Flow through

UNIT 4 FLOW THROUGH MOUTHPIECES Mouthpieces and

Minor Losses
AND MINOR LOSSES
Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives

4.2 External Mouthpiece

4.3 Internal Mouthpiece
4.4 Internal Mouthpiece Running Free
4.5 Internal Mouthpiece Running Full
4.6 Convergent Mouthpiece
4.7 Minor Losses
4.8 Loss of Head due to Sudden Enlargement in a Pipe
4.9 Loss of Head due to Sudden Contraction
4.10 Loss of Head at Entrance to Pipe
4.11 Loss of Head at Exit
4.12 Loss of Head due to Obstruction
4.13 Loss of Head at Bends
4.14 Loss of Head in Pipe Fittings
4.15 Measurement of Discharge through an Open Channel by a Weir, a
Notch or a Venturi Flume
4.16 Summary
4.17 Answers to SAQs

4.1 INTRODUCTION
An orifice with prolonged sides is called a mouthpiece or tube. In other words, a
mouthpiece is an attachment in the form of a small tube fixed to an orifice. When
the tube is fixed externally, it is known as an external mouthpiece. If it is fixed
internally (i.e. if it projects inside the vessel), it is called an internal mouthpiece.
Depending on the shape, a mouthpiece can be cylindrical, convergent, divergent,
convergent-divergent, or of any other form.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• identify the different types of mouthpiece, e.g. external and internal
mouthpiece, and
• describe and calculate the loss of head due to shock, e.g. sudden
enlargement, sudden contraction, entrance and exit, obstruction and
bends, etc.

107
Fluid Mechanics
4.2 EXTERNAL MOUTHPIECE
An external mouthpiece consists of a small tube attached to the vessel such that it
projects outside. Figure 4.1 shows a tank to which an external mouthpiece of
internal diameter ‘d ’ is attached. Let the head over the axis of the mouthpiece be
‘H ’. If the length of the mouthpiece is more than 2.5d to 3d, the jet after passing
through the venacontracta expands and fills the tube. When the jet leaves the
tube, it occupies the complete cross-section of the tube and the tube runs full.
Taking datum through the axis of the mouthpiece, and applying Bernoulli’s
equation to points 1 and 3,
pa p V2
+ H = a + 3 + HL . . . (a)
γ γ 2g

where pa is the atmospheric pressure. (For mouthpieces, it is convenient to work

in absolute pressures and not in the gauge pressures. The absolute pressure is
measured with respect to complete vacuum.)

Datum
2 3

Figure 4.1 : Cylindrical Mouthpiece

HL = loss of head due to sudden enlargement (see Section 4.8)
(V2 − V3 ) 2
HL =
2g

There is practically no loss of head between points 1 and 2, as the streamlines are
converging and the flow is accelerating.
If ‘a’ is the cross-sectional area of the mouthpiece, a2 = Cc a
From the continuity equation,
V2 a2 = V3 a3 = V3 a

V
or V2 Cc a = V3 a or V2 = 3
Cc
2 2
⎛V ⎞ 1 V2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Thus, H L = ⎜⎜ 3 − V3 ⎟⎟ × = 3 ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
⎝ Cc ⎠ 2g 2g ⎝ Cc ⎠
If Cc = 0.62,
2
V32 ⎛ 1 ⎞ V2
HL = ⎜ − 1⎟ = 0.375 3
2 g ⎝ 0.62 ⎠ 2g
108
Substituting this value of HL in Eq. (a), Flow through
Mouthpieces and
V32 V2 V2 Minor Losses
H = + 0.375 3 = 1.375 3
2g 2g 2g

1
or V3 = 2 gH
1.375

or V3 = 0.853 2 gH . . . (b)
Eq. (b) indicates that the coefficient of velocity is 0.853. Since the tube runs full,
the coefficient of contraction is unity. Hence the coefficient of discharge Cd is
given by
C d = Cv = 0.853

Thus, Q = 0.853 a 2 gH . . . (4.1)

It may be noted that the coefficient of discharge of a mouthpiece is greater than
that of a similar sharp-edged orifice.
The pressure at the venacontracta may be obtained by applying Bernoulli’s
equation to points 2 and 3,
p2 V22 p V2 V2
+ + 0 = a + 3 + 0.375 3
γ 2g γ 2g 2g

p2 p V2 V2
or = a + 1.375 3 − 2
γ γ 2g 2g
2
p2 p V2 ⎛V ⎞ 1
or = a + 1.375 3 − ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ ×
γ γ 2 g ⎝ Cc ⎠ 2 g

