teas Seer coer dts i L rr CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. GENERAL Pu 10. PURPOSE AND USE OF BULLETIN eh 3.60. Introduction. pare 1.01, Scope of Bulletin. 1 102, Acknowledgments.--.--- i 11. NOMENCLATURE 2 i 110, Definitions for Plywood Eiemente—Beams, Prisme, and Columnsin Compression, Stripsin Tension... 1 Liz, Definitions for Plywood Panels... aaa 142, Standard Structural Symbols for Chapter 2 2 CHAPTER 2. STRENGTH OF WOOD AND PLYWOOD ELEMENTS 20. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND FACTORS AFFECTING THE STRENGTH OF ‘WOOD. pee 7 ° 2.00, Anisotropy af Wood ° 20). Density or Apparent Specific Gravity. ° 2.02. Moisture Content... 3 2.03. oie u 2.08. a 2 2.05. Fatigue Properties....--- rm 2.06. Plastie Properties. --- u 2.07, Impact Properties. === i 208. Effect of Liquids 13 2,09, Miscellaneous Physical Properties. 5 2,091, Coefficient of Expansion, ‘e 15 2.092. Thermal Conductivity, 7 2.093, Ignition Temperature. 8 2.094, Electrical Properties. 18 2.095, Damping Capacity. 18 . "D1, BASIC STRENGTH AND ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF WOOD... 2 2.10. Design Values, Tables 2-6 and 2-7... Soecreaetes 20 2,100. Supplemental Notes a 2 2.1000, Compression Perpendicular to Grain oes 20 2.1001, Compression Parallel to Grain : 2 2.11. Notes on the Use of Values in Tables 2-6 and 2-7. : 2 2.110. Relation of Design Values in Tables 2-6 and 2-7 to Siope of Grain. 20 2.11, Tension Parallel to Grain... a 2.112, Tension Perpendicular to Grain-_ a 2.12, Standard Test Procedures. oe 7 2,120, Static Bending... ae 7 Modulus of Elasticity (21). 7 2 Fiber Stress at Proportional Limit (Piq). a . Modulus of Rupture (Fiq)-—---- a , Work to Maximum Loada==-...--- 2 Compression Parallel to Grain. 28 Modulus of Elasticity (Es. 2 | Fiber Stress at Proportional Limit (Fp) 2 Maximum Crushing Strength (Fs.)----~ 2 Compression Perpendicular to Grain... 20 Shear Parallel to Grain (Pia)- 20 Hardness : 20 ‘Tension Perpendicular to Grain (Prep) ==. a1 31 . Elastic Properties Not Included in Tables 2-6 and 2eer ee | ieee | L Se eee ete Pee ee L CHAPTER 2. STRENGTH OF WOOD AND PLYWOOD ELEMENTS—Continved vi 2.180. 2131 2.182 24. 25. 216. 2.161 2.162. . COLUMNS. . Torsional Instability . Moisture Correction for Plywood Tensile Strength (0° or 90° to Face Grain Direction) |. Elements (6 Moduli of Hlasticity Perpendicular to Grain (Ex, Es). Moduli of Rigidity (Giz, Gun, Gar Poisson’s Ratios (x). Strese-strain Relations. Strength Under Multiavial Seress, Stress Concentrations. Stress Concentrations Around a Hole in a Tension or Compression Scress Concentrations Due to Hole Which is Not Small Compared to the Size of the Member Primary Failure Looal Buekling and Twisting Failure Lateral Bueking. BEAMS, Form Factors. wot Combined Loading ee General. Bending and Compression 2, Bending and Tension. Shear Webs : Beam Section Efficiency... Torsional Properties _—- BASIC STRENGTH AND ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF PLYWOOD- General... Analysis of Approximate Methods for Caleulating Plywood Strengths Moisture-strength Relations for Plywood. General. Approximate Methods for Making Moisture Corrections for Plywood Strength Properties. ‘Moisture Corrections for Plywood Compressive Strength (0° or 90° to Face Grain Direction) --.-.- ‘Moisture Corrections for Plywood Shear Strength (0° or 90° to Face Grain Direction) ‘Moisture Corrections for Plywood Compressive Strength (Any Angle to Face Grain Direction) ‘Moisture Corrections for Plywood Tensile Sirength (Any Angle to Face Grain Direction) ‘Moisture Corrections for Plywood Shear Strength (Any Angle to Face Grain Direction). 2 Specific Gravity-strength Relations for Plywood. Stress-strain Relations for Wood and Plywood. ‘ Mobr's Stress-and-strain Circles.. Obtaining Strains from Given Stresses, Obtaining Stresses from Given Strain: Experimental Strese-strain Date. Stress Concentrations (See See. 2.16 to 2.162). ‘ PLYWOOD STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS. Elements (¢=0° or 90°). Elemente in Compression (@= 0° or 90°). Elements in Tension (6=0° or 90°). Elements in Shear (¢=0° or 90°) Elemente in Com ‘Any Angle). : Elemente in Tension (6 Avy Angle). < Blements in Shear (@= Any Angle) Elements in Combined Compression (or Tension) and Shear (= Any Angl 2 Elements in Bending. i Defiections. : Elements as Columns FLAT RECTANGULAR PLYWOOD PANELS. Bucicling Criteria. General. Compression (= 0° or 90°)CHAPTER 8, STRENGTH OF WOOD AND PLYWOOD ELEMENTS—Continued > 2 L 2.715. Compression, Shear, and Combined Compression 60 | 190) Gores toes auc aU ros te 2.75. Torsional Strength and Rigidity of Box Spars. 6 ea 7 aR ie Beste: * f 2772, Teng Stiffener Bisecting a Panel.. 99 L 2.7721, Stifened Panel Subjected to Edgewise ‘Compression, Stiffener r Perpendicalar 0 th L Sires (9 35"). lor eects 7 L 1 L 7 fi 2.821, Axial ‘Compression 107 L 10g 7 ea 7 i 2.841, Stresses When Buckling Does Not Occu: : 309 L 2.8421. Axial Compression, 12 ‘2.85. Stiffened Curved Panels. 12 HIE as oe ire 7CHAPTER 2. STRENGTH OF WOOD AND PLYWOOD ELEMENTS—Continved L Poe 2801), Suen Al... eae Zana sutener Creve : 7 L 2.852. Shear..........-. i 116 aise, Sone il 7 So1srs : ne Baked Sai : . he Essig rt of Pependiaa vo Ga he Baring ata Aagie tobe Grae : te Ene Lanne = nie | Combined Concentric and Eccentric Loadings; Bolt Groups... = 116 L Sat Spactge : 7 Spcig of Bo Edad aril othe Gans eee hs * Spc of Hate Leaded Perpeniae othe Gian eee te L Specing of Ba onde ata Angi the ai te Caner Nous on Bolt Spacing 2 Bering in Wood be Meteo. 2 Busing in Pwo : 2 L Bearing in Compreg. e 123 ont, Bening in Retford cer a atta, Wout Sirens wth Prod Race Dit is Deel, Word Member wth Gros banded Compre 2 om, Busines : ue om Holl hi oe 2 Zoe, Gono Fess of Bed i. iat ( 2.9090. Drilling of Holes. 126 LBatet Roped Lounge iat al, Chel Jt 2 tae Nt, stovatie Src fy Chid Jit tan L 2.1 Laminate aod pled Spare an Spa ace in 2912, Cv Ses Between Web an Fane. ede fu, Propntea f Masied Woot. : ir j 2.920. Detailed Test Data for Tables 2-16 to 2-21, Inclusive. 127 L Da Reference, ia 24 Blown Pa | CHAPTER 3, METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS L 30, GENERAL ae eo us 300, Pues Se a ise B01, Spent Canldrton in Sie Heng of Stour wie ue 8.010. Element Tests. 7 146 2011, Compete Src ve sone in ! 3.0111. a7 iL 3 vs Pen Pe Bal, Pwesper ag wil Tnapondend Spa =. j i L sue, Sper Eons ue Sinn, heed Code ie Sine Lesa Ana iw silat Gena tie L Shae ini ‘a ios Jury eat s ae, Nonprael Wi” 7 1 8.1124, Biplane Lift Trusses. 154 L 3.1125. Rigging Loads. 154 2118, Brae anal 1 alah, Supe Dragana Spc a is L 8.1181. Double Drag-truss Systems. : . 155 2uig2, Pay of beg Seta : ‘ ts SuneH, Prod Drassne es i 7 2418, Spr Shae nid Moment 1 L, ——_sto: Secostne facts Gnesi beading) 4 is viiieee eee eee eee reer Peete eet SE eee eee r- PE eee eee CHAPTER 3. BALI. 3 3.1130. 3051 3.116. 8.1160. 3.1161 3.1162, 3.12. 3.120, 3121, 3.13, 3.130, 3.131 8.1310, 3311. 3.132. 3.188, 8.1330, 3.1331, 3.184 3.136. 8.1350, 3.1851, 3.1382, 3.1388, 3.1354 3.13540. 3.18541. 3.13522, 3.18543, 3.136. 8.1360, 8.13800. 3.1881 3.137, 2.1370, 3.1371 3.138. 8.1380, 2.1381 3.1382. 3.1383. 3.1384, 32, 33. 34, 3.40. 3.41 3.42. 3.421 3.422, 3.323. 23.48. 3.431 Bak 8.441 3442. 8.4421. 3.4422, 3.443, Bad, METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS—Continued Effects of Varying Axial Load and Moment, of Inertia Internal and Allowable Stresses for Spars.. General Wood Spars Special Problems in the Ani Lateral Buckling of Spars. Ribs... Fabrie Attachment. ‘Two-spar Plywood Covered Wings. Single Covering. Box Type Reinforced Shell Wings ‘Computation of Shear, Bending Moment, abd Torsion Computation of Bending Stresses, Section Properties. Bending Stress Formulas. Secondary Stresses in Bending Blements ‘Computation of Shear Flows and Stresses. General, Shear Flow Absorbed by Bending Elements Shear Correction for Bean Taper. Simple D Spar. Rational Shear Distribution - ‘Single Cell-—General Method. ‘Two Cell—General Method. ‘Two-Cell Four-Flange Wing. Shear Centers ‘Rib-Crushing Loads. Bulkhead Ribs. Miscellaneous Structural Problems. Additional Bending snd Shear Stresses due to Torsion. General Instabil Strength Determination, Buekling in Skin_—_ Compression Elements Stiffened Panels Tension Elements Shesr Elements, FIXED TAIL SURFACES. MOVABLE CONTROL SURFACES. FUSELAGES, General Four-longeron Type. Reinforeed-shell Type. Stressed-sksin Fusclages. Computation of Bending Stresses. Computation of Shearing Stresses. Pure-shell Type. ‘Monocoque shell Fuselages: Miscellasicous Fuselage Analysis Problems. Analysis of Seams... ‘Analysis of Frames and Rings. ‘Maia Frames. Intermediate Frames Effects of Cut-Outs. Secondary Structures Within the Fuselage. sa0Tt0"—si—2 ue 158 158 158 158 159 130 159 159 160 160 360 160 160 160 160 162 163 163 165 167 168 168 168 170 172 172 173 173 175 178 380EH Er eee eee eee t tamaaE ee SRE Ree eee CHAPTER 3. METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS—Continued B45. 3.5, 351 3.52. 3.58, 3.5. 3.55, 36 CHAPTER 4. 40. 4.00, 4.01 4.010, 4.011, 4.012, 4.013, 44, 4.10, 41 412 413, au. 45. 4:16. 4.2. 4.20 4.21 422. 4.23. 404. 4.28. 428. 433. 4.30. 431 4.32, 44, 4.40, 441, 4.50. 451 4.80. 4.61. 4.02, 4.03, 4.64, 47, 4.70. 47, 4.72, 478, 474, 476. 