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Electrical Power Generation in Aircraft: Review, Challenges, and Opportunities

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DOI: 10.1109/TTE.2018.2834142

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION

Electrical Power Generation in Aircraft: review,

challenges and opportunities
V. Madonna, Student Member, IEEE, P. Giangrande, and M. Galea., Member, IEEE

 PDC Power Distribution Centre

Abstract—The constant growth of air traffic, the demand for PEC Power Electronics Converter
performance optimization and the need for decreasing both PM Permanent Magnet
operating and maintenance costs have encouraged the aircraft PMSM Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine
industry to move towards more electric solutions. As a result of SiC Silicon Carbide
this trend, electric power required on board of aircraft has SR Switched Reluctance
significantly increased through the years, causing major changes
SRM Switched Reluctance Machine
in electric power system architectures. Considering this scenario,
the paper gives a review about the evolution of electric power TRU Transformer Rectifier Unit
generation systems in aircraft. The major achievements are VFG Variable Frequency Generator
highlighted and the rationale behind some significant VS Variable Speed
developments discussed. After a brief historical overview of the VSCF Variable Speed Constant Frequency
early DC generators (both wind- and engine-driven), the reasons
which brought the definitive passage to the AC generation, for I. INTRODUCTION
larger aircraft, are presented and explained. Several AC
generation systems are investigated with particular attention
being focused on the voltage levels and the generator technology.
Further, examples of commercial aircraft implementing AC
S ECONDARY power systems allow for aircraft safe
operation and ensure passengers’ comfort. For conventional
aircraft, secondary power systems combine pneumatic,
generation systems are provided. Finally, the trends towards hydraulic, mechanical and electric power and their energy
modern generation systems are also considered giving prominence consumption represents approximately 5% of the total fuel
to their challenges and feasibility.
burnt during the flight [1].
Index Terms— MEA, AEA, Aircraft Electric Power With the advent of the more electric aircraft (MEA) initiative,
Generation, HEP, HVDC electric power systems are progressively taking the place of
pneumatic, hydraulic and mechanical power systems [2-4].
Over time, this trend has led to an increase of required electric
NOMENCLATURE
power, particularly for larger aircraft [5-7], as shown in Fig. 1.
AEA All Electric Aircraft For instance in the B787, several loads, which were
APU Auxiliary Power Unit traditionally supplied by pneumatic bleed system, are now
ATRU Autotransformer Rectifier Unit electrically-driven [8]. These loads include (but are not limited
ATU Autotransformer Unit to) wing ice protection, environmental control system (ECS)
CF Constant Frequency and the engine starting system [9]. Therefore, an important
CSD Constant Speed Drive player in all of this is the need of on-board electrical power
ECS Environmental Control System
generation. In Fig. 2, a general system-level scheme, regarding
GCU Generator Control Unit
the historical evolution of on-board electrical power generation
HP High Pressure
HVDC High Voltage DC and distribution, is reported [1, 7].
IM Induction Machine The electric power demand on-board of aircraft begun with
IDG Integrated Drive Generator the requirement of starting the main engines. Hence, power
LP Low Pressure generation on aircraft dates back to the First World War period
MEA More Electric Aircraft (1914-18), when the starting capability and also wireless
n Rotational speed of the generator shaft [rpm] telegraphy were introduced on-board of military aircraft [10].
N1 Rotational speed of the low pressure spool [rpm] At the time, wind-driven generators were generally preferred to
N2 Rotational speed of the high pressure spool [rpm] batteries, mainly due to their better reliability and the poor
p Number of poles pair of the main generator energy density of the available batteries in the period. Between

This work is funded by the INNOVATIVE doctoral programme. The Nottingham, Nottingham, NG72RD, UK (1 eexvm3@nottingham.ac.uk;
2
INNOVATIVE programme is partially funded by the Marie Curie Initial p.giangrande@nottingham.ac.uk; 3 Michael.Galea@nottingham.ac.uk).
Training Networks (ITN) action (project number 665468) and partially by the Michael Galea is also with the School of Aerospace, University of
Institute for Aerospace Technology (IAT) at the University of Nottingham. Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo 315100, China
Vincenzo Madonna1, Paolo Giangrande2, and Michael Galea3 are all with the
Power Electronics, Machines and Control (PEMC) group, University of
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION

the two world wars, electric services, such as lighting, V-Bombers were decommissioned, however, their power
signalling and heating, were brought into use [3, 11, 12] and generation system is still in service today on the VC-10
with them the power generated by the wind-driven generators air-to-air refuelling tankers. Generating AC voltage at constant
escalated from 250W up to 1000W. Higher power ratings were frequency required a coupling mechanical gearbox between the
achieved by increasing the generated voltage levels. Indeed, the variable-speed prime mover (i.e. engine shaft) and the generator
6Vdc system (already in use in the automotive industry) was [16]. This complex hydromechanical unit introduced reliability
soon replaced by the 12Vdc system, which had been upgraded issues, due to increased component count (with several moving
to the 28Vdc system by 1936 [13]. parts), which needed frequent maintenance [17]. In the early
1990s, the need for more energy-efficient aircraft promoted the
MEA concept, which was already known since 1940s. As a
result of this trend, commercial aircraft implementing more-
electric features are nowadays available and some examples are
the A380 and the B787 [3].
Starting from the dawn of aviation, this paper presents a
survey on the evolution of electrical power generators for
aerospace applications. In particular, DC power generation is
discussed in Section II, where the technologies implemented
pre- and post- World Wars are examined. In Section III, the AC
power generation technologies, such as constant frequency
(CF) and variable speed constant frequency (VSCF) systems,
are described and their main advantages and drawbacks are
highlighted. Section IV deals with “unconventional systems”,
such as switched reluctance machine (SRM) based systems, for
Fig. 1. Evolution of electrical power need (in grey short to medium range
generating electric power on-board of military aircraft. Recent
aircraft and in black medium to long range aircraft). achievements and today’s generation systems employed in
MEA are considered in Section V. The challenges and
forthcoming developments regarding the power generation on
the future aircraft (i.e. multi-spool generation and HVDC
systems) are briefly reviewed in Section VI. Finally, Section
VII provides a summary through more than a hundred years of
electric power generation on-board of aircraft.