Taking Cc = 0.62,
2
p2 p V2 ⎛ V ⎞ 1
= a + 1.375 3 − ⎜ 3 ⎟ ×
γ γ 2 g ⎝ 0.62 ⎠ 2g

p2 p V2
or = a − 1.226 3
γ γ 2g

V32
Substituting the value of from Eq. (b),
2g

p2 p H
= a − 1.226 ×
γ γ 1.375
p2 p
or = a − 0.891 H . . . (4.2a)
γ γ
Eq. (4.2a) indicates that the pressure at the venacontracta is less than the
atmospheric pressure. In fact, a mouthpiece decreases the pressure at the
venacontracta and thus increases the effective head causing flow, and hence it
increases the discharge.
Eqs. (4.1) and (4.2a) have been derived on the assumption that the coefficient of
contraction is 0.62. If its value is not 0.62, these equations will be modified
accordingly. The reader should use the equations carefully.
109
Fluid Mechanics Eq. (4.1) gives the theoretical value of Cd as 0.853. It has been found from
experiments that because of the frictional resistance at the walls of the
mouthpiece, the actual value of Cd is about 0.81. If this value of Cd is taken,
Eq. (4.2a) becomes
p2 p
= a − 0.82 H . . . (4.2b)
γ γ
If the length of the mouthpiece is less than 2.5d to 3d, the jet after passing
through the venacontracta does not occupy the tube fully and the mouthpiece acts
as an orifice. On the other hand, if the length of the mouthpiece is much greater
than 3d, the mouthpiece will act as a pipe, and owing to friction, the value of the
coefficient of discharge will decrease.
It may be mentioned that although a mouthpiece gives more discharge than a free
orifice, it is not commonly used in practice. A mouthpiece creates the negative
pressure at the venacontracta, given by Eqs. (4.2a and b). As soon as the absolute
pressure at the venacontracta approaches the vapour pressure, cavitation occurs.
Thus there is a limit on the head under which the mouthpiece can work properly.
This drawback, along with practical difficulties in its construction, makes the
mouthpiece unsuitable for the measurement of discharge, especially under large
heads.

Example 4.1

Water is discharged through an external mouthpiece of 25 cm2 area, under a

head of 3 m. Find the discharge through the mouthpiece and the pressure at
the venacontracta. Take Cc = 0.62 and atmospheric pressure = 10.3 m of
water.
Solution
As Cc = 0.62, Eqs. (4.1) and (4.2a) are applicable.
From Eq. (4.1),
Q = 0.853 a 2 gH = 0.853 × (25 × 10− 4 ) × 2 × 9.81 × 3

Q = 0.853 × ( 25 × 10 − 4 ) × 7.67 = 0.0164 cumecs

From Eq. (4.2a),
p2 p
= a − 0.89 H
γ γ
= 10.3 – 0.89 × 3 = 10.3 – 2.67 = 7.63 m of water (absolute).

SAQ 1

A 10 cm diameter external cylindrical mouthpiece discharges under a head

of 4 m. Determine the discharge and the pressure at the venacontracta. Take
Cc = 0.60 and atmospheric pressure as 10.3 m of water.

4.3 INTERNAL MOUTHPIECE

An internal mouthpiece consists of a tube projecting inside the tank. Internal
mouthpieces are of two types :
110
 (i) Mouthpiece running free, also called Borda’s mouthpiece, and Flow through
Mouthpieces and
(ii) Mouthpiece running full. Minor Losses

In a mouthpiece running free, the jet after contraction does not touch the walls of
the tube. In a mouthpiece running full, after contraction the jet occupies the full
cross-sectional area of the tube. An internal mouthpiece is also called a
‘re-entrant tube’.

4.4 INTERNAL MOUTHPIECE RUNNING FREE

Figure 4.2 shows an internal mouthpiece running free. Let V be the velocity of
flow through the mouthpiece and p be the pressure intensity at Section 1 – 1. By
the impulse momentum equation, the force acting on the mouthpiece must be
equal to the change in momentum per second. Thus,
⎛ γa V ⎞
pa = ⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟ V
⎝ g ⎠
where a = area of the mouthpiece,
ac = area of the jet at the venacontracta.
In Borda’s mouthpiece, the velocity along the walls of the vessel is almost zero,
and the pressure distribution is hydrostatic.
Thus p = γ H.
γ ac V 2
Therefore, γHa = . . . (a)
g
Assuming the coefficient of velocity as unity,
V2
=H
2g

Figure 4.2 : Internal Mouthpiece Running Free

Substituting this value of V in Eq. (a),
γ Ha = γ ac ( 2 H )
a
or ac =
2
The coefficient of contraction of an internal mouthpiece running free is,
therefore, 0.50.
Discharge Q = ac V

or Q = 0.50 a 2 gH . . . (4.3)
111
Fluid Mechanics Eq. (4.3) has been derived on the assumption that the coefficient of velocity is
unity. It has been found from experiments that the practical value of this
coefficient is 0.98 or so. Eq. (4.3) needs modification in the light of this change in
the value of Cv. The value of the coefficient of contraction becomes 0.52, as
derived below.
If Cv = 0.98, V = 0.98 2 gH

V2
or = 1.92 H
g

Therefore, γ Ha = γ ac (1.92 H ) or ac = 0.52

The mouthpiece runs free when its length is less than the diameter (d). When the
length of the mouthpiece is more than 2.5d, it runs full.

