken.
Group counselling makes use of various techniques to take decisions. For
instance, role plays can be used in group counselling to identify the problem that a
member is facing and to arrive at the possible solutions and take the right decision.
Role play involves the members of the group to play the part of each other or
develop a drama around the problem of a certain member of the group.
In group counselling, it is the client who makes the decision on his own with
the help of the counsellor. Counselling provides the individual with the necessary
information so that he she can take the right decisions.
Example: Group counselling in schools
Group counselling in a school setting can tackle many issues at once. Group counselling
is not a time-consuming exercise as many students can be counselled at the same
time. Usually, several students of the same age group are grouped together and
counselled. This helps them to accomplish the goals with the help of the school
counsellor as well as that of the peers or other group members.
The primary nature of group counselling may not be that of relationship building.
However, group counselling does enable the students in the group to develop respect
and regard for fellow students as well as the counsellor and humans in general. The
students learn to interact with others.
Group counselling stages in a school involve the following:
 Dependency: In the initial stages, students have less confidence and usually
look up to the school counsellor for direction and reassurance.
 Conflict: In this stage, the group counsellor needs to closely monitor the
activities of the group to avoid conflicts and differences. No student can take
a decision on his own at this stage.
 Cohesion: Cohesion is the stage in which the students are settled in the
group. The students know what their position is in the group and also know
the position of all others in the group. The students are ready to interact with
each other and also discuss their problems with each other.
 Interdependence: In this stage, the group makes maximum progress. Most Vocational Development
students contribute to their best levels in the group. The students are ready to
interact with others in the group freely and also share their ideas and opinions.
Here, the students may also take decisions.
 Termination: Termination is the end of counselling. This may be a difficult NOTES
stage for students as they may fear the loss of intimacy with the group
members. The group counsellor encourages the students to pursue their
individual ways with firm decisions in mind.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

5. Who has pioneered in the application of decision-making theory to
counselling practice?
6. Name the two types of counselling decisions.
4.5 SCHOOL GUIDANCE PROGRAMME
Guidance in schools must be necessarily provided to students to guide them in the

right direction and to enable them to take the right decisions. During their school
years, students often need guidance in personal, social, educational and vocational
areas. The school guidance programme fulfils this objective. A school guidance
programme involves a range of guidance and counselling activities that provide
assistance to students.
The following are the activities that are undertaken in a school guidance
programme to help students take decisions or make choices and adjust to changes:
 Counselling: Counselling involves helping students to explore their thoughts
and feelings, and the choices open to them.
 Assessment: Assessment implies helping students to obtain a better self-
understanding through the use of psychometric tests and other methods.
 Information: Information activities entail providing students with objective
and factual data on education and training opportunities, occupations, labour
market information, and entitlements.
 Educational development programmes: These programmes are
undertaken to facilitate the transfer of knowledge and skills relating to studying,
examination performance, selection of subjects and levels.
 Personal and social development programmes: Personal and social
development programmes facilitate the transfer of knowledge and skills relating
to a student’s personal and social development, self-awareness, decision-
making and planning.
 Referral: Referral involves referral of a student by the guidance counsellor
to outside agencies or the referral of a student by teachers to the guidance
counsellor to help the student face and eventually overcome his problems.

Vocational Development  Careers education/career transition programmes: These programmes
are aimed at enabling students to make transitions to higher education, training
and employment.
 Placement: Placement activities help students in gaining work experience,
NOTES work shadowing, and preparing students for employment.
A school guidance programme is basically a structured document that describes the
school guidance plans and specifies how the guidance needs of the students would
be addressed. A school guidance programme is a programme that includes activities
that can offer guidance services to students as stated above. However, this does not
imply that the activities are limited to the ones specified. A guidance programme for
a school can involve all those activities that guide students to adjust to their educational
environment in the school and help them to overcome the personal problems as well.
A school guidance programme is based on the following principles:
 A school guidance programme must be accessible so that students who need
help can benefit from it.
 A school guidance programme must recognize the fact that guidance is a
specialist area within education.
 A school guidance programme must be impartial and unbiased and help all
students in the best possible manner.
 The central focus of a school guidance programme must be students.
 A school guidance programme must be transparent and inclusive in the sense
that it must involve all parties and areas that it covers so that everyone knows
what is actually happening in the programme.
 A school guidance programme must be responsive so that students can be
helped in the required manner.
 A school guidance programme must be based on the principles of confidentiality
when it comes to student counselling.
 A school guidance programme must promote equal opportunities for all
students.
 A school guidance programme must be reviewed at regular intervals to test
its effectiveness.
 A school guidance programme must make use of the available resources in
an optimal manner.
The following are the elements of a school guidance programme:
 Aims: It must be ensured that the aims of the guidance programme must be
framed keeping in mind the mission statement of the school. A school guidance
programme must aim for the personal, educational and vocational development
of the students.
 Target groups: This element deals with identifying the target groups or
students who need assistance. A school guidance programme must identify

the needs of all students who need help at all levels. The school guidance Vocational Development
programme after identifying the students who need help must make use of
the available resources to help such students in the best possible manner.
 Objectives: Objectives refer to the outcomes expected from the guidance
programme. For each aim and target group, objectives of the guidance plan NOTES
must be clearly stated. Objectives should be clear, realistic, specific and
measurable.
 Guidance activities: A school guidance programme must focus on providing
various types of guidance activities to the students. These include activities
that assist students in making choices, activities that help students in making
transitions and activities that aim at achieving the objectives of the guidance
programme.
 Resources: Resources refer to personnel, time allocation, equipment, physical
locations and finance resources required for the performance of the guidance
activities and the management of the school guidance programme.
 Monitoring and review: The school guidance plan must make provision for
on-going monitoring and review. This must be done to know the extent to
which guidance objectives are being achieved and the factors that facilitate
or hinder the achievement of the objectives of the guidance plan. Monitoring
and review enables changes to be made in the school guidance programme, if
it is not effective in achieving its aims.
The key players in a school guidance programme are the following:
 The school management team is responsible for the implementation of the
best possible school guidance programme. They must manage the process of
guidance planning in cooperation with the guidance counsellor, school staff
and other school partners such as parents.
 Guidance counsellors are the professional who offers guidance to students.
The guidance counsellor must offer guidance to students in each of the main
areas of guidance: personal, social, educational and career. The guidance
counsellor must collaborate with school management in the development and
review of the school guidance plan and the integration of guidance into the
curriculum.
 Subject teachers may provide support to students and also information and
advice relating to their subject disciplines and related careers.
 Parents are a major influence on the values, attitudes and lifestyle of the
students. Parents have an important role to play in helping to establish the
needs and priorities of the school guidance programme and in supporting the
programme.
 Students are the focus of the school guidance programme and are entitled to
have an input in the development of the school guidance plan. Students can
help to identify and establish the needs and priorities of the guidance
programme. Their feedback in the review process is also highly important.

Vocational Development  The local community provides young people with resources for career
exploration, information and other forms of assistance and support. Such
agencies, organizations and institutions provide training, higher education,
employment and youth services.
NOTES
Example: Comprehensive guidance and counselling programme
The Comprehensive Guidance and Counselling Programme is an approved
educational programme that serves the guidance and counselling needs of students
from kindergarten to class XII. The comprehensive guidance and counselling
programme is run by certified school counsellors and guidance professionals in
collaboration with parents, teachers and administrators. The main aim of the
programme is to encourage the overall development of the student in academic,
career and personal areas. The Comprehensive Guidance and Counselling
Programme focuses on activities and services in five areas:
 Guidance and Curriculum
 Individual Planning
 Responsive Services
 System Support
 Student Advocacy Student
1. Guidance and curriculum
The curriculum of the programme is designed in a manner that it can be presented in
the form of classroom instructions. The students are required to carry out tasks in
groups and even attend classroom instructions, workshops and seminars. The parents,
members of the community and the staff also actively take part in these activities
and help the students. The curriculum of the guidance and counselling programme
focuses on the following:
 It focuses on the academic development of the students.
 It lays emphasis on the career development wherein the students learn how
to work.
 It focuses on the personal and social development and adjustment of the
students so that they learn to live in society.
 It emphasises on the community development of the students so that they
learn to contribute to the community.
2. Responsive services
Responsive services are counselling activities that meet the immediate needs,
concerns or problems that distract students from their academic, personal, social or
career involvement. Responsive services may be delivered in the form of individual
or group counselling to students in collaboration with the parents and the staff who
handle the students. School counsellors do not offer therapy but offer only short-
term counselling to the students so that they can make the possible adjustments as
and when required.
3. System support Vocational Development
System support works to integrate the guidance and counselling programme in the
school. The aim of the system support is to enhance the learning of the students
while providing support to the counsellors to improve the manner in which the
NOTES
curriculum is imparted. The system support services also work to improve the
content that forms an integral part of the curriculum. The various activities involved
in system support include communication, programme coordination, programme
review, staff instruction, consultation and feedback.
4. Individual student planning
The individual planning system involves assisting every student to review his academic,
social, personal and career plans, developments and achievements. The individual
planning system begins at the elementary level of school and continues till the high
school level. The students can even review their own progress and evaluate their
own progress and academic developments.
5. Student advocacy
Student advocacy basically focuses on enabling all students to access facilities that
can help them achieve high standards of education. Since the counsellors know that
there are various barriers to learning of the students, the counsellor must make sure
to help students overcome these barriers.
Example: Influence of guidance and counselling programme on academic
performance of selected public secondary school students: A case of
bahati division, Nakuru district
Guidance and counselling programme in a school assist students to harmonize their
abilities, interests and values and thereby develop their full potential. All this is geared
towards improving the self-image of the students and facilitating better achievement
in academic performance. This study sought to establish the influence of guidance
and counselling programme on academic performance of secondary school students
in Bahati division of Nakuru district. A random sample of 196 students, ten teacher
counsellors and ten head teachers were selected from the ten schools. Data was
collected through administration of questionnaires with the selected respondents.
The collected data was then processed and analysed using descriptive and inferential
statistics.
The study established the following findings:
 Secondary schools in the study area differed in the number of guidance and
counselling services that they had implemented.
 Teacher counsellors had little training in guidance and counselling.
 Stakeholders adequately supported guidance and counselling programme in
the schools.
 Students were aware of the role and importance of career counselling in their
schools.

