WEATHER SATELLITES

Weather Satellites are robotic spacecraft that observe changes in terrestrial weather patterns. Their forecasting sharply
reduces deaths from hurricanes and other violent weather. The first weather satellite, TIROS I, was launched in 1960 and
functioned only eighty-nine days. TIROS (an acronym for Television and Infrared Observation Satellite) recorded television
images of cloud patterns below, enabling meteorologists to track the movement of weather patterns and fronts. Weather
satellites have since grown much more durable and can register more data, including wind speeds, atmospheric and surface
temperatures, water temperatures, wave heights, and height of the polar ice caps. The U.S. government operates separate
weather satellite programs for civilians and the military.

Weather satellites fall into two types. A geostationary satellite remains parked over a given point of the earth's equator, keeping
continuous watch over a large portion of the earth from an altitude of 22,000 miles. A polarorbiting satellite flies at about 500
miles in an orbit that carries it nearly over the earth's north and south poles. This satellite views a much smaller portion of Earth
than a geostationary satellite but can make more detailed observations. The U.S. government typically has maintained two
geostationary satellites and two polar-orbiting satellites in orbit at all times, but satellite weather forecasting ran into a snag in
1989, when the GOES-6 failed in orbit. A replacement, GOES-8, was to have been launched on a space shuttle mission, but the
Challenger shuttle explosion interrupted all shuttle launches. The replacement was further delayed until 1994 by technical
problems. To fill the gap a European weather satellite was repositioned over the Atlantic Ocean to provide coverage of the
eastern United States.

Columbia Encyclopedia:
Weather satellite- artificial satellite used to gather data on a global basis for improvement of weather forecasting. Information
includes cloud cover, storm location, temperature, and heat balance in the earth's atmosphere. The first weather satellites in the
United States were those of the Tiros series, which began in 1960; the Nimbus series, which moved in a polar orbit, was next;
the Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA) started in 1966 and launched weather satellites; and in 1972, the
Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) provided photographs to help forecasting. Other meteorological satellites include
a series of Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES), which send weather data and pictures that cover a
section of the United States; China, Japan, India, and the European Space Agency (ESA) have similar craft. The National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's satellite series relay meteorological data to stations on the surface, including
information on possible changes in various weather parameters that may signal climate change.

Science Dictionary: weather satellite

An artificial satellite that revolves around the Earth and detects and reports weather patterns on the Earth's surface.

A weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather and climate of the Earth. These
meteorological satellites, however, see more than clouds and cloud systems. City lights, fires, effects of pollution, auroras, sand
and dust storms, snow cover, ice mapping, boundaries of ocean currents, energy flows, etc., are other types of environmental
information collected using weather satellites.

Weather satellite images helped in monitoring the volcanic ash cloud from Mount St. Helens and activity from other volcanoes
such as Mount Etna. Smoke from fires in the western United States such as Colorado and Utah have also been monitored.

Other environmental satellites can detect changes in the Earth's vegetation, sea state, ocean color, and ice fields. For example,
the 2002 oil spill off the northwest coast of Spain was watched carefully by the European ENVISAT, which, though not a weather
satellite, flies an instrument (ASAR) which can see changes in the sea surface.

El Niño and its effects on weather are monitored daily from satellite images. The Antarctic ozone hole is mapped from weather
satellite data. Collectively, weather satellites flown by the U.S., Europe, India, China, Russia, and Japan provide nearly
continuous observations for a global weather watch.

History
The first weather satellite, Vanguard 2, was launched on 17 February 1959. It was designed to measure cloud cover and
resitance, but a poor axis of rotation kept it from collecting a notable amount of useful data.

The first weather satellite to be considered a success was TIROS-1, launched by NASA on 1 April 1960. TIROS operated for 78
days and proved to be much more successful than Vanguard 2. TIROS paved the way for the Nimbus program, whose
technology and findings are the heritage of most of the Earth-observing satellites NASA and NOAA have launched since then.

Types

There are two basic types of meteorological satellites: geostationary and polar orbiting.