4.5 INTERNAL MOUTHPIECE RUNNING FULL

Figure 4.3 shows an internal mouthpiece running full. The jet first contracts at the
venacontracta and then fills the tube. The loss of head occurs between points 2
and 3 owing to sudden enlargement. From the continuity equation, V2 ac = V3 a
1

2 3

Figure 4.3 : Internal Mouthpiece Running Full

Taking the coefficient of contraction as 0.50,
a
ac = and V2 = 2V3 . . . (a)
2
Therefore, loss of head due to enlargement
(V2 − V3 ) 2 V32
HL = =
2g 2g

Taking the datum level at the axis of the mouthpiece (Figure 4.3) and applying
Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 and 3,
pa p V2
+ H = a + 3 + HL
γ γ 2g

pa V32 V32
= + +
γ 2g 2g

V2
or H = 3 . . . (b)
g
112
 Flow through
or V3 = gH
Mouthpieces and
Minor Losses
1
or V3 = 2 gH = 0.707 2 gH
2
The coefficient of velocity is, therefore, 0.707. Since the coefficient of
contraction is unity, the coefficient of discharge is also 0.707. Thus
Q = 0.707 a 2 gH . . . (4.4)

where a is area of the mouthpiece.

The pressure at the venacontracta may be obtained by applying Bernoulli’s
equation to points 2 and 3.
p2 V22 p V2
+ = a + 3 + HL
γ 2g γ 2g

p2 V22 p V2 V2
+ = a + 3 + 3
γ 2g γ 2g 2g

From Eq. (a), V2 = 2V3

p2 4V32 p V2 V2
∴ + = a + 3 + 3
γ 2g γ 2g 2g

p2 p V2
or = a − 3
γ γ g

V32
From Eq. (b), =H
g

p2 p
Therefore, = a −H . . . (4.5)
γ γ

As in the case of an external mouthpiece, a negative pressure is created at the

venacontracta. This increases the discharge. To avoid cavitation, it is essential
that the absolute pressure should not fall below about 2.5 m for water.

Example 4.2

An internal mouthpiece has a diameter of 4 cm. If the head above the

mouthpiece is 1.5 m and the coefficient of velocity is 0.95, determine
(a) The coefficients of contraction and discharge when the mouthpiece is
running free, and
(b) The discharge when the mouthpiece is running full.
Solution
(a) In this case, Eq. (4.3) cannot be directly used.
From the impulse-momentum principle,
Force = Rate of change of momentum
γ ac V
or pa = V . . . (a)
g 113
Fluid Mechanics where p = pressure on the mouthpiece, a = cross-sectional area of the
mouthpiece, ac = cross-sectional area of the venacontracta, and
V = velocity.
Substituting p = γ H in Eq. (a),
⎛γ a V2 ⎞
γ Ha = ⎜ c ⎟ . . . (b)
⎜ g ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Also V = Cv 2 gH

V2
or = Cv2 H = (0.95) 2 H = 0.90 H
2g

V2
Substituting this value of in Eq. (b),
2g

γ Ha = γ ac × 1.80 H

a
or ac = = 0.555 a
1.80
Therefore, coefficient of contraction, Cc = 0.555
And coefficient of discharge, Cd = Cc × Cv = 0.555 × 0.95 = 0.528
(b) From the continuity equation (refer Figure 4.3),
ac V2 = a V3

⎛ a ⎞
or V2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ V3
⎝ ac ⎠
Taking Cc = 0.555, V2 = 1.80 V3
(V2 − V3 ) 2
Loss of head due to sudden enlargement =
2g

(1.80 − 1) 2 V32 V2
or HL = = 0.64 3
2g 2g

Applying Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 and 3,

pa V32 p
+H = + HL + a
γ 2g γ
V32 V2 V2
or H = + 0.64 3 = 1.64 3
2g 2g 2g

2 gH
or V3 =
1.64

2 × 9.81 × 1.50
or V3 = = 4.24 m/ sec
1.64
Discharge Q = V3 a

⎛π⎞
= 4.24 × ⎜ ⎟ (0.04) 2 = 5.33 × 10 − 3 cumecs .
⎝4⎠
114
 Flow through
SAQ 2 Mouthpieces and
Minor Losses

An internal mouthpiece of 15 cm diameter discharges water under a head of

3 m. Calculate the discharge and the diameter of the jet at the
venacontracta. The mouthpiece is 12 cm long. Assume coefficient of
velocity as 0.97.

4.6 CONVERGENT MOUTHPIECE

A convergent mouthpiece is a frustum of cone with the larger end attached to the
tank wall (Figure 4.4). The jet first contracts and then expands in the mouthpiece.
The coefficient of discharge varies with the angle of convergence θ. The
coefficient of contraction (Cc) of the convergent mouthpiece, which is based on
the area of the mouthpiece at the exit, decreases as the angle of convergence θ
increases. On the other hand, the coefficient of velocity (Cv) increases as the
angle of convergence increases.
For a convergent mouthpiece, the maximum value of coefficient of discharge (Cd)
is 0.946. This occurs when the angle θ is about 13.5˚. Thus
Q = 0.946 a 2 gH . . . (4.6)
where ‘a’ is the area of the mouthpiece at the exit.

Figure 4.4 : Convergent Mouthpiece

Table 4.1 gives the typical values of Cc, Cv and Cd for different orifices and
mouthpieces.
Table 4.1 : Coefficients of Various Types of Mouthpiece
Sl. No. Type Cc Cv Cd

1 External cylindrical mouthpiece 1.00 0.81 0.81

2 Internal mouthpiece running free 0.52 0.98 0.51

3 Internal mouthpiece running full 1.00 0.71 0.71

4 Convergent mouthpiece, θ = 13.5˚ 1.00 0.946 0.946

115
Fluid Mechanics
4.7 MINOR LOSSES
Minor losses are the secondary losses due to shock in a pipe. These losses occur
whenever there is a sudden change in the area of flow and/or the direction of
flow.
The following minor losses usually occur in a pipe. (Pipe flow is discussed in
Unit 5.)
(a) Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
(b) Loss of head due to sudden contraction
(c) Loss of head at the entry
(d) Loss of head at the exit
(e) Loss of head due to obstruction
(f) Loss of head at bends
(g) Loss of head due to fittings.