Vocational Development  There was poor academic performance among students.
 Guidance and counselling programme had a positive impact on the academic
performance of students.
NOTES  Based on these study findings, the following recommendations were made:
 It is necessary for the teacher counsellors to implement all the services required
for a guidance and counselling programme.
 It is necessary to improve the level of training of teacher counsellors in guidance
and counselling.
 Teacher counsellors should take advantage of the positive attitude of the
students to enhance career counselling in their schools.
 Guidance and counselling programme should be strengthened in order to
improve the academic performance of secondary schools in the area.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

7. What are the principles of a school guidance programme?
8. Mention the essential elements of a school guidance plan.
4.6 BEHAVIOURAL COUNSELLING FOR

VOCATIONAL DECISIONS
Behavioural counselling deals with identifying the undesirable behaviour of a person

and helping the person get rid of such behaviour. Behavioural counselling is based
on the premise that behaviour is largely influenced by the environment and, hence,
can be improved as well. In other words, it is easy to bring about a change in the
behaviour of the individual with little assistance. Behavioural counselling enables the
individual to learn new and positive behaviour that eventually help the individual to
overcome the problem.
There are several techniques used in behavioural counselling which include
the following:
 Flooding: It is a technique which is used on people who experience anxiety
and fears. Flooding involves exposing the individual to the fears in an intense
manner so that they can let go of their fears and learn how to cope up with
their fears.
 Systematic desensitization: In this technique, the counsellor asks the client
about his fears and then teaches the person relaxation techniques to overcome
the fear.
 Aversion therapy: This technique associates an aversion stimulus to the
undesirable behaviour so that the behaviour can be changed.
 Token economics: This technique offers tokens to individuals who can
exchange these token for something they like when positive or desirable
behaviour is exhibited.
 Modelling: This is a technique in which a person learns positive and desirable Vocational Development
behaviour by observing another person or a role model.
Behavioural counselling can be very useful in bringing about changes in
behaviour of people who exhibit undesirable behaviour at workplace. Negative and
undesirable behaviour at workplace leads to decrease in productivity and reduced NOTES
morale of the employees. Undesirable behaviour may even cost an organization its
business and so such behaviour needs to be controlled and changed. Many
organizations identify those employees who exhibit negative and undesirable behaviour
and to ensure that their behaviour does not affect the work environment, they often
refer such employees for behavioural counselling that aims to bring about changes
in their behaviour.
Behavioural counselling employs positive techniques that can help employees
bring about a change in their behaviour. Behavioural counselling usually takes place
on an individual basis so that the employee does not experience a loss of morale and
motivation. The counsellor talks to the employee about the behavioural problems
that he experiences and works with the employee to find the underlying reasons.
The counsellor then assists the employee in bringing a change in his behaviour by
following the essential steps and using various techniques.
Example: Informal behavioural counselling session
An informal counselling session deals with the behavioural problems in a less formal
manner. In an organization, informal counselling can take place between the manager
and employer to share ideas and listen to each other or to give advice to the employees
on various issues faced by the employees. Counselling of employees can be beneficial
for both the managers as well as the employee in several ways.
Informal counselling session is usually a positive session that prevents the
managers from taking termination and disciplinary actions against the employees
who do not exhibit the requisite behaviour in the organization. Informal counselling
makes the employees more comfortable with the work environment and, thus, helps
the organization save cost of training and hiring employees from outside since the
employees can be retained within the organization.
Some suggestions to follow when counselling employees in an informal manner
 It suggests highlighting the specific behaviour of the employees and telling
how the behaviour affects the work of the employees.
 It compares the performance of the employees with the expected performance
or the behaviour of the employees.
 It recommends that employees must not be compared with others in the
organization.
 The manager must show empathy towards the employees to understand how
they feel.
 The manager must be a positive listener when he listens to the employees.
 It suggests creating an environment that ensures open communication.
Vocational Development Example: Tips for counsellor for preparing and conducting a formal
behavioural counselling meeting
 The counsellor must review the entire information available about the
employee.
NOTES
 The counsellor must make a list of issues that he would like to discuss with
the employees.
 The counsellor must summarize all the facts about the employee.
 The counsellor must clearly tell the employee why his behaviour is a cause of
concern.
 The counsellor must talk in clear and concise statements and must follow a
positive and constructive approach when counselling.
 The counsellor must also develop an action plan.
 The counsellor must hold the discussion in private. It must also be ensured
that the counselling session is timed so that the issues can be discussed easily.
 The counsellor must be courteous to the employee and the counsellor must
not be judgemental about the employee. The counsellor must first listen to the
employee before coming to a conclusion.
 The counsellor must focus on the behaviour of the employee and the outcome
of the behaviour. The counsellor must not focus on the attitude or the
personality of the employee but on the problem behaviour.
 The counsellor must describe to the employee the outcomes of his behaviour.
Describe the outcomes of the employee’s behaviour.
o Example: ‘By not receiving your reports on time, I am unable to prepare
the executive summary, and our group’s budget won’t get approved this
quarter. Without budget approval, I’m unable to request our vacant position
be filled.’
 Allow time to discuss and think about the employee’s ideas for improvement.
 Discuss your own ideas for improvement.
 Set a follow-up date to review and discuss the progress made in terms of
achieving the expectations set forth in the action plan.
Example: Behaviour at workplaces that are not acceptable and need to
be changed with the help of counselling
Unacceptable behaviour at workplace is behaviour that may create or has the potential
to create a risk or a problem to the health and safety of a staff member. Examples
of unacceptable behaviour include but are not limited to:
 Bullying
 Emotional, psychological or physical violence or abuse
 Occupational violence
 Coercion, harassment and discrimination

 Aggressive or abusive behaviour; Vocational Development
 Unreasonable demands and undue persistence

 Disruptive behaviour
NOTES
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
9. Define flooding.
10. List the suggestions to be followed when counselling employees in an
informal manner.
4.7 SUMMARY
 Vocational development is essential for the individual. This is because it has

been observed that the individual often changes his career path.
 With the changing technology and the availability of more jobs in a wide
range of fields, it becomes quite confusing for the individual to choose a
specific career.
 Career development today is to a large extent based on the choice of the right
career.
 Career development takes place in stages. This is because individuals change
several fields in their career and this is when career management becomes
important for them.
 Burnout basically means long-term exhaustion and diminished interest in an
activity. In essence, career burnout means losing interest in a career and
feeling the need of career change.
 Career development is considered important for various reasons. Career
development helps in better vocational and overall development of an individual.
It also enables one to achieve success in professional as well as personal
goals.
 Job evaluation is the process that determines the comparative worth of a job
in a systematic and analytical manner.
 Job analysis is a step of the job evaluation process. Job analysis is the process
of analysing the job in detail. The idea of job analysis is to find out all relevant
facts about the job through various tools and techniques.
 Job description is written on the basis of the information collected during job
analysis. The job description is a detail about what the job entails, and the
skills and abilities needed for the job.
 Job satisfaction basically means that a person must be happy with his job. Job
satisfaction, in simple terms, is the attitude of an individual towards the job.
 Group counselling also known as group therapy is a counselling technique
which involves the counsellor and a group of counselees to interact with each
other to solve the various problems faced by them.
Vocational Development  Guidance in schools must be necessarily provided to students to guide them in
the right direction and to enable them to take the right decisions. During their
school years, students often need guidance in personal, social, educational
and vocational areas.
NOTES  A school guidance programme is basically a structured document that
describes the school guidance plans and specifies how the guidance needs of
the students would be addressed.
 Behavioural counselling deals with identifying the undesirable behaviour of a
person and helping the person get rid of such behaviour.
4.8 KEY TERMS
 Self-concept: It is defined as the totality of our beliefs, preferences, opinions

and attitudes organized in a systematic manner, towards our personal existence.
 Career burnout: This means losing interest in a career and feeling the need
of career change.
 Job analysis: It is a process to identify and determine in detail the particular
job duties and requirements and the relative importance of these duties for a
given job.
 Work shadowing: This implies accompanying and observing a person at
work for a short period in order to gain understanding of or receive training in
such work.
1. The three goals of career development are as follows:

 Self-development
 Career exploration
 Career management
2. The factors which influence the career choices of the individual are as follows:
 Abilities and skills
 Personality type and interest
 Life roles
 Previous experiences
 Culture
 Gender
3. Job evaluation is the process that determines the comparative worth of a job
in a systematic and analytical manner.
4. Job satisfaction is a means to evaluate whether the individual is happy in a job
or not.

5. H. B. Gelatt has pioneered in the application of decision-making theory to Vocational Development
counselling practice.
6. The two types of counselling decisions are as follows:
 Terminal decisions which are final decisions
NOTES
 Investigatory decisions which require more information to be gathered
7. The principles of a school guidance programme are as follows:
 A school guidance programme must be accessible so that students who
need help can benefit from it.
 A school guidance programme must recognize the fact that guidance is a
specialist area within education.
 A school guidance programme must be impartial and unbiased and help
all students in the best possible manner.
 The central focus of a school guidance programme must be students.
8. The essential elements of a school guidance plan are as follows:
 Aims
 Target groups
 Objectives
 Guidance activities
 Resources
 Monitoring and review
9. Flooding is a technique which is used on people who experience anxiety and
fears.
10. The suggestions to be followed when counselling employees in an informal
manner are as follows:
 It compares the performance of the employees with the expected
performance or the behaviour of the employees.
 It recommends that employees must not be compared with others in the
organization.
 The manager must show empathy towards the employees to understand
how they feel.
 The manager must be a positive listener when he listens to the employees.
 It suggests creating an environment that ensures open communication.
1. Write a short note on career development.
2. What are the six stages in career development?
3. List the functions that are fulfilled using job description tool.
4. Define group counselling.
Vocational Development 5. Who are the key players in a school guidance programme?
6. Briefly discuss the various techniques used in behavioural counselling.
NOTES 1. Discuss the career development theories.
2. Analyse the importance of career development.
3. Discuss the application of job analysis.
4. Give an example of the use of group counselling in schools.
5. ‘Behavioural counselling deals with identifying the undesirable behaviour of a
person and helping the person get rid of such behaviour.’ Elucidate.

Distributors.
Cooperation.
Education.

Role of Counselling in
UNIT 5 ROLE OF COUNSELLING IN Education
EDUCATION
NOTES
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Unit Objectives
5.2 Counselling and Interprofessional Interaction
5.3 Selection and Training of Counsellors
5.4 Counselling Process
5.5 Parental Counselling
5.5.1 Student Counselling-High School
5.5.2 Role of Parents, Teachers and Counsellors in Guidance Programme
5.6 Summary
5.7 Key Terms
5.0 INTRODUCTION
Counselling as a profession needs to be conducted as per the code of ethics prescribed

for this profession. A counsellor when practicing his profession must make sure that
he does not get into a personal relationship with the client. Also, the counsellor must
ensure that he does not differentiate between clients on the basis of religion, caste
or creed. It is also necessary that all the information shared by the client with the
counsellor should be kept confidential. Guidance and counselling for students plays
an important role in shaping their future and, therefore, it is essential that parents,
teachers and counsellors support the guidance programme for its effective
implementation. In this unit, you will study about counselling and interpersonal
interaction, selection and training of counselling, professional issues in counselling,
counselling process, parental counselling, student counselling and role of parents,
teachers and counsellors in guidance programmes.
5.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the role of counselling and interpersonal interaction
 Describe selection and training of counselling
 Explain the counselling process
 Interpret parental counselling

