Art & Culture Notes

YUVRAJ IAS
GIST OF ART & CULTURE

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Table Of Contents
1. Prehistoric Rock Paintings .................................................................... 2
2. Indus Valley Civilization – Art & Culture............................................ 4
3. Mauryan Art And Architecture ........................................................... 7
4. Lion Capital And Sanchi Stupa ........................................................... 10
5. Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture – Part I .. 12
6. Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture – Part II 15
7. Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture – Part III
.................................................................................................................. 20
8. Mural Painting In India ........................................................................ 23
9. Temple Architecture In India-I ........................................................ 27
10.Temple Architecture & Sculpture – Part II .................................... 31
11.Temple Architecture And Sculpture Part-III ............................... 35
12.Buddhist And Jain Architecture ....................................................... 40
13.Indian Bronze Sculptures ................................................................... 42
14.Indo-Islamic Architecture – Part-I .................................................. 46
15.Indo-Islamic Architecture – Part II ................................................ 50
16.Difference between Gandhara and Mathura School of Art......... 53
1 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

Prehistoric Rock Paintings
Prehistoric Art
 Prehistory: Time period in the past when there was no paper or

the written word and hence no books or written accounts of
events. Information about such an age is obtained from
excavations which reveal paintings, pottery, habitat, etc.
 Drawings and paintings were the oldest form of artistic
expression practiced by humans. Reasons for such drawings:
Either to decorate their homes, or/and to keep a journal of
events in their lives.
 Lower and middle Palaeolithic Periods have not shown any
evidence of art works so far. The Upper Palaeolithic Age shows a
lot of artistic activities.
 Earliest paintings in India are from the Upper Palaeolithic Age.
 The first discovery of rock paintings in the world was made in
India by archaeologist Archibald Carlleyle in 1867 – 68 (in
Sohagighat, Mirzapur District, Uttar Pradesh).
 Rock paintings have been found in the walls of caves at Madhya
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Karnataka,
some in the Kumaon Hills of Uttarakhand.
 Paintings at the rock shelters at Lakhudiyar on the banks of the
Suyal River (Uttarakhand) –
1. 3 categories of paintings: man, animal and geometric patterns in

black, white and red ochre.
2. Humans in stick-like forms, a long snouted animal, a fox, a
multiple-legged lizard, wavy lines, groups of dots and rectangle-
filled geometric designs, hand-linked dancing humans.
 Paintings in Kupgallu (Telangana), Piklihal and Tekkalkota (both in

Karnataka)
1. Mostly in white and red ochre.

2. Subjects are bulls, sambhars, elephants, sheep, gazelles, goats,
horses, stylised humans and tridents.
 Paintings in the Vindhya ranges at Madhya Pradesh extending

into Uttar Pradesh –

1. About 500 rock shelters at Bhimbetka in the Vindhya Hills at
Madhya Pradesh.
2. Images of hunting, dancing, music, elephant and horse riders,
honey collection, animal fighting, decoration of bodies, household
scenes, etc.
3. Bhimbetka drawings can be categorised into 7 Periods.
a. Period I: Upper Palaeolithic
b. Period II: Mesolithic
c. Period III: Chalcolithic
 Two major sites of prehistoric rock/cave paintings in India:

Bhimbetka Caves and Jogimara Caves (Amarnath, Madhya
Pradesh).
Bhimbetka Paintings
 Continuous occupation of these caves from 100000 BC to 1000

AD.
 Discovered by archaeologist V S Wakankar in 1957 – 58.
 One of the oldest paintings in India and the world.
 Period I (Upper Palaeolithic)
1. Linear representations of animals like bisons, tigers, elephants,

rhinos and boars; stick-like human figures.
2. Paintings in green and dark red. Green paintings are of dancers
and red ones are of hunters.
 Period II (Mesolithic)
1. Largest number of paintings in this period.

2. More themes but paintings reduce in size.
3. Mostly hunting scenes – people hunting in groups with barbed
spears, arrows and bows, and pointed sticks. Also show traps and
snares to catch animals.
4. Hunters wear simple clothes; some men are shown with head
dresses and masks. Women have been shown both clothed and in
the nude.
5. Animals seen – elephants, bisons, boars, tigers, deer, antelopes,
leapards, panthers, rhinos, frogs, lizards, fish, squirrels and
birds.