48. . Reinforcement for Concentrated Loads.. |. Metal to Wood Connections. Strength Determination HULLS AND FLOATS. Main Longitudinal Girder Bottom Platin Bottom Stringer Frames. Strength Determination ‘MISCELLANEOUS. References. DETAIL STRUCTURAL DESIGN GENERAL. Introduction Definitions... Joints in the Covering. ‘Taper in Thickness of the Covering. vior Under Tension Loads. vior Under Shear Loads.. Blocking. Searf Joints in Beams. Reinforcement of Sloping Grain RIBS. ‘Types of Ribs. Special Purpose Ribs. Attachment of Ribs to the Structure. FRAMES AND BULKHEADS. ‘Types of Frames and Bulkheads_ Glue Area for Attachment of Plywood Covering. STIFFENERS.. General mat Attachment of Stringers Attachment of Intarcostals. . GLUE JOINTS. General : Eccentricities. a Avoidenee of End-Grain Joints. : Gluing of Plywood Over Wood-Piywood Combi Gluing of High Density Material MECHANICAL JOINTS. General ‘Use of Bushings. Use of High Density Material ‘Mechanieal Attachment of Ribs. Attachment of Various Types of Fittings Use of Wood Serews, Rivets, Nails, and Self-Locking Nut MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN DETAILS. 212 212 2a 215. 215 216 216CHAPTER 4. DETAIL STRUCTURAL DESIGN—Continued alee Batata a ees far batiae ane eee ca poe na tor ces neue (iciilege eseenata ape faa ates eas ea oe Ieee ; oo, BUAMBLES OF ACTUAL DEsiGN DTA L L eae ee eee xiPee eee eee eae eee are d Eutetesete SESEteeeee TEezze SRE eae CHAPTER | GENERAL 1.0. Purpose and Use of Bulletin 1.00. Ivrropucrion. This bulletin has been prepared for use in the design of both military and commercial aircraft, and contains material which is acceptable to the U. 8. Air Force, Navy Bureau of Aeronautics, and the Civil Aeronautics Admin- istration. It should, of course, be understood that methods and procedures other than those outlined horein are also acceptable, provided they are prop- erly substantiated and approved by theappropriate agency. The applicability and interpretation of the provisions of this bulletin as contract or eer- tification requirements will in each case be defined by the procuring or certificating agency. 1.01. Scope or Buttetrx. The technical ma- terial in this bulletin is contained in chapters 2, 3, and 4, and pertains to three related phases of the structural design of wood aircraft. Chapter 2 presents information on the strength and elastic properties of struetural elements con- structed of wood and plywood. This information supersedes that contained in the June 1944 edition of ANC-18, "Design of Wood Aircraft Struc- tures.” Chapter 3 contains suggested methods of struc- tural analysis for the design of various aircraft, components. Although these methods are in many cases the same as those used for metal struc- tures, special considerations have been introduced which take into account the orthotropic properties ‘of wood. Chapter 4 presents recommendations on the detail structural design of wood aircraft and con- tains some examples of how various manufacturers have treated the solution of specific detail design problems. 1.02, Acksowrepcmexr. The Panel on Sand- wich Construction of the Subcommittee on Air- Force-Navy-Civil Airoraft Design Criteria and the Forest Products Laboratory express their apprecia~ tion to aircraft manufacturers and others for the valuable assistance given in connection with various parts of this bulletin. 1.1. Nomenclature ‘This section presents the definitions of standard structural symbols which are used in the bulletin. In addition, sections 1.10 and 1.11 are presented to clarify the differentiation between the defini- tions for strength and elastic properties of plywood elements and those for like properties of plywood panels. These sections also outline the use of table 2-13 1.10. Deriimons ror Puywoop Euemenrs— Brams, Prisms, ano Conuuns iy Compression, Srairs tv Tension. A plywood element is any rectangular piece of plywood that is supported, loaded, or restrained on two opposite edges only In defining the various strength and elastic prop- erty terms for plywood elements the face grain direction has been used as a reference; for exam- ple, the subscript w denotes a direction parallel to (with) the face grain, while the subscript denotes a direction perpendicular to (across) the face grain. This is illustrated by figure 1-1 ‘The strength and elastic properties given in table 2-13 of the bulletin are for plywood elements. 1.11 Derixitions ror Puywoop Panets. A plywood panel is any rectangular piece of plywood that is supported, loaded, or restrained on more than two edges. In defining the various strength and related property terms for plywood panels, the FACE GRAIN DIRECTION Eb ETOFROWS Eg by ATEFROM Whale 2-13 Tele 2-13 Figure 1-1, Plysoood element (supported, loaded, or restrained ‘on two opposite edges only). 1oo Pe eee ee ee eee eee | aieeae oo side of length a rather than the face grain direc- tion has been used as the reference. For any panel having tension or compression loads (either alone or accompanied by shear) the side of length ais the loaded side. For panels having only shear Toads (with no tension or compression), the side a may be taken as either side (sec. 2.715). For panels having normal loads, side @ is the shorter side. The subscripts ¢ and J denote a direction parallel to the side of length a, and thesubscripts 4 and 2 denote @ direction perpendicular to the side of length a. ‘This is illustrated by figure 1-2. F T K Eq Ey ETC CANNOT BE Ey E,,ETC-CANNOT BE EVALUATED UNTIL FACE EVALUATED UNTIL FACE GRAIN DIRECTION 1S KOWH GRAIN DIRECTION 15 KHOWH Fire 1. Plywood pane oupporeds gad, 7 reaind Since, in panels, the directions in which E., Es, E,, E,, ete., are to be measured are related to the directions of the sides of lengths a and 6, it is necessary to relate these directions to the face grain direction before the terms can be evaluated from table 2-18. It may be stated, therefore, that: (1) When the face grain direction of » ply- wood panel is parallel to the side of Jength a, the valnes of Es, Ey Ej, Ey, ete., mey be taken from the columns for 1.12, Staxparp SrrucruRAL Sympois For CHAPTER 2. Ex, Ex, Eye, Eye, ete., respectively, in table 2-13. This is illustrated | by figure 1-3. 7 L Eq, ETC-VALUES FROM COLUMNS FOR Ey, Ejy ETC, RESPECTIVELY, IN TABLE 4A LTC™ VALUES FROM COLUIMND FOR E, FETC, RESPECTIVELY, 18 TABLE 27/3 213 Figure 1-8. Plywood panel (fase grain direcion porelil to Bef Legit ) . (2) When the face grain direction of # ply- wood panel is porpendieular to the side of length a, the values of 2, Ey, Hi, Es, ete., may be taken from the columns for Bx, Ew, Ey, Ene, ete, respectively, in table 2-13. This is illustrated by figure 1-4. Efe FACE GRAIN DIRECTION ft Eq.8,, ETC-VALUES COLdHNS FoR bf, ETC, COLUMNS EE, ETC, RESPECTIVELY, IN TABLE RESPECTIVELY, TN TABLE a 213 Figure J-f. Plywood ponel Jace groin direction perpendicy as vet to def eng 0 £,£TC~VALUES. FROM In general, symbols that sre used only in the section where they are defined are not included in this nomenclature. A —area of cross section, square inches (total). A, ——area of plies with grain direction parallel to the direction of applicd stress. ‘Ay —area of plies with grain direction per- pendicular to the direction of applied strese (surfaces of plies parallel to plane of glue joint tangential to the ennual growth rings, as for rotary-cut or flat- sliced vencer, flat-sawn lumber). @ — —the length of the loaded side of « plywood panel for compression or tension loads, and the length of either side for shear loads (sec. 2.715); subscript denoting parallel to side of length a for plywood panels,er eae eee eee ee ‘a SEER eee ee eee S auet An Dee Dee De Dee Das Daze —area of plies with grain direction per- pendicular to the direction of applied stress (surfaces of plies parallel to plane of glue joint radial to the annual growth rings, as for quarter-sliced veneer, quarter-sewn lumber). > br circumference. ¢ - cr —diameter. a depending on direction of stiffeners, Ent oy Ent? T2h; TEN, —same as Dy except that the stiffener is considered to be an extra ply of the plywood —same as D, but these are effective values applicable to the stiffened panel as a whole. depending on direction of stiffeners, Eek yy Ent! 72x, 12x; —same as D, except that the stiffener is considered to be an extra ply of the plywood —same as D, but these are effective values applicable to the stiffened panel as a whole. — Sint 12 —same as Dy, except that the stiffener is considered to be an extra ply of the plywood. —same as Dy: but these are effective values applicable to the stiffened panel as & whole —the length of the unloaded side of a ply wood panel for compression or tension Toads, and the length of either side for shear loads (sec. 2.715); subscript de- noting parallel to side of length 6 for plywood panels; subscript denoting “bending” for solid wood —subseript denoting “bearing.”” —end-fixity coefficient for columns; sub- script denoting “compression”; dis- tance from neutral axis to extreme fiber. —distance from neutral axis to the extreme fiber having grain direction parallel to the applied stress (plywood) —subseript denoting “critical.” —depth or height.eee ee Pee a ee a eee Ree E, En Er E: Eve modulus of elasticity of wood in the direction parallel to the grain, as de- termined from a static bending test. (This value is listed in table 24.) —modulus of elasticity of wood im the direction radial to the annul growth rings. —modulus of dlasticity of wood in the direction tangential to the annual growth rings —modulus of elasticity of wood in the direction parallel to the grain, as de- termined from a compression test (value not listed in’ table 2-3, but ap- proximately equal to 1.1 Ey). —effective modulus of elasticity of ply- wood in tension or compression meas- ured parallel to the side of length @ of plywood panels. —effective modulus of elasticity of ply- wood in tension or compression meas- ured perpendicular to the side of length a of plywood panels, "or Ey as required, —effective modulus of clasticity of ply- wood in tension or compression me: ured parallel to (with) the grain direc tion of the face plies. effective modulus of elasticity of plywood in tension or compression measured perpendicular to (across) the grain di- rection of the face plies. —effective modulus of elasticity of plywood in flexure (bending) measured parailel to (with) the grain direction of the face plies —efiective modulus of elasticity of plywood in flexure (Bending) measured per- pendicular to (across) the grain direc- tion of the face plies. —same as Ey, except that outermost ply on tension side is neglected (not to be used in deflection formulas.) & en er eur Coe ome —unit strain (tension or compression) in the L direction. —unit strain (tension or compression) in the R dircetion, —unit strain (tension or compression) in the T direction. —-unit strain (shear); the change in angle between lines originslly drawn in the Land I directions. —unit strain (shear); the change in angle between lines originally drawn in the E and R direetions —unit strain (shear); the change in angle between lines originally drawn in the T and R directions.iL & Siti L E; It L oe rT a d uinretoee Stns Pte L Fise L 5 gees —E, of a stiffener. —effective modulus of elasticity of plywood in flexure (bending) measured parallel to the side of length a of plywood panels, or parallel to the axis of ply- wood cylinders. effective modulus of elasticity of plywood in flexure (bending) measured per- pendicular to the side of length a of plywood panels. —allowable stress; stress determined from test, —allowable bending stress. —modulus of rupture in bending for solid ‘wood parallel to grain. —fiber stress at proportional limit in bend- ing for solid wood parallel to grain. —bearing stress at proportional limit par- allel to the grain for solid wood. —allowable ultimate bearing stress per- pendicular to grain for solid wood (either radial or tangential to the annual growth rings). allowable ultimate bearing stress parallel to grain. —allowable compressive stress. —critical compressive stress for the buck- ling of rectangular plywood panels, “stress at proportional limit in eom- pression parallel to grain for solid wood. stress at proportional limit in com- pression perpendicular to grain for solid wood (either radial or tangential to the annual growth rings). —stress at proportional limit in compression for plywood having the face grain di- rection parallel to (with) the applied stress. —-stress at proportional limit in compres- sion for plywood having the face grain direction perpendicular to (across) the applied stress. te ta internal (or calculated) stress; subscript denoting “flexure” (bending) for ply- wood. —internal (or calculated) primary bending stress, —internal (or calculated) bearing stress. ~ internal (or calculated) stress, compressive —internal (or calculated) compressive stress in a longitudinal ply; i. e., any ply with its grain direction parallel to the applied stress.L eee rT { RS eee Fess Pew Fur Pout B Fs Pu Fs Fue Fa Pu Fur —stress at proportional limit in compres- sion for plywood having the face grain direction at an angle @ to the applied stress —ultimate compressive stress parallel to the grain for solid wood, —compressive strength perpendicular to grain for solid wood (either radial or tangential to the annual growth rings) (sec. 2.1000). —nultimate compressive stress for plywood having the face grain direction parallel to (with) the applied stress. —ultimate compressive stress for plywood having the face grain direction per- pendieular to (across) the applied stress, —-ultimate compressive stress for plywood having the face grain direction at an angle @ to the applied stress. —allowable shearing stress. —critical shear strese for the buckling of rectangular plywood panels. modulus of rupture in torsion. —ultimate shear stress parallel to grain for solid wood. —ultimate shear stress for plywood, wherein é designates the angle between the face grain direction and the shear stress in a plywood element so loaded in shear that the face grain is stressed in compression. —ultimate shear stress for plywood, wherein 9 designates the angle between the face grain direction and the shear stress in a plywood element s0 loaded in shear that the face grain is stressed in tension. —ultimate shear stress for plywood cle- ments for the case where the face grain is at 0° and 90° to the shear stress allowable tension stress. —ultimate tensile stress parallel to grain for solid wood, —tensile strength perpendicular to grain for solid wood (either radial or tan- gential to the annual growth rings). fe Sa —internal (or calculated) shearing stress. internal (or calculated) tensile stress, internal (or calculated) tensile stress in a longitudinal ply (any ply with its grain direction parallel to the applied stress)ue { L feet 5 weuait L eee Fv Fas Fue Gur Gun Cre Lv M N —ultimate tensile stress for plywood having the face grain direction parallel to (with) the applied stress. —ultimate tensile stress for plywood having the face grain direction perpendicular to (across) the applied stress. —ultimate tensile stress for plywood hay- ing the face grain direction at an angle 6 to the applied stress. —mean modulus of rigidity taken as He of Ey —modulus of rigidity associated with shear deformations in the LT plane resulting from shear stresses in the LR and RT planes. —modulus of rigidity associated with shear deformations in the LR plane resulting from shear stresses in the LT and RT planes. —modulus of rigidity associated with shear deformations in the 7 plane resulting from shear stresses in the LT and LR planes. —a constant, generally theoretical. —moment of inertia. —polar moment of inertia. —torsion constant (I, for round tubes). —a constant, generally empirical. length; span; subscript denoting the direction parallel to the grain. -4 where ¢ is the end-fixity coefficient. a —applied bending moment. —applied lod (total, not unit load). —static moment of a cross section. —subscript denoting the direction radial to the annual growth rings and per- pendicular to the grain direetion, —shear force. —applied torsional moment, torque; sub- script denoting the direction tangential to the annual growth rings and per- pendicular to the grain direction. te ty length of side of panel and equal to a or bas is required. —height or depth. subscript denoting “i ply.” —stiffness factor yEI/P stiffness factor Errettpne + 2/Gree VE whe —not used, to avoid confusion with the numeral 1. —number of half waves. —number of plies, number of stiffeners subscript denoting “polar”; subscript de- noting “proportional limit”; load per unit area, —pounds per square inch. —shear flow, pounds per inch. —radius} adjusted ratio length to width ee —distance ¢ to ¢ of adjacent stiffeners; subscript denoting “shear”. thickness; subscript denoting “tension”. —thickness of central ply. —thiekness of face plyC f suzazt ee eee Ree i r NN ON ~-section modulus, I/e —polar section modulus, I,/. bur —subscript denoting “ultimate”. —Aeflection of plywood panels; load per linear inch; subscript denoting parallel to faco grain of plywood. subscript denoting perpendicular to face grain of plywood. distance from the neutral axis to any given fiber. —iistance between center of panel and neutral axis of panel stiffener combina- tion. —the engle between side of length 8 and the face grain direction as used in the de- termination of buckling criteria for panels (see. 2.71). deflection, —usually the acute angle in degrees be- tween the face grain direction and the direction of the applied stress; angle of twist in radians in a length (ZL). —Poisson’s ratio of contraction along the direction 7’ to extension slong the di- rection L due to a normal tensile stress on the pr plane; similarly, jue, Har army ney M4 tr. —radius of gyration. —usunlly the acute angle in degrees between the face grain direction and the axis of extension.CHAPTER 2 STRENGTH OF WOOD AND PLYWOOD ELEMENTS 2.0, Physical Characteristics and Factors Af- fecting the Strength of Wood 2.00. Antsorropy or Woop. Wood, unlike most other commonly used structural materials, is not isotropic. It is a complex structural material, consisting essentially of fibers of cellulose cemented together by lignin. It is the shape, size, and arrangement of these fibers, together with their physical and chemical composition that govern the strength of wood, and account for the large dif ference in properties along and across the grain (ref. 2-20). The fibers ere long and hollow tubes tapering toward the ends, which are closed. Besides these vertical fibers, which are oriented with their longer dimension lengthwise of the tree and com- prise the principal part of what is called wood, all species, except palms and yuccas, contain hori- zontal strips of cells known as rays, which are oriented radially and are an important part of the tree's food transfer and storage system: Among different species the rays differ widely in their size and prevalence From the strength standpoint, this arrangement of fibers results in an anisotropic structure, that accounts for three Young’s moduli differing by ‘as much as 150 to 1, three shear moduli differing by as much as 20 to 1, six Poisson's ratios differing by as much as 40 to 1, and other properties differing by various amounts. Not all of these wood properties have, as yet, been thoroughly evaluated. Figure 2-1 shows a diagrammatic sketch of the cellular structure of wood. Each year’s growth is represented by one annual ring. The portion of the growth occurring in the spring consists of relatively thin-walled fibers, while that occurring during the later portion of the growing sesson consists of fibers having somewhat heavier walls ‘Thus, there is, for most woods, a definite line of demarcation between the growth occurring in successive years. The relation betseen the cel- lular structure of the wood and the three principal axes—longitudinal (Z), tangential (7), and radial (R)—is indicated on the sketch. Figure 2-2 shows the relation between these axes and (a) the log, (6) 2 flat-sawn board or rotary-cut veneer, and (c) an edge-grain board or quarter-sliced veneer. 