Geostationary weather satellites orbit the Earth above the equator at altitudes of 35,880 km (22,300 miles). Because of this orbit,
they remain stationary with respect to the rotating Earth and thus can record or transmit images of the entire hemisphere below
continuously with their visible-light and infrared sensors. The news media use the geostationary photos in their daily weather
presentation as single images or made into movie loops.

Several geostationary meteorological spacecraft are in operation. The United States has two in operation; GOES-11 and GOES-
12. GOES-12 is designated GOES-East, over the Amazon River and provides most of the U.S. weather information. GOES-11 is
GOES-West over the eastern Pacific Ocean. The Japanese have one in operation; MTSAT-1R over the mid Pacific at 140°E.
The Europeans have Meteosat-8 (3.5°W) and Meteosat-9 (0°) over the Atlantic Ocean and have Meteosat-6 (63°E) and
Meteosat-7 (57.5°E) over the Indian Ocean. The Russians operate the GOMS over the equator south of Moscow. India also
operates geostationary satellites which carry instruments for meteorological purposes. China operates the Feng-Yun（風雲)
geostationary satellites, FY-2C at 105°E and FY-2D at 86.5°E.

Polar orbiting weather satellites circle the Earth at a typical altitude of 850 km (530 miles) in a north to south (or vice versa) path,
passing over the poles in their continuous flight. Polar satellites are in sun-synchronous orbits, which means they are able to
observe any place on Earth and will view every location twice each day with the same general lighting conditions due to the
near-constant local solar time. Polar orbiting weather satellites offer a much better resolution than their geostationary
counterparts due their closeness to the Earth.

The United States has the NOAA series of polar orbiting meteorological satellites, presently NOAA 17 and NOAA 18 as primary
spacecraft, NOAA 15 and NOAA 16 as secondary spacecraft, NOAA 14 in standby, and NOAA 12. Europe has the Metop-A
satellite. Russia has the Meteor and RESURS series of satellites. China and India have polar orbiting satellites as well.

Visible-light images from weather satellites during local daylight hours are easy to interpret even by the average person; clouds,
cloud systems such as fronts and tropical storms, lakes, forests, mountains, snow ice, fires, and pollution such as smoke, smog,
dust and haze are readily apparent. Even wind can be determined by cloud patterns, alignments and movement from successive
photos.

The thermal or infrared images recorded by sensors called scanning radiometers enable a trained analyst to determine cloud
heights and types, to calculate land and surface water temperatures, and to locate ocean surface features. These infrared
pictures depict ocean eddies or vortices and map currents such as the Gulf Stream which are valuable to the shipping industry.
Fishermen and farmers are interested in knowing land and water temperatures to protect their crops against frost or increase
their catch from the sea. Even El Niño phenomena can be spotted. Using color-digitized techniques, the gray shaded thermal
images can be converted to color for easier identification of desired information.

Snowfield monitoring, especially in the Sierra Nevada, can be helpful to the hydrologist keeping track of how much snow is
available for runoff vital to the water sheds of the western United States. This information is gleaned from existing satellites of all
agencies of the U.S. government (in addition to local, on-the-ground measurements). Ice floes, packs and bergs can also be
located and tracked from weather space craft.
Even pollution whether it's nature-made or man-made can be pinpointed. The visual and infrared photos show effects of
pollution from their respective areas over the entire earth. Aircraft and rocket pollution, as well as condensation trails, can also
be spotted. The ocean current and low level wind information gleaned from the space photos can help predict oceanic oil spill
coverage and movement. Almost every summer, sand and dust from the Sahara Desert in Africa drifts across the equatorial
regions of the Atlantic Ocean. GOES-EAST photos enable meteorologists to observe, track and forecast this sand cloud. In
addition to reducing visibilities and causing respiratory problems, sand clouds suppress hurricane formation by modifying the
solar radiation balance of the tropics. Other dust storms in Asia and mainland China are common and easy to spot and monitor,
with recent examples of dust moving across the Pacific ocean and reaching North America.