6. Children are seen playing and jumping. Some scenes depict family
life.
 Period III (Chalcolithic)
1. Paintings indicate an association of these cave-dwellers with the

agricultural communities settled at Malwa.
2. Cross-hatched squares, lattices, pottery and metal tools are
depicted.
3. Colours used in Bhimbetka paintings – white, yellow, orange, red
ochre, purple, brown, green and black. Most common colours –
white and red.
4. Red obtained from haematite (geru); green from chalcedony;
white probably from limestone.
5. Brushes were made from plant fibre.
6. In some places, there are many layers of paintings, sometimes
20.
7. Paintings can be seen in caves that were used as dwelling places
and also in caves that had some other purpose, perhaps religious.
8. The colours of the paintings have remained intact thousands of
years perhaps due to the chemical reaction of the oxide present
on the rock surface.
Indus Valley Civilization – Art & Culture

Introduction
 Indus Valley art emerged during the second half of the third
millennium BCE (i.e. from 2500 BC onwards).
 Forms of art: seals, pottery, sculpture, gold jewellery, terracotta
figures, etc.
 The two major sites of this civilisation, Harappa and Mohenjodaro
showcase excellent town planning as well, like houses, planned
streets, public baths, drainage systems, storage facilities, etc.
 Harappa and Mohenjodaro are in Pakistan.
 Major sites in India are: Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab),
Kalibangan and Balathal (Rajasthan), Lothal and Dholavira
(Gujarat).
Stone statues

 Two male statues in stone – the Bearded Man (priest king) and a
torso in red sandstone.
 Bearded man (Priest)
1. Appears to be of a priest
2. A shawl is draped over the left shoulder
3. Slightly elongated eyes as if in half-meditation
4. Well-formed nose, with a moustache, short beard and whiskers
5. Wearing an armlet and probable other jewellery.
Bronze casting
 The bronze statues found in Harappa were made by the technique

called Lost Wax technique.
 This technique is used in some parts of the country even today
showing continuity of traditions.
 This technique was popular in almost all the sites.
 First, wax figures were made and then covered with clay. The clay
as allowed to dry and then the figure was heated to melt the wax.
This wax was drained out through a hole in the clay. After that,
the hollow clay was filled with the metal of choice. After cooling
the metal, the clay was removed revealing the desired metal
figurine.
 Both animal and human figures were made this way.
 Examples of bronze figures: Dancing Girl, Buffalo with uplifted
head.
 Dancing Girl
1. 4 inch copper figure

2. Long hair tied in a bun
3. Left arm covered with bangles
4. Cowrie shell necklace around the neck
5. Right hand on the hip and the left hand in a traditional Indian
dancing gesture
6. Large eyes and a flat nose
7. Found from Mohenjodaro.
Terracotta

 Terracotta images were also created but they were less refined
as compared to the stone statues.
 Most important terracotta images are those of the mother
goddess.
 Male figures are also found with similar features and positioning
in all the figures indicating perhaps the image of a god.
 Terracotta toys have also been found (wheels, whistles, rattles,
gamesmen, discs, birds and animals).
Seals
 Thousands of seals have been discovered.

 They were mostly made of steatite (a kind of soft stone).
 Some seals were also made using chert, agate, copper, terracotta,
faience, gold and ivory.
 Standard Harappan seals were square plaques with 2X2 dimension.
 Purpose of the seals: chiefly commercial.
 Some seals were carried in the form of amulets, perhaps as
identity cards.
 Every seal has a picture of an animal and some writings in a
pictographic script (which is not yet deciphered).
 Animals represented include tigers, bulls, elephants, goats, bisons,
etc.
 Pashupati Seal: A seal with a figure seated cross-legged in the
centre with animals around; an elephant and a tiger to the right of
the figure and a rhino and a buffalo to its left.
 Copper tablets, square or rectangular in shape have been found
which were used as amulets.
Pottery
 A lot of pottery has been excavated.

 Plain and painted pottery are found – plain is more common.
 Plain pottery: generally made of red clay, with or without a fine
red or grey slip.
 Black painted pottery: has a fine coating of red slip with painted
geometric and animal designs.
 Perforated pottery was also found, perhaps to use as a sieve.