II. DC GENERATION
In the early days, electric power on aircraft was mainly used
for communication and ignition systems. Indeed, the first DC
generators were typically rated for less than 500W and usually
adopted 6Vdc and 12Vdc voltage levels [11, 12]. As previously
mentioned, the installation of lighting, signalling and heating
systems increased the electric power requirements. Hence, the
generator capacity rose up to 1kW (value retained till the
Fig. 2. Electric generation systems evolution.
beginning of World War II [18]), as well as the voltage level,
which was increased to 28Vdc. Higher generated voltage
As the aircraft travelling (ground) speed begun to exceed
allowed for savings on cables and commutators weight [13, 19,
280km/h (around 1934), the drag forces related to wind-driven
20].
generators started to become a significant issue [14]. For this
reason, wind-driven generators were superseded by engine- A. Pre-World War II
driven generators. During Second World War (1939-45), The majority of the first DC generators relied on wind-driven
engine-driven generators were improved, in terms of
technologies [19]. This topology of generator was most
power/weight ratio and reliability, however generation was still
commonly mounted externally on the aircraft’s landing gear
in DC. In the 1940s and 1950s, twin 28Vdc engine-driven
strut. However, as aircraft speeds increased, requirements for
generators became a standard on-board of many aircraft. Apart
from its main two 12kW engine-driven generators, it employed more refined flight dynamics started to push towards fully
one or two batteries (as emergency power source) and a power retractable landing gear and thus wind-milling generators
converter, which fed the AC electric loads [14]. In the 1950s, became obsolete. The era of engine-driven generators thus
three-phase generators were mounted on British V-Bombers. began [21]. Table I combines the two ‘families’, i.e.
These military aircraft used four AC generators providing about wind-driven and engine-driven generators, and reports the main
40kVA each, at 400Hz frequency and 115/200Vac voltage [1]. characteristics of some of these early DC aircraft generators
At that time, V-Bombers were one of the first aircraft to [11, 12, 19, 21]. Engine-driven DC generators were designed
implement parallel AC generators [15]. Thirty years later, the for speeds between 3200rpm and 6000rpm, according to the
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION

prime mover speed, and allowed for short time overloads [19].
The overload capability was usually aimed at 50% of the rated
power. In order to ensure light weight, the generator housing
and its accessories, such as supporting brackets, were typically
made of magnesium alloys [20, 22]. Indeed, these alloys were
preferred to aluminium alloys, because their mass density is
about two thirds of the aluminium ones.

TABLE I - EARLY DC GENERATORS FOR AIRCRAFT

Power
DC Electrical Speed Weight Approx.
density
Generator parameters [krpm] [kg] date
[kW/kg]
12V, 250W 3.5 5.5 1924 0.05
Wind 12V, 500W 4.5 6.4 1924 0.08
Driven 0.08 Fig. 3. 1kW at 28Vdc engine-driven DC generator, stored in the Shuttleworth
12V, 1kW 3.5 12.3 NA
Museum (Biggleswade, UK).
12V, 500W 3.8 to 6 9.8 1934 0.05
28V, 1kW 3.8 to 6 16.3 1936 0.06
28V, 1.5kW 3.3 to 6 15.4 1941 0.10
28V, 3kW 3 to 6 27.2 1943 0.11
Engine 3.25 to 0.24
28V, 6kW 25.4 1944
Driven 4.8
28V, NA
6 NA 1953
11.2kW
112V, 0.36
2.9-10 63 1956
22.5kW

Fig. 3 shows an example of an early engine-driven DC

generator rated 1kW at 28Vdc. In terms of the cooling system,
DC generators were usually air-cooled through a fan (installed
on an engine shaft extension), whose material might vary
according to the mechanical damping required by the engine
[20]. Magnesium or aluminium were usually employed, Fig. 4. Exploded view of a typical 28Vdc aircraft generator [23].
however, heavier metals were used if an additional flywheel
effect was needed by the engine. The main components of a As a consequence, at high altitude, a lower voltage (with
typical DC aircraft generator are reported in Fig. 4, where the respect to ground level) is necessary to sustain electric arcing,
generator exploded view is depicted [20, 23]. which is the cause of premature brushes/commutator wear out
B. Post-World War II and reliability issues. For most small and medium-sized
aircraft, generation at 28Vdc still represents a feasible operating
After World War II, the trend in aircraft power generation system [13]. However, low voltage DC systems, which have
was to move towards AC generation systems. Nevertheless, DC been so successful in the past, are no longer sufficient for the
generators still continued to be developed and used, mainly higher amount of electric power demanded today [26],
based on the knowledge and expertise gained by their adoption especially in the case of larger aircraft. For example, the modern
in the previous years. In the early 1950s, a customized DC Airbus A380-800 (which operates at 115Vac) counts a total
starter-generator was built for the Republic F-84 Thunderjet. wire length of about 470km, with a total weight of 5700kg [27].
This starter-generator was able to continuously operate at This weight would be more than tripled, if the aircraft electrical
7500rpm, while providing a current of 400A [24]. In order to distribution system voltage was 28Vdc [28]. Nowadays, many
reduce the cabling weight, DC generators operating at 120Vdc small modern aircraft make use of DC generators for both main
were also introduced on some aircraft [13], since higher voltage and backup generation systems. Some examples of civil aircraft
implies lower current for a given power. However, higher employing 28Vdc starter-generators are 1) ATR-600, 2)
voltage systems always presented (and still do) significant Dornier 328, 3) Gulfstream G280 and 4) Falcon 2000. A
concerns related to safety and risk, especially for DC systems number of military aircraft using 28Vdc starter-generators
dependant on electro-mechanical commutation. Indeed, based include 1) the Alpha jet, 2) the C295, 3) the CN235 and 4) the
on Paschen’s law, the breakdown voltage between two IJT-36 [29]. In Table II, the main features of the modern DC
electrodes, at a fixed distance in air, decreases with increasing generators are listed.
altitude (i.e. decreasing pressure) [25]. Comparing Table I and II results, the higher power density
(ratio power/mass) of modern DC generators is immediately
observable. In fact, its value has more than doubled.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION

TABLE II - CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN ENGINE DRIVEN DC GENERATORS transmit high power over a convenient distance, while still low
FOR AIRCRAFT (COURTESY OF THALES GROUP) [29]
enough to avoid the devastating phenomena associated to
Power corona effects at altitude [11, 12, 19, 21]. An important step
Electrical Speed Weight Approx
Density towards the AC generation was made in 1949 with the entry
parameters [krpm] [kg] Date
[kW/kg]
28V, 4.8kW 8-12.15 7.8-8 2014 0.6-0.62
into service of the Convair B 36, which was equipped with four
28V, 6kW 7-12.15 9-11 2014 0.54-0.67 30kVA synchronous generator (one per engine) [21, 32]. In the
28V, 9kW 4.5-12.3 16-21 2014 0.43-0.56 next sub-paragraphs, the most common AC electric power
28V, 12kW 7-12.8 17-19 2014 0.63-0.71 systems are discussed and analysed.