The United States Department of Defense's Meteorological Satellite (DMSP) can "see" the best of all weather vehicles with its
ability to detect objects almost as 'small' as a huge oil tanker. In addition, of all the weather satellites in orbit, only DMSP can
"see" at night in the visual. Some of the most spectacular photos have been recorded by the night visual sensor; city lights,
volcanoes, fires, lightning, meteors, oil field burn-offs, as well as the Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis have been captured by
this 450-mile-high space vehicle's low moonlight sensor.

At the same time, energy monitoring as well as city growth can be accomplished since both major and even minor cities, as well
as highway lights, are conspicuous. This informs Astronomers of light pollution. The New York Blackout of 1977 was captured by
one of the night orbiter DMSP space vehicles.

In addition to monitoring city lights, these photos are a life saving asset in the detection and monitoring of fires. Not only do the
satellites see the fires visually day and night, but the thermal and infrared scanners on board these weather satellites detect
potential fire sources below the surface of the Earth where smoldering occurs. Once the fire is detected, the same weather
satellites provide vital information about wind that could fan or spread the fires. These same cloud photos from space tell the
firefighter when it will rain.

In remote areas of the world with few local observers, fires could rage out of control for days or even weeks and consume
millions of acres before authorities are alerted. Weather satellites can be a tremendous asset in such situations. Nighttime
photos also clearly show the burn-off in the gas and oil fields of the Middle East and African countries. This burn-off throws large
amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Dramatic photos are provided by all the weather satellites, but even more definitive were the DMSP night visible-light pictures of
the 700 oil well fires that Iraq started on 23 February 1991 as they fled Kuwait. These fires were vividly illustrated as huge
flashes in the night photos, far outstripping the glow of large populated areas. The fires consumed millions of gallons of oil; the
last was doused on November 6.
 VOCABULARY

Air pressure
Definition: The weight per unit of area of a column of air that reaches to the top of the atmosphere.
Context: Areas of high air pressure, or high-pressure systems, usually have clear skies, and areas of low air pressure,
or low-pressure systems, usually have clouds.

Atmosphere
Definition: The layer of air that surrounds Earth and is made up of nitrogen (about 78 percent), oxygen (about 21
percent), and miscellaneous gases (about 1 percent).
Context: Our weather takes place in the lower part of the atmosphere.

Front
Definition: A narrow zone of transition between air masses that differ in temperature or humidity.
Context: Most changes in the weather occur along fronts.

Humidity
Definition: A measure of the amount of moisture in the air in the form of invisible water vapor.
Context: Humidity is important for making weather forecasts, because it can help scientists predict precipitation.

Meteorologist
Definition: A scientist who studies the weather.
Context: Meteorologists use different types of maps to report the weather.

Precipitation
Definition: Moisture that falls from clouds in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
Context: Without rain or other forms of precipitation, the ground becomes dry, and crops cannot grow.

Temperature
Definition: The measure of the heat energy of the gases in the air.
Context: Changes in temperature lead to changes in air pressure, bringing different kinds of weather.
Weather
Definition: The state of the atmosphere at a given time in a particular place.
Context: The three main factors of weather are humidity, air pressure, and temperature.

Wind
Definition: The movement of air, which tends to move from a high-pressure area to a low-pressure area.
Context: Winds are named for the direction from which they blow, so an easterly wind blows from the east.

Advisory:
Official information issued by tropical cyclone warning centers describing all tropical cyclone watches and warnings in
effect along with details concerning tropical cyclone locations, intensity and movement, and precautions that should be
taken. Advisories are also issued to describe: (a) tropical cyclones prior to issuance of watches and warnings and (b)
subtropical cyclones.

Best Track:
A subjectively-smoothed representation of a tropical cyclone's location and intensity over its lifetime. The best track
contains the cyclone's latitude, longitude, maximum sustained surface winds, and minimum sea-level pressure at 6-
hourly intervals. Best track positions and intensities, which are based on a post-storm assessment of all available data,
may differ from values contained in storm advisories. They also generally will not reflect the erratic motion implied by
connecting individual center fix positions.