4.8 LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO SUDDEN

ENLARGEMENT IN A PIPE
Whenever there is a sudden change in the cross-section of a conduit carrying a
fluid, eddies are formed and there is a loss of head. The impulse-momentum
equation may be used to find the loss of head due to sudden enlargement in the
cross-section of a pipe.
Let us consider a pipe of the cross-sectional area A1 which suddenly enlarges to
the cross-sectional area A2 (Figure 4.5). The velocity and pressure at section 1 are
V1 and p1 and those at section 2 are V2 and p2 respectively.
2
B C

1 P1

V1
P1 A1 V2 P2
A2

1 P1

A D
2
Figure 4.5
Backwash of eddies is formed in the corners of the pipe. These eddies are
responsible for the loss of energy. It has been experimentally found that the
pressure in the annular ring at section AB of cross-sectional area (A1 – A2) is equal
to the pressure p1. Let us consider the control volume ABCD. The discharge
through the control volume is given by
Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2 . . . (a)
Applying the impulse-momentum equation to the fluid in the control volume,
ABCD,

116
 γQ Flow through
p1 A1 + p1 ( A2 − A1 ) − p2 A2 = [V2 − V1 ] Mouthpieces and
g Minor Losses

Substituting the values of Q from Eq. (a),

γ A2 V2
A2 ( p1 − p2 ) = [V2 − V1 ]
g

p1 − p2 V2 [V2 − V1 ]
or = . . . (b)
γ g

Applying the Bernoulli equation to sections 1 and 2

p1 V12 p V2
+ = 2 + 2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g

where hL is the loss of head due to sudden enlargement.

p1 − p2
Substituting the value of from Eq. (b),
γ

V2 (V2 − V1 ) V12 V22

+ − = hL
g 2g 2g

V12 V22 V1 V2 V12 + V22 − 2V1 V2

or hL = + − =
2g 2g g 2g

[V1 − V2 ]2
or hL = . . . (4.7)
2g

Eq. (4.7) is the well-known Borda-Carnot equation for the loss of head due to
sudden enlargement.

Example 4.3

A pipe carrying water suddenly enlarges from a diameter of 40 cm to 60

cm. If the discharge is 0.615 cumecs, calculate the loss of head due to
sudden enlargement.
Solution
From the continuity equation,
Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2

Q 0.615
or V1 = = = 4.89 m/ sec
A1 π × 0.40 2
4
Q 0.615
V2 = = = 2.18 m/ sec
A2 π 2
× 0.60
4
From Eq. (4.7),
[V1 − V2 ]2 (4.89 − 2.18) 2
hL = =
2g 2 × 9.81

= 0.374 m of water.
117
Fluid Mechanics
SAQ 3

At a sudden enlargement of a pipeline from 240 to 480 mm diameter, the

hydraulic gradient line rises by 10 mm. Determine the discharge.

4.9 LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO SUDDEN

CONTRACTION
Figure 4.6 represents a pipeline in which sudden contraction occurs. The
streamlines are converging from sections A-A to section 1-1, and there is very
little loss of head between these sections. At section 1-1, the diameter of the jet is
minimum. This section forms the venacontracta. The loss of head occurs mainly
between sections 1-1 and 2-2. Thus the loss of head is not actually due to
contraction, but it is due to enlargement which takes place from section 1-1 to 2-
2.
Let the cross-sectional area of pipe at section A-A and 2-2 be a1 and a2
respectively. The cross-sectional area of the jet at the venacontracta is given by,
ac = Cc a2, where Cc is the coefficient of contraction.
A
(1) (2)

(1) (2)

A
Figure 4.6

The loss of head from sections 1-1 to 2-2 is due to sudden enlargement
(Eq. (4.7)),

(Vc − V2 ) 2
HL = . . . (a)
2g

From the continuity equation,

V
a2 V2 = ac Vc = a2 Cc Vc or Vc = 2
Cc

Substituting the value of Vc in Eq. (a),

2
⎛ V2 ⎞
⎜⎜ − V2 ⎟⎟ 2 2
⎛ 1 ⎞
HL = ⎝ c ⎠ = V2
C
⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ . . . (4.9)
2g 2g ⎝ Cc ⎠

Assuming Cc = 0.62,
2
V22 ⎛ 1 ⎞ V22
HL = ⎜ − 1 ⎟ = 0. 375
2 g ⎝ 0.62 ⎠ 2g

118
 Flow through
kV 2
In general, HL = 2 Mouthpieces and
2g Minor Losses

The constant ‘k’ depends upon the ratio a2 / a1. In practice, the loss of head due to
0.5 V22
sudden contraction is found to be . Unless otherwise mentioned, the value
2g
of k will be taken as 0.50.

