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Appendix

Fundamental Mathematical Concepts

(short review)

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Matrices
A matrix is an array of ordered numbers. A general matrix
consists of m·n numbers arranged in m rows and n columns,
thus the matrix is of order m x n (m by n). When we have
only one row (m = 1) or one column (n = 1), A is also called a
vector

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Matrices
When dealing with systems of linear equations, a matrix
formulation proves highly advantages:

A x b

This results in an equation Ax=b, where A is matrix of

coefficients, x is a vector of unknowns and b a vector of known
quantities.
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Basic Matrix Operations

Scalar multiplication:

A matrix A is multiplied by a scalar value c such that cA. This is achieved by

multiplying each entry of A by c:

𝑐𝑐𝑨𝑨 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑐𝑐 � 𝑨𝑨𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 where 1 ≤ i ≤ m and 1 ≤ j ≤ n

Addition:
Two matrices A and B may be added to each other iff they possess
the same order. The sum A+B is calculated entry wise:

𝑨𝑨 + 𝑩𝑩 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑨𝑨𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑩𝑩𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

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Basic Matrix Operations

Transposition:

The transpose of a matrix A denoted by AT is obtained by interchanging

The rows and columns pf a matrix:

𝑨𝑨𝑇𝑇 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑨𝑨𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

Multiplication:
Two matrices A and B may be multiplied iff A is m-by-n and B is n-by-p
such that the resulting matrix will be of order m-by-p. The matrix product
AB is given by the dot product of the corresponding row of A and the
column of B. 𝑛𝑛

𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = � 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐵𝐵𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

𝑟𝑟=1
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Rules of Matrix Operations

• Commutative law does not hold, i.e. AB ≠ BA

• Distributive law does hold, i.e. E = (A+B)C = AC+BC

• Associative law does hold, i.e. G = (AB)C =A(BC) = ABC

• AB = CB does not imply that A = C

• Special rule for the transpose of matrix product:

(AB)T = BTAT

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Special Square Matrices

Square matrix:

A matrix is said to be square if m = n

Identity matrix:

The identity matrix is a square matrix with entries on the diagonal equal to 1
while all others are equal to 0. Any square matrix A multiplied by the identity
matrix I of equal order returns the unchanged matrix A.

1 0 0
𝐼𝐼3 = 0 1 0
0 0 1

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Special Square Matrices

Diagonal Matrix D:
All other entries but those on the diagonal equal to zero

Upper Triangular Matrix U:

• All entries below the diagonal equal to zero

• Entries on the diagonal equal to one

Lower Triangular Matrix L:

• All entries above the diagonal equal to zero
• Entries on the diagonal equal to one

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Special Matrices
Symmetric Matrix:
A symmetric matrix is a square matrix the satisfies AT = A

Sparse Matrix:

A matrix with mostly/many zero entries

Rotation Matrix R:
• Used to rotate quantities about a certain point
• In 2D it is given as follows:

cos(𝜃𝜃) −sin(𝜃𝜃)
𝑅𝑅 𝜃𝜃 =
sin(𝜃𝜃) cos(𝜃𝜃)

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Special Matrices
Banded Matrix:

• For symmetric banded matrix A we have aij = 0 for j > i+mA, 2mA+1 being the
bandwidth
• If the half-bandwidth, mA, of a matrix is zero, we have nonzero elements only
on the diagonal of the matrix and denote it as a diagonal matrix (for
example, unit matrix).
mA

a14 = 0 j = 4 > 1 + mA → mA = 2

2mA + 1 = 2 ⋅ 2 + 1 = 5

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Matrix Inversion
The inverse of a matrix A is denoted as A-1

If a matrix is invertible then there is

AA-1 = A-1A = I

and A is said to be non-singular.

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Matrix Inversion
Inversion: AA-1 = A-1A = I

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Sub Matrices
• Matrices can be subdivided to facilitate matrix
manipulations
• Partitioning lines must run completely across the original
matrix

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The Trace of a Matrix

• The trace of a matrix A is defined only if A is a square
matrix (nxn)
n
• The trace of a matrix is a scalar value: tr (A ) = ∑a
i =1
ii

• Some rules:
tr(A+B) = tr(A) + tr(B)
tr(cA) = c tr(A)
tr(AB) = tr(BA)

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The Trace of a Matrix

• The trace of a matrix A, tr(A) = 4+6+8+12=30

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The Determinant of a Matrix

• The determinant of a matrix A is defined only if A is a
square matrix (nxn)
• The determinant of a matrix is a scalar value and is
obtained by means of the recurrence formula:
n

∑ ( −1)
1+ j
=
det( A ) a1 j det A1 j
j =1

• where A1j is the (n-1)x(n-1) matrix obtained by eliminating

the 1st row and the jth column from the matrix A

• if A=[a11] then detA=a11

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The Determinant of a Matrix

The determinant of a matrix is a scalar value and is obtained
by means of the recurrence formula:
n

∑ ( −1)
1+ j
=
det( A ) a1 j det A1 j
j =1

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The Determinant of a Matrix

The determinant of a matrix using the recurrence formula
along the first row (2 1 0):
n

∑ ( −1)
1+ j
=
det( A ) a1 j det A1 j
j =1

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The Determinant of a Matrix

Some useful operations with determinants:

det(AB) = det(A) det(B)

det(A-1) = 1/det(A)
det(I) = 1

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The Determinant of a Matrix

• It is convenient to decompose a symmetric matrix A by so
called LDL decomposition (Cholesky): A=LDLT

• L is a lower triangular matrix with all diagonal elements

equal to 1 and D is a diagonal matrix with components dii
1 0 0
L = l21 1 0 
l31 l32 1 

• Thus the determinant of matrix A (nxn) can be obtained as:

n
det A = ∏d
i =1
ii

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The Determinant of a Matrix

LDL decomposition: A=LDLT

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Tensors
• A set of quantities that obey certain transformation laws
relating the bases in one generalized coordinate system to
those of another
• A tensor consists of an array of a certain order (for
example: tensor of order 0 is a scalar, tensor of order 1 is a
vector)
•Each tensor has a transformation law detailing the
response of a change of basis (or ‘frame of reference’).
• Bathe: An entity is called a second-order tensor if it has
nine components tij, i=1,2,3 and j=1,2,3 in the unprimed
frame and nine components t’ij in the primed frame and if
these components are related by the characteristic law
t’ij=pikpjltkl, P being a rotation matrix
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Stress Tensors

 σ xx σ xy σ xz 
 
σ= σ yy σ yz 
 σ 
 zz 

A graphical representation of a tensor is possible using

Mohr’s circles (for example: plane stress state shown on
figure above)
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Variational Calculus
• Variational operator − δ
• Variations (of deformation) are small enough not to disturb
the equilibrium and are consistent with the geometric constraint
of the system
• Some rules:

δ (F1 ± F2 ) = δF1 ± δF2

 du  d
δ   = (δu) δ (F1 F2 ) = δ (F1 )F2 + F1δ (F2 )
 dx  dx
 F1  δ (F1 )F2 − F1δ (F2 )
δ   = 2
a a
 F2  F2
∫
δ udx = δudx
0
∫
0
δF n = nF n−1δF
Method of Finite Elements I