Center:
Generally speaking, the vertical axis of a tropical cyclone, usually defined by the location of minimum wind or minimum
pressure. The cyclone center position can vary with altitude. In advisory products, refers to the center position at the
surface.

Center / Vortex Fix:

The location of the center of a tropical or subtropical cyclone obtained by reconnaissance aircraft penetration, satellite,
radar, or synoptic data.

Central North Pacific Basin:

The region north of the Equator between 140W and the International Dateline. The Central Pacific Hurricane Center
(CPHC) in Honolulu, Hawaii is responsible for tracking tropical cyclones in this region.

Cyclone:
An atmospheric closed circulation rotating counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere.

Direct Hit:
A close approach of a tropical cyclone to a particular location. For locations on the left-hand side of a tropical cyclone's
track (looking in the direction of motion), a direct hit occurs when the cyclone passes to within a distance equal to the
cyclone's radius of maximum wind. For locations on the right-hand side of the track, a direct hit occurs when the
cyclone passes to within a distance equal to twice the radius of maximum wind. Compare indirect hit, strike.

Eastern North Pacific Basin:

 The portion of the North Pacific Ocean east of 140W. The National Hurricane Center in Miami, Florida is responsible for
tracking tropical cyclones in this region.

Eye:
The roughly circular area of comparatively light winds that encompasses the center of a severe tropical cyclone. The
eye is either completely or partially surrounded by the eyewall cloud.

Eyewall / Wall Cloud:

An organized band or ring of cumulonimbus clouds that surround the eye, or light-wind center of a tropical cyclone.
Eyewall and wall cloud are used synonymously.

Explosive Deepening:
A decrease in the minimum sea-level pressure of a tropical cyclone of 2.5 mb/hr for at least 12 hours or 5 mb/hr for at
least six hours.

Extratropical:
A term used in advisories and tropical summaries to indicate that a cyclone has lost its "tropical" characteristics. The
term implies both poleward displacement of the cyclone and the conversion of the cyclone's primary energy source
from the release of latent heat of condensation to baroclinic (the temperature contrast between warm and cold air
masses) processes. It is important to note that cyclones can become extratropical and still retain winds of hurricane or
tropical storm force.

Fujiwhara Effect:
The tendency of two nearby tropical cyclones to rotate cyclonically about each other.

Gale Warning:
A warning of 1-minute sustained surface winds in the range 34 kt (39 mph or 63 km/hr) to 47 kt (54 mph or 87 km/hr)
inclusive, either predicted or occurring and not directly associated with tropical cyclones.

High Wind Warning:

A high wind warning is defined as 1-minute average surface winds of 35 kt (40 mph or 64 km/hr) or greater lasting for 1
hour or longer, or winds gusting to 50 kt (58 mph or 93 km/hr) or greater regardless of duration that are either expected
or observed over land.

Hurricane / Typhoon:
A tropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface wind (using the U.S. 1-minute average) is 64 kt (74 mph or
119 km/hr) or more. The term hurricane is used for Northern Hemisphere tropical cyclones east of the International
Dateline to the Greenwich Meridian. The term typhoon is used for Pacific tropical cyclones north of the Equator west of
the International Dateline.

Hurricane Local Statement:

A public release prepared by local National Weather Service offices in or near a threatened area giving specific details
for its county/parish warning area on (1) weather conditions, (2) evacuation decisions made by local officials, and (3)
other precautions necessary to protect life and property.
Hurricane Season:
The portion of the year having a relatively high incidence of hurricanes. The hurricane season in the Atlantic,
Caribbean, and Gulf of Mexico runs from June 1 to November 30. The hurricane season in the Eastern Pacific basin
runs from May 15 to November 30. The hurricane season in the Central Pacific basin runs from June 1 to November
30.