Example 4.4

A pipe carrying 0.05 cumecs of water suddenly contracts from 20 cm to

15 cm diameter. Calculate the coefficient of contraction if the loss of head
is 0.5 m.
Solution
2
V2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
From Eq. (4.9) H L = 2 ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
2g ⎝ Cc ⎠
From the continuity equation,
Q 0.05
V2 = = = 2.83 m/sec
A2 π
× 0.15 × 0.15
4
2
2.832 ⎛ 1 ⎞
HL = ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
2 × 9.81 ⎝ Cc ⎠
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
or 0.5 = 0.408 ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
⎝ Cc ⎠
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
or ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ = 1.226 = 1.11
⎝ Cc ⎠
Cc = 0.475
SAQ 4

A 150 mm diameter pipe reduces in diameter abruptly to 100 mm diameter.

If the pipe carries water at 0.03 m3/s, calculate the loss of head across the
contraction. Take the coefficient of contraction as 0.60.

4.10 LOSS OF HEAD AT ENTRANCE TO PIPE

The loss of head at the entrance where the fluid enters the pipe from the reservoir
is similar to that in sudden contraction. As the fluid enters, it first contracts and
then expands in the pipe. The loss of head is caused mainly by the turbulence
created by the sudden enlargement of the jet after it has passed through the
venacontracta.
The loss of head depends on the condition at the inlet. If the entrance to the pipe
is well-rounded, with a bell-mouth, the loss of head is very small and is about
V2
0.04 , where V is the velocity in the pipe.
2g

119
Fluid Mechanics If the entrance is conical, with included angle between 30˚ and 60˚, the loss of
V2
head is about 0.18 .
2g
For a flush entrance, as in the case of an external cylindrical mouthpiece, the loss
of head is given by,
V2
HL = k
2g
in which ‘k’ varies from 0.485 to 0.56.
In the re-entrant (internal) mouthpiece, the value of ‘k’ varies from 0.62 to 0.93.
Usually, an average value of k = 0.5 is taken.
V2
Thus, H L = 0. 5 . . . (4.10)
2g

4.11 LOSS OF HEAD AT EXIT

When a pipe carrying a fluid discharges into a reservoir, the entire velocity is
dissipated. If V is the velocity in the pipe, the loss of head at the exit is given by
V2
HL =
2g
The loss of head may also be obtained from the Borda-Carnot equation. In this
case as A2 is very large, the velocity V2 may be neglected. Hence
(V1 − V2 ) 2 (V − 0) 2 V 2
H= = =
2g 2g 2g
If a pipe discharges into atmosphere, the velocity V is dissipated in air and the
V2
loss of head is .
2g

4.12 LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO OBSTRUCTION

The loss of head due to an obstruction placed in a pipe may be looked upon as the
loss due to sudden enlargement beyond the obstruction. Figure 4.7 represents the
conditions when an obstruction, such as a diaphragm, is inserted.
Let the cross-sectional area of the pipe be A. If the cross-sectional area of the
opening in the diaphragm is ‘a’, the area at the venacontracta ac = Cc a. The loss
of head due to enlargement from sections 1-1 to section 2-2 is given by
2
(V − V2 )
HL = 1 . . . (a)
2g
From the continuity equation,
AV2
V1 Cc a = V2 A or V1 =
Cc a
Substituting this value of V1 in Eq. (a),
2
⎡ A ⎤ V2
HL = ⎢ − 1⎥ 2 . . . (4.11)
⎣ Cc a ⎦ 2g
120
 1 2 Flow through
Mouthpieces and
Minor Losses

A a ac

1 2
Figure 4.7
The loss of head due to obstruction may be obtained from Eq. (4.11) if the
coefficient of contraction (Cc) is known. In general,
kV 2
HL = . . . (4.11a)
2g

The value of k depends upon the type and shape of obstruction.

Example 4.5

A diaphragm with a central hole 8 cm in diameter is placed in a 15 cm

diameter pipe. If the velocity of water in the pipe is 0.3 m/sec, find the loss
of head. Take Cc = 0.60
Solution
2
⎡ A ⎤ V2
From Eq. (4.11), HL = ⎢ − 1⎥ 2
⎣ Cc a ⎦ 2g
2
⎡ π ⎤
⎢ × 0.15 × 0.15 ⎥ (0.3) 2
or HL = ⎢ 4 − 1⎥
π
⎢ 0.60 × × 0.08 × 0.08 ⎥ 19.62
⎣ 4 ⎦
or H L = 0.108 m.

4.13 LOSS OF HEAD AT BENDS

When a fluid flows around a bend or an elbow, it has to overcome additional
resistance. The loss of head depends upon the ratio of the radius of curvature (R΄)
of the bend to the diameter of the pipe (D). The loss of head is expressed as
V2
HL = k . . . (4.12)
2g
where k is the coefficient depending upon the ratio R΄/D. The value of k ranges
from 0.19 to 0.42, the larger values being for low R΄/D ratio. For a circular
right-angled bend the value of k varies from 0.1 to 1.20, and an average value of
0.50 is usually taken.