2.01. Densiry or Arranexy Specie Gravrry, ‘The substance of which wood is composed is actually heavier than water, its specific gravity being nearly the same for all species and averaging about 1.5. Since a certain proportion of the volume of wood is occupied by cell cavities, the apparent specific gravity of the wood of most species is loss than unity. Relations between various strength properties and specific gravity have been developed (table 2-1) and are useful in estimating the strength of a piece of wood of known specific gravity Considerable variability from these general reln- tions is found, so that while they cannot be expected to givo exact strength values, they do give good estimates of strength. Minimum per- missible specific gravity values are listed in section 2.10. ‘The exponential values shown in table 2-1 apply to variation within a species, Thats, they are to be used in determining the relation between the strength properties of pieces of the same species but of different specific gravity. ‘For expressing the relation between the average strength proper ties of different species, the exponential values are somewhat lower. Such values are shown in table 14 of U. S. Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin 479 (ref. 2-87). 2.02. Morssure Conrenr. Wood in the natural state in the living tree has considerable water associated with it, After being converted to lumber or other usable form, or during conversion, 9‘poocuipd puv poo us euonsousp podsouriey “a-z aun YFEWNT MVID POOF LO YFININ OFHTS ALLOMIO(D Fuoysesip urns 10L eee ieee ee cr rc Pee eee wood is commonly dried so that most of the water is removed. The water is associated with the wood in two ways, either absorbed in the cell walls, or as free water in the cell cavities. During drying, the free water in the cell cavities is removed first, then that absorbed in the cell walls. The point at which all the water has been removed from the cell cavities while the cell walls remain saturated is Known as the fiber-saturation point. For most species, the moisture content at fiber saturation js from 22 to 30 percent of the weight of the dry wood. ‘Lowering the moisture content to the fiber- saturation point results in no changes in dimension or in strength properties. Lowering the moisture content below the fiber-saturation point, however, results in shrinkage and an increase in strength properties. Wood is a hygroscopic material, continually giv- ing off or taking on moisture in accordance with the relative humidity and temperature to which it is exposed. Thus, while the strength of a piece of wood may be increased to a relatively high value by drying to a low moisture content, some of that, increase may be lost if, in use, it is exposed to atmospheric conditions that tend to increase the moisture content. While paint and other coatings may be employed to retard the rate of absorption of moisture by wood, they do not change its hygro- scopic properties, thus & piece of wood may be expected to come to the same moisture content under the same exposure conditions whether painted or unpeinted. The time required will vary, depending upon whether or not it is coated. Ibis desirable, therefore, to design a structure on the basis of the strength corresponding to the con- ditions of use. ‘Moisture content is generally expressed as @ percentage of the dry weight~of the wood. The percentage variation of wood strength properties for 1 percent change in moisture content is given in table 2-2. Since this variation is an exponential function (ref. 2-85), it is necessary that strength adjustments based on the percentage changes given in the table be made successively for each 1 percent change in moisture content until the total change bas been covered. Figure 2-8 is a chart by means of which the ratio between the adjusted strength and the original strength may be deter- mined approximately if the proper correction factor is obtained from table 2-2 and the differ~ ence in moisture content for which correction is desired is known. For positive correction factors in table 2-2, the original strength is multiplied by the strength ratio factor determined from figure 2-8 for adjustments involving decresse in moisture content, and divided by the strength ratio factor for those involving increase in moisture content. For negative factors in table 2-2, the original strength is divided by the strength ratio factor for adjustments involving decreese in moisture, and multiplied for adjustments involving increase in moisture. Table 2-1. Variation of wood strength properties with pecific gravity Say s-@) S =strength at specific gravity g trength at specific gravity 9’ (usually average values from column (2) of tables 2-6 and 2-7) Statio bending: 5 Fiber stress st proportional limi ~ 1.50 Modulus of rupture 2 nso ‘Modulus of elasticity. 2 125 2 2.00 2.95 1.50 Modulus of elasticity. 1.25 Height of drop 2 2.00 Compression parallel to grain: Fiber stress a: proportional limi - 1.25 ‘Meximum crushing strength - 125 ‘Modulus of elasticity. 1.25 Compression perpendicular to grain: Fiber stress a: proportional limit. 2.50 Hardness—end, radial, tangential 2.50 * Volans inthis table spp only to variations witbin spaie. See ection 2.03! SariKacs. Reduction of moisture con- tent below the fiber-saturation point results in a change in dimension of the wood. Sbrinkage in the longitudinal direction is generally negligible, but in the other two directions it is considerable. Tn general, radial shrinkage is less than tangential, the ratio between the two varying with the species. ‘A quarter-sawed board will, therefore, shrink Jess in width but more in thickness then a fat- sawed board. The smaller the ratio of radial to tangential shrinkage, the more advantage is to be gained through minimizing shrinkage in width by "area ere Re eee eee eer eee Bree eee ERS Eo ee eae Pee using a quarter-sawed board. The smaller the difference between radial and tangential shrinkage, the less, ordinarily, is the tendeney to check in crying and to cup with char stnre con= vent. In general, woods of high specific gravity shrink ar 30 2g} 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 2) 20 19 18 1? STRENGTH RATIO 16 4s ht as 12 ary 10, 2 4 6 and swell more for a given change in moisture content than do woods of low specific gravity. 2.04, TemprraTure. The strength of wood is greatly influenced hy its temperature, but the magnitude of the effect depends upon the moisture content of the wood and the time of exposure. a 70 2 76 MOISTURE GONTENT DIFFERENCE (PERCENT) FOR WHICH CORRECTION 1S DESIRED Figure £-8, Strength ratio chart for use in making strengih-moisture adjustments, 12fe Table £2, Percentage increase in wood sirength properties for 1 percent decrease in moisture conten!) aoe Srciet Leer omen io ae | Sule benaing dete, | Neate, Compres orga: | Gompren | Searing tol, Sion per | sucngil | Wardness Work to | tation! | pendittr| ‘Forel | "Be mucin (Picea | fein sa | Se | oda I o © @ Hardwoods:* Ash, black ---—-. = es ‘Ash, commercial white. Basswood, Ameriean.. Beech, American. Bireh, eweet.. Bireh, yello Cherry, black. Cottantrooa. Elm, rock Hickory (true hickories)- Khaya (“African mahonany” Mahogany Maple, sugar. Oak, commercial white and Sweetgum- Walnut, black 1, Yellow-poplar Softwoods (conifers) :# Baldeypress.. Douglas-fir. Fir, noble Hemlock, western, Incense cedar, California. Pine, eastern white. Pine, red. Pine, sugar.. Pine, western white Redeedar, western. Spruce, red and Sitka. Sprace, white White-oedar, northern. White-cedar, Port Orford eee Me Hee eee care eee POOR PDR OOD AOD UL L 2 Fer ension vals ee artion 224, i 'gaeuar Although considerable literature exists relating to , permenent strength reductions resulting from pro- | Jonged or cyclic exposure to temperature extremes Gef. 2-46, 2-67, 2-84) few investigations have been made with respect to transient or reversible L effects resulting from differences in temperature (Gof. 2-2, 2-26, 2-28, 2-36, 2-58, 2-73, 2-76, it would appear from data now avail- prolonged exposure to temperatures Pepe ere eeo eee reer 8 4 6 0 2 0 1 3 Ree pe MAE ee pe eee as PRE Se wep I t I ee Soom bermesanaene POOR NRO PERM ENBEE BI 10 a4 Ls 24 10 Qe prsee a0 35 35 Lo a3 ' ere pe 1 ropes PEPE pee PRER ORR BEE Phere eee * Corrections othe siength properties should te made successively for each 3 perort dbange in moisture content ntl be toa ebange bas been covered, For ach) perro: deeraus in inoatare conn, we sirngt is mulipied by QP), where Pete peroeatage rection fio abowa i te table expressed ‘ass decimal, For ach | peeeatineveave in msiscure content, the srength is aivided by (+P) ‘Negative vaiesinaeate a dstreaee im wort to taximumn load for decane i molstre consent above about 150° F. may result in permanent, Joss of strength, and that within the range 0° F. to 150° F. the reduction in static strength proper- ties (excluding modulus of elasticity) with increase in temperature for wood at about 12 percent moisture content, will approximate one-half per- cent per degree Fahrenheit. ‘The effect on impact properties is variable and cannot be generalized. Some data on the mechenieal properties of wood of different moisture contents over the tempera- 13i auzant BREE eee ture range of —328° F. to +392° F, are given in NACA Technical Memorandum No. 984, refer- ence 9-87. 