Hurricane Warning:
A warning that sustained winds 64 kt (74 mph or 119 km/hr) or higher associated with a hurricane are expected in a
specified coastal area in 24 hours or less. A hurricane warning can remain in effect when dangerously high water or a
combination of dangerously high water and exceptionally high waves continue, even though winds may be less than
hurricane force.

Hurricane Watch:
An announcement for specific coastal areas that hurricane conditions are possible within 36 hours.

Indirect Hit:
Generally refers to locations that do not experience a direct hit from a tropical cyclone, but do experience hurricane
force winds (either sustained or gusts) or tides of at least 4 feet above normal.

Invest:
A weather system for which a tropical cyclone forecast center (NHC, CPHC, or JTWC) is interested in collecting
specialized data sets (e.g., microwave imagery) and/or running model guidance. Once a system has been designated
as an invest, data collection and processing is initiated on a number of government and academic web sites, including
the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) and the University of Wisconsin Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite
Studies (UW-CIMSS). The designation of a system as an invest does not correspond to any particular likelihood of
development of the system into a tropical cyclone; operational products such as the Tropical Weather Outlook or the
JTWC/TCFA should be consulted for this purpose.

Landfall:
The intersection of the surface center of a tropical cyclone with a coastline. Because the strongest winds in a tropical
cyclone are not located precisely at the center, it is possible for a cyclone's strongest winds to be experienced over land
even if landfall does not occur. Similarly, it is possible for a tropical cyclone to make landfall and have its strongest
winds remain over the water. Compare direct hit, indirect hit, and strike.

Major Hurricane:
A hurricane that is classified as Category 3 or higher.

Post-storm Report:
A report issued by a local National Weather Service office summarizing the impact of a tropical cyclone on its forecast
area. These reports include information on observed winds, pressures, storm surges, rainfall, tornadoes, damage and
casualties.

Preliminary Report:
 Now known as the "Tropical Cyclone Report". A report summarizing the life history and effects of an Atlantic or eastern
Pacific tropical cyclone. It contains a summary of the cyclone life cycle and pertinent meteorological data, including the
post-analysis best track (six-hourly positions and intensities) and other meteorological statistics. It also contains a
description of damage and casualties the system produced, as well as information on forecasts and warnings associated
with the cyclone. NHC writes a report on every tropical cyclone in its area of responsibility.

Present Movement:
The best estimate of the movement of the center of a tropical cyclone at a given time and given position. This estimate does
not reflect the short-period, small scale oscillations of the cyclone center.

Radius of Maximum Winds:

The distance from the center of a tropical cyclone to the location of the cyclone's maximum winds. In well-developed
hurricanes, the radius of maximum winds is generally found at the inner edge of the eyewall.

Rapid Deepening:
A decrease in the minimum sea-level pressure of a tropical cyclone of 1.75 mb/hr or 42 mb for 24 hours.

Relocated:
A term used in an advisory to indicate that a vector drawn from the preceding advisory position to the latest known
position is not necessarily a reasonable representation of the cyclone's movement.

Remnant Low:
Used for systems no longer having the sufficient convective organization required of a tropical cyclone (e.g., the swirls
of stratocumulus in the eastern North Pacific).

Storm Surge:
An abnormal rise in sea level accompanying a hurricane or other intense storm, and whose height is the difference
between the observed level of the sea surface and the level that would have occurred in the absence of the cyclone.
Storm surge is usually estimated by subtracting the normal or astronomic high tide from the observed storm tide.

Storm Tide:
The actual level of sea water resulting from the astronomic tide combined with the storm surge.

Storm Warning:
A warning of 1-minute sustained surface winds of 48 kt (55 mph or 88 km/hr) or greater, either predicted or occurring,
not directly associated with tropical cyclones.

Strike:
For any particular location, a hurricane strike occurs if that location passes within the hurricane's strike circle, a circle of
125 n mi diameter, centered 12.5 n mi to the right of the hurricane center (looking in the direction of motion). This circle
is meant to depict the typical extent of hurricane force winds, which are approximately 75 n mi to the right of the center
and 50 n mi to the left.
Subtropical Cyclone:
A non-frontal low pressure system that has characteristics of both tropical and extratropical cyclones.