4.14 LOSS OF HEAD IN PIPE FITTINGS

Pipe fittings when inserted in a pipe cause obstruction to flow and the loss of
head occurs. The loss of head may be expressed as
121
Fluid Mechanics kV 2
HL = . . . (4.13)
2g
in which the coefficient k depends upon the size, shape and type of fitting. The
value of k for various types of valves ranges from 0.2 to 24. A reference may be
made to the tables provided by the manufacturer to get an accurate value of k. Its
value may also be determined experimentally by actual measurement of loss of
head HL.
It may be mentioned that for very long pipes the minor losses are relatively
insignificant as compared to the loss of head due to friction and are usually
neglected.
Table 4.2 gives the typical values of losses for different types of fitting.
Table 4.2 : Approximate Values of the Minor Losses Coefficient k for
Different Types of Fitting
Valve/Fitting K
Globe valve, fully open 10.00
Angle valve, fully open 10.00
Gate valve, fully open 0.20
Gate valve, Half open 5.60
Pump foot valve 1.50
Standard 90˚ elbow 0.90
Standard 45˚ elbow 0.40
Standard 90˚ bend 0.10
Return bend 2.20
Standard T, line flow 0.90
Standard T, branch flow 1.80

SAQ 5

Water is discharged from a tank through a pipe of 300 mm diameter at the

rate of 0.18 m3/s. Calculate the loss of head at
(a) the entry of the pipe if it is short-edged,
(b) the exit of the pipe, and
(c) the gate valve.
Assume k = 0.20.

4.15 MEASUREMENT OF DISCHARGE THROUGH

AN OPEN CHANNEL BY A WEIR, A NOTCH OR
A VENTURI FLUME
Flow through an open channel occurs under atmospheric pressure. The motive
force to create the flow is derived from the slope of the bed and the kinetic energy
possessed by the liquid. Mechanics of flow through open channels will be
122
presented at a later stage; the purpose here is to study the common methods of Flow through
Mouthpieces and
discharge measurement. Minor Losses
A weir is an obstruction placed in an open channel over which the flow occurs.
The weir is generally in the form of a vertical wall with a sharp edge at the top,
running all the way across the open channel. When the liquid flows over the weir,
the height of the liquid above the tip of the sharp edge bears a relationship with
the discharge across it.
A notch is a sharp-edged device which permits the liquid to go through it, the
liquid being exposed to the atmospheric pressure. Notches may be rectangular,
triangular, circular or trapezoidal in shape. A triangular notch, for example, has a
sharp-edged base and sharp-edged vertical-end walls. A triangular notch, also
called V-notch consists of a V-cut sharp-edged passage through which the liquid
passes. The only difference between a weir and a rectangular notch is that a weir
runs all the way across the channel whereas a rectangular notch may be as wide
as the channel.
Flow
Nappe
H of flow
b
Vena
Base Contracta
a a c (cbcd)

(a) Flow Through a Rectangular Notch (b) End View of the Idealised Flow
Through a Rectangular Notch

(c) V or Triangular Notch (d) Circular Notch

(e) Trapezoidal Notch or Weir

Figure 4.8 : Various Shapes of Notches

Consider the flow through a notch of a given shape and dimensions. The flow in
the open channel far upstream approaches the notch with a velocity U1 and while
crossing over the notch, the total height H and the velocity distribution must be in
accordance with the continuity principle and the Bernoulli equation. Consider a
horizontal strip of depth dh located at a depth h below the liquid level. If the
width of the strip is b, the area is b dh. The velocity of the liquid at a point on the
strip must be given by

U = 2gh
123
Fluid Mechanics

h h
u
H H dh
dh P
Base
b
U Nappe

Figure 4.9 : Flow Through a Notch

The flow rate across the strip is
dQ = u dA = 2 g h b dh
The total discharge across the notch must be given by
H
Q= ∫ dQ = ∫ 2 g h b dh
0

The expression for the discharge is evaluated with the knowledge of the shape
and dimensions of the notch.
4.15.1 Flow Through a Rectangular Notch
The expression for the discharge through a notch;
H
Q= ∫ 2 g h b dh
0

may be evaluated for flow through a rectangular notch by taking

b = constant
H
Q= 2g b ∫ h1/ 2 dh
0

2
or Q= 2 g b H 3/ 2 . . . (4.14a)
3
Taking note of the fact that the minimum area of cross-section, i.e. the vena
contracta is less than the area of flow across the notch and these are some
real-flow effects such as side-wall boundaries and eddy formation and the
three-dimensional nature of flow, a factor called the coefficient of discharge Cd is
introduced. The Actual discharge is, therefore, expressed as,
2
Q= Cd 2 g b H 3/ 2 . . . (4.14b)
3
This expression takes no note of the fact that the liquid approaches the notch with
an initial velocity U1 and that the liquid possesses kinetic energy per unit weight
U2
given by 1 . In order to take the velocity of approach into account, the limits of
2g
integration in the expression for Q should be
U12 ⎛U2 ⎞
to ⎜ 1 + H ⎟
2g ⎜ 2g ⎟
⎝ ⎠

