Matrices

DEFINITION
A rectangular arrangement of elements in rows and columns, is called a matrix. Such a rectangular arrangement
of numbers is enclosed by small ( ) or big [ ] brackets. Generally a matrix is represented by a capital latter A, B,
C......... etc. and its element are represented by small letters a, b, c, x, y etc.
Following are some examples of a matrix :
a b  1 5 3  2
A =  c d  , B = 4 0 2 C =  0  , D = [1, 5, 6], E = [5]
     

ORDER OF MATRIX
A matrix which has m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n, and its represented by
Am×n or A = [aij]m×n
It is obvious to note that a matrix of order m × n contains mn elements. Every row of such a matrix contains n
elements and every column contains m elements.

TYPES OF MATRICES
Row matrix
If in a matrix, there is only one row, then it is called a Row Matrix.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a row matrix if m = 1
Column Matrix
If in a matrix, there is only one column, then it is called a column matrix.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a column matrix if n = 1.
Square matrix
If number of rows and number of columns in a matrix are equal, then it is called a square matrix.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a square matrix if m = n.
Note : (a) If m  n then matrix is called a rectangular matrix.
(b) The elements of a square matrix A for which i = j i.e., a11, a22, a33,......ann are called principal diagonal
elements and the line joining these elements is called the principal diagonal or leading diagonal of
matrix A.
(c) Trace of a matrix : The sum of principal diagonal elements of a square matrix A is called the trace of
matrix A which is denoted by trace A. Trace A = a11  a 22  ....a nn
Singleton matrix
If in a matrix there is only one element then it is called singleton matrix.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a singleton matrix if m = n = 1.
Null or zero matrix
If in a matrix all the elements are zero then it is called a zero matrix and it is generally denoted by O.
Thus A = [aij]m×n is a zero matrix if aij = 0 for all i and j.
Diagonal matrix
If all elements except the principal diagonal in a square matrix are zero, it is called a diagonal matrix.
Thus a square matrix A = [aij] is a diagonal matrix if aij = 0, when i  j.

[1]
[2] Matrices and Determinants

Note : (a) No element of principal diagonal in diagonal matrix is zero.

(b) Number of zero is a diagonal matrix is given by n2 – n where n is a order of the matrix.
Scalar Matrix
If all the elements of the diagonal in a diagonal matrix are equal, it is called a scalar matrix.
Thus a square matrix A [aij] is a scalar matrix is
0 i  j
aij = k i  j where k is a constant.

Unit matrix
If all elements of principal diagonal in a diagonal matrix are 1, then it is called unit matrix. A unit matrix of order
n is denoted by In.
Thus a square matrix
1 i  j
A = [aij] is a unit matrix if aij = 0 i  j

Note : Every unit matrix is a scalar matrix.
Triangular matrix
A square matrix [aij] is said to be triangular if each element above or below the principal diagonal is zero. It is of
two types -
(a) Upper triangular matrix : A square matrix [aij] is called the upper triangular matrix, if aij = 0 when i > j.
(b) Lower triangular matrix : A square matrix [aij] is called the lower triangular matrix, if
aij = 0 when i < j
n(n  1)
Note : Minimum number of zero in a triangular matrix is given by where n is order of matrix.
2

Equal matrix
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if they are of same order and their corresponding elements are equal.
Singular matrix
Matrix A is said to be singular matrix if its determinant |A| = 0, otherwise non-singular matrix i.e.,
If det |A| = 0  singular and det |A|  0  non-singular

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES

If A = [aij]m×n and B = [bij]m×n are two matrices of the same order then their sum A + B is a matrix whose each
element is the sum of corresponding elements.
i.e., A + B = [aij + bij ] m×n
A – B is defined as A – B = [aij – bij]m×n
Note : Matrix addition and subtraction can be possible only when matrices are of same order.
Properties of matrices addition
If A, B and C are matrices of same order, then-
(i) A + B = B + A (Commutative Law)
(ii) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (Associative law)
(iii) A + O = O + A = A, where O is zero matrix which is additive identity of the matrix.
(iv) A + (–A) = 0 = (–A) + A where (–A) is obtained by changing the sign of every element of A which is
additive inverse of the matrix
Matrices and Determinants [3]

A  B  A  C
(v) B  A  C  A   B = C (Cancellation law)

(vi) Trace (A ± B) = trace (A) ± trace (B)

SCALAR MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES

Let A = [aij]m×n be a matrix and k be a number then the matrix which is obtained by multiplying every element of
A by k is called scalar multiplication of A by k and it denoted by kA.
Thus A = [aij]m×n  kA = [kaij]m×n

Properties of scalar multiplication

If A, B are matrices of the same order and m, n are any numbers, then the following results can be easily
established.
(i) m(A + B) = mA + mB (ii) (m + n)A = mA + nA (iii) m(nA) = (mn)A = n(mA)

MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES
If A and B be any two matrices, then their product AB will be defined only when number of column in A is equal
to the number of rows in B. If A = [aij]m×n and B = [bij]n×p then their product AB = C = [cij], will be matrix of order
m × p, where
n

(AB)ij = Cij  a b
r 1
ir rj

Properties of matrix multiplication

If A, B and C are three matrices such that their product is defined, then
(i) AB  BA (Generally not commutative)
(ii) (AB) C = A (BC) (Associative Law)
(iii) IA = A = AI I is identity matrix for matrix multiplication
(iv) A (B + C) = AB + AC (Distributive law)
(v) If AB = AC   B = C (cancellation Law is not applicable)
(vi) If AB = 0 It does not mean that A = 0 or B = 0, again product of two non-zero matrix may be zero
matrix.
(vii) trance (AB) = trance (BA)
Note : (i) The multiplication of two diagonal matrices is again a diagonal matrix.
(ii) The multiplication of two triangular matrices is again a triangular matrix.
(iii) The multiplication of two scalar matrices is also a scalar matrix.
(iv) If A and B are two matrices of the same order, then
(a) (A + B)2 = A2 + B2 + AB + BA
(b) (A – B)2 = A2 + B2 – AB – BA
(c) (A – B) (A + B) = A2 – B2 + AB – BA
(d) (A + B) (A – B) = A2 – B2 – AB + BA
(e) A (–B) = (–A) B = –(AB)
Positive Integral powers of a matrix
The positive integral powers of a matrix A are defined only when A is a square matrix.
Also then A2 = A.A A3 = A.A.A = A2A
[4] Matrices and Determinants

Also for any positive integers m, n

(i) Am An = Am+n (ii) (Am)n = Amn = (An)m
(iii) In = I, Im = I (iv) A° = In where A is a square matrices of order n.

TRANSPOSE OF MATRIX
If we interchange the rows to columns and columns to rows of a matrix A, then the matrix so obtained is called
the transpose of A and it is denoted by
AT or At or A'
From this definition it is obvious to note that
(i) Order of A is m × n  order of AT is n × m
(ii) (AT)ij = (A)ji, " i, j)
Properties of Transpose
If A, B are matrices of suitable order then
(i) (AT)T = A
(ii) (A + B)T = AT + BT
(iii) (A – B)T = AT – BT
(iv) (kA)T = kAT
(v) (AB)T = BTAT
(vi) (A1A2.....An)T = AnT.....A2TA1T
(vii) (An)T = (AT)n, n  N

SYMMETRIC AND SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRIX

(a) Symmetric matrix : A square matrix A = [aij] is called symmetric matrix if aij = aji for all ˆi  ˆj or AT = A.
Note : (i) Every unit matrix and square zero matrix are symmetric matrices.
n(n  1)
(ii) Maximum number of different element in a symmetric matrix is
2
(b) Skew-symmetric matrix : A square matrix A = [aij] is called skew-symmetric matrix if
aij = – aji for all i, j or AT = –A
Note : (i) All principal diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are always zero because for
any diagonal element - aii = – aii  aii = 0
(ii) Trace of a skew symmetric matrix is always 0
Properties of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices
(i) If A is a square matrix, then A + AT, AAT, ATA are symmetric matrices while A–AT is skew-symmetric
matrices.
(ii) If A, B are two symmetric matrices, then-
(a) A ± B, AB + BA are also symmetric matrices.
(b) AB – BA is a skew-symmetric matrix.
(c) AB is a symmetric matrix when AB = BA
(iii) If A, B are two skew-symmetric matrices, then-
(a) A ± B, AB – BA are skew-symmetric matrices.
(b) AB + BA is a symmetric matrix.
Matrices and Determinants [5]

(iv) If A is a skew-symmetric matrix and C is a column matrix, then CT AC is a zero matrix.

(v) Every square matrix A can be uniquely be expressed as sum of a symmetric and skew symmetric matrix i.e.,

1 T  1 T 
A =  2 ( A  A )   2 ( A  A )
   

DETERMINANT OF A MATRIX

a11 a12 a13 

 
If A = a 21 a 22 a 23 
be a square matrix, then its determinant, denoted by |A| or det. (A) is
a 31 a 32 a 33 

a11 a12 a13 

 
defined as |A| = a 21 a 22 a 23 
a 31 a 32 a33 

Properties of the determinant of a matrix

(i) |A| exist  A is a square matrix
(ii) |AB| = |A| |B|
(iii) |AT| = |A|
(iv) |kA| = kn |A|, if A is a square matrix of order n.
(v) If A and B are square matrices of same order then |AB| = |BA|
(vi) If A is skew symmetric matrix of odd order then |A| = 0
(vii) If A = diag (a1, a2, .....an) then |A| = a1a2....an
(viii) |A|n = |An|, n  N