III. AC GENERATION A. AC Constant Frequency Systems

As mentioned above, most aircraft were still DC powered The three-stage wound-field synchronous generator is the
even after World War II. However, from the ‘60s onwards, most popular AC generator used on aircraft [33, 34]. This
increasing speeds and aircraft size led to an unprecedented popularity is due to its inherent safety, since the excitation can
increase of required electric power. Furthermore, be instantaneously removed by de-energising the machine
specifications, such as reliability and power density, became through direct control of the field [35, 36]. In Fig. 5, a schematic
ever more critical. For these reasons, a general world-wide diagram of a three-stage wound-field synchronous generator is
move towards AC generation was observed [13, 30], which depicted, where the three principal stages, namely 1) the PM
reveals several advantages compared to DC generation. First of generator, 2) the main exciter and 3) the main generator, are
all, a significant improvement is achieved in terms of power shown [37]. The generation system is powered by the PM
density (i.e. AC generators are lighter and smaller in generator (1st stage), whose moving PMs induce a three-phase
comparison to equal rated power DC generators). In 1950s voltage in its stationary armature. This AC voltage is then
generators, the power density for the DC topology was rectified and used for suppling stationary field circuit (i.e. DC
generally below 0.5kW/kg [13, 22]. Their AC counterparts field) of the main exciter (2nd stage), by means of the generator
ranged from 0.66kVA/kg to 1.33kVA/kg [13, 18, 22], thus control unit (GCU). The GCU fulfils two essential tasks on the
highlighting the significant benefits of producing electric power DC field: 1) controls the DC voltage amplitude, for regulating
in AC. A relevant advantage is the potentially much higher the excitation current of the main generator (3 rd stage), and 2)
operating voltage. In particular, a considerable cabling weight de-energises the DC circuit in case of anomalous operations
reduction was accomplished by increasing the operating voltage (e.g. excessive overload, short circuit faults etc...) [5, 38]. The
(i.e. decreasing the current for the same power) [13]. From a DC field induces a three-phase voltage in the moving armature
reliability perspective, the absence of commutators on AC of main exciter. Such AC voltage is subsequently converted
generators improved maintenance and lifetime performance into DC, for feeding the moving field circuit of the main
[22], despite the higher voltage and power levels. generator. The AC to DC conversion is performed by a rectifier,
However, the advent of AC generators also introduced new which is rotating synchronously with the prime mover shaft.
challenges, mainly due to 1) the parallel operations, 2) the need Finally, the three-phase voltage is available at the output of the
to manage reactive power and 3) the choice of an appropriate main generator armature. Its frequency depends on: 1) the main
frequency. Indeed, AC generators can be operated in parallel, generator number of poles pair (p) and 2) the mechanical
when the developed voltages have the same amplitude, phase rotational speed of the prime mover shaft (n). Thus, the
and frequency. Conversely, only the same voltage amplitude is frequency is closely reliant on the speed of the prime mover.
needed for DC generators. Furthermore, unlike AC systems, the For on-board power generation, the prime mover is usually the
DC ones do not involve reactive power, hence the related issues main aircraft engine, whose speed varies across a wide range,
(e.g. power factor correction) are avoided. from idle to full power. Hence, the prime mover variable speed
Several frequency values (60Hz, 180Hz, 240Hz, 360Hz, represented the main challenge in the adoption of the three-
400Hz and 800Hz) were initially considered [13]. A frequency stage wound-field synchronous generator and actions were
of 240Hz was suggested at the beginning of 1940s, for keeping required for addressing this issue. Therefore, the engine and the
motors and transformer weight to a practical minimum [30]. three-stage generator shaft were mechanically coupled through
Obviously, this choice was also dictated by the magnetic a variable-ratio transmission gearbox referred as constant speed
materials available at that time. Nevertheless, the frequency drive (CSD) [39], like schematically illustrated in Fig. 6. The
selection must take into account also the generator operating CSD converts the input variable speed to the output constant
speed [22]. Considering this aspect, suitable frequency values speed, which is used to drive the AC generator. By using CSDs,
were 400Hz and 800Hz. Based on respective needs and the challenge of variable speed was eliminated, at the cost of a
requirements, the Army Air Corps in 1943 chose 400Hz as the bulky, expensive and component count enhancing, extra
standard frequency, since it appeared to be more feasible for the gearbox. Constant frequency generation systems adopting
generator speed (e.g. 12000rpm for 4-pole machines) [30, 31]. CSDs and producing 115/200V at 400Hz have been widely used
This ‘standard’ of 115/200V at 400Hz frequency has been made in aircraft since the 1960s [40].
mandatory for use by the US Air Force in 1959 (MIL-STD-704)
and has remained with us to this day.
The voltage level of 115/200V was deemed high enough to
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION

TABLE III – POWER RATING FOR AC CONSTANT FREQUENCY SYSTEMS

(Approx.) Main Generators

First year
Aircraft Model Passenger Power (Excluding
of service
capacity APU)
Convair B-36 1949 (Military) 4x30kVA
Boeing B-52H 1955 (Military) 4x60kVA
Boeing 707 1958 219 4x30kVA
Boeing 727 1964 189 3x38kVA
Vickers VC10 1964 151 4x40kVA
Boeing 737 (NG) 1968 (’97) 210 2x90kVA
Airbus A320 1987 220 2x90kVA
Fig. 5. Architecture of the three-stage wound-field synchronous generator. Boeing 747-800 1988 660 4x90kVA
Boeing 767-300ER 1988 258 2x90kVA
The 1970s saw a move towards integrating the generator Airbus A340 1991 375 4x90kVA
stages and the CSD into a single unit, in order to achieve weight Airbus A330 1992 335 2x115kVA
reduction, as well as enhanced reliability [40, 41]. In that Boeing 777 1994 396 2x120kVA
period, CSDs had far longer mean time between failures with Boeing 717 1999 100 2x40kVA
Boeing 767-400ER 2000 256 2x120kVA
respect to generators [40]. Consequently, the integration into a
common housing improved the overall system-level reliability
[39]. Considerable reduction in weight and size was obtained
by designing a common oil system for both generator cooling
and CSD lubrication [42]. This compact unit was named
integrated drive generator (IDG) and allowed a power density
improvement from 0.88kVA/kg (typical value for CSD +
generator systems) to about 1.5kVA/kg [35, 43, 44]. IDG
systems were very popular for over 20 years, due to their
efficiency and power density values. Indeed, a number of
aircraft, such as the A320, A330, A340, B747, B757, B767 and
B777, implemented IDG systems [6, 14]. The block diagram of
an IDG system is shown in Fig. 6 [16], while, civil and military
aircraft employing traditional AC constant frequency systems
are listed in Table III [3, 45-48]. IDGs usually have a short-time
overload capability of approximately 185% of the rated power Fig. 7. Typical dual spool turbofan engine [50, 53].
[49]. For example, the 120kVA IDG of the B777 can safely
deliver up to 226.8kVA for 5 minutes, every 1000 hours of B. AC Variable Speed Constant Frequency Systems
operation [49].
On civil aircraft, dual spool turbofan engines are commonly The CSD adopted for AC constant frequency systems
installed. According to the operating pressure, these engines are required maintenance and contributed in a significant way to
characterised by two main sections: 1) the low pressure (LP) both weight and size of the system. For these reasons, new
sector, which includes the fan, the LP compressor and the LP approaches for generating AC power at constant frequency
turbine, and 2) the high pressure (HP) sector, which comprises were introduced in the 1980s [54] and they took hold in the
the HP compressor and the HP turbine [50]. In dual spool 1990s. Indeed in the 1900s, power electronics and
turbofan engines, the IDG is driven by the HP spool (i.e. HP microprocessor technologies were by then mature enough to
shaft) through a fixed ratio accessory gearbox, as schematically allow the significant progress in electrical drives to be
reported in Fig. 7 [34, 50, 51]. Considering the GE90 engine employed also in aerospace [43, 55-57]. The VSCF system
mounted on the B777, the rotational speed of the HP spool is works without the heavy CSD, whereby the three-stage
equal to 9333rpm, while the IDG is driven by a gear-to-core synchronous generator can be directly coupled to the main
ratio of 0.79:1 [49]. For sake of clarity, the speed of 9333rpm engine shaft. In this case, the frequency of the generated voltage
(100%) represents the “normal” operating speed, which in some is variable, so in order to provide constant frequency voltage,
cases (e.g. during take-off) can be exceeded by some % [52]. two approaches are adopted. The first method consists in
implementing a DC link between the AC generator and the AC
loads, by means of a rectifier and an inverter [40, 55]. The block
diagram of the VSCF system with DC link is shown in Fig. 8
[38]. The VSCF system using a DC link was mounted on the
MD-90 until 2000 and it is still in used on the B777, for the two
20kVA backup generators [43]. These backup power sources
generators are driven by the engine HP spool through a 2.41:1
fixed-ratio accessory gearbox [49].
Fig. 6. Constant frequency IDG system.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION

exceptions to these widespread solutions can be found in

military applications. These particular generation systems are
also known as “unconventional systems” and the more
important are considered in this section.
SRMs have been in use since the nineteenth century [59], but
Fig. 8. VSCF system using DC link. their need for custom-built power electronics and control
algorithms prevented a more extensive implementation.
Another method for generating constant frequency voltage Regarding the SRM structure, its stator is equipped with
involves an AC/AC converter (e.g. cycloconverter or matrix concentrated windings wound around the stator poles, while the
converter), which is placed between the AC generator and the rotor is a totally passive salient-pole geometry (i.e. solid or
AC loads. Fig. 9 reports the block diagram of the VSCF system laminated electrical steel without any permanent magnets
with AC/AC converter [39]. This architecture is mainly (PMs) or field windings). The SRM working principle is based
implemented on military aircraft, such as for the F-18 fighter on the natural tendency of any system to come to rest at the
aircraft, the F-117A stealth attack aircraft and the V-22 ultra- ‘minimum-energy’ position. The stator poles (when excited)
high altitude reconnaissance aircraft [14, 58]. attract the nearest rotor poles (i.e. position of minimum
reluctance for the magnetic flux) [60]. In order to operate the
SRM as a generator, the phase must be excited as the rotor poles
move through the aligned position [60]. Precise rotor position
monitoring, as well as, accurate control algorithms are
necessary for optimal power generation.
Due to developments of both power electronics and design
procedures, SRMs have become suitable candidates for
Fig. 9. VSCF system using AC/AC converter. integrated starter-generators [61-66]. The success of the SRM
relies on its inherent fault tolerance capability and rotor
The VSCF systems, apart for some noteworthy exception robustness [67-71]. Indeed, adopting a multiphase design,
previously mentioned, did not get the same level of diffusion of together with the power segmentation approach (i.e. each
IDG systems. This can be safely attributed to the role played by machine phase is supplied by an independent PEC), allows to
the power electronics converter (PEC) (either AC/DC or safely operate the machine even under electromagnetic and/or
AC/AC), which processes all the generated power and PEC faults [72]. The absence of PMs reduces the risks
represents a single point of failure. Therefore, the PEC needs to associated with machine winding faults [71] and favours
be designed for the full power rating and with high reliability operations in harsh environments, where PMs could be subject
requirements [38]. In addition, several aircraft energy- to demagnetisation or performance derating. Finally, the
consuming loads (e.g. wing ice protection, galley ovens, cargo salient-pole one-material rotor is easy to manufacture and
heaters) are frequency insensitive (i.e. resistive loads) [9]. Thus, makes the SRM convenient for high speed applications [70].
they can be directly supplied by the variable frequency These features have contributed to the SRMs employment,
generator (VFG), without the need of PECs. This feature led to mainly on military aircraft. In 2005, the Lockheed Martin F-22
the variable frequency systems that are discussed in Section V. came into service. This is a modern two engine combat aircraft,
C. Concluding remark using as many switched reluctance (SR) generators. Although
the electric power is generated at 270Vdc, the F-22 is fitted with
In general, VSCF systems are more flexible than constant- electric loads requiring 115Vac and 28Vdc, which are supplied
speed constant-frequency systems (i.e. IDG systems), due to the through PECs [14]. Fig. 10 shows the F-22 power generation
inherent distribution of components throughout the aircraft and distribution systems [14]. A similar architecture has been
[55]. Indeed, the IDG systems make use of the CSD, which also implemented on the Lockheed Martin F-35 (i.e. single
must be placed close to the main engine, while the PECs of the engine combat aircraft), that was launched in 2015. For
VSCF system can be either installed close to the engine or in a redundancy purposes, an 80kW double channel SR generator is
different location (e.g. close to the electric loads), allowing adopted [73, 74].
aircraft weight distribution optimisation. Despite their Considering voltage level, reliability, efficiency and fault-
advantages, the VSCF systems remain a rare choice for civil tolerance capability, traditional brushed DC machines cannot
aircraft, due to the reliability level of PECs. In fact, the PECs reach the same performance of SRMs. Thus, SRMs are suitable
have not yet reached a proper reliability level for making the for generating DC power at high voltage, avoiding the electric
VSCF systems a viable option [38]. arcing issue typical of the brushes/commutator system. SRMs
are characterized by indisputable advantages (i.e. rotor
IV. UNCONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS robustness and inherent fault tolerance capability),
In terms of DC generation, the majority of aircraft employ notwithstanding their drawbacks (i.e. uncustomary PECs and
28Vdc or 120Vdc generators, while the three-stage complex control algorithms) restrict a wider adoption. In fact,
synchronous-generator producing 115/200V at 400Hz is the while very popular for military aircraft due to the lower power
common solution in case of AC generation. However, some generation requirements, as the demanded power increases (i.e.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION

in civil aircraft), AC generation is then generally preferred, for These aircraft are characterized by an intensive electrification,
the reasons discussed in Section III. since services like the ECS (for B787) and flight-control electro
hydrostatic actuators (for A380) are electrically powered.
Consequently, their electric generation capability is roughly of
an order of magnitude greater than all other aircraft. Both the
B787 and A380 have replaced the traditional generation system
employing IDGs, by VFGs directly coupled to the engines. The
B787 main electrical power generation relies on four 250kVA
VFGs (two per each main engine), while the A380 uses four
150kVA VFGs (one per engine), as reported in Table IV [3].
The implementation of the so-called bleed-less architecture
permits to electrically supply services (e.g. ECS and wing ice
protection), which were pneumatically operated on
conventional aircraft. In bleed-less technology, no HP air is
extracted from the engines (i.e. no-bleed air), allowing more
efficient thrust production and engine operations [7, 8, 76].
Fig. 10. F-22 power generation and distribution system [58]. Indeed, in most conditions, conventional pneumatic systems
withdraw more power than needed, causing excess energy to be
V. THE MORE ELECTRIC AIRCRAFT ERA dumped overboard [8].
The above is all related to existing and consolidated systems TABLE IV - POWER GENERATION CAPABILITIES FOR SOME MODERN AIRCRAFT
for on-board electrical power generation. However, as
Boeing 787 Airbus A380
previously mentioned, a considerable shift towards more
No. of engine 2 4
electric systems is in play today. The MEA concept revolves No. generator per engine 2 1
around the idea of replacing most of the aircraft secondary Generator rating 250kVA 150kVA
systems, currently operated by mechanical, hydraulic and Generating output voltage 230V AC 115V AC
pneumatic power, with systems powered by electricity [38, 75]. No. generator per APU 2 1
Some early examples of the MEA concept go back to the mid- Generator rating per APU 225kVA 120kVA
1950s with the Vickers Valiant V-Bomber and the Bristol
Brabazon 167 [1]. Albeit the feasibility and availability of the The bleed-less architecture of the B787 reduces the fuel
MEA concept is debatable and is still in question today, a consumption by 2% (at cruise condition) with respect to a
revamped interest in the MEA initiative started in the early similar-sized traditional aircraft (e.g. B767) [8]. Nonetheless,
1990s, when the US Air Force began several research programs removing the pneumatic system increases the complexity of the
concerning MEA. In particular, these programs focused on electric power distribution network [9]. This aspect is
highlighted in Fig. 11, where the B787’s distribution system is
improving reliability, fault tolerant capability and power quality
schematically compared with that of a traditional aircraft,
of existing MEA systems, with the final purpose of reducing
together with some examples of electrically-operated loads [9,
both fuel burn and weight of aircraft secondary power systems
43]. As earlier mentioned, several energy-consuming loads are
[2]. An immediate consequence of the MEA concept is the frequency-insensitive. Therefore, they are directly supplied by
significant increase (in the absolute numbers) of the required the VFGs, without the need of PECs (see Fig. 11, B787
electric power. For this reason, today, electrical power diagram). The other loads (operating at 115Vac, 270Vdc or
generation is a major game-changing factor across the whole 28Vdc), are connected to the VFGs through transformers and/or
industry. PECs, implementing the so-called hybrid distribution system.
A. Modern MEA programmes The transition to a more electric architecture, the adoption of
energy efficient engines and the intensive use of lightweight
A number of aircraft have been claimed to incorporate MEA composite materials have contributed to a considerable
designs, nevertheless it is widely acknowledged that the two reduction of the B787’s operating cost with respect to its
programmes, which have really and seamlessly integrated the predecessor the B767-300/ER [77, 78]. In particular (based on
MEA concepts, are the long-haul, wide bodied commercial airlines’ data), the block hour operating cost reduction is about
aircraft known as the Boeing 787 and the Airbus A380 [38]. 14% [78-80].
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION

Fig. 11. Simplified diagrams of electric distribution systems for both B787 and traditional aircraft.