Role of Counselling in
Education 5.2 COUNSELLING AND INTERPROFESSIONAL
INTERACTION
NOTES Counselling is a process which provides assistance to people who need help to solve
their problems. Counselling can be offered in various areas like education, healthcare,
workplace and so on. This also implies that counsellors cannot work on their own
and need to collaborate and interact with several other people from different
professions. For example, to provide effective counselling to students in schools, the
counsellors may need to interact with the teachers and other staff of the school who
play a significant role in providing and furthering counselling to students in the school.
Counsellors may need to work with psychiatrists, psychotherapists, healthcare
providers, educational experts and several people from different professions leading
to what is called interprofessional interaction. This also implies the fact that
interprofessional interaction must be effective as it may directly or indirectly impact
the client who is being counselled. Interprofessionality has been defined by D’Amour
(Associate Professor, Faculty of Nursing at University of Montreal, Canada) and
Oandasan as, ‘the process by which professionals reflect on and develop ways of
practicing that provides an integrated and cohesive answer to the needs of the
client/family/population… [I]t involves continuous interaction and knowledge sharing
between professionals, organized to solve or explore a variety of education and care
issues all while seeking to optimize the patient’s participation… Interprofessionality
requires a paradigm shift, since interprofessional practice has unique characteristics
in terms of values, codes of conduct, and ways of working. These characteristics
must be elucidated.’
Interprofessional interaction in counselling focuses on the following aspects:
 Interprofessional values and related ethics that focus on the individual being
counselled. These values and ethics are based on the premise that the
professionals work for the common good of the person being counselled and
reflect a shared commitment towards creating a safer, more efficient and
more effective system of counselling the clients. Teamwork adds value by
promoting the overall development of the person being counselled in all areas
of life.
 Learning to be interprofessional also requires professionals to understand
how the different professionals and their roles complement each other during
counselling. ‘Variety diversity’ which refers to differences that exist between
the team members is both a source as well as a problem when it comes to
working as a team in counselling. An effective team has professionals with
diverse expertise. Since professionals are from different cultures, this adds to
the sources of the team working towards counselling. When professionals
do not know about the roles and responsibilities of the other professionals in
the team, there is bound to be problem working as a team. The role of every
professional is limited to legal boundaries of the work and may even change
depending on what type of service is needed from the professional. Sometimes,

professionals find it difficult to communicate about their roles and responsibilities Role of Counselling in
Education
to others. Collaborative practice in counselling can be carried out only when
the roles of the professionals are clearly defined and each is responsible for
his own task or role in the team.
 Developing basic communication skills is a common area for interprofessional NOTES
interaction and collaboration. Professionals who have communication
competencies can prepare better for the collaborative practice. The
professionals must be able to communicate the fact that they are ready to
work with each other. This in turn leads to effective interprofessional
collaboration. To be ready to work as a team, the professionals need to be
available in the right place at the right time and also be receptive, engaging
and willing to discuss with others. The professionals must always take help of
an informal tone when discussing so that no barriers to communication are
created. The discussion, response and feedback must all take place in an
interactive manner.
 Learning to be interprofessional means learning to be a good team player.
When professionals work as a team, they work in a small as well as a large
complex system. It is essential that the professionals understand that team
development depends on how the professionals play their roles in the team. It
is essential for every professional to be an effective team member. Sometimes,
professionals may also get into conflicts with each other because of the
diversity of their expertise. Conflicts may also arise over leadership. However,
the conflicts and the individual interests of the professionals must be kept
aside and the focus must be on the person who needs to be counselled.
In counselling, the counsellor also has to interact with people from different
backgrounds and cultures. Based on the interaction of the counsellor with professionals
from other fields and with their clients, there are several types of counselling
approaches that the counsellor can make use of when offering counselling to different
people. These include the following:
 Psychodynamic counselling: This counselling technique is based on the
premise that past experiences have a bearing on experiences and feelings in
the present, and that important relationships, perhaps from early childhood,
may be replayed with other people later in life. The counsellor needs to interact
with a psychologist to offer effective counselling. In this type of counselling,
the counsellor plays a neutral role and encourages the counselee to talk about
himself in detail.
 Client-centred counselling: In this type of counselling, the counsellor offers
empathy, unconditional positive regard and congruence to the client when
counselling.
 Transpersonal counselling: This is an integrative and holistic approach
that utilizes creative imagination. It assumes a spiritual dimension to life and
human nature. It also presupposes the interconnectedness of all beings with a
higher spiritual power and specifically addresses the bridge between the two
of them. Transpersonal counselling emphasises personal empowerment and
Role of Counselling in the counsellor may need help of professionals from the spiritual arena so that
Education
they can get complete information about the person.
 Transactional analysis counselling: Transactional analysis counselling
emphasises people’s personal responsibility for their feelings, thoughts and
NOTES behaviour. It believes people can change, if they actively decide to replace
their usual patterns of behaviour with new ones. This often requires the
counsellor to interact with people close to the counselee to get background
information about him.
 Existential counselling: This helps people to clarify, think about and
understand life, so that they can live life to the fullest. It encourages them to
focus on the basic assumptions they make about and about themselves, so
that they can come to terms with life as it is. It allows them to make sense of
their existence.
 Rational-emotive behavioural counselling: This type of counselling is of
the view that people have two main goals in life: to stay alive and to be happy.
It aims to remove the obstacles that people place in their own way and also to
achieve a healthy balance between short-term and long-term goals. In essence,
the counsellor often needs to interact with the psychologist.
 Cognitive-behavioural counselling: This type of counselling is concerned
with the way people’s beliefs about themselves make them interpret their
experiences. The objective is to change self-defeating or irrational beliefs
and behaviours by altering negative ways of thinking. The counsellor may
need to interact with people who are close to the counselee so that he can
know why the counselee behaves in the particular manner.
 Interpersonal therapy: This is a semi-structured therapy in counselling
which examines how problems in relationships contribute to health problems
such as depression.
 Counselling psychology: This type of counselling involves integrating
psychological theory with therapeutic practice. It is an active collaborative
relationship which can both facilitate the exploration of underlying issues and
can empower people to confront change. The counsellor also works with the
psychologist of the counselee closely to implement counselling in an effective
manner.
Example: How school counsellors can collaborate and help teachers
The school counsellor’s main function in schools is to address the academic
achievement, career development, and personal and social development of all
students. Individual counselling is one such way which assists in achieving this goal.
In fact, one of the most important things, internship school counsellor might learn is
that school counsellors cannot work in a vacuum; to be truly effective counsellors
need to collaborate with the whole school. Here are the five prominent ways in
which school counsellors can support teachers:
1. Help them see the whole student: Many school schedules are designed
in such a way that teachers will only see each of their students for about an
hour every day. If a particular student is facing a specific problem, it might be Role of Counselling in
Education
hard for a teacher to get a complete understanding of the problem. A chemistry
teacher may have a student who is not scoring well in this subject, but the
teacher will not know whether or not chemistry is the only subject that the
student is struggling in. If that same student is finding it difficult to score in NOTES
mathematics as well, then this is an indication that the student is having a
difficult time understanding the concepts of chemistry and mathematics. Hence,
there are several reasons why a student may not be doing well in a class;
school counsellors can help the class teacher come to the understanding that
they can help the student in the most effective way possible.
2. Help them deal with struggling students: Teachers today face increasing
pressure to prepare their students for the competitive world. This leaves
them with very little time to be devoted individually to every student. Thus,
whether the child is facing a personal problem or a problem related with
academics, teachers might refer the struggling students to the school counsellor
to address these concerns. School counsellors are specially trained to help
students analyse their feelings and find solutions to personal and academic
problems. Working with a school counsellor, may result in making a student
more focused in the regular classroom.
3. Consultation: Every student is different, so teachers might need to find a
way to address the diverse needs of their students. Here, the teachers can
take the assistance of school counsellors to find out more about the problems
and needs of a particular student and how they might be better able to work
with that student in the classroom. For example, if a student has sinusitis, the
school counsellor can provide more information to the class teacher regarding
the problem. In this manner, the class teacher can assist the student whenever
the former find difficult to concentrate due to his health problem.
4. Foster collaboration between students, parents, teachers and
administrators: School counsellors cannot work in a vacuum; the same is
true for teachers. When teachers want to discuss a student’s behaviour or
academic performance, school counsellors might arrange a meeting with the
teacher, student and the student’s parents. The availability of the parents,
teacher and the school counsellor all in one place, provides a unique opportunity
to collaborate on ways of success for a particular student. School counsellors
play a crucial role in these meetings because they can coordinate the timing
of the meeting and supervise the meeting itself.
5. Collaborate on classroom guidance lessons: School counsellors have
specialized knowledge of student development and mental health. If a teacher
notices that a particular developmental or social pattern, such as bullying,
seems to be prevalent in one or more of his classes, then he might ask a
school counsellor to teach a classroom guidance lesson on that topic. They
might also collaborate on integrating developmental and mental health topics
in an existing lesson. For example, a history teacher could invite a school
counsellor to talk about post-traumatic stress disorder during one of their
lessons about World War II.
Role of Counselling in Finding effective and appropriate ways for school counsellors to support
Education
teachers may depend on the class or district. For instance, some districts may
encourage classroom guidance lessons and some may not have time for them at all.
School counsellors should not be afraid to ask questions of teachers and administrators
NOTES to determine exactly what kind of support they need.
Example: Collaboration between classroom teachers and a school
counsellor through literature circles: building self-esteem.
Schools in addition to providing academic learning to the students offer several other
services as well. Within a school, apart from the class teacher, several other personnel
and counsellors are required to spend time with the children so that they can oversee
the overall development of the students. Nevertheless, class teachers have to impart
learning to students within a limited time period. This may not always be achieved.
The goals of the class teachers and other school personnel who work with the
students overlap, since their main objective is the overall development of the students.
In this case, the best option is collaboration of the class teacher with the counsellors.
This collaboration can work well in one such area which is the reading class. In the
classroom, a lot of focus is on reading and when a student is not able to read in the
right manner, the student may develop low self-esteem. Since teachers are required
to perform various tasks within a limited time period, they are at times not able to
work closely on improving the reading skills of students. As a result, students with
low self-esteem are unable to perform well in academics.
The main objective of teachers and counsellors is to ensure the overall
development of the students. Teachers and counsellors work for the mental and
physical development of the students but rarely collaborate. Counsellors can help
prevent academic problems in the class by talking to a group of students and
counselling them. Group counselling proves to be the best where counselling sessions
help students to deal with problems like behaviour, peer relationships, self-control,
self-esteem, physical development, stress, dealing with feelings and emotions.
A project was carried out to study the result of collaboration of teachers and
counsellors during a reading class. In the project, the teachers and counsellors focused
on the development of self-esteem of the students while focusing on enabling students
to improve their reading skills. The project was carried out by forming ‘Literature
Circles’.
Literature circles are small groups of readers wherein every reader reads the
same piece of work or the same topic. The students are allowed to select their own
reading topics from a set of topics provided by the teachers. It is the students who
decide how many pages they will read in a session and also taking down the notes
for the discussion that takes place after the reading class has finished. Literature
circles also allow students to interact with each other. After the reading session,
students either have an interactive session with the teachers or they have to appear
for a test prepared by the teacher. This is done to test the understanding of the
students.