2.05, Fariave Properties. The fatigue char- acteristies of wood have been explored to only a limited extent (ref. 2-38, 2-39, 2-41). Tests of the Forest, Products Latioratory indicate that wood is less sensitive to rapidly repeated Joads than are the more crystalline structural materials, re- sulting in a higher endurance limit in proportion to the ultimate strength. Tension parallel-to- grain and glue joint shear tests of Douglas-fir and white oak, and tension perpendicular-to-grain tests of Douglas-fir showed an endurance load for 30 million cycles of about 40 percent of standard test strength for both solid wood and scarf- jointed specimens when the minimum repeated load was 10 percent of the maximum repeated load for each cycle. These tests were conducted ‘at about 12 pereent moisture content, at a tem- perature of 75° F. ‘Tests of small cantilever bending specimens of solid wood and plywood, subjected to fully re- versed stresses under the same temperature- humidity conditions as above, indicate an endur- ance load of about 30 percent of the modulus of rupture of standard static tests after 30 million cycles of repeated stress. Very little data are available on the effects of notches, bolt holes, or connectors in fatigue. Some data on the effect of notches on fatigue properties of rotating beam specimens are given in reference 2-87. 2.06. Puastic Properties. Though it is known that wood, in common with other materials of con- struction, exhibits plastic as well as elastie proper- ties, quantitative evaluations of the plestic char- acteristics of wood are limited in scope (ref. 2-34). Thus, while recognizing that when load is applied to 2 wood structural member the immediate or elastic deformation subsequently will be increased by plastic yield or creep, there is, at present, no accurate means of evaluating the rate of progress of such plastic yield, nor of predicting the time at which failure may be expected to oceur. Preliminary investigations at the Forest Prod- ucts Laboratory (ref. 2-66, 2-86) involve creep tests with stresses up to 3,000 pounds per square inch in tension and compression, up to 400 pounds per square inch in shear, and at stress levels ap- proaching the short-time ultimate strength in bending. They indicate creep characteristics very 14 much alike in these strength properties at the lower stress levels. ‘There is reason to believe that creep properties differ between tension and compression as stress values approach the short-time ultimate strength in compression, but the difference has not been fully explored. From these considerations, supported by a few test results, it is believed that joints and fastenings have similar creep properties insofar as their strength is controlled by the strength of the wood. It is evident from the studies thus far completed that creep under constant load is quite rapid at first, and continues for long periods at a decreasing rate, depending upon the ratio of the applied load to that which would cause immedinte failure. No critical point in time has been found at which the rate of creep suddenly changes or at which all creep ceases. Neither has there been found a stress threshold below which no creep takes place. ‘The studies in bending and compression have indicated that with stresses at, or less than, 60 per- cent of the strength in a standard laboratory test, the ratio of creep to initial strain is approximatel constant. Since strain in this range is propor: tional to stress, it may be said that creep is pro- portional to stress. Both in compression and bending, creep at 5 minutes is generally less than 2 percent, and at 1 hour is about 4 percent of the initial strain or deflection. Where stresses in bending exceed 60 percent of laboratory test strength, creep percentages are higher than the above values. It is known that temperature and moisture changes influence plastic properties, but the extent of such effects is not known, When load is removed from wood, the elastic strain is recovered immediately. There is, in addition, 2 recovery of a portion of the plastic strain, relatively rapid at first, and continuing more and more slowly for considerable periods of time. Little is known of the nature and extent of recovery, or of permanent set characteristics, hysteresis, or damping capacity (see sec. 2.095) In bending, successive repetitions of the same Toad separated by periods of recovery cause successively increased deformations which finally Jead to failure. From data now available it appears that the sum of the periods under inter- mittent load, until failure oceurs, is somewhat greater than the duration to failure under constant load at the same stress level. 2.07. Lupacr Puopestres. ‘The rate at whichload is applied to a wood member, as well as the time during which it acts, has an important effect on its ability to carry load (secs. 2.06 and 2.10). ‘Under extremely rapid loading conditions, such as are obtained in impact tests where failure may occur in a fraction of 2 second, 2 wood member would be expected to withstand a force much greater than in a standard test. Exact relation- ships of failing stresses under static and impact loadings are not well known as, in impact tests, measurement is generally made of the absorbed energy rather than the stress imposed. A beam subjected to impact loading in the standard drop hammer impact bending test (ref. 2-57) may deflect about twice as much before failure as under static test conditions. ‘The stress, required to produce failure under such impact conditions is, therefore, correspondingly, about twice as great as for static conditions. ‘The shock resistance of wood may be measured by a single-blow impact test such as the “tough- ness” test described in USDA Tech. Bul. 479 (ref, 2-57) where average toughness values for common species are listed, together with minimum acceptance requirements for a number of aircraft woods. Recent data of the Forest Produets Laboratory (ref. 2-10, 2-14) show that the toughness of wood is considerably influenced by its moisture content. Above the fiber-saturation point, approximately 30 percent moisture content, toughness is appar- ently independent of changes in moisture. For drier material the toughness, in general, decreases slowly from the green value to a minimum at about 12 to 18 percent moisture content, and then inereases substantially with further decrease in moisture. These conclusions are in general agree ment with extensive toughness and Izod tests by the Australian Forest Products Laboratory (cef. 2-35) but it has been found that results vary greatly among species, and no adequate general formule can be devised to represent toughness- moisture relations for all species. 2.08. Erect or Liquips. Some liquids, when absorbed by wood, adversely affect the strength properties, others do not. In general, nonpolar, nonswelling liquids that do not react with wood chemically do not affect the strength (ref. 219). For example, saturated, straight-chain hydro- carbon oils, such as gasoline, kerosene, and most lubricating oils, and aromatic bydrocarbons, sueh as benzene and toluene, have no significant effect on the strength of wood and they do not raise the grain. ‘Turpentine, mineral paint thinners, and linseed oil will by analogy cause practically no effect upon the strength properties nor will cleaning fluids such as carbon tetrachloride. Low molecular-weight, simple alcohols such as methyl (wood alcohol), ethyl (grain alcohol), and propyl alcohol and polybydrie aleohols such as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) and glycerine swell wood appreciably and cause a considerable loss in strength properties, varying from half to almost the full strength loss caused by water. In general, the crushing strength is decreased somewhat loss than it would be if swollen to the same extent in water (ref. 2-19, 2-60). Lacquer solvents, such as acetone, methyl and ethyl acetates, and ethylone glycol monoethyl ether will reduce the strength about half as much as water. Low molecular-weight orgenie acids, such as acetic acid, will reduce the strength about three- fourths us much as water, ‘The high molecular- weight fatty acids will have a much smaller but positive effect. ‘These various liquids reduce the strength of wood only while they remain in the wood. Vola- tile liquids, hence, have only a short, temporary effect upon the strength. Low volatility liquids like glycerine will reduce the strength over con- siderable periods of time. These are apparently the only liquids with which the aircraft industry need be concerned. Some hydraulic fluids con- taining glycerine or ethylene glycol have an experimentally demonstrated. detrimental effect upon the strength of wood (ref. 2-11). Another group of liquids, strong mineral acids and bases, have @ permanent effect upon the strength of woods as a result of chemical de- gradation of the wood. This degradation varies with species. ‘The only comprehensive data available on the subject are given in the tables 2-3 and 2-4. 2.09, Misczntanxous Paysicau Prorertigs. 2.091, Coafficient of expansion. ‘The isotropic nature of wood results in differing coefficients of thermal expansion (a) along its radial, tangential, and fiber axes. ‘This anisotropy, modified by the treatments involved, remains basic property of all the derived structural products of wood, in which the fiber arrangement is not destroyed. ‘The thermal expansion of wood is so small as to 15Pe Ne ee ee teers Er eee em eee Ee ae L- Table £-8. Deterioration. due lo four weeks soaking in acide and bases al room temperature measured by the modulus of rupture relative to that for matched waler-soaked specimens. Concentrations, $ t0 10 percent (ref. £88) T 7 Bydroebonic acid | +1, 08-0. 81 1.08.84) 1. 00-82 | 06-155 93-52 8848 | suiforte acid Niorleseld | Sodium hydroxide auez00| 1.070. 1, 06-0. 92 2 13-0.8¢) 4 07 100-79 1.02 98 288. 