B. Modern developments at component level

C. Overall power generation
Currently, three-stage wound-rotor generators are used as
An overall view of how the MEA initiative is influencing the
VFGs. However, PM generators can and are being considered
required ratings of on-board electrical generators is summarized
as alternative, thanks to their higher power density (from
in Fig. 13. For the years from 1940s to 2010s, Fig. 13 shows the
3.3kVA/kg to 8kVA/kg) [61-63]. Variable frequency generation
trend of the generated power on some of the more common
systems do not require the CSD between AC generator and
aircraft, where the absolute power (in terms of total electrical
main engine, since they are directly coupled (i.e. direct-drive
power generation) is translated to the rating requirements of the
application), as sketched in Fig. 12.
single component [45-48]. As highlighted in Fig.13, the global
rated power has significantly increased, in the last ten years. It
is perceived that this tendency is mainly caused by the move
towards the MEA concept. Indeed, for the 20 years prior to the
MEA era (from 1970s and 1990s), the main generator rated
power remained unchanged and equal to about 90kVA [1, 52].

VI. FUTURE TRENDS BEYOND THE MEA

Fig. 12. VFG systems.
While the aerospace community is still debating the
The absence of a gearbox improves the system-level feasibility and implementation of the MEA, a new movement,
reliability, due to the reduced component count, whilst other that has taken hold over the last couple of years and is creating
advantages are associated to the weight and size of the system a lot of excitement, is represented by both the hybrid
[47]. As a consequence of the shaft variable speed, the VFG gas/electric propulsion and the all-electric aircraft (AEA).
output voltage is variable in amplitude and frequency. Although in recent years the price of Jet-A fuel has considerably
Considering the case of a three-stage wound-rotor generator dropped, forecasts suggest a turnaround during the next decade
used as VFG, the output voltage amplitude is regulated by [83]. At the same time, year-over-year, the passenger-travel
acting on the field current through the GCU, as mentioned in growth has averaged 6.2%, from 2012 to 2017, and it is
Section III. Conversely, reactive power is injected into the expected an even higher growth rate in the next 20 years [83,
armature circuit (by using a PEC), when a PM generator is 84]. The two aforementioned factors, together with the airlines’
employed as VFG [81]. According to the aircraft mission need for reducing aircraft operating cost, are encouraging
profile, the output frequency varies from 360Hz to 800Hz aerospace industries in developing more energy efficient means
during take-off and landing, while it is almost unchanged for of air transportation [85-89]. The hybrid gas/electric propulsion
the rest of the flight (about 80%-90% of the total flight and/or the AEA concept aim at lowering or completely
duration). Challenges related to the VFGs adoption are the removing the traditional air-breathing engines, which depend
cooling system and the mechanical design. In effect, the on the Jet-A fuel, as a main energy source [87, 90]. In the
proximity to the main engine imposes a careful thermal upcoming sub-sections, the main ideas that go beyond the
management. Besides, the direct-drive application subjects the conventional MEA initiative are introduced and examined.
rotor to high accelerations, which must be accounted during the
mechanical design [82].
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION

Fig. 13. Power rating of the main generators of some common aircraft (in red medium to long range aircraft, in black short to medium range aircraft).

A. Multi-spool generation and HVDC systems PMSMs are: 1) excellent power density, 2) high efficiency and
Currently on modern large aircraft, turbofan engines are 3) well-established control strategies; whilst, their drawbacks
generally employed for propulsion. The main electrical power are: 1) high cost, 2) inability to operate at elevated temperatures,
generator is usually driven by the HP spool (as shown in Fig. 7 3) dependent on power electronics and 4) medium reliability
and discussed in Section III), principally because the higher and fault tolerance capability. As matter of fact, the excitation
speed of the HP spool allows smaller size generators. Further, field produced by the PMs is practically uncontrolled and can
assuming N1 and N2 as rotational speeds of the LP and HP supply winding faults [96-98]. On the contrary, a good level of
spools respectively, N2 varies in a narrower range (from idle to reliability and fault tolerance capability is ensured by IMs,
full power) with respect to N1 [50, 52]. For these reasons, no which however do not ‘enjoy’ the power density levels of their
generation activity was traditionally done on the LP spool (i.e. PM counterparts. SRMs cannot compete with PMSMs in terms
low speed). In conventional turbofan engines, the electric of power density and control strategy, albeit their rotor
power extracted from the HP spool is a small fraction of the robustness makes SRMs suitable for working in harsh
total engine power. However, the trend towards (and beyond) environments [72, 99, 100]. Finally, SRMs are also intrinsically
the MEA is resulting in an ever-growing demand for more on- fault tolerant, for the reasons discussed in Section IV.
board electric power; thus, any potential source of power needs
TABLE V –SHAFT ROTATIONAL SPEEDS FOR COMMON DUAL SPOOL
to be fully utilised. Therefore, generating through multiple
TURBOFAN ENGINES
spools (i.e. exploiting both HP and LP spools, as prime mover
for electrical generation) is fastly becoming justifiable [34, 65, Engine Aircraft N1(100%) N2(100%) 𝑵𝟏𝑴𝒂𝒙 𝑵𝟐𝑴𝒂𝒙
91, 92]. The main challenge rising from using both HP and LP Series (example) [rpm] [rpm] 𝑵𝟏𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑵𝟐𝒎𝒊𝒏
GP7200 A380 2467 10998 6.1 1.9
spools [5, 93] consists in the particular design attention required CFM56 B737 5175 14460 5.2 1.8
by the LP spool driven generator, due to the wider speed range GEnx-
B747-8 2560 11377 6.7 2.3
and harsher operating conditions [67]. Indeed, N2’s full-power 2B67
to idle ratio (N2Max/N2min) is usually around 2:1, whereas PW1100G A320neo NA NA 5.7 1.8
Business
N1Max/N1min can be more than 6:1 for high bypass ratio engines CF34-8C1 7400 17820 NA 1.8
Jet
[52]. For sake of completeness, full-power to idle ratios are V2500 A320 5650 14950 4 NA
reported in Table V for some common dual spool turbofan Business
PW300 10608 26956 NA 1.6
Jet
engines, together with the “normal” operating speed of N1 and GE90 B777 2261 9331 6.1 1.7
N2 [52].
With regard to the electrical machine topology, permanent Aside from incrementing the generation capability, future
magnet synchronous machines (PMSMs), induction machines aircraft concepts aim to improve the overall electrical power
(IMs) and SRMs are possible candidates for the LP spool system and its architecture. In next generation aircraft, a
generators [68, 94, 95]. Nevertheless, each of these machines significant weight saving could be achieved by increasing the
reveals advantages and disadvantages. The principal benefits of distribution voltage [33, 101]. As previously mentioned,
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION

considering the same transmitted power, a higher voltage (for hybrid/electric light aircraft, for short endurance missions [90,
the distribution system) will result in smaller cable cross- 109, 113, 114]. Nonetheless, for energising a fully-electric,
section area. Furthermore, raising the voltage will allow greater short-haul civil aircraft, the energy density of the currently
line voltage drop [101]. In fact, the minimum allowed voltage available battery technologies needs to improve by at least eight
is 108Vac, for distribution system at 115Vac, instead 250Vdc or ten-fold.
are accepted on 270Vdc systems (as per MIL-STD-704F) [100].
C. Electrical systems and sub-systems in future aircraft
For these reasons, high voltage DC (HVDC) distribution
systems at 270Vdc and 540Vdc are under investigation [101, As previously pointed out, high power density and reliable
104]. Regarding the HVDC systems, the most obvious concerns electrical machines and PECs will be the key enabling
are safety and the increased risk of electrical system failures, technologies, in future aircraft systems. Significant work across
caused by the low pressure phenomenon, such as corona effects a range of aviation authorities has recently gone into defining
and insulation breakdown. road-maps for the technology requirements of such systems [86,
The migration to HVDC systems, together with the 87, 115].
implementation of LP spool generators, will also influence the
design of PECs. In this area, some of the main challenges are 1) High power density specifications
imputable to: a) higher operating voltage; b) elevated amount For electrical systems, it is clear that today’s state of the art
of power to be handled; and c) wider generators’ operating is still not at the demanded power density levels for future
(fundamental) frequency (for LP spool generation). Wide band- aircraft, comprising all electric and hybrid electric propulsion.
gap semiconductors, such as silicon carbide (SiC), are A quantitative analysis, whose results are compiled in Table VI,
recognised, by the scientific and industrial communities, as a indicates the predicted electrical machine power density
technology enabler [105-107]. specifications for the short-, mid- and long-term future [86,
The major features (particularly convenient for aerospace 117]. Considering the analysis outcomes, the long-term goal is
application) of SiC-based PECs, over traditional silicon-based only achievable by the practical application of non-
PECs, are a) lower losses, b) better temperature tolerance, c) conventional technologies, such as superconductivity; whereas
higher operating voltage and d) faster switching capability the short- and mid-term targets are feasible using more
[105-107]. Reduced losses and high temperature tolerance help conventional technologies strengthened by a high level of
to decrease thermal management specifications [106], hence innovation. Indeed, electrical machines with power densities
smaller and less expensive cooling systems are necessary for higher than 10kVA/kg have already been manufactured and
SiC-based PECs. Further, high operating voltage and fast tested [117], and an example is reported in the following
switching capability lead to a potential decrement of both sub-section.
PECs’ weight and size [107]. In particular, higher switching TABLE VI – ELECTRICAL MACHINE POWER DENSITY
frequencies contribute to the reduction of filtering passive SPECIFICATIONS FOR FUTURE AIRCRAFT
component size [107], while less series-connected modules
Time- Predicted Power
(than traditional silicon-based counterpart) would be adopted Enabling Technology
lines Density
for managing higher voltages [106]. Liquid cooling, Low Loss Steel,
By 2025 10kVA/kg High Breakdown-Strength
B. Future aircraft concepts Insulating Materials, Additive
Some of the most attractive concepts for future aircraft are Manufacturing, Nanocomposite-
By 2035 20kVA/kg Based Magnetic Materials [86,
represented by hybrid electric (e.g. Pipistrel Hypstair) [108, 116, 118, 119]
109], distributed electric (e.g. NASA-DEP) [110], turbo electric All the above + Superconducting
By 2050 40kVA/kg
(e.g. Rolls Royce / Airbus E-Thrust) [111] and fully electrical materials
(e.g. Airbus E-Fan) aircraft [112]. All these configurations are
characterised by an intensive electrification, since electric 2) Enabling technologies
power is not only used for secondary systems, but also for In order to reach such performance, a number of technology
propulsion purposes. For instance, the Airbus / Siemens / Rolls enablers are today being studied and investigated by research
Royce “E-Fan X hybrid-electric technology demonstrator” is communities. These include new magnetic and electrical
anticipated to fly in 2020 [85]. This program has two objectives, materials [118, 119], advanced modelling [120, 121] and
such as: a) replacing one of the four gas turbine engines of a manufacturing processes [122, 123], new thermal management
traditional British Aerospace 146 (as well-known as BAe 146) techniques [124-126], high-speed systems [116] and better
with a 2MW electric motor; and b) introducing a 2MW generator understanding of failure mechanisms [127, 128]. The latter
(in the classical turbo-electric system style), powered by a involves advancements in power electronics (e.g. wide band-
Rolls-Royce AE 2100, which is used as an auxiliary power unit gap devices), machines (e.g. new, high strength, low losses
(APU) [85]. The success of these concepts, besides from relying steels) and controllers (e.g. high bandwidth control algorithms).
on high performance electrical machines and PECs, will be The relationship between the technology impact of the enablers
strongly dependent on the technological development of energy on the drive (or its components) general performance and the
storage systems. Modern electrochemical batteries have proven technology maturity is illustrated in a visually-representative
to be suitable for powering unmanned aerial vehicle and manner in Fig. 14.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION

growth rate is highlighted until the recent implementation of the

MEA concept. In fact, the migration to AC variable frequency
generation systems represented an important step towards
modern aircraft. The state of the art and the major challenges of
the MEA concept are also reviewed, keeping in mind the role
played by electrical machines, in terms of power density and
technology. Finally, some considerations related to future
aircraft are drawn.