In the study, two class II teachers and one school counsellor collaborated for Role of Counselling in
Education
a period of two months to improve the reading skills of the students. The books were
chosen based on the reading levels of the class II students. The topics were chosen
so that the teachers and the counsellors could address the self-esteem issue of class
II students. NOTES
Training was given to teachers as well as counsellors so that they could know
and use Literature Circles. In each reading session, the teacher worked with the
students and the counsellor was also present during these sessions and helped the
teachers. The counsellor addressed the self-esteem issues of the students which
came up during the discussions at the end of the reading session. The results of the
study were significant in the sense that the students who worked under the
collaboration of the school counsellor and the teachers had a better self-esteem and
self-concept because they were guided in a proper manner in the classroom.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is psychodynamic counselling?
2. Name the various counselling approaches used in counselling.
5.3 SELECTION AND TRAINING OF

COUNSELLORS
Counselling is a process that involves communication between the counsellor and

the counselee so that the counselee can overcome the problems faced by him with
the assistance of the counsellor. Counselling is, therefore, a process of self-
introspection wherein an individual identifies the problems and finds a solution on his
own. Counselling as a process has three functions which can be broadly categorized
as follows:
 Adjustment functions: Counselling enables an individual to adjust to the
changes taking place in the educational, personal and vocational areas.
Counselling is provided as professional and immediate aid to individuals so
that they can make suitable adjustments to their environment.
 Oriental functions: Oriental functions deal with orienting a person about his
personal and environmental constraints and resources. Oriental functions are
vital for counselling as these make the person aware of his environment and,
thus, enables the individual to adjust accordingly within the available resources.
When an individual is properly oriented towards his environment and resources,
he is able to adjust better as compared to when no orientation is available to
the person.
 Developmental functions: The main aim of counselling is the overall
development of an individual so that he can adjust to the environment. The
aim of counselling is not only to help the person who faces problems but also
help an individual to prevent developing adjustment problems. Developmental

Role of Counselling in function of counselling helps in self-development, development of the society
Education
and the nation.
There are mainly three types of counselling:
NOTES i. Individual counselling refers to counselling of an individual with the counsellor
i.e. one counsellor and one counselee are involved in the process.
ii. Group counselling is counselling in which a group of counselees is led by a
counselling leader.
iii. Self-help counselling takes place in small groups where there are no counselling
leaders and members take part in the group as equals.
The main aim of each type of counselling is to help an individual overcome his
problems by discussing about the problem in detail with the counsellor or with each
other in case of self-help groups. The role of the counsellor is that of an assistant
who simply helps and guides the counselees to find solutions to their problems. In
other words, the counsellor does not take decisions.
An individual can choose any type of counselling depending upon the extent
of the problem. When an individual has some personal problem, it is wise to opt for
individual counselling. When an individual faces problems that are common in a
community, group counselling can be opted.
Selecting the right counsellor plays an important role in the process of
counselling. A good counsellor must possess the following skills:
 Patience: It is by far the most important skill and quality that a counsellor
must possess. Some clients may not respond immediately to the counselling
sessions while others may take a lot of time to discuss their problems.
Counsellors in these cases must not lose patience and, in fact, must encourage
the counselees to take time and discuss their problems.
 Listening: The counsellor must be a good listener as he needs to listen to the
problems of the clients. The counsellor must have the required listening skills
so that the other person can be heard. When a counsellor listens to the
counselee, he must respond with short prompts and responses like nodding
one’s head in approval. This will help the counselee know that the counsellor
is actually listening.
 Compassionate: The counsellor must be compassionate in the sense that
he must exhibit sympathy with the problems of the clients. The counsellor
must make the counselee feel that he is genuinely concerned about the
counselee’s problems. This will ensure a positive response from the counselee
and, thus, the problem can be easily solved.
 Non-judgemental: The counsellor must be non-judgemental. The counsellor
may hear a lot from the counselees that may involve their past and personal
experiences as well. On hearing such experiences, the counsellor must not
judge the counselees or their behaviour. The counsellor may even come across
counselees of different races and cultures and, therefore, a counsellor needs
to be tactful to handle people from different backgrounds. This means that

the counsellor must help every counselee who seeks help with an open mind Role of Counselling in
Education
and in an unbiased manner.
 Research: The counsellor must base his practice on research. The counsellor
needs to keep updated information about various fields such as healthcare,
recent changes in society and so forth. The counsellor must understand the NOTES
fact that every person is unique and experiences different problems, which
implies the fact that no two problems can have the same solution and no two
counselees can be counselled in the same manner.
 Empathy: It is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others. The
counsellor must be empathetic and must be able to relate to the feelings of
the counselees. The counsellor must always place himself in the shoes of the
counselee and feel what the counselee feels. This enables the counsellor to
better understand the counselee and find quicker solutions to the problems.
However, this does not mean that the counsellor needs to be too empathetic
as this may harm the counsellor. In fact, the counsellor must be objective
when dealing with the counselee.
 Discretion: The counsellor must be discrete. Confidentiality is important
when a counsellor deals with counselees. The information that a counselee
shares with the counsellors must remain with the counsellor only and must
not be shared with other people. When a counselee selects a counsellor, it is
essential that he trusts the counsellor with personal information.
 Encouraging: The counsellor must be encouraging. The counsellor must
have the ability to encourage the counselee so that the counselee can share
as much as possible. When a counsellor has more information about the
counselee, it is easier for the counsellor to find solutions to the problems. The
ability to encourage on the part of the counsellor makes many counselees see
hope in the sense that they can be assured of the fact that their problems can
be solved.
 Self-awareness: The counsellor must be self-aware i.e. a counsellor must
know about his fears, insecurities and weaknesses. The counsellor must be
able to keep his feelings at bay in the session and must not react in a defensive
manner to any problem or experience shared by the counselees. In addition,
the counsellor can also share his own experiences in finding solutions to the
problems of the counselees.
 Authenticity: This is essential for counsellors. It is important for counsellors
to appear genuine to the clients as clients easily get to know whether a
counsellor is actually concerned about his problems or not.
When choosing the counsellor, it is important to ensure that the person possesses all
or most of the above listed characteristics. A good counsellor with these
characteristics can help a counselee to solve his problems in an effective and efficient
manner. The most important thing to be kept in mind when selecting a counsellor is,
the fact, that the counselee must feel comfortable in discussing about his problems
with the counsellor, which will eventually result in the counselling session to be
effective and positive.
Role of Counselling in Example: Qualities of a good professional counsellor
Education
 The professional counsellor must possess at least a degree or diploma in
counselling from a recognized university or institution.
NOTES  The counsellor must always follow the professional ethics. The practice of
the counsellor must conform to the guidelines and principles of counselling
established by the governing body.
 The counsellor must never use intuition or his own personal opinions when
counselling a client. In fact, a good counsellor must make use of scientific
knowledge, psychological theory and research based approaches and analysis
to counsel a client.
 The counsellor must refrain from providing or suggesting instant solutions to
a problem. In fact, a good counsellor must listen to the individual who wants
to discuss his problems with someone. The counsellor must let the client
reach a conclusion or a solution.
 The practice of a good counsellor must be based on scientific knowledge and
research rather than on the views of others.
 The professional counsellor must never enforce his beliefs and values on the
client.
 The professional counsellor must provide unbiased counselling to the clients.
 The counsellor must be trained to develop the basic skills essential for
counselling. The counsellor with the help of these skills must be able to build
a warm, empathetic, genuine and congruent relationship with the client.
 The counsellor always maintains confidentiality of the information that the
client has shared.
 The professional counsellor always meets a client in a professional setting
and charges a fee for the services provided.
 The professional counsellor does not provide a solution to the client rather the
counsellor works to help the client find a solution to his problems.
There are several reasons as to why a counselee chooses or selects
counselling. These include the following:
 The counselee wishes to feel relieved by sharing his problems with a person
who can advise him further in solving his problems.
 The counselee wants to reduce stress at home, in the workplace or in
relationships.
 The counselee needs to improve physical health by reducing emotional worries
or stress.
 The counselee wants to establish healthy and efficient ways and techniques
for achieving the goals.
 The counselee wants to analyse his own thoughts, feelings and responses.
 The counselee wants to speak with a skilled professional about his fears,
anxieties and perceptions of the world.
 The counselee wants to feel safe about expressing any personal troubles or Role of Counselling in
Education
private concerns.
 The counselee wants to work towards greater self-fulfilment.
Based on the reason for which a counselee needs counselling, the type of NOTES
counselling can be selected. Also, the reason for counselling affects the overall
counselling session and the outcomes of the counselling session.
Training in counselling may often be required by the counsellor to know about
the various counselling techniques and how to utilize them. The counsellor also
needs to ensure that he is trained enough to carry out a counselling session in an
effective manner. A counsellor must be typically trained in basic skills of counselling,
its objective, ethics, and theories, and should also possess a certified counselling
degree.
Counselling teachings for counsellors
The following are the counselling techniques that a counsellor must be trained to
use:
 Spheres of influence: This is an assessment tool that enables an individual
to assess the areas of life which influence him. The main job of the counsellor
here is to assist the counselee in understanding and analysing which are the
strong and weak areas of the counselee. The spheres of influence for a
counselee may include himself, immediate family, friends, extended family,
job or school, community, culture or religion and external influences.
 Clarification: The counsellor must be trained enough to ask for clarification
of whatever the counselee has told the counsellor. This enables the counsellor
to avoid misconceptions and also enables them to make assumptions and
thereby provide the correct feedback.
 Client expectations: The counsellor must be trained enough to understand
the expectations of the counselee. The counsellor must assure the counselee
that he can communicate freely with the counsellor. This will benefit the
counsellor and the counselee both, as they will be able to find a more practical
solution to the problem. Also, the counsellor can guide and direct the counselee
in a better manner when the expectations have been clearly stated.
 Confrontation: The counsellor must be trained enough to coerce the client
to confront himself during counselling. The counselee needs to self-examine
himself during the counselling session and the counsellor must be trained
enough to direct the counselee into doing so in the right manner.
 Congruence: The counsellor must be genuine with his feedback given to
the counselee. The counsellor must be trained to appear authentic and genuinely
concerned about the feeling of the counselee so that both can effectively
work together towards solving the problem at hand.
 Core conditions: The counsellor must be trained in some basic traits that
are required for effective counselling. These include exhibiting respect,
empathy, congruence, genuineness, and warmth.
Role of Counselling in  Encouraging: This is a basic technique which a counsellor must be trained
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so that he can encourage the counselee to discuss the problems with the
counsellor in a free manner. This further helps to develop a relationship of
mutual respect between the counsellor and the counselee. Encouraging
NOTES basically requires the counselee to focus on his positive traits and strengths.
 Engagement: The counsellor must be trained to maintain a good relation
with the counselee. The counsellor must be trained enough to be influentially
engaged with the counselee so that the counselee may be controlled during
difficult sessions of counselling.
 Focusing: This technique basically enables a counsellor to focus on the needs
of the counselee. The counsellor must be non-judgemental when solving the
problems of the counselee.
 Immediacy: The counsellor must be trained to make use of the technique of
immediacy. In this technique, the counsellor talks about the happenings taking
place around so that the counselee can learn from real-life experiences and
use this knowledge in solving the problem faced by him.
 Listening skills: The counsellor must be trained to develop effective listening
skills so that he can listen and interpret the problems of the counselee. The
counsellor needs to be attentive enough when listening to the counselee.
 Open-ended questions: The counsellor must be trained to make use of
open-ended questions so that he can extract maximum information from the
client. These questions help the counsellor to get information on how, why
and what of the client’s problems.
 Paraphrasing: The counsellor must be trained to use paraphrasing so that
the counselee knows that the information that has been given has been received
and interpreted by the counsellor in the right manner.
 Positive asset search: The counsellor must be trained in this technique so
that he can enable the client to focus on his strengths and skills.
 Reflection of feeling: The counsellor must be trained to use the technique
of reflection of feelings so that he can show to the counselee that the feelings
of the counselee have been understood in the right manner.
 Capping: The counsellor must be trained to use the technique of capping in
the counselling session which often involves changing conversation from an
emotional to cognitive one. This is essential when the emotions of the client
need to be controlled or regulated.
 Working alliance: The counsellor must work towards collaborating
effectively with the counselee to find a solution to the problem that the counselee
faces. The counsellor must be clear about his role in the counselling session
and must not try to overpower the counselee or his views.
 Proxemics: The counsellor must be trained in proxemics which involves
studying the spatial movements and body coordination of the counselee when
he expresses his feelings. The enables the counsellor to judge the mood,
feelings and emotions of the client.
 Hierarchy of needs: The counsellor must be efficient enough to identify the Role of Counselling in
Education
needs of the counselee including physiological needs, safety needs, need for
love and belonging, self-esteem and self-actualization. This enables the
counsellor to know when changes need to take place in the counselling session.
NOTES
Example: Certificate course in counselling, Mumbai, India
Objectives
The certificate course in counselling offered in Mumbai has been developed with
the objective of preparing professional counsellors and to meet the needs of the
profession. The idea behind providing this course is that professional counsellors
must upgrade their skills and techniques, so that they can continue to provide better
services to the clients.
The emphasis throughout the course is on the following aspects:
 It enables the counsellor to bring about a change in his attitude and habits that
are not in-line with the required attitude and skills.
 It encourages the counsellor to develop skills that help the former to mature
in the profession and help the counselees in the best manner.
 It help the counsellor to develop listening skills.
 It enables the counsellor to learn communication skills and methods that are
most effectively used in providing counselling.
Syllabus: During the tenure of the course, the counsellors who undertake training
are imparted training on basis of the Robert Carkhuff model of Personal Counselling,
which is an offshoot of Carl Roger’s Client-Centred Therapy.
The course includes the following:
 The five stages of the counselling process and to set the goals to be achieved
at each of these five stages. Training is also imparted on how the various
goals can be achieved.
 Training is also given so that the counsellors can acquire the right evaluation,
attention, responsive and initiating skills.
 The counsellors are also provided training in developing empathy, genuineness,
respect and confrontation skills.
Method: To provide training to the counsellors, the method adopted is that of
sensitivity training and sharing of information at a personal level. Training is imparted
by trained professionals. The trainees are involved in group discussions and are
even given written assignments.
The main aim of the counsellor in counselling is to assist the counselee in identifying
the underlying causes of the problems the counselee faces and bring about the
required adjustments or changes so that the problem can be resolved. A counsellor
is a professional who offers his services to the counselee.