98-75, 97 187 £83 or 43 19782 83 65-36 18% 81) 76 61-83, 2 Values arent han unity ae wo thet Table 2-4 1 aid ts or slowly absorbed br the wood than water Loss in breaking load in percent due to soaking in acids at room temperature relative to matched water-soaked specimens (ref. 2-1) | ydrgghlarie ais Asti oct ‘Baste a specie ; —— Syme | speomt | opment | seoccent | sonnet | wpm coil | ometstston | conctatrtn | aeatesthn | ection | eameitrtina oo fae | IL Perr Pont ‘ren Point Prot | Poet a1 | 50 1| 31 30 34 76 48 | 40 26 18 46 | nt 18 ° | | | be unimportant in ordinary usage, for example, Ten 7 1 percent increase in moisture content swells pasa | Se Pe yellow birch as much as does an 80° C. thermal Bap eeu expansion. Only meager data are available on oon aoe the coefficients of thermal expansion of wood and gee Maple. “es { 353] 268 wood-base materials, and investigators are not in Yelion-peplay 43| 207] 278 close agreement in their values although there is 43) a26| 232 general agreement thet the expansion across the far] sma] s163 grain is much greater than that along the grain fb ett tere Sitks spruce a} 925) 238 (ref. 2-20). : 40} 26) 218 ‘A comprehensive study of the thermal expansion 42 |-as1| 236 of wood and wood-base products has been com- pleted recently at the Forest Products Laboratory, and the results have been published (ref. 2-82). In this work the variation of the coefficients of linear thermal expansion with specific gravity was determined on a series of solid, oven-dry specimens of 9 different species of untreated wood. The effects of radial compression, resin-treating, and cross-banding on the values of the coefficients were determined on birch laminates. ‘The values of the coefficients for papreg and hydrolyzed-wood plastic were also determined. The average coefficients of linear thermal expansion (a) per ° C. of nine species of solid wood (ref. 2-82) from +50 to —50° C. for the average specific gravity of the species are given in the following tabulation: 16 1 Average specie pravity (bases on weight and volume when oven Ar) soken fom tables of properties te U. & D. A. Teth, Bally No. 8 (ot flor spenimens incident S20 = tpecite pavity average of values fr tio specimens tested. Se masated from =F 10 08 C. only ‘The coefficients of linear thermal expansion in the tangential (a,) and radial directions (a,) may be ealeulated for specific gravities other than those tabulated by use of the following equation: ame G @ where ec=coofficiont of linear thermal expansion (a, or @,) at specifie gravity @mo Oa Se eee reer Perera eer e eee te eee ee coefficient of linear thermal expansion (c oF a) listed G=specifie g G==pecific gravity desired The coefficient of linear thermal cxpar parallel to the grain (al) is independent of specific gravity, and is unaffected by radial or tangential compression ‘The dependency of the coefficient of linear thermal expansion on resin content in a solid piece is expressed by ‘ion (2:2) where a=coefficient of linear thermal expansion (a) of the wood-resin system ay==ot wood alone of resin alone. E=-modulus of elasticity (subscripts have the same meaning 8s for a) action of solid cross-section of sample consisting of resin ne General formulas were developed at the Forest Products Laboratory that permit calculation of the coefficients of linear thermal expansion of wood laminates in any grain direction of the specimen, from the original and final specific gravities, the percentage by weight of renin and glue present, the ‘percentage of cross-banding, and the slope of grain. relative to any three axes of reference. Solution of the formulas, however, should be attempted only after reference to the original publication (ref. 2-82) 2.092, Thermal conductivity. ‘The thermal con ductivity of wood is dependent on a number of factors of varying degrees of importance. Some of the more significant variables affecting the rate of heut flow in wood are the following: density and moisture content of the wood; direction of heat flow with respect to the grain; kind, quantity, and distribution of extractives or chemical substances; relative density and proportion of springwood and summerwood; defects, like checks, knots, and erose-grain structure. ‘The Forest Products Laboratory has made careful determinations of the thermal conductiv- ity of wood at various moisture contents. These tests, which covered 32 species, have furnished sufficient data on the relationship between con- ductivity, specific gravity, and moisture content to make it possible to compute the approximate thermal conductivity for any wood for which the specific gravity is known and for which the mois- ture content can be determined or assumed. Such conductivities have many practical applica- tions, such as in estimating the thermal resistance or insulating value of various woods; thermal resistance being the reciprocal or inverse value of conductivity. Ir is common engineering practice to express heat conductivity, represented by K, as the amount of heat in British thermal units that will pass in 1 hour through 1 square foot of the material 1 inch thick per degree Fahrenheit temperature difference between the faces. ‘Although it is not practicable (ref. 2-45) to compute the exact conductivity of wood of given density and moisture content because of the num- ber of variables involved, the following equations permit calculation of conductivity closely enough for practical purposes: For wood having a moisture content under 40 percent: K=S(1.39-+0.028M) +0.165 (23) For wood having a moisture content of 40 percent or more: K=S(1.39+0.088M) +0105 (24) Where K=conduetivity ‘Sespecific gravity based on volume at current moisture and weight when oven-dry M=moisture content Conductivities of wood aircraft parts will ordi- narily be computed by means of equation (2:3) using 15 percent for the moisture content of air- craft to be used in the continental United States and 20 percent for the moisture content of air- craft to be used under tropical conditions (sec. 2.10). The use of species average values of specific gravity may be considered sufficiently correct for most purposes. Experiments on Dougles-fir plywood with veneer Y-inch or more in thickness (ref. 2-45) indicate that the thin film of glue between the wood surfaces has no important effect on con- ductivity, as would be expected, because of the very slight thickness of the glue coating in com- parison with the total thickness. 7ee Sree eee eee ere eee eee eee Pe eee eee ee Pee ee Tests (ref. 2-45) indicate there is a small in- crease in conductivity with increase in tempera- ture difference but, for temperature conditions normally encountered, the veriation in conduc- tivity is not significant. 2.098. Ignition temperature. Limited data are available concerning minimum temperatures re- quired to produce charring or ignition of wood. Results obtained by different investigators for ignition temperatures show wide discrepancies ‘The different values reported may be due to the specific test conditions essociated with the methods employed, and also to the different inter- pretations among investigators as to what con- stitutes ignition temperature (ref. 2-4). As- suming conditions favorable to the completion of the ignition process, the ignition temperature has been defined (ref. 2-4) as the temperature in the combustible at which the rate of heat de- veloped by the reactions inducing ignition just exceeds the rate at which heat is dissipated by all causes, under the given conditions. It is thus obvious that, unlike flammable liquids, which have reasonably definite ignition tempera- tures, the ignition temperature of wood, even if standard interpretation of the phenomenon were determined upon, would vary widely depending upon the size, density, moisture content, and type, distribution, and quantity of extractives present in the specimen under test, snd upon the time and rate of heating, the amount of air available, and the rate of air flow. ‘The importance of the time factor has been em- phasized by the Forest Products Laboratory (ref. 2-49) but no specific tests have been made relating Jgnition temperatures to long exposures at the lower ranges of elevated temperature. The Un- derwriters’ Laboratories (ref. 2-80) have cited an example of ignition occurring efter long-continued exposure (about 15 yrs.) toa temperature of ap- proximately 190° F. 2.094, Electrical properties. 'The resistance that wood offers to the passage of direct current depends primarily upon the moisture content of the wood (ref. 2-72). In the green state the resistivity of wood is relatively low and increases slowly with decrease in moisture until the fiber-saturation point is reached at about 30 percent moisture content, and all free water has been removed. The change of resistivity within the green range is about. 50- fold. When wood is died below the fiber-saturn- tion point, however, its resistivity increases rapidly, about a million-fold from the fiber-satura- 18 tion point to the oven dry condition, The log- arithm of resistivity is approximately inversely proportional to moisture content. At values of moisture content appronching zero the resistivity becomes very great, of the order of 10" ohm-centi- meters (ref. 2-83), and dry wood is a very good electrical insulator. In conditions of use, however, wood will not remain dry, but will absorb moisture ‘until it reaches a condition of equilibrium corre- sponding with the ambient atmosphere. ‘The resistivity of wood at a typical moisture content of 9.3 percent is 10" ohm-centimeters. ‘When alternating voltage is applied to wood the effects depend upon both moisture content and frequeney, At frequencies up to a few hundred cycles per second the behavior of wood is prac- tically the same as for direct currents. At much higher frequencies, from o million cycles per second upward, the electrical properties of wood are essentially its properties when acting as e dielectric material. In this role it is interposed between two metallic plates or sheets to form a condenser. Wood is an imperfect dielectric and, therefore, some of the electrical energy required to, charge the condenser will be lost to the wood where it appears as heat. ‘Losses in the wood depend principally upon its moisture content and the frequency of the applied voltage, and the losses increase with both moisture content, especially above about 10 percent, and frequency. Wood is a very poor insulator or di- electric at high frequencies. ‘The alternating cur- rent electrical properties of wood are concerned principally with high-frequency dielectric heating for gluing purposes (ref. 2-5, 2-74). 