 Pottery of various sizes has been excavated.
Beads and ornaments
 A variety of ornaments have been found which were used by both

men and women.
 Made from precious metals, gemstones, bone and baked clay.
 Ornaments worn by men and women: fillets, necklaces, finger-
rings, armlets.
 Ornaments worn by women: earrings, girdles, anklets.
 Well-crafted ornaments have been found including necklaces of
gold and semi-precious stones, copper bracelets and beads, head
ornaments and earrings made of gold, steatite and gemstone
beads, faience pendants and buttons.
 Cemetery found in Farmana (Haryana) – where dead bodies were
buried with ornaments.
 Bead factories at Lothal and Chanhudaro.
 Beads made from cornelian, amethyst, lapis lazuli, quartz, crystal,
jasper, turquoise, steatite, etc. Metals were also used like gold,
bronze and copper. Beads were also made from shells and
terracotta.
 Beads were of various shapes disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical,
barrel-shaped, and segmented.
Mauryan Art And Architecture

Introduction
 Religions of the Shramana tradition, i.e., Jainism and Buddhism

emerged around the 6th century BCE.
 The Mauryas had established themselves as a great power in the
4th century BCE and by the 3rd century, they had large parts of
India under their control.
 At this time there were many modes of religious practices
including the worship of Yakshas and mother-goddesses.
Nevertheless, Buddhism became the most popular.
 After the Harappan civilization, monumental stone sculpture and
architecture appears only in the Mauryan period.

 There were pillars, sculptures, rock-cut architecture, buildings
like stupas, viharas and chaityas that served many purposes. They
are exquisite in aesthetic quality and brilliant in their design and
execution.
Mauryan Pillars and Sculptures
Pillars & Sculptures
 Erection of pillars was common in the Achamenian Empire (Persian

Empire) also. While there were commonalities like the use of
polished stones, motifs like lotus, there are also differences.
While the Achamenian pillars were constructed in pieces, the
Mauryan pillars were rock-cut, displaying the superior skill of the
carver.
 Stone pillars can be seen all over the Mauryan Empire. These had
proclamations inscribed on them and were used to spread the
message of the Buddha by Emperor Ashoka.
 The top portion of the pillar is called capital and it typically has
animal figures like bull, lion, elephant, etc. These capital figures
are carved standing on a square or circular abacus. The abacuses
are on the base which could be a stylised inverted lotus.
 Example of pillars with capital figures: Sarnath, Basarah-Bakhira,
Rampurva, Sankisa and Lauriya-Nandangarh.
 The Lion Capital at Sarnath is the most famous example.
 Monumental figures of Yakshas and Yakshinis have been found in
various parts of India thus showing the popularity of Yaksha
worship.
Rock-cut architecture
 Ashoka also patronised rock-cut architecture.

 Rock-cut elephant at Dhauli, Odisha – shows modelling in round
with linear rhythm. It also has an Ashokan edict.
 Lomus Rishi Cave – Rock-cut cave at Barabar Hills near Gaya. The
cave entrance is decorated with a semicircle chaitya arch. An
elephant is carved in high relief on the chaitya. The interior hall
of the cave is rectangular; it also has a circular chamber at the
back. Ashoka patronised this cave for the Ajivika sect.
Stupas, chaityas and viharas

 Stupas and viharas were constructed as part of the Buddhist and
Jaina monastic tradition but most of the constructions belong to
Buddhism.
 Some Brahmanical gods were also represented in the sculptures
here.
 Stupas were constructed over the relics of the Buddha at
Rajagriha, Kapilavastu, Vaishali, Ramagrama, Allakappa, Pava,
Vethadipa, Pippalvina and Kushinagar.
 Stupas consist of a cylindrical drum with a circular anda and
a harmika and a chhatra on the top. Sometimes there were
circumambulatory pathways and gateways. In many cases,
additions were added in later centuries.
1. Anda: hemispherical mound symbolic of the mound of dirt used to

cover Buddha’s remains (in many stupas actual relics were used).
2. Harmika: square railing on top of the mound.
3. Chhatra: central pillar supporting a triple umbrella form.
4. Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan – 3rd century BCE; grand stupa with a
circular mound and a circumambulatory path.
5. Many stupas were built and not all of them with royal patronage.
Patrons included lay devotees, gahapatis, guilds and kings.
6. Not many mention the names of the artisans. But artisans’
categories like stone carvers, goldsmiths, stone-polishers,
carpenters, etc. are mentioned.
7. Stupa at Sanchi – most famous and one of the earliest examples.
8. Chaityas were basically prayer halls and most of them were with
stupas. Generally, the hall was rectangular and it had a semi-
circular rear end. They had horse-shoe shaped windows. They also
had pillars separating the hall from the two aisles.
9. Viharas were the residences of the monks.
10. Both chaityas and viharas were made out of wood, and later
were also stone-cut.
Depiction of the Buddha
 In the early periods, Buddha is represented through symbols like

footprints, lotus thrones, chakras, stupas, etc.