124
instead of 0 to H. with this correction, the improved expression for the discharge Flow through
Mouthpieces and
through a rectangular notch becomes, Minor Losses
⎡⎛ 2 ⎞3/ 2 ⎛ U12 ⎞ ⎤
3/ 2
2 U
Q = Cd 2 g b ⎢⎜ H + 1
⎟ −⎜ ⎥
⎜ 2 g ⎟⎟ ⎥
. . . (4.14c)
3 ⎢⎜⎝ 2 g ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
⎣
When the flow occurs over a rectangular notch, the nappe of flow is contracted at
the ends and an area of minimum cross-section called vena contracta occurs at a
short distance from the notch as shown in Figures 4.9(a) and 4.10. The effect of
the end contraction is that the effective width of flow is reduced. According to
Francis, each end contraction is of the order of 10 per cent of head over the notch,
i.e. 0.1 H. For a rectangular notch with two end contractions,
Effective width = b – 0.2 H
and the expression for the distance becomes
2
Q= Cd 2 g (b − 0.2 H ) H 3/ 2 . . . (4.14d)
3
which implies that the end contractions reduce the discharge by
2
q= Cd 2 g (0.2 H ) H 3/ 2
3
2
= Cd 2 g H 5/ 2
15
Comparison of this expression with the expression for discharge for a triangular
notch (Figure 4.11) shows that, for an equivalent triangular weir,
2 8 θ 5/ 2 θ 1
Cd 2g H 5/ 2 = Cd 2 g tan H ; tan = . . . (4.15)
15 15 2 2 4

Vena
Contracta
Nappe
H

0.1 H

Rise
of
Nappe

Elevation view showing the End view showing the side

rise of the nappe and the contractions of the nappe
formation of vena Contracta

Figure 4.11 : Flow Over a Rectangular Weir

If the rectangular weir is enlarged to become a trapezoidal weir with the side
slopes ‘1 horizontal to 4 vertical’ it would give the discharge that an uncontracted
rectangular weir would have given. This was first discovered by Cippoleti and the
compensated weir is called Cippoleti weir.
It may also be noted that the lower surface of the nappe rises by 10% of the head
over the notch as also shown in Figure 4.10. This however does not change the
width of flow. Effect of the rise of the nappe is included in the coefficient of
discharge Cd for the notch.

125
Fluid Mechanics 4.15.2 Flow Through a Triangular Notch
θ
Consider a triangular or V-notch with an included angle θ and semi-angle . Let
2
the liquid flow through it with the level H above the base point. Consider the flow
through an elementary strip of depth dh located at a depth h below the level of the
liquid. The discharge through it must be
dQ = 2 g h b dh
and the discharge through the entire notch should be
H
Q= ∫ dQ = ∫ 2 g h b dh
0
For a triangular notch,
θ
b = 2 ( H − h) tan . . . (4.16)
2
Substituting this relation in the expression for Q,
H
θ
Q = 2 tan
2
2g ∫ ( H − h) h1/ 2 dh
0
H
θ ⎡2 2 ⎤
or Q = 2 tan 2 g ⎢ H h3/ 2 − h5/ 2 ⎥
2 ⎣3 3 ⎦0
8 θ
= tan 2g H 5/ 2 . . . (4.17a)
15 2

h
H dh
θ/2

b
Figure 4.12 : Flow Through a Triangular Notch
Introducing the efficient of discharge Cd in order to provide an expression for the
actual flow through V notch,
8 θ
Q= Cd tan 2g H 5/ 2 . . . (4.17b)
15 2
In particular, for a right-angled V notch,
θ θ
θ = 90o , = 45o ; tan = 1
2 2
the expression for the actual discharge becomes
8
Q= Cd 2 g H 5 / 2 . . . (4.17c)
15
A word of comparison between the accuracy of measurement by a rectangular
and for a V notch is worthwhile. For a rectangular notch,
Q = K H 3/ 2
126
 Q = C H 5/ 2
Flow through
and for V notch Mouthpieces and
Minor Losses
where K and C are appropriate constants.
The accuracy of measurement of the discharge depends upon the accuracy of
measurement of the head H. A small error dH in H would correspond to an error
dQ in Q.
For a rectangular notch,
3
dQ = K H 1/ 2 dH
2
dQ 3 dH dH
and = = 1.5 . . . (4.18a)
Q 2 H H
Similarly, for a V notch
5
dQ = C H 3/ 2 dH
2
dQ 5 dH dH
and = 2.5 . . . (4.18b)
Q 2 H H
It is seen that a 1% error in the measurement of the head result in 1.5% error in
discharge measured by a rectangular notch and 2.5% error in discharge measured
by a V notch.
There is one more point to it. For low discharge, the reading ‘H’ for a V notch is
greater than the reading ‘H’ for a rectangular notch for the same discharge. This
is obvious because the width of a rectangular notch is b everywhere whereas the
width at the base of a V notch is zero. A notch is, therefore, preferred for low
discharge. For high discharge, a rectangular notch is preferred because the
incremental head is more for an increment in discharge than that for a V notch.
If it is required to have a single notch suitable for a large range of discharge, a
combination of ‘V notch and rectangular notch’ may be used.

Rectangular notch
for High Discharge

V notch for Low

Discharge

Figure 4.13 : A Combination Notch

4.15.3 Venturi Flume

A device called venturi flume is also useful for estimating the flow rate through
an open channel. The width of the channel b1 is reduced to b2 to create a throat
section. Higher velocity at the throat results in a drop of the depth of the liquid as
shown in Figure 4.14.

h
d1
U1 d2 U2
127
Fluid Mechanics

Figure 4.14 : Venturi Flume

By continuity, A1 U1 = A2 U 2

U12 U2
By the energy equation, d1 + = d2 + 2
2 2
Combining and simplifying these, using h = d1 − d 2
Cd A1 A2
Q= 2g h
( A12 − A22 )
which bears a similarity with the expression for flow through a
venturimeter.