The most common type is an upper-level cold low with circulation extending to the surface layer and maximum
sustained winds generally occurring at a radius of about 100 miles or more from the center. In comparison to tropical
cyclones, such systems have a relatively broad zone of maximum winds that is located farther from the center, and
typically have a less symmetric wind field and distribution of convection.

A second type of subtropical cyclone is a mesoscale low originating in or near a frontolyzing zone of horizontal wind
shear, with radius of maximum sustained winds generally less than 30 miles. The entire circulation may initially have a
diameter of less than 100 miles. These generally short-lived systems may be either cold core or warm core.

Subtropical Depression:
A subtropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface wind speed (using the U.S. 1-minute average) is 33 kt
(38 mph or 62 km/hr) or less.

Subtropical Storm:
A subtropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface wind speed (using the U.S. 1-minute average) is 34 kt
(39 mph or 63 km/hr) or more.

Synoptic Track:
Weather reconnaissance mission flown to provide vital meteorological information in data sparse ocean areas as a
supplement to existing surface, radar, and satellite data. Synoptic flights better define the upper atmosphere and aid in
the prediction of tropical cyclone development and movement.

Tropical Cyclone:
A warm-core non-frontal synoptic-scale cyclone, originating over tropical or subtropical waters, with organized deep
convection and a closed surface wind circulation about a well-defined center. Once formed, a tropical cyclone is
maintained by the extraction of heat energy from the ocean at high temperature and heat export at the low
temperatures of the upper troposphere. In this they differ from extratropical cyclones, which derive their energy from
horizontal temperature contrasts in the atmosphere (baroclinic effects).

Tropical Cyclone Plan of the Day:

A coordinated mission plan that tasks operational weather reconnaissance requirements during the next 1100 to 1100
UTC day or as required, describes reconnaissance flights committed to satisfy both operational and research
requirements, and identifies possible reconnaissance requirements for the succeeding 24-hour period.

Tropical Depression:
A tropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface wind speed (using the U.S. 1-minute average) is 33 kt (38
mph or 62 km/hr) or less.

Tropical Disturbance:
A discrete tropical weather system of apparently organized convection -- generally 100 to 300 nmi in diameter --
originating in the tropics or subtropics, having a nonfrontal migratory character, and maintaining its identity for 24 hours
or more. It may or may not be associated with a detectable perturbation of the wind field.
Tropical Storm:
A tropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface wind speed (using the U.S. 1-minute average) ranges from
34 kt (39 mph or 63 km/hr) to 63 kt (73 mph or 118 km/hr).

Tropical Storm Warning:

A warning that sustained winds within the range of 34 to 63 kt (39 to 73 mph or 63 to 118 km/hr) associated with a
tropical cyclone are expected in a specified coastal area within 24 hours or less.

Tropical Storm Watch:

An announcement for specific coastal areas that tropical storm conditions are possible within 36 hours.

Tropical Wave:
A trough or cyclonic curvature maximum in the trade-wind easterlies. The wave may reach maximum amplitude in the
lower middle troposphere.

..see also NOAA weather service

Definitions:
Tornado
A violently rotating column of air, usually pendant to a cumulonimbus, with circulation reaching the ground. It nearly
always starts as a funnel cloud and may be accompanied by a loud roaring noise. On a local scale, it is the most
destructive of all atmospheric phenomena.

Severe Thunderstorm
A thunderstorm that produces a tornado, winds of at least 58 mph (50 knots), and/or hail at least ¾" in diameter.
Structural wind damage may imply the occurrence of a severe thunderstorm. A thunderstorm wind equal to or greater
than 40 mph (35 knots) and/or hail of at least ½" is defined as approaching severe.

Flash Flood

A flood which is caused by heavy or excessive rainfall in a short period of time, generally less than 6 hours. Also, at
times a dam failure can cause a flash flood, depending on the type of dam and time period during which the break
occurs.