 Later on, stories were portrayed on the railings and torans of the
stupas. These were mainly the Jataka tales.
 The chief events from Buddha’s life which are narrated in the arts
are birth, renunciation, enlightenment, first sermon
(dharmachakrapravartana) and mahaparinirvana (death).
 The Jataka stories that find frequent depiction are Chhadanta
Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Vessantara Jataka, Vidur
Jataka and Shama Jataka.
Lion Capital And Sanchi Stupa

Lion Capital, Sarnath
 One of the finest examples of Mauryan sculpture.

 Located at Sarnath, near Varanasi. Commissioned by Emperor
Ashoka. Built-in 250 BCE.
 Made of polished sandstone. The surface is heavily polished.
 Currently, the pillar is in its original place but the capital is on
display at the Sarnath Museum.
 It was commissioned to commemorate the first sermon of the
Buddha or the Dharmachakrapravartana at Sarnath.
 Originally, the capital had five components:

 The shaft (now broken into many parts)
 A lotus base bell
 A drum on the base bell with 4 animals proceeding clockwise
(abacus)
 Figures of 4 lions
 The crowning part, a large wheel (this is also broken and
displayed at the museum)
 The capital was adopted as the National Emblem of India after

independence without the crowning wheel and the lotus base.
 The four lions are seated back-to-back on a circular abacus. The
figures of the lions are grand and evoke magnificence. They are
realistic images and the lions are portrayed as if they are holding
their breath. The curly manes of the lions are voluminous. The
muscles of the feet are shown stretched indicating the weight of
the bodies.

 The abacus has four wheels (chakra) with 24 spokes in all four
directions. This is part of the Indian National Flag now.
 The wheel represents Dharmachakra in Buddhism (the wheel of
dhamma/dharma). Between every wheel, there are animals carved.
They are a bull, a horse, an elephant and a lion. The animals appear
as if they are in motion. The abacus is supported by the inverted
lotus capital.
Sanchi Stupa
 Sanchi Stupa is a UNESCO world heritage site since 1989. Sanchi

is in Madhya Pradesh.
 There are many small stupas here with three mains ones – stupa 1,
stupa 2 and stupa 3. Stupa 1 is also called the Great Stupa at
Sanchi. It is the most prominent and the oldest and is believed to
have the Buddha’s relics.
 It was built by Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.
 Originally, it was smaller than its present dimensions. It was
expanded in later periods.
 The original structure was made out of bricks. Later on, it was
covered with stone, vedica, and the torana (gateway).
 There are four gateways to the stupa with the southern one being
built first. The others were later added. The gateways are
adorned with beautiful sculptures and carvings. Each torana
consists of two vertical pillars and three horizontal bars on top.
The bars contain exquisite carvings on front and back. They
contain images of shalbhanjikas – lady holding the branch of a
tree. Stories from the Jataka tales are carved here.
 The structure has a lower and upper pradakshinapatha or
circumambulatory path. The upper pradakshinapatha is unique to
this stupa.
 On the southern side of the stupa, the Ashokan Lion Capital pillar
is found with inscriptions on it.
 The hemispherical dome of the stupa is called the anda. It
contains the relics of the Buddha.
 The harmika is a square railing on top of the dome/mound.

 The chhatra is an umbrella on top of the harmika. There is a
sandstone pillar in the site on which Ashoka’s Schism Edict is
inscribed.
 The original brick dome was expanded into double its size during
the reign of the Shunga dynasty with stone slabs covering the
original dome.
Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture –

Part I
 Introduction
After the decline of the Mauryan Empire in the second century
BC, various rulers controlled the regions which were once under
the Mauryas, like the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the
north and central India; and the Satavahanas, Abhiras, Ikshvakus
and Vakatakas in the south and western India.
 This period also saw the emergence of Brahmanical sects like the
Shaivas and the Vaishnavas.
 Chief examples of fine sculpture are found at: Bharhut and Vidisha
(Madhya Pradesh); Mathura (Uttar Pradesh); Bodhgaya (Bihar);
Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh); Bhaja and Pavani (Maharashtra);
and Khandagiri and Udaigiri (Odisha).
Post Mauryan Art and Architecture
Bharhut
 Sculptures are tall like the Yakshas and Yakshinis of the Mauryan
era.
 Illusion of three-dimensionality is present.
 Narratives or stories are represented pictorially.
 Space is utilised to the maximum extent.
 Initially, the carvings were shown with flat images, i.e., projection
of hands and feet were not possible, but later on they emerged
with deep carvings and a much naturalised representation of
human and animal forms.
 One important sculpture at Bharhut: Queen Mayadevi (the
Buddha’s mother) dreaming of an elephant descending towards her
womb.