ADJOINT OF A MATRIX
If every element of a square matrix A be replaced by its cofactor in |A|, then the transpose of the matrix so
obtained is called the adjoint of A and it is denoted by adj A
Thus if A = [aij] be a square matrix and Cij be the cofactor of aij in |A|, then
adj A = [Cij]T
 (adj A)ij = Cij
T
 a 11 a 12 .... a 1n   C11 C12 .... C1n   C11 C 21 .... C n1 
a C  C .... Cn 2 
 21 a 22 .... a 2 n   21
C 22 .... C 2n
   12
C 22

Hence if A =  .... .... .... ....  , then adj A =  .... .... .... ....   .... .... .... .... 
     
 a n1 a n2 .... a nn 
 C n1 Cn 2 .... C nn  C1n C 2n .... Cnn 

Properties of Adjoint Matrix

If A, B are square matrices of order n and In is corresponding unit matrix, then
(i) A (adj A) = |A| In = (adj A) A
(Thus A (adj A) is always a scalar matrix)
(ii) |adj A| = |A|n–1
(iii) adj (adj A) = |A|n–2 A
[6] Matrices and Determinants

2
(iv) |adj (adj A)| = | A |(n1) (v) adj (AT) = (adj A)T
(vi) adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A) (vii) adj (Am) = (adj A)m, m  N
(viii) adj (kA) = kn–1 (adj A), k  R (ix) adj (In) = In
(x) adj 0 = 0 (xi) A is symmetric  adj A is also symmetric.
(xii) A is diagonal  adj A is also diagonal. (xiii) A is triangular  adj A is also triangular..
(xiv) A is singular  |adj A| = 0

INVERSE MATRIX
If A and B are two matrices such that
AB = I = BA
then B is called the inverse of A and it is denoted by A–1. Thus
A–1 = B  AB = I = BA
Further we may note from above property (i) of adjoint matrix that if |A|  0, then
adj ( A ) (adj A ) 1
A
|A|

|A|
A  A–1 = | A | adj A

Thus A–1 exists  |A|  0.

Note :
(i) Matrix A is called invertible if A–1 exists.
(ii) Inverse of a matrix is unique.
Properties of Inverse Matrix
(i) (A–1)–1 = A
(ii) (AT)–1 = (A–1)T
(iii) (AB)–1 = B–1A–1
(iv) (An)–1 = (A–1)n, n  N
(v) adj (A–1) = (adj A)–1
1
(vi) |A–1| = | A | = |A|–1

(vii) A = diag (a1,a2, ...., an)  A–1 = diag (a1–1 , a2–1, ....., an–1)
(viii) A is symmetric  A–1 is also symmetric.
(ix) A is diagonal |A|  0  A–1 is also diagonal.
(x) A is scalar matrix  A–1 is also scalar matrix.
(xi) A is triangular |A|  0  A–1 is also triangular..

SOME IMPORTANT CASES OF MATRICES

Orthogonal Matrix
A square matrix A is called orthogonal if
AAT = I = ATA ; i.e., if A–1 = AT
Idempotent matrix
A square matrix A is called an idempotent matrix if A2 = A
Matrices and Determinants [7]

Involutory Matrix
A square matrix A is called an involutory matrix if A2 = I or A–1 = A
Nilpotent matrix
A square matrix A is called a nilpotent matrix if there exist a p  N such that AP = 0

Hermition matrix

A square matrix A is skew-Hermition matrix if Aq = A ; i.e., aij = – aji " i, j

Skew hermitian matrix

A square matrix A is skew-hermition is A = –Aq i.e., aij = – aji " i, j

Period of a matrix
If for any matrix A Ak+1 = A
then k is called period of matrix (where k is a least positive integer)
Differentiation of matrix
 f ( x ) g( x )
If A = h( x ) l( x )
 
dA  f ' ( x ) g' ( x )
then dx  h' ( x ) l' ( x ) is a differentiation of matrix A
 
Submatrix
Let A be m × n matrix, then a matrix obtained by leaving some rows or columns or both of a is called a sub matrix
of A
Rank of a matrix
A number r is said to be the rank of a m × n matrix A if
(a) every square sub matrix of order (r + 1) or more is singular and
(b) there exists at least one square submatrix of order r which is non-singular.
Thus, the rank of matrix is the order of the highest order non-singular sub matrix.
5 6 
We have |A| = 0 therefore r (A) is less then 3, we observe that 4 5  is a non-singular square sub matrix of
 
order 2 hence r (A) 2.
Note :
(i) The rank of the null matrix is zero.
(ii) The rank of matrix is same as the rank of its transpose i.e., r(A) = r(AT)
(iii) Elementary transformation of not alter the rank of matrix.