Role of Counselling in Like any other profession, counselling also has a professional code of conduct
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and ethics that the counsellors need to adhere to. Professional ethics refer to moral
principles that guide the conduct and behaviour of the counsellor during the counselling
session. The code of conduct to be followed by counsellors is mentioned as the
NOTES following:
 Values are the standards of behaviour that have been decided and set by the
society. The counsellor needs to keep these values in mind when practicing
his profession.
 Social values help the counsellor decide what is right and what is wrong.
These values are derived from the experiences of the counsellor which he
applied in his profession.
 The counsellor must have basic moral values like genuineness, compassion
and authenticity.
 Religious values in the counselling profession require the counsellor to offer
counselling to every person without being biased.
The counsellor may develop his own system of values over a period of time
and must ensure that he practices the profession within the limits prescribed by
these values. The counsellor must not be influenced by these values in any manner
when offering his services to any counselee.
The following are some professional issues that the counsellor may face when
practicing counselling:
 Consent and abandonment: Consent means that the counsellors have the
consent of the counselee in terms of offering the services and the treatment
meted out to them. The clients have all the right to know about the various
kinds of treatments and the methods of counselling that the counsellor will
make use of. The counsellor cannot hide such facts from the counselee. The
counsellor cannot abandon the clients. In other words, the counsellor has no
right the end the relationship with the client even if the former wishes to do
so. This is in contrast, to the fact that the counselee can end the relationship
whenever he feels necessary. When the counsellor feels that he is tired of
the counselee or cannot offer the services to the counselee, the counsellor
must refer the client to another counsellor instead of just ending the relationship
with the client.
 Confidentiality issues: In general and under normal circumstances, the
counsellor is required to keep everything that the counselee tells him confidential
i.e. the information shared by the counselee must not be passed on to anyone
else other than the counsellor. However, there may be certain times or
conditions when the counsellor may be required to share the information with
others. This is true especially in cases where the counsellor identifies a threat
to a counselee.
 Culture and bias: Counsellors also have personal values but they cannot
let these values overpower their services. The cultural and social values of a
counsellor must not affect the manner in which the counsellor offers his
services to the counselee. A counsellor may sometimes, have moral objections Role of Counselling in
Education
to the lifestyle of the counselee but this must not affect the manner in which
the client is helped in any manner. The counsellor also cannot impose his
system of values and beliefs on the client.
 Financial issues: Counsellors who offer their services do so for financial NOTES
gains. However, in their practice, the counsellors may come across people
who cannot afford their services but need help. In such cases, the counsellors
can offer their services yet again they are under no compulsion to do so.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

3. State the three important functions of counselling.
4. Name the three main types of counselling.
5.4 COUNSELLING PROCESS
Counselling is a process of interaction between the counselee and the counsellor.

The aim of the counselling process is to help the counselee identify the problems and
then make the necessary adjustments to solve the problem. Since counselling is a
process, it involves a sequence of steps which must be carried out one after the
other so that counselling overall can be effectively provided.
The various stages of the counselling process are as follows:
 Interview stage: Any type of counselling, whether it is group or individual
counselling begins with the interview stage. This stage is also referred to as
the introductory, orientation or familiarization stage. The stage is important as
it sets the foundation for the counselling process to start off well and to build
a great relationship between the counsellor and the counselee. During this
stage, the counsellor and the counselee meet for the first time and, therefore,
need to establish a rapport. At this stage, the counsellor also makes sure that
the counselee feels relaxed so that he can talk to the counsellor at ease. The
counsellor asks the counselee about his upbringing, friends, school, college
and the kind of problems that he needs to resolve. However, the counselee
must not feel interrogated at this stage and must readily share his personal
information. At this stage, the counsellor must also assure the counselee that
whatever information is shared will remain confidential. It is also during this
stage that the counsellor needs to exhibit his qualities of being a good counsellor
by listening carefully, showing empathy, treating his client with respect, warmth,
irrespective of his age, sex, race, colour, religion and socio-economic status.
 Working stage: This is the stage, where the counsellor completely involves
the counselee in discussion. The counsellor explains to the counselee what
will be done in the process of counselling and how it will be done. On hearing
the problems of the client, the counsellor will suggest ways and means using
which the problem that has been discussed with the client, can be handled or
resolved.
Role of Counselling in It is at this stage that the counsellor uses various techniques like responding,
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exploring, restatement, interpretation, confrontation, unconditional positive
regard, empathy, silence and catharsis to diagnose the problem. The counsellor
and the counselee together set the goals and objectives of counselling at this
NOTES stage. The counsellor at this stage decides the number of counselling sessions
that may be required. The number of counselling sessions required basically
depends on the problem that the counselee is facing. Generally, when the
problem is a complicated one, the counsellor requires many sessions to help
the counselee bring about the necessary adjustments to his behaviour so that
the problem can be solved.
 Termination stage: The termination stage marks an end to the counselling
relationship between the counselee and the counsellor. There are several
reasons as to why the counselling session may be ended by the counsellor.
The termination of the relationship can be temporary or a permanent one.
One of the reasons behind the termination of the relationship can be that the
counselling goals have been achieved. The relationship is terminated
temporarily, if the counsellor wants to follow-up and if the counselee’s problem
is completely solved, the relationship may be terminated permanently. A
counsellor can terminate the relationship temporarily, if the client does not
behave in a proper manner. Many times, a counselee is unresponsive despite
the repeated attempts of the counsellor and the counsellor may, thus, put the
counselling sessions on hold requiring the counselee to think about his behaviour.
The counselling may be terminated by the client, if he feels that counselling is
no longer needed. Sometimes, the counsellor may not be able to handle the
problems of the client as these are beyond his competence. In such cases,
the counsellor may refer the client to another counsellor and, hence, end the
relationship. Usually, the counsellor refers the client to an expert or a specialist.
 Follow-up stage: The follow-up stage is often initiated by the counsellor
when he wants to know whether the counselee has been able to effectively
adjust to his problems or not. However, follow-up may not be necessary for
every client or counselee. It is upon the counsellor to decide whether or not
he wants to follow-up the client’s progress.
Example: Interview stage between counsellor and client who is a student
in class XII with Arts subjects
The student comes to the counsellor to get guidance on the courses which can be
opted for studying at the university.
The student asks to enter the office of the counsellor who permits the student
to enter and to make the student comfortable tries to converse with the student.
Counsellor – ‘How are you today? Please sit down.’
Initially, the client is hesitant but is encouraged by the counsellor to feel
comfortable and free. The counsellor continues the conversation.
Counsellor – ‘What is your name and what class are you in?’
Client – ‘I am Amina in class XII.’
Counsellor – ‘Can I help you?’ Or ‘what has brought you to my office?’ Role of Counselling in
Education
Client – ‘I saw a notice on the bulletin board to see the counsellor when we
have problem, so I decided to come.’
Counsellor – ‘Yes you are right, you are in the right place. What can I do for NOTES
you?’
Client – ‘I bought an admission form from a university but do not know which
course I should opt for.’
Counsellor – ‘What subjects are you currently studying and what do you
wish to learn?’
Client – ‘I am currently pursuing Arts but want to study Law in future.’
Counsellor – ‘Most Universities offer Law.’
Client – ‘I would rather go to the University in the North because I have
never been to the South or East.’
Counsellor – ‘There is nothing bad in trying other places since you are from
the north. You need to go out, interact with people from other places, but your choice
is final.’
Client – ‘I will think about it and discuss with my parents because they will be
responsible for my upkeep there. ‘
Counsellor – ‘Since you want to pursue Law, you need to be good in matters
related to the government and other Arts subjects. ‘
Counsellor – ‘You should come to the office in your free period to fill the
form, so that you can submit it on time.’
Client – ‘Thank you Sir, for your time and assistance.’
At the next meeting, the counsellor and client will explore the universities and
the client will select one of his choice.
The following are the concepts associated with the process of counselling:
 Readiness: The counselee must be ready to accept the services of the
counsellor. Counselees are of two types— those who voluntarily seek the
services of the counsellor and those who are referred to the counsellor by
others. The counselee when approaching the counsellor must show readiness
for help or assistance of the counsellor.
 Counterwill: Sometimes, counselees hesitate in asking for help from the
counsellor. This is because they are reluctant to face consequences of
counselling and fear that they may fail to confront their problems. The
counselees often have negative feelings and may not seek help. This is referred
to as counterwill.
 Case history: Case history refers to a systematic collection of facts about
the counselee and his life. It is essential for the counsellor to know all the
essential facts about the counselee so that he can offer genuine help and
advice to the counselee. When a counselee does not share all information
with the counsellor, the counselling may not be effective enough.
Role of Counselling in  Rapport: Rapport is one of the basic concepts of counselling. It is essential
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that rapport be built between the counsellor and the counselee. Rapport simply
refers to mutual understanding and feeling of regard for each other. When a
counsellor and counselee develop a rapport, they can make the counselling
NOTES sessions more effective as opposed to when there is no trust and regard
between the two of them.
 Transference and counter transference: Transference simply means that
the counsellor can understand the emotions or the feeling of the counselee
and handles these in a therapeutic manner. Counter transference is negative
in counselling. It refers to a situation wherein a counsellor tries to impose his
feelings, anger or resentment on the counselee and forces the counselee to
behave in a specific manner.
 Resistance: Resistance has a positive effect on the outcome of counselling.
Resistance refers to a situation which arises when the counselee opposes the
counsellor’s moves or steps that are taken to achieve the goals. This can be
done by the counselee by resisting the move altogether or by telling the
counsellor that he has a better option than what the counsellor is suggesting.
The relationship between the counsellor and the counselee is, thus, based on
trust and must flourish in a manner to help the counselee adjust to the problems
faced by him. The relationship between the counselee and the counsellor must be of
mutual regard and understanding so that the counselee always feels that the counsellor
is genuinely concerned about his problems. The relationship must also be a
professional one in the sense that the counsellor must not be personally moved by
the problems that the counselee faces. A counsellor in no case must get personally
involved with the counselee at any point of time in the counselling relationship. This
is against the ethics and also has a negative impact on the relationship between the
client and the counsellor. A trusting relationship between the two develops under the
following circumstances:
 The counsellor is a kind person and is warm and welcoming.
 The counsellor is a person who can keep the problems discussed confidential
and does not share the information with others.
 The counsellor is a person who understands the feelings of the client and is
not judgmental.
 The counsellor is not a negative person and does not impose his personal
opinions on the counselee.
 The counsellor is a person who feels that the problem can be solved with
some help but does not provide a solution to the problem rather encourages
the counselee to find the solution.
Example: How to build rapport with the counselee in the counselling
relationship?
Rapport implies building a close and harmonious relation between two or more
persons. It is important for a counsellor to build rapport with the counselee. The