 Jataka tales are also seen.
 A common characteristic of all the male images after first and
second centuries is the knotted headgear.
Sanchi
Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara Schools
 Gandhara (in modern Pakistan), Mathura and Sarnath emerged as

important art production centres from the first century AD
onwards.
 Buddha gets a human form in Mathura and Gandhara. Previously he
was represented via symbols.
 Gandhara art form had influence of Indo-Greek elements such as
Bactria and Parthia traditions besides the local Gandhara
tradition.
 The Buddha images here have Hellenistic features.
 The Buddha here is more muscular.
 The sculptures are heavily polished with rich carvings.
 The hair is curly and the lobes of the ears are elongated.
 The garments are generally flowing in nature.
 The sculptures were initially made of stone and later on
stucco was also used.
 The Mathura art tradition became so strong that it spread to
other parts of northern India.
 Best example: Stupa sculpture at Sanghol, Punjab.
 The Buddha images in the Mathura school are modelled on
the earlier Yaksha images.
 Mathura art form also has some images of the Shaiva and
Vaishnava faiths but images of the Buddha are numerous.
 There is less symbolism here as compared to the Gandhara
School.
 The sculptures are generally made of red sandstone.
 The garments are clearly visible and they usually cover the
left shoulder. Multiple folds are shown.
 The halo around the deity is profusely decorated.

 In the 2nd century, the images get fleshier and their
rotundity increase.
 In the 3rd century, the fleshiness is reduced. Movement is
shown by increasing the distance between the legs and
bending of the body. There is more softness in the surface.
 But in the late 4th century, this trend is reversed and the
flesh becomes tightened.
 In the 5th and 6th centuries, the drapery is integrated into
the mass.
 Sarnath and Kosambi also emerged as important centres of art
besides the traditional centre Mathura.
 The Buddha images in Sarnath have transparent drapery
covering both shoulders.
 The halo around the Buddha is hardly decorated.
Early temples
 Apart from Stupas, Brahmanical temples also started getting

built.
 Temples were decorated with the images of gods and also
representations of the Purana myths.
 Every temple had a principle image of a god.
 There were 3 kinds of shrines of the temples:
 Sandhara type: without pradakshinapatha
(circumambulatory path)
 Nirandhara type: with pradakshinapatha
 Sarvatobhadra: which can be accessed from all sides
 Important temple sites from this period: Deogarh (UP); Eran,
Udaygiri, Nachna-Kuthara (near Vidisha in MP). These are simple
structures with a veranda, a hall and the shrine at the back.
Buddhist Monuments of South India
 The Vengi region in Andhra Pradesh has many stupas, in

Jaggayyapeta, Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Bhattiprolu, Goli, etc.
 Amaravati School of Art
 Developed during the Satavahana period.

 This is fully indigenous in nature and had profound influence
on art in Sri Lanka and south-east Asia since products from
here were taken to those places.
 Had many sculptures and has a Mahachaitya. The sculptures
are preserved in Chennai Museum, National Museum at Delhi,
Amaravati Site Museum and the British Museum at London.
 Amaravati Stupa has a pradakshinapatha and a vedica (fence)
with many sculptures on it. The torana (gateway) has
disappeared.
 Unique feature of this stupa: the dome is covered with relief
stupa sculptural slabs.
 Events from Buddha’s life and Jataka tales are depicted.
 It was first built in the first century AD and in later
centuries developed or enhanced.
 Initial phase does not show Buddha images but they are seen
from the later stages (like the stupa at Sanchi).
 The sculptures have intense emotions. The figures are
slender and show a lot of movement. The bodies are shown
with 3 bents (tribhanga).
 The structures are more complex than at Sanchi and are
more animated.
 There is a lot of attention paid to the forms’ clarity.
 The sculptures of Goli and Nagarjunakonda in the 3rd century are
reduced in animation but still very three-dimensional.
 Independent Buddha images at: Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda and
Guntapalle. Guntappale: Rock-cut cave site near Elluru.
 Other rock-cut stupas found at: Anakapalle (near
Vishakhapatnam); and Sannati (largest in Karnataka).
 Apart from Buddha images, images of Boddhisattvas like
Avalokiteshvara, Vajrapani, Padmapani, Amitabha and Maitreya
Buddha are also seen

Part II
Cave Tradition in Western India
 Caves dating from the 2nd century BC have been excavated.