2.095. Damping capacity, Damping capacity may be defined as the ability of « solid to convert mechanical energy of vibration into internal energy. This causes vibrations to die out. Pub- lished information on the subject (ref. 2-33) is mainly concerned with metals, and only occasional references are made to wood. , ‘The damping capacity of timber hes been in- vestigated by Greenhill (ref, 2-29). His investi- gations indicate that “if a truly elastic material is subjected to a cycle of stress, the stress-strain curve will bea straight line. If, however, the ma- terial undergoes reversible plastic deformation during the cycle, ihe stress-strain curve will be a hysteresis loop. The area enclosed by this loop represents the amount of energy expended during each complete stress cycle. Specimens subjected to eycles of stress below the fatigue limit can dis-U U L L U L L L eee eee eee sipate an unlimited quantity of energy as heat, without any damage. “When a solid is subjected to a periodic force, the damping capacity prevents the amplitude of vibration from becoming infinite when the fre- quency of the applied force approaches a natural, froquency of the solid. Damping capacity is of considerable importance in certain branches of engineering and, consistent with other prop- erties, it is generally agreed that materials of high damping capacity are superior to those of low damping capacity, Take, for example, the wings of aeroplanes. Under certain circum- stances these are subject to resonant vibrations, the amplitude of which depends essentially n the damping properties of the materials of con- struction, ‘The same thing applies with special, force to the blades of aeroplane propellers which are linble to vibrate violently at certain critical speeds of rotation. ‘The amplitudes of vibra- tion are great or small according to the material of which the blades are made. It is stated by experts that the endurance of the blades de- pends far more on the damping capacity of the material than on its fatigue strength.” Damping capacity has been expressed numer- ically in various ways. Greenhill and Kimball (ref. 2-29, 2-38) have used logarithmic decrement (8), and Kimbell has summarized various formulas used by different investigators for determination of this factor. Briefly, if AW is the energy dis- sipated per cycle of vibration, and W’ the maxi- mum energy of the cycle, the ratio AW/IV, called the “specific energy loss” or the ‘damping ca- pacity,” gives a measure of the damping charae- teristics of the material. ‘The logarithmic decre- mont 4 is equal to one-helf the damping capacity, or AWW. Values of the logarithmic decrement 4 for wood and a few other materials are given in table 2-5. Toble 2-5. Damping capacity—togarithmic decrements (8) for internal friction in solids Tevestigntor | Forest Produets Laboratory. Compreg—Yellow bireh, 40. = Greenhill (Ref. 2-28) - Kimball and Lovell (Ref. 2-33). A. Gemant. W. Jackson (Ref. 2-53) - Material Compreg—Yellow birch, low-impact type esc | pir | A | areata] a, yh =] Compression..--| jaguanaatcal| Flesure Compresion-_| | Revolving defi. -Pe Ee ee ete re eee PRE eee RE Heer ee ee eee ee eee Data other than those from Greenhill and the Forest Products Laboratory are from » compila- tion included in reference 2-33. Greenhill (ref. 2-29) found that the effect. of increasing the moisture content of wood is to in- erease its damping capacity, the relation being practically linear within the range of 8 to19 pereent moisture content examined. Upon removal of stress, full recovery of strain does not take place in most materials even though the stress imposed may be less than that corre- sponding to the apparent elastic limit of the ma- terial. Tests at the Forest Products Laboratory have shown that, with a compression load epplied repeatedly to a specimen of papreg, the set. or permanent deformation was increased, but the amount of set added for each load cycle diminished A straight-line relationship was found when ac- cumulative permanent set was plotted on an arithmetical scale against the number of load cycles plotted on a logarithmic scale, It was found thet the higher the load, the greater was the permanent set after the first and all succeeding load cycles. 2.1, Basic Strength and Elastic Properties of Wood 2.10. Desien Vazurs, Tapizs 2-6 anv 2-7. Strength properties of various species for use in caleulating the strength of sireraft elements are presented in tables 2-6 and 2-7. Their applica- bility to the purpose is considered to have been substentiated by experience. The assumptions (See footnotes to tables 2-6 and 2-7) made in deriving the values in tables 2-6 and 2-7 from the results of standard tests (sec. 2.12) have been reexamined in the light of recent. data with respect to the distribution of strength values in wood for aireraft construction and the moisture content of airplane parts, together with data relating to “duration of stress” in order to clarify the basis of design (ref. 2-12, 2-13). ‘The values in table 2-6 are based on a moisture content of 15 percent and are considered applicable for design of structural parts of sireraft that are to be used in the continental United States. Values in table 2-7 sre based on a moisture con- tent of 20 percent and should be used for design of structural parts of aircraft to be used under tropical conditions where high relative humidity, approximately 90 percent or over, is prevalent. 20 for long periods of time, or more or less. con tinuously. ‘When tests of physical properties are made on additional species or on specially selected wood the results may be made comparable to those in tables 2~6 and 2-7 by adjusting them to 15 or 20 percent moisture content. respectively, in accord ance with table 2-2, together with the approp:inte use of the factors described in the footnotes to tables 2-6 and 2-7. For notes on acceptable procedures for static tests and the correction of test results, see sections 2.12 and 3.01 2.100. Supplemental notes, 2.1000. Compression perpendicular to grain ‘Wood does not exhibit a definite ultimate strength in compression perpendicular to the grain, par ticularly when the load is applied over only » part of the surface, as it is by fittings. Beyond the proportional limit the load continues to increase slowly until the deformation becomes several times as great as at the proportional limit and the crushing is so severe as to damage the wood seriously in other properties. A “probability factor was applied to average values of stress at proportional limit to take account of variability, and the result, was increased by 50 percent to get design values comparable to those for bending, compression parallel to grain, and shear as shown in tables 2-6 and 2 2.1001. Compression parallel to grain. Avail- able data indicate thet the proportional limit for hardwoods is about 75 percent and for soft- woods about 80 percent of the maximum crushing strength. Accordingly, design values for fiber stress at proportional limit were obtained by multi- plying maximum crushing-strength values by a factor of 0.75 for hardwoods and 0.80 for soft- woods, and adjusting for a difference in the factors for the “rate and duration of load.” 2.11. Nores on Tar Use or Vans iw Tanuzs 2-6 anp 2-7. 1 2.110, Relation of design values in tables 2-6 and 2-7 to slope of grain. The values given in tables 2-6 and 2-7 apply for grein slopes as steep as the following: (a) For compression parallel to grain—1 in 12, (®) For bending and for tension parallel to grain—1 in 15, When materiel is used in which the steepest, grain slope is steeper than the above limite, the design values of tables 2-6 and 2-7 must be reduced according to the percentages in table 2-8.“tWVs woes 28g “ema j0 tego os roa fo aoa) era oa orued uN wea SEA ee eee eee ee eee ea 5) oarpnes suapounncia 40f 118 19 O1'e MOHD u2}uod sinysiow: Wwsa9d G1 NO pIEDg “epoom enorina Jo vonzon YAPuOAS—"O~& 190A; porto" 51-2 PE Eee EEE Eee et eee etaon joe jae jae « |® eh i cs oy a o wt & we oe « ae a |i fas = iw a Blo fee: fue a | meee 7 z oe fo « |e i ex few «|e 5 ws [fee = |e : fae = |e if on | awe ele : orf foo fous for «|e ov {Efe fom |e 2 |e or FB few fom face «|» oe Elo fou Jaw «fe ve] og [ime Th [te = le a | g fee fos fae = |s out i ou 08g 80 “ we Ve a « |e 7 og ow fo etre & |» on] Jone oo Ye ih oft fon los foe « Hog] E ta | rea | [Ma [Meu [Stew “y 22 BSE eee eee Cee ee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee ete tet ee eee eee23 PEE Cee eC eiEeeeeme ete ESE mre EREarmanayesrrapon fons? SESE eee emt umjptowe puo2s0d gg uo porng epooat SEER eee Pe teem eee cme eee ere Eteso coyn ua 0 aresad gisoans Moos, | L L zm = fa o 8 a & 25or wr pes | ang ert Bete animes, snot ago Baud se posts ues Sou) 64) WADI 5 ye undead ype ao) pouruanp asa stom Cl-t 'g PACT HRY) eon Ase 8 abn AN 012098) 00 V (0 sie omy esl poe se paioysico 8 wads oyun ome SA, bad 9 o> vaogoat 1 WIS WOE SALONLOOL J wy Ly HERERO eee eee tee Cee ee eee eee eee eee emia et ie: aaaa Re eee Ree eee eee ee [ 2.111. Tension parallel to grain. Relatively few data are available on the tensile strength of various species parallel to grain. In the absence of sufi- cient tensile-test data upon which to base tension design values, the values used in design for modu- lus of rupture are used also for tension. While it is recognized that this is somewhat conservative, the pronounced effect of stress concentration, slope of grain (table 2-8) and other factors upon tensile strength makes the use of conservative values desirable, Pending further investigation of the effects of stress concentration at bolt holes, it is recom- mended that the stress in the area remaining to resist. tension at the critical section through a bolt hole not exceed two-thirds the modulus of rupture in static bending when cross-banded rein- forcing plates are used; otherwise one-half the modulus of rupture shall not be exceeded. 