rapport between the counsellor and counselee is facilitated by how the counsellor Role of Counselling in
Education
behaves with the client and vice versa.
 To build rapport with the client, the counsellor must be prepared to conduct
the session with the counselee. The counsellor must put aside his personal
grudges, if any, and must work towards helping the counselee in solving his NOTES
problems.
 The counsellor must develop a safe and trusting environment for the counselee.
The counsellor must make the counselee comfortable so that the counselee
feels free to discuss the problems with the counsellor.
 To build a rapport, the counsellor must know in detail about the counselee and
must remember key facts about the client. This helps the counsellor to conduct
the counselling session in a proper manner.
 The counsellor must empathize with the problems and issues being discussed
by the counselee.
 The counsellor must not be judgemental. The counsellor must also show regard
to the client and follow professional ethics when dealing with the client.
 The counsellor must give the counselee sufficient time to discuss his problems.
The counsellor must not rush to solve the problems of the client and give
enough time to the client to find solutions to his problems.
 The counsellor must be congruent as well as honest and must not behave
with the client in a rude manner.
 When a rapport is developed between the counsellor and the counselee, the
counselee begins to trust the counsellor and the counselee can solve his
problems in an effective manner with the help of the counsellor.
Example: How a counselling relationship helped sherry, a single mother
of a teenager
Sherry, a 41 year old single mother with a teenage son, seeks the help of a counsellor
as she felt exhausted, withdrawn and lost. Sherry was frustrated because of the
demands of the people in her life. She was tired of the demands of the supervisor
who pushed her to work more. This resulted in Sherry spending a lot of time in the
office and taking work home as well.
Sherry is also tired of her friends who rely on her a lot and always want
Sherry to be there to listen to their problems and complaints. Sherry’s son is also
complaining demanding more time from her mother. Sherry, therefore, feels exhausted
and upset and her health has also suffered a lot. Sherry complains a lot about
headaches, colds and other symptoms.
How counselling might help
Sherry goes to a counsellor and after attending the initial session and knowing how
the counsellor will work with her, she starts to analyse her situation and find solution
with the help of the counsellor. Sherry discussed with the counsellor that once her
son had left the house to work alone and stay independent, she felt lost and isolated.
Role of Counselling in Sherry realizes that to avoid the feeling of loneliness, she spends a lot of time doing
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things, going out with friends and spending a lot of time on the Internet.
The counsellor allows Sherry to unfold her life experience at her own pace.
In doing so, Sherry also realizes the patterns of her life. She also realizes the fact
NOTES that she needs someone to discuss and share her problem with.
Sherry and the counsellor have developed a therapeutic relationship that leads
Sherry to self- discovery. Sherry also feels that she has become so accustomed to
saying yes to people who are no longer concerned about her needs and problems
and, therefore, she feels alienated and uncomfortable at all times.
The counselling sessions that she attends offer her support to deal with her
feelings on her own. With the help of the counsellor, Sherry realizes what is important
for her in life and what is not. Sherry no longer feels that she must say yes all the
time to people. Sherry now enjoys her time surfing on the Internet and feels energized
when she spends time doing things she likes. She has now started doing creative
things especially painting that she likes and has also learnt to say no to people whom
she does not want to help or feels unable to help.
Sherry’s perspective of life has changed and she no longer carried a burden
of resentment as she attends the counselling sessions. She has become more aware
of her energy level, needs and wants. Sherry has seen the counselling sessions as an
opportunity to lead a free life.
Sherry feels free to express herself and has no fear of the fact as to how she
will be judged by others. She now connects well with others and easily works at the
workplace where she has become more assertive. Sherry’s confidence has also
grown which is reflected in her body language and is leading a better personal life.
She is now able to focus on her own needs and wants and enjoys spending time with
her son consequently.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

5. What is the first stage of the counselling process?
6. What do you understand by the term counter transference?
5.5 PARENTAL COUNSELLING
Parents develop skills to manage and understand their children over time. They do
this through an on-going process of learning and observing others around them. As
children grow up, there are several changes that are observed by parents. There are
different ways in which the children require their parents to interact with them.
Parents, therefore, are always under pressure to modify their parenting techniques
so that they can cope up with the needs of their children and are able to maintain a
healthy relationship with the children.
The role of the parents is always changing in relation to how their children
grow. Parental counselling is basically a method wherein the parents work with
counsellors to find out whether the changes that they bring about in themselves are Role of Counselling in
Education
beneficial for their children or not. Parental counselling, therefore, helps parents to
cope up with the ever changing needs and demands of their children. Parental
counselling offers a safe space to parents where they can talk about the problems
they face in raising their children. Parental counselling, therefore, helps parents to NOTES
bring up their children in the most effective manner.
Parental counselling may also be important when the parents and the children
do not see eye-to-eye regarding a specific situation. Counselling can help parents to
discuss how to bring the children to the right track. Many a times, parental counselling
is also required when children move from school to college and the parents are over
protective about their children and are afraid of sending their children to college.
A typical parental counselling session involves the following steps:
 The counsellor obtains details about the current concerns regarding the child
from the parents.
 The counsellor also obtains background information and family history.
 The counsellor discusses the goals for therapy with the parents.
 The counsellor discusses various counselling approaches and consequently, a
plan of action is determined.
Example: Counselling the parents of handicapped children
Parents who have handicapped children have to adjust to several emotional and
psychological problems that they face because their children are unable to meet
their expectations. Parents of handicapped children often need counselling, so that
they can deal with such problems. Counselling in this case, is formal process wherein
the counsellor and the parents find a manner in which, the handicapped children can
perform well and adjust to their physical limitation. Parents are often counselled on
how to support the children in a manner wherein their inadequacies do not hamper
their development. In such a case, counselling must be a continuous process that
focuses on the overall growth and development of the children and adjustment of
the children as well as the parents.
Example: Indian Institute of Counselling: Counselling for parents and
children
Children and adolescents go through different behavioural, emotional and
psychological stages as they grow. Each stage has its own needs and problems to be
resolved. Parent-child relationship can face problems at any stage of life.
Some of the common problems encountered in child, adolescent and parenting
counselling are as follows:
 Bullying and peer pressure in school/colleges
 Aggression and violence from adolescents and children
 Unhealthy habits like excessive viewing of television and phone usage
 Sibling rivalry and unhealthy competition