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION

https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20160006950.pdf Vincenzo Madonna (S’17) received the

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BSc degree in Electronic Engineering
[116] R. H. Jansen, C. Bowman, A. Jankovsky, R. Dyson, and J. Felder,
"Overview of NASA Electrified Aircraft Propulsion Research for Large from University of Calabria, Italy, in
Subsonic Transports," AIAA Propulsion and Energy 2017 Forum; 10-12 2012 and the MSc degree in Electrical
Jul. 2017; Atlanta, GA; United States. Available: Engineering from the University of
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20170006235 Accessed: Dec. 2017.
Bologna, Italy, in 2016. In 2012 he was
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new world climb record," Available: an Exchange Student at KU Leuven,
https://www.siemens.com/press/PR2016120105COEN Accessed: Dec. Belgium, and in 2015 he was a Visiting
2017. Researcher at the University of
[118] M. Garibaldi, C. Gerada, I. Ashcroft, R. Hague, and H. Morvan, "The
Nottingham, UK. He is currently a Marie Curie Researcher and
impact of additive manufacturing on the development of electrical
machines for MEA Applications: A feasibility study," in MEA2015 More PhD candidate in electrical machine design within the Institute
Electric Aircraft, 2015. for Aerospace Technology (IAT) and the PEMC group at the
[119] M. Garibaldi, I. Ashcroft, M. Simonelli, and R. Hague, "Metallurgy of University of Nottingham, UK. His research interests include
high-silicon steel parts produced using Selective Laser Melting," Acta
design, thermal management and lifetime prediction modelling
Materialia, vol. 110, pp. 207-216, 2016/05/15/ 2016.
[120] S. Nuzzo, M. Galea, C. Gerada, and N. Brown, "A Fast Method for of electrical machines. Mr. Madonna received the qualification
Modeling Skew and Its Effects in Salient-Pole Synchronous Generators," of Italian Chartered Engineer in 2016.
IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 64, pp. 7679-7688,
2017.
Paolo Giangrande received the
[121] S. Nuzzo, M. Degano, M. Galea, C. Gerada, D. Gerada, and N. Brown,
"Improved Damper Cage Design for Salient-Pole Synchronous Bachelor’s (Hons.) and Master’s (Hons.)
Generators," IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 64, pp. degrees in electrical engineering at the
1958-1970, 2017. Politecnico of Bari in 2005 and 2008,
[122] A. Al-Timimy, G. Vakil, M. Degano, et al., "Considerations on the
respectively. During 2008, he was a
Effects that Core Material Machining has on an Electrical Machine's
Performance," in IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. PP, no. Marie Curie Intra-European Fellow at the
99, pp. 1-1, 2018. University of Malta. He received his PhD
[123] A. Al-Timimy, M. Alani, M. Degano, et al. "Influence of Rotor Endcaps in electrical engineering at the
on the Electromagnetic Performance of High Speed PM Machine" IET
Politecnico of Bari in 2011. Since
Electric Power Applications, 2018.
[124] M. Galea, C. Gerada, T. Raminosoa, and P. Wheeler, "A Thermal January 2012, he is Research Fellow at the University of
Improvement Technique for the Phase Windings of Electrical Machines," Nottingham (UK), within the Power Electronics, Machines and
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 48, pp. 79-87, 2012. Control Group. From 2017, he is the head of the Accelerated
[125] C. Sciascera, P. Giangrande, L. Papini, C. Gerada and M. Galea,
Lifetime Testing Laboratory at the Institute of Aerospace
"Analytical Thermal Model for Fast Stator Winding Temperature
Prediction", in IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 64, n. 8, Technology, Nottingham. His main research interests include
pp. 6116-6126, March 2017. sensorless control of AC electric drives, design and testing of
[126] Z. Xu, A. Al-Timimy, M. Degano, et al., "Thermal management of a electromechanical actuators for aerospace, thermal
permanent magnet motor for a directly coupled pump," in 2016
management of high-performance electric drives and reliability
International Conference on Electrical Machines, Lausanne, 2016, pp.
2738-2744. and lifetime modelling of electrical machines.
[127] D. Barater, F. Immovilli, A. Soldati, G. Buticchi, G. Franceschini, C.
Gerada, et al., "Multistress Characterization of Fault Mechanisms in Michael Galea (M’13) received his PhD
Aerospace Electric Actuators," IEEE Transactions on Industry
in electrical machines design from the
Applications, vol. 53, pp. 1106-1115, 2017.
[128] C. Sciascera, M. Galea, P. Giangrande, et al., "Lifetime consumption and University of Nottingham, UK, where he
degradation analysis of the winding insulation of electrical machines" in has also worked as a Research Fellow. He
2016 IET International Conference on Power Electronics Machines and is currently the Head of School of
Drives, Glasgow; United Kingdom; April 2016.
Aerospace in the University of
[129] S. Bozhko, S. S. Yeoh, F. Gao, and C. Hill, "Aircraft starter-generator
system based on permanent-magnet machine fed by active front-end Nottingham, Ningbo, China, where he is
rectifier," in IECON 2014 - 40th Annual Conference of the IEEE also the Director of Aerospace. He
Industrial Electronics Society, 2014, pp. 2958-2964. currently lectures in Electrical Drives and in Aerospace
[130] M. Degano, P. Arumugam, W. Fernando, T. Yang, H. Zhang, J. B.
Systems Integration and manages a number of diverse projects
Bartolo, et al., "An optimized bi-directional, wide speed range electric
starter-generator for aerospace application," in 7th IET International and programmes related to the more / all electric aircraft,
Conference on Power Electronics, Machines and Drives (PEMD 2014), electrified propulsion and associated fields. His main research
2014, pp. 1-6. interests are design, analysis and thermal management of
[131] Z. Xu, A. L. Rocca, S. J. Pickering, C. Eastwick, C. Gerada, and S.
electrical machines and drives, the more electric aircraft and
Bozhko, "Mechanical and thermal design of an aeroengine
starter/generator," in 2015 IEEE International Electric Machines & electrified and hybrid propulsion.
Drives Conference (IEMDC), 2015, pp. 1607-1613.

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