2.112. Tension perpendicular to grain. Values of strength of various species in tension perpen- dicular to grain have been included for use as a guide in estimating the adequacy of glued joints subjected to such stresses. For example, the joints between the upper wing skin and wing framework are subjected to tensile stresses per- pendicular to the grain by reason of the lift forces exerted on the upper skin surface. Caution must be exercised in the use of these ‘values, since little experience is available to serve as a guide in relating these design values to the average property. Considering the variability of this property, however, the possible discontinuity or lack of uniformity of glue joints, and the proba- ble concentration of stress along the edges of such joints, the average test values for each species have been multiplied by a factor of 0.5 to obtain the values given in tables 2-6 and Table 2-8. Reduction in wood strength for various grain Hopes Coresponding design vale, pecwat of valu in tabi 2-6 semowene | Sopa | anon : 7 | parla | Bite Modulus | Medulas wee | tener | Maximum | Mouton ee ty | “crashing of | Sean | rate 100 100} 100 |. 98) 8B) 87; 78) 60 8 | 67 | a 94 2.12, Sraxpanp Test Paocepunes. 2.120. Static bending. In the statie-bending test, the resistance of a beam to slowly applied londs is measured. The beam is 2 by 2 inches in cross section and 30 inches long and is supported on roller bearings which rest on knife edges 2S inches apart. Lond is applied at the center of the length through a hard maple block 3%. inches wide, having a compound curvature. ‘The curva. ture has @ radius of 8 inches over the central 2 inches of are, and is joined by an are of 2-inch radius on each side. ‘The standard placement is with the annual rings of the specimen horizontal and the loading block bearing on the side of the piece nearest the pith. A constant rate of deflec~ tion (0.1 inch per minute) is maintained until the specimen fails. Lond and deflection are read simultaneously at suitable intervals. Figure 2-4 (a) shows a statie-bending test set-up, and typical load-deflection curves for Sitka spruce and yellow birch. Date on @ number of properties are obtained from this test. These are discussed as follows 2.1200. Modulus of elasticity (Ex). ‘The modulus of elasticity is determined from the slope of the straight line portion of the graph, the steeper the line, the higher being the modulus. Modulus of elasticity is computed by m= Pe Pe (2:5) 485,145,685 ‘The standard static bending test is made under such conditions that shear deformations are responsible for epproximately 10 percent of the deflection. Values of E; from tests made under such conditions and calculated by the formula shown do not, therefore, represent the true modulus of elasticity of the material, but an “apparent” modulus of elasticity. ‘The use of these values of apparent modulus of clasticity in the usual formulas will give the de- flection of simple beams of ordinary length with but little error. For I- and box beams, where more exact computations are desired, and formulas are used that take into account the effect of shear deformations, a “true” value of the modulus of clasticity is necessary and may be had by adding 10 percent to the values in tables 2-6 and 2 2.1201. Fiber stress at proportional limit (F,p) The plotted points from which the early portions of the curves of figure 2~4 (a) were drawn lie approximately on a straight line, showing that the 27A rae e umnadt Pe ee ee eee ee ee eae deflection is proportional to the load. As the test progresses however, this proportionality between load and deflection ceases to exist. The Loan (eounos) “PROPORTIONAL Mir L040 (Pouns) DEFLECTION (INCHES) (a) STATIC. BENDING s) 2:19) ‘Twisting failure (torsionally weak columns) r= 0.044 Ey (j) psi (when 4 >s) 2:20) When the width-thickness ratio (6/t) of the outstanding flange is less than the values noted, the column formulas of section 2.20 should be used. Failure duo to local buckling or twisting can occur only when the critical stress for these types of failure is less than the stress required to cause primary failure. For unconventional shapes, tests should be conducted to determine suitable column curves (ref. 2~79). 2.22. Larenat Bucxtine. When subjected to axial compressive loads, beams will act as columns tending to fail through lateral buckling. The usual column formulas (2:17 and 2:18) w: apply except that when two beams are intercon nected by ribs so that they will deflect together (eterally), the total end load carried by both beams will be the sum of the critical end loads for the individual beams. ‘The column lengths will usually be the length of a drag bay in a conventional wing. A restraintce PSS eee See eee ee eee Fe 7 ALLOWABLE COLUMEY STRESS (P.5.1) zi WESTERN HEMLOCK | "7 ORFORD WHITE =CEDER 1 LE FR Nt aoe Beet YELLOW-POPLAR \ «e0-—}—ot Neate, \ write Pe 3000 ; i | WESTER HEMLOCK sas FR i YELLoW- Pape AR ae SASTERN WHITE PINE 20 7 0 @ cd % 35Ree eee tee ee eee eee eee coefficient of 1.0 will be applicable unless the con- struction is such that additional restraint is afforded by the leading edge or similar parts. Certain rules for such conditions will be found in. the requirements of the certificating or procuring agencies. 2.3. Beams 2.30. Form Facrors. When other than solid rectangular cross sections are used for beams (i-beams or box beams), the static-bending strength properties given in table 2-6 must be multiplied by a “form factor” for design purposes, ‘This form factor is the ratio of either the fiber stress at proportional limit or the modulus of rupture (in bending) of the particular section to the same property of standard 2-inch square specimen of that material. ‘The proportional limit form factor (FF,) is given by the formula: FF,=0.58-+042(K ey (2:21) and the modulus of rupture form factor (FF,) by the formula: FF, 50+0.50 (K where total web thickness total flange width (including any web(s)) K =constant obtained from figure 2-7 Formulas 2:21 and 2:22 cannot be used to de- termine the form factors of sections in which the top and bottom edges of the beam are not. per- pendicular to the vertical axis of the beam. In such cases, it is first necessary to convert the section to an equivalent section whose height equals the mean height of the original section, and whose width and flange areas equal those of the original section, as shown in figure 2-7. The fact that the two beams of each pair shown in figure 2-7 developed practically the seme maxi- mum load in test demonstrates the validity of this conversion (ref. 2-66 and 2-62). Tests heve indicated that the modulus of rupture which can be developed by a beam of rectangular cross section decreases with the height. Sufficient data are not available to permit exact. evaluation of the reduction as the height increases, but where deep beams of rectangular cross soc- tion ere to be used, thought should be given to the 36 reduction of the value for modulus of rupture given ip tables 2-6 and 2.31. Tonstowat Inszaprurry. It is possible for deep thin beams to fail through torsional instability at loads less than those indicated by the usual beam formule. Reference 2-63 gives formulas for calculating the strength of such beams for various conditions of end restraint. However, in view of the difficulty of accurately evaluating the modulus of rigidity and end fixity, iv is always advisable to conduct static tests of a typical specimen. This will apply to cases in which the ratio of the moment of inertia about the horizontal axis to the moment of inertia about. the vertical axis exceeds approximately 25 (ref. 2-62 and 2-63) 2.32. Comzrnep Loapinas. 2.320. General. Because of the variation of the strength properties of wood with the direction of loading with respect to the grain, no general rules for combined loadings can be presented, other than those for combined bending snd compression given in section 2.21, and those for combined bending and tension given in section 2.322. When unusual loading combinations exist,’ static tests should be conducted to determine the de- sired information, 2.821. Bending and compression. When sub- jected to combined bending and compression, the allowable stress for spruce, Western hemlock, and noble fir beams at 15 percent moisture content can be determined from figure 2-8 and that for Douglas-fir beams from figure 2-9. The charts are based on @ method of analysis developed by the Forest Products Laboratory (ref. 2-63 and 2-78) ‘The curves of figures 2-8 and 2-9 are based on the use of a fourth-power parabola for columns of intermediate length. On these figures the hoi zontal family of curves indicates the proportional limit under combined bending and compression; the vertical family, the effect of various slenderness ratios on bending. The allowable stress, Fy, under combined load is found as follows: (2) For the cross section of a given beam, find the proportional limit in bending and the modulus of rupture from the ratios of compression-flange thickness to total depth and of web thiekness to total width, locating such points as A and B. (2) Project points 4 and B to the central line, obtaining such points as C and D.