Role of Counselling in  Eating and sleep problems
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 Bed wetting and panic attacks
 Poor school performance and school phobia
NOTES  Speech problems
 Addictive behaviours and substance abuse
 Body image issues during adolescence
 Interpersonal relationship problems
 Low self- esteem and lack of assertiveness
 Poor study habits
 Poor concentration and anxiety
 Trauma, abuse and neglect
 Faulty parenting styles
This is just a list of a few problems and is not exhaustive. The counsellor
helps the child by listening attentively, observing the child and assisting the child in
opening up to share his experiences.
Child, adolescent and parenting counselling includes the following:
 It offers the child/adolescent an opportunity to discuss problems one-to-one
with the counsellor and gain insight into his/her concerns in a safe and
confidential environment. Discussions are based on the age groups,
developmental levels and specific concerns of the children and adolescents.
 It ensure that the child/adolescent feel safe and secure during the counselling
session.
 The counsellor listens attentively to the grievances of the parents.
 It ensures providing a healthy parent-child interaction and facilitating good
communication between parent and child/adolescent.
Example: Case Studies or Parental counselling
Kate is a thirty-two year old mother, who seeks the help of a counsellor to deal with
her four-year old son Jack. Jack according to Kate is very aggressive towards his
little sister. Jack does not listen to Kate and is usually upset. Kate also tells the
counsellor that she has tried several things to make Jack adjust but everything has
gone in vain as he does not respond to any form of discipline and does not accept the
fact that he is wrong. Jack does not listen to Kate at all and when she sits with him
to discuss the problem, he gets up and walks away. Kate says that she does not
believe in hitting the child and the counsellor agrees with this statement. When
asked, Kate says that Jack started behaving in this manner soon after the birth of his
sister. Kate also says that though Jack was not jealous at first, he now refers to the
baby as a stupid baby and throws pillows and soft toys at her. The counsellor also
talks to Jack and finds out that he is often upset and cannot sleep properly because
his sister wakes in the night. While his sister is out to sleep by the mother, Jack has
to sleep on his own which is difficult for him. Since Jack is tired of this, he is rude
towards his sister as well as mother. According to the instructions of the counsellor, Role of Counselling in
Education
when Kate puts the baby to sleep, she also spends time with Jack to put him to sleep
which makes him sleep almost immediately. With this, Jack’s behaviour also improves
to a great extent.
NOTES
Example
Troubled teen: Parents of Anne who is thirteen years old have opted for counselling
because of her anger problem. The counsellor discusses Anne’s problem with her
parents. According to her parents, Anne’s behaviour changes from withdrawn and
sullen to sarcastic and then talkative. While conducting the session with Anne alone,
the counsellor realizes that Anne feels sad and lonely but she is clear about what she
is discussing with the counsellor. While conducting the session with the parents, the
counsellor observes the communication patterns of the family. In the session, the
counsellor finds out that Anne behaves very sweetly and cares for her younger
brother while the parents do not spend much time with Anne. The counsellor points
this to the parents and begins counselling the parents. After two or three months of
counselling, the family begins to live happily.
Example
The parents of ten year old seek the help of a counsellor because the child has
issues settling in school. The child feels scared to go to school and wants to go back
to her home town. The child does not like the classmates and is a loving and caring
child. She cries in the morning when she is woken up for school. At the same time,
the sister of the child has adjusted well to the school. The child does not listen to the
parents and has become stubborn.
The counsellor offers the following action plan:
The parents are advised to understand the situation of the child. The parents are
also advised to give the child some time to settle in school. The parents also are
advised to motivate the child to get up in the morning by indulging the child in some
activity. The parents of the child according to the counsellor need to be positive and
stop comparing the child with her sister and other children as well.
Parent update
The parents felt that their session with the counsellor had been fruitful and it enables
them to tackle the situation in a positive manner. The parents also said that they
were following the advice of the counsellor and have accepted the child in her
normal way. The parents also said that she is happier now and does not feel frustrated.
5.5.1 Student Counselling—High School
The school life of high school students is full of uncertainty and turmoil. This is
because the students are under constant pressure and stress to perform well at the
school and also gear up for their career. The high school students are also at an age
where they can be easily influenced by a lot of people and external forces— both
positive and negative. Students, at this stage, are full of confusion as they need to
take several decisions related to their education and career. A common problem
Role of Counselling in with most high school students is that they look for a place where they belong. High
Education
school students often look at the behaviour of their peers as an example to emulate
and one which is rewarded with a positive outcome. The behaviour of high school
students is, thus, often unpredictable and very volatile as well.
NOTES With so many problems at hand, high school students often need the assistance
of counsellors, so that they can make the right decisions related to education, career
and personal life. High school counsellors have a tough job at their hands to deal
with and guide high school students. The high school counsellors, therefore, need to
have expertise in student psychology and must also be good at several counselling
techniques so that they can guide the students in the right manner.
Student counselling at high school level deals with helping students to take the
right educational and vocational decisions. High school counselling aims at enabling
students to adjust to their environment mentally, physically and socially. When
counselling high school students, the counsellor needs to keep in mind curriculum
development as well. The counsellor must make sure that counselling takes place in
such a manner that the students overcome their barriers to learning at school and
also learning in life. High school counsellors, therefore, help students to perform
better at academics, take right decisions related to further studies at college and
university level and also to take the right career decisions. Thus, high school students
need personal, vocational as well as educational counselling.
High school counsellors develop and implement high school counselling
programmes to assist the high school students. A high school counsellor develops a
counselling programme keeping in mind various needs and areas of counselling.
Classroom guidance is provided by the high school counsellor with the following
objectives in mind:
 Academic skills support
 Organizational, study and test-taking skills
 Post-secondary planning and application process
 Career planning
 Education in understanding self and others
 Coping strategies
 Peer relationships and effective social skills
 Communication, problem-solving, decision-making, conflict resolution and study
skills
 Substance abuse education
 Multicultural/diversity awareness
Individual student planning helps the high school counsellor to enable students
in the following areas:
 Goal setting
 Academic plans

 Career plans Role of Counselling in
Education
 Problem-solving
 Education in understanding self, including one’s strengths and weaknesses
 Transition plans NOTES
Responsive services are offered by the high school counsellor with the following
objectives in mind:
 Individual and small-group counselling
 Individual/family/school crisis intervention
 Peer facilitation
 Consultation/collaboration
 Referrals
The high school counsellors may need the help and support of other key
players as well when developing a counselling plan for high school students. A high
school counsellor may need to interact with the parents, teachers, students and so
on.
A high school counsellor may need to interact with the parents due to the
following reasons:
 Academic planning/support
 Post-secondary planning
 Scholarship/financial search process
 School-to-parent communication
 School-to-work transition programmes
 One-on-one parent conferencing
 Referral process
Student interaction may be required for the following reasons:
 Academic support services
 Program planning
 Peer education programme
 Peer mediation programme
 Crisis management
 Transition programmes
Teacher interaction may be required for the following reasons:
 The interaction aims at promoting portfolio development, providing
recommendations and assisting students with the post-secondary application
process.
 The interaction aims to provide classroom guidance lessons on post-secondary
planning, study skills, career development and so on.

Role of Counselling in  The interaction will facilitate school-to-work transition programmes.
Education
 The interaction aims at providing academic support, learning style assessment
and education to help students succeed in the academic sphere.
NOTES Example: Duties and responsibilities of a high school counsellor
The main aim of the high school counsellor is to ensure that the students perform
well academically. Most adolescents face problems adjusting to their educational,
social and behavioural changes that are taking place in their lives. The counsellors
have to make sure that the students adjust to these changes in an effective manner.
The counsellors are responsible for preventing student abuse in the high school and
must also ensure that the students are able to deal with problems that they have at
home. The family problems may sometimes negatively affect the academic
performance of the students and the high school counsellors have work towards its
prevention.
A high school counsellor must be very knowledgeable. The counsellor must
have complete knowledge on how to prepare the high school students for their
careers and must provide complete information to the students about the various
career opportunities available to them. Counsellors at the high school often invite
people from different fields to talk to the students and provide them with the necessary
information. The high school counsellor must also prepare the students for internships.
A high school counsellor must also provide the students with information related
to scholarships. The counsellor must also carry out school and career guidance for
the high school students. The counsellor may work with individual students and
provide them counselling and guidance. The high school counsellor must also make
sure that the students develop the necessary skills to interact with others so that
they can appear for interviews of group discussions as and when required.
Example: Counselling needs of higher secondary school students of
Kerala
The present investigation was directed towards the identification of counselling needs
of the higher secondary school students of Kerala as perceived by higher secondary
school teachers by normative survey method. Perceptions of 200 teachers from
selected schools were used to assess the counselling needs. For this, a Counselling
Needs inventory was prepared by the investigator. Results of the analysis indicate
that higher secondary school students have strong counselling needs, as perceived
by their teachers. Results also show that there is no significant difference between
male and female teacher perception on the counselling needs of higher secondary
school students.
The age group of higher secondary students extends from sixteen to nineteen
years, which span in the later adolescent period. Adolescence is considered as the
most tumultuous period of life. The basic characteristics of adolescence in modern
times are increased emotional instability, period of unrealism, hero worship, moral
dilemma, faster changes in the physical and biological system, inclination towards
anti-social behaviour, drug and sex abuse and several other unique characteristics.
It is widely accepted that the adolescent students need counselling support when
they face personal, social, familial and educational issues. The present investigation Role of Counselling in
Education
is directed towards the identification of perceived counselling needs of the higher
secondary school students by their teachers.
The method followed for the present study for assessing the perceived
counselling needs of higher secondary pupils is normative survey. Initially, population NOTES
samples from fifty higher secondary schools were selected from different districts
of Kerala for the study. A sample of 200 teachers from the selected schools was
then identified to assess the counselling needs of higher secondary students. Sample
was selected using stratified sampling technique giving due representation to gender,
school locale and type of management of schools.
Instruments: To assess the counselling needs of higher secondary students a
Counselling Needs inventory was prepared by the investigator. The tool was
administered among Teachers of Higher Secondary Schools. The tool consisted of
sixty statements, each statement indicating a need and to be responded by choosing
any one of the closed ended responses given i.e., very much needed, needed and not
needed. The statements were scored with 3, 2 and 1 respectively for very much
needed, needed and not needed for quantitative analysis. Procedure Investigator
visited fifty schools of the sample for collecting data. The inventory was administered
to 200 teachers and the responses were scored on three-point scale. The collected
data were consolidated using spread sheet and subjected to statistical analysis.
The results showed that higher secondary school students are greatly in need
of counselling support to tackle behavioural problems, need for understanding, need
for love and belongingness, need for security, need for approval, need to tackle
emotional problems, need for achievement, need for freedom and need for vocation.
5.5.2 Role of Parents, Teachers and Counsellors in the
Guidance Programme
Guidance programmes are prepared keeping in mind the welfare of the students.
Guidance programmes are implemented at all levels of education for students in
schools, colleges and universities. The main aim of the guidance programmes is to
help students develop positive behaviour and adjust to the personal, educational and
vocational environment. Guidance programmes aim to bring about changes in the
behaviour of the students so that they can face their problems, adjust to their problems
and also overcome their problems.
Guidance programmes, however, cannot be implemented in vacuum and
without the help of other major key players like parents, teachers and counsellors
who play an important role in guiding and assisting students in their lives. In fact,
parents, teachers and counsellors play an important role in the successful
implementation of the guidance programmes.
Role of parents in guidance programmes: The main role of parents in the
implementation of a guidance programme is that of cooperation. Parents need to be
cooperative enough with the school so that the guidance programme can be
implemented in an effective manner. The following are the functions of parents to
help in the implementation of the guidance programmes:
Role of Counselling in  Parents must provide the required information about the students so that the
Education
guidance program can be effectively implemented. Information is also required
so that the students can be guided in the right manner.
 Parents must encourage their children to take help of the guidance services
NOTES provided and actively participate in the school guidance programme.
 Parents must also make use of the guidance services provided by the school
whenever they need information about the performance and behaviour of
their children.
 Parents must make sure that the environment that they provide at home to
the students is conducive to their learning.
 Parents must teach their children proper attitudes and behaviour like self-
discipline, self- improvement, dignity of labour, acceptance of responsibility
and honesty.
Role of teachers in guidance programmes: The teachers must cooperate with
the guidance service providers for the effective implementation of the guidance
programmes. Teachers must provide complete cooperation to the guidance
counsellors and the guidance service providers to implement the guidance programme.
The teachers must guide the students in developing the skills essential to excel at
academics. Teachers must also provide guidance to the students so that they can
make the right decisions related to education, vocational and social and personal life.
The following are the main functions of teachers in guidance programmes:
 The role of teachers in guidance programmes is that they use cumulative
record information.
 Teachers assist in the identification of exceptional children.
 Teachers help children in exploring the work arena.
 Teachers assist children in resolving learning and adjustment problems.
 Teachers assist in developing special interests and aptitudes.
 Teachers enable students to analyse their attitude and feelings towards others.
According to authors of Organization and Administration of Guidance Services,
Zeran and Riccion, the following are the guidance functions of school teachers:
 The school teacher must know about the basic principles that guide human
behaviour.
 The school teachers must be able to observe the behaviours of the students
so that they know when the students behave in a certain manner and whether
that behaviour needs to be reported or not.
 The teacher must provide the students with facts so that the students can
work in the environment in a logical and reasonable manner.
 The teacher must guide the students towards emphasis on self-understanding
and also understand their responsibilities and actions.
 The school teacher must cooperate in the delivery and evaluation of the
guidance services.
 The teachers must take part in the development and planning of the guidance Role of Counselling in
Education
programme.
 The teacher must realize that guidance services can be provided only by
professionals and so must collaborate with the professionals and make students
aware of the same. NOTES
 The school teacher must provide the necessary information for cumulative
records of the students and even use the information when needed.
 The school teacher must develop home and classroom activity material.
 The school teacher must constantly review the course content so as to bring
the students at par with the changing times.
 The teacher must be responsible for the overall development of the student
rather than just excellence at academics.
 The school teacher must participate in workshops, seminars and case
conferences.
 The school teacher must acquire new competencies so as to perform the
guidance activities in the right and effective manner.
Role of counsellors in guidance programmes: A school counsellor is a
professional who offers guidance and counselling services to the students so that
they can make the required adjustment in their personal, social, vocational and
educational areas. The school counsellors must be able to provide guidance services
to all students irrespective of their cultures and backgrounds. The school counsellor
must have enough skills and knowledge so that he can handle several types of
problems that students may face. The school counsellor must provide a wide range
of services to the students like information services, remedial services, counselling,
admission and pre-admission services, testing and placement services. The school
counsellor must ensure that the guidance curriculum is implemented in the right
manner in the school at all levels.
Zeran and Riccio list the following functions of the school counsellor:
 The school counsellor must evaluate his strengths and weaknesses.
 The school counsellor must be aware of his roles and responsibilities and
their importance in the functioning of the school institution as a whole.
 The school counsellor must seek the cooperation of the school staff to offer
guidance and counselling services.
 The school counsellor must focus and emphasise on the need for built-in
system of evaluation in the guidance programme.
 The school counsellor must define the competencies and areas which need to
be considered when a new staff member has to be employed.
 The school counsellor must assist and participate in developing programmes
where special competence is needed.
 The counsellor must encourage teachers to identify students who need
assistance and those who have special talent.
Role of Counselling in  The school counsellor must identify the potential drop-outs and assist him in
Education
achieving the specific goals and objectives related to formal education.
 The counsellor must encourage the students to take responsibility for their
behaviour and to work to their best potential.
NOTES
 The counsellor must encourage teachers to provide the necessary information
for the cumulative records of the students and maintain these records in a
professional manner.
 The school counsellor must interact with the parents.
 The school counsellor must refer students who are beyond their competency
to other counsellors.
 The counsellor must maintain good and healthy relations with the school staff
and the community as well.
 The counsellor must ensure that the school maintains information related to
educational, social and career needs of the students.
 The counsellor must help the teachers obtain all necessary information about
the counselling programme.
 The counsellor must be able to demonstrate his professional competency.
Example: Role of parents in career guidance programme for children
Parents influence the career growth and development of their children and play a
key role in the decision-making processes of the children related to their careers.
When children have the support of their parents they feel more confident and perform
better at everything. Parents also influence the level of knowledge of their children
and the beliefs and attitudes that the children develop. Parents set examples for
their children and provide opportunities to their children to learn and develop the
essential life skills.
How can parents help in career development of their children?
 The parents must encourage their children to receive as much knowledge as
possible.
 The parents must help the children to realize their talents and potential.
 The parents must teach their children about gender equality and the diversity
that exists in the world of work.
 The parents must encourage their children to receive the necessary training
for working effectively in the jobs that their children want to secure.
Example: Role of a higher education teacher in guidance programme
A high school teacher has the following duties when guiding students:
 The teacher must help the students to adjust to the life in the university,
polytechnic, or college of education.
 The teacher must guide the students to participate in college or university
activities so that they can develop the essential personal and social skills.
 The teacher must help the student in education, social, personal and vocational Role of Counselling in
Education
development.
 The teacher must help the student to understand himself better and guide the
student in a manner which enables the student to achieve his specific goals
and objectives. NOTES
 The teacher helps the students develop positive behaviour and attitude.
 The teacher helps the student to get a better understanding of the working
environment by providing practical training and skills.
 The teacher helps the students to plan their leisure time well and utilize it in
some constructive manner.
 The teacher helps the students to identify and understand his strengths,
weaknesses, values, beliefs and attitudes.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