Example 4.6

A reservoir having a surface area of 800 m2 is emptied by a 0.5 m wide

rectangular weir. How long should it take to empty the reservoir from a
height 0.3 m to 0.2 m above the sill? Take Cd = 0.65.
Solution
With reference to a rectangular weir,
A dh = − Q dt
The negative sign appears because h decreases as t increases.
For a rectangular weir,
2
Q= 2 g h3/ 2 Cd
3
− A h3/ 2 dh
Hence dt =
2
2 g b Cd
3
After integrating, we get
T
3A ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
T = ∫ dt =
2 g b Cd
⎜
⎜ H
−
H1
⎟
⎟
0 ⎝ 2 ⎠
800 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= 3× ×⎜ − ⎟
(4.43 × 0.5 × 0.65) ⎝ 0.2 0.3 ⎠
= 684 s = 11 minutes and 24 seconds.

128
 Flow through
4.16 SUMMARY Mouthpieces and
Minor Losses
• The difference between an orifice and a mouthpiece is explained. The
monthpieces can be of different shapes. They may be fitted either externally
or internally to vessel.
• The discharge equation for an external mouthpiece is derived. The
importance of the negative pressure at the venacontracta is emphasized.
• The discharge equations for internal mouthpiece running free and running
full are developed. The mouthpiece runs free if it is of small length.
• In general, the coefficient of discharge of a mouthpiece is greater than that
for a similar orifice, but it is not commonly used as it is not convenient to
construct and there is a possibility of cavitation under large heads.
• A brief introduction is given to convergent mouthpieces.
• The typical coefficients of various types of mouthpieces are given.
• The difference between minor losses and the major loss due to friction in
pipes is explained.
• The minor losses are important for pipes of small lengths. For long pipes,
these losses are usually negligible as compared to the loss due to friction.
• The loss of head due to sudden enlargement, sudden contraction, at the
entry, at the exit, at the bends and at the obstruction can be determined from
the equations given.
• The loss of head at the pipe fittings can be determined using the values of
the coefficient supplied by the manufacturers or by actual measurement.
The typical values for different types of fitting are given.
• The measurement of discharge through an open channel by a view, a notch
or a venturi flume is explained.

4.17 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
Loss of head,
2
V2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ V2
HL = 3 ⎜ − 1⎟ = 0.444 3
2 g ⎝ 0.60 ⎠ 2g

pa p V2 V2
Therefore, + H = a + 3 + 0.444 3
γ γ 2g 2g

or V3 = 0.832 2 gH
π
Q = 0.832 × (0.10) 2 × 2 × 9.81 × 4 = 0.0579 m 3 / s
4
Pressure at the venacontracta,
2
p2 p V2 ⎛ V ⎞ 1
= a + 1.444 3 − ⎜ 3 ⎟ ×
γ γ 2 g ⎝ 0.60 ⎠ 2g

129
Fluid Mechanics
V32
= 10.3 − 1.334
2g

⎛ H ⎞
= 10.3 − 1.334 × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1.444 ⎠
1.334 × 4
= 10.3 − = 6.605 m (absolute)
1.444
SAQ 2
Since the length of mouthpiece is less than its diameter, it runs free.
Now V = 0.97 2× g ×h

V2
or = 1.88 H
g
From the impulse-momentum equation,
V2
γ ha = γ ac
g
= γ ac (1.88 H)
or ac = 0.53 a
or Cc = 0.53

2
⎛ dc ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0.53
⎝ d ⎠

or d c = 0.53 d

= 0.53 × 15 = 10.92 cm

C d = Cc × Cv = 0.53 × 0.97 = 0.51

Q = Cd a 2 gH

π
= 0.51 × × (0.15) 2 2 × 9.81 × 3
4
= 0.0718 m3/s
SAQ 3
The rise in pressure is given by
p2 − p1 − V2 (V2 − V1 )
=
γ g

(V1 − V2 ) V2
0.01 =
g

π π
But × (0.24) 2 V1 = × (0.48) 2 × V2
4 4
V1 = 4V2

130
 (4V2 − V2 ) V2 Flow through
Therefore, 0.01 = Mouthpieces and
9.81 Minor Losses

or V2 = 0.181 m / s

π
Q= × (0.48) 2 × 0.181 = 0.0327 m 3 / s
4
SAQ 4
Loss of head at sudden contraction,
2
V2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
HL = 2 ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
2g ⎝ Cc ⎠
2
V2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ V2
or HL = 2 ⎜ − 1⎟ = 0.444 2
2 g ⎝ 0.60 ⎠ 2g

π
Now × (0.1) 2 × V2 = 0.03
4
or V2 = 3.82 m / s

(3.82) 2
H L = 0.444 × = 0.33 m
2 × 9.81

SAQ 5
0.18
V = = 2.55 m / s
π
× (0.3) 2
4
V2 (2.55) 2
(a) Loss of head at entry = 0.5 = 0 .5 × = 0.166 m
2g 2 × 9.81

V2 (2.55) 2
(b) Loss of head at exit = = = 0.331 m
2 g 2 × 9.81

kV 2 (2.55) 2
(c) Loss of head at valve = = 0.20 × = 0.066 m
2g 2 × 9.81

131