7. What are the steps involved in a parental counselling session?
8. What is the role of parents in the implementation of guidance
programmes?
5.6 SUMMARY
 Counselling as a profession needs to be conducted as per the code of ethics

prescribed for this profession. A counsellor when practicing his profession
must make sure that he does not get into a personal relationship with the
client.
 Counsellors may need to work with psychiatrists, psychotherapists, healthcare
providers, educational experts and several people from different professions
leading to what is called interprofessional interaction.
 Based on the interaction of the counsellor with professionals from other fields
and with their clients, there are several types of counselling approaches that
the counsellor can make use of when offering counselling to different people.
 Counselling is a process that involves communication between the counsellor
and the counselee so that the counselee can overcome the problems faced by
him with the assistance of the counsellor.
 Training in counselling may often be required by the counsellor to know about
the various counselling techniques and how to utilize them. The counsellor
also needs to ensure that he is trained enough to carry out a counselling
session in an effective manner.
 The main aim of the counsellor in counselling is to assist the counselee in
identifying the underlying causes of the problems the counselee faces and
bring about the required adjustments or changes so that the problem can be
resolved.
Role of Counselling in  Parents develop skills to manage and understand their children over time.
Education
They do this through an on-going process of learning and observing others
around them.
 Parental counselling may also be important when the parents and the children
NOTES do not see eye-to-eye regarding a specific situation. Counselling can help
parents to discuss how to bring the children to the right track.
 The school life of high school students is full of uncertainty and turmoil. This
is because the students are under constant pressure and stress to perform
well at the school and also gear up for their career.
 Guidance programmes are prepared keeping in mind the welfare of the
students. Guidance programmes are implemented at all levels of education
for students in schools, colleges and universities.
5.7 KEY TERMS
 Existential counselling: It is a philosophical form of counselling which

addresses the situation of a person’s life and positions the person firmly within
the predictable challenges of the human condition.
 Proxemics: It is the branch of knowledge that deals with the amount of
space that people feel it necessary to set between themselves and others.
 Counterwill: It is a psychological term that means instinctive resistance to
any sense of coercion.
 Interpersonal: This refers to something involving or taking place among
several people.
 Self-help counselling: This counselling takes place in small groups where
there are no counselling leaders and members take part in the group as equals.
1. Psychodynamic counselling technique is based on the premise that past

experiences have a bearing on experiences and feelings in the present, and
that important relationships, perhaps from early childhood, may be replayed
with other people later in life.
2. The various counselling approaches used in counselling are as follows:
 Psychodynamic counselling
 Client-centred counselling
 Transpersonal counselling
 Transactional analysis counselling
 Existential counselling
 Rational-emotive behavioural counselling
 Cognitive-behavioural counselling

 Interpersonal therapy Role of Counselling in
Education
 Counselling psychology
3. The three important functions of counselling are as follows:
 Adjustment functions NOTES
 Oriental functions
 Developmental functions
4. The three main types of counselling are as follows:
 Individual counselling
 Group counselling
 Self-help counselling
5. Interview stage is the first stage of the counselling process. The stage is
important as it sets the foundation for the counselling process to start off well
and to build a great relationship between the counsellor and the counselee.
6. Counter transference refers to a situation wherein a counsellor tries to impose
his feelings, anger or resentment on the counselee and forces the counselee
to behave in a specific manner.
7. The steps involved in a parental counselling session are as follows:
 The counsellor obtains details about the current concerns regarding the
child from the parents.
 The counsellor also obtains background information and family history.
 The counsellor discusses the goals for therapy with the parents.
 The counsellor discusses various counselling approaches and consequently,
a plan of action is determined.
8. The main role of parents in the implementation of a guidance programme is
that of cooperation. Parents need to be cooperative enough with the school
so that the guidance programme can be implemented in an effective manner.
1. Give examples to depict the application of collaboration between classroom
teachers and school counsellors.
2. What are the essential skills of a good counsellor?
3. What are the counselling techniques that a counsellor must be trained to use?
4. Briefly discuss the professional issues in counselling.
5. Write a short note on parental counselling.
1. Discuss interprofessional interaction in counselling.
2. Describe the various stages of the counselling process.
Role of Counselling in 3. Explain the concepts associated with the process of counselling.
Education
4. Analyse the importance of student counselling at high school level.
5. Discuss the role of counsellors and parents in the implementation of guidance
NOTES programmes.

Distributors.
Cooperation.
Education.

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GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

Directorate of Distance Education

Vikas® is the registered trademark of Vikas® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

Syllabi Mapping in Book

UNIT 1 AN OVERVIEW: GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING IN EDUCATION 3-40

UNIT 2 TESTING AND NON-TESTING TECHNIQUES 41-89

UNIT 3 GUIDANCE SERVICES 91-133

UNIT 4 VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 135-176

UNIT 5 ROLE OF COUNSELLING IN EDUCATION 177-210

UNIT 1 AN OVERVIEW: GUIDANCE Counselling in Education

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

1.2 CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

Guidance in simple terms means to direct or provide assistance to someone who

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Counselling refers to professional services provided to an individual who is facing a

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1.6 OCCUPATIONAL AND EDUCATIONAL

Occupational information refers to information about work. It includes information

1.8 KEY TERMS

 Formal education: It is the education that takes place in a structured

1. Education is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, beliefs, values and

1.11 FURTHER READING

Bengalee, M. D. 1984. Guidance and Counselling. Bombay: Sheth Publishers.

UNIT 2 TESTING AND NON- Techniques

The central focus of all guidance and counselling programmes is an individual. To

2.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

2.3 TESTING TECHNIQUES

As discussed earlier, guidance and counselling help the individual to overcome

Perceptual Proposed abilities measured

(Letter-Number In this test, the The test is a measure of an individual’s

Processing Proposed abilities measured

Wechsler primary and preschool scale of intelligence: This is an intelligence

Verbal reasoning is a measure of the

Numerical ability tests are the tests that Project Manager,

Abstract reasoning is a non-verbal test. Skilled Trades,

Mechanical reasoning is like the Bennett

Language usage is a test of the

Example: Employment aptitude tests in India

The person in No.1 is:

Example: Personality test for employees

NOTES A I rarely have second thoughts about decisions I have made.

A I need immediate results.

A If threatened, I will back off rather than fight.

A I do not let day-to-day difficulties affect me.

A I prefer knowing exactly how something should be done before I begin.

A I am willing to be pushy in order to get what I want to be done.

A Time management is not one of my key strengths.

2.3.2 Socio-metric Devices

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

2.4 NON-TESTING TECHNIQUES

NOTES Goals to be achieved during the first session

2.6 KEY TERMS

 Linguistic intelligence: Linguistic intelligence refers to the ability of the

1. The essential features of the records maintained by guidance and counselling

2.8 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

2.9 FURTHER READING

Bengalee, M. D. 1984. Guidance and Counselling. Bombay: Sheth Publishers.