 Three architectural types:
 Apsidal vault-roof chaitya halls – Ajanta, Bhaja, Pitalkhora
 Apsidal vault-roof pillarless halls – Thana-Nadsur
 Flat-roofed quadrangular hall with a circular chamber at the
back – Kondivite in Mumbai
 The front of the chaitya hall has an imposing semi-circular chaitya
arch with an open front having a wooden façade.
 The caves at Kondivite have no chaitya arch.
 All the chaitya caves have a stupa at the rear.
 An example of the apsidal vault-roof kind: Ajanta Cave No. 9. This
chaitya has a rectangular hall with a stone-screen wall as façade.
Similar kinds are found at Nashik, Bedsa, Kanheri and Karla.
 After the first century BC, many caves are of the first
architectural type.
 Junnar has the highest number of cave excavations – more than
200.
 Kanheri in Mumbai has 108 excavated caves.
 Most important sites: Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Ellora, Nashik, Karla,
Bhaja, Junnar and Kanheri.
 Earlier it was believed that these caves belonged to the orthodox
Theravada sect of Buddhism. But the discovery of the Konkan
Maurya inscription which mentions Saka era 322 (corresponding
to 400 AD) proves that cave activity in western Deccan was a
continuing process.
 Some of these sites have been converted into modern Hindu
shrines and are used to this day by the local people.
 Rock-cut caves are found not only in Maharashtra but also in:
 Karnataka – mainly in Badami and Aihole patronised by the
Chalukyas.
 Andhra Pradesh – Vijayawada area.
 Tamil Nadu – Mahabalipuram patronised by Pallavas.
 Post 6th century art depended more on political patronage as
opposed to the collective public patronage of the earlier periods.
Karla Caves
 Located at Karla, Lonavala in Maharashtra.

 Biggest rock-cut chaitya hall was excavated in Karla.
 This cave has an open courtyard with 2 pillars, a stone-screen wall
to protect from rain, a veranda, a stone-screen wall as façade, an
apsidal vault-roof chaitya hall with pillars and a stupa at the rear.
 Chaitya hall is carved with human and animal figures.
Viharas
 Viharas have been excavated at all cave sites.

 Vihara plan: a veranda, a hall and cells around the walls of the hall.
 Important viharas – Ajanta cave No.12; Nashik Cave Nos. 3, 10 and
17; Bedsa cave No.11.
 Early vihara caves are carved with interior decorative motifs like
chaitya arches and vedica designs over the cell doors.
 The vihara caves at Nashik have front pillars carved with ghata-
base and ghata-capital with human figures.
 A popular such cave was found at Junnar and was popularly called
Ganeshlini since an image of Ganesha belonging to a later era was
installed in it. It became a chaitya-vihara when a stupa was added
to the back of this vihara.
Ajanta
 Most famous cave site. Located in Aurangabad district,

Maharashtra.
 There are 29 caves in Ajanta.
 4 chaitya caves:
 Cave nos. 10 and 9 belonging to 1st and 2nd centuries BC.
 Cave nos. 19 and 26 belonging to the 5th century AD.
 There are large chaitya-viharas also.
 Decorated with sculptures and paintings.
 The only remaining example of 1st century BC and 5th century AD
paintings.
 Cave nos. 19 and 26:
 Elaborately carved.
 Façade decorated with the images of Buddha and
Boddhisattva.

 Apsidal vault-roof variety. Cave no. 26 – very big, interior
hall carved with Buddha images; biggest image being
Mahaparinibbana image.
 Ajanta shrine images are big in size.
 Chief patrons at Ajanta:
 Varahadeva, a minister of the Vakataka king Harishena –
cave no. 16
 Upendragupta, local king and a feudatory of the Vakataka
king – cave nos. 17 – 20.
 Buddhabhadra – cave no. 26
 Mathuradasa – cave no. 4
 Paintings indicate many typological variations. Outward
projections are seen from the 5th century onwards. Lines are well-
defined and rhythmic. The figures are heavy much like the
sculptures found in this region. The colours are limited.
 The paintings show various skin colours like brown, yellowish
brown, greenish, yellow ochre, etc. indicating a multi-coloured
populace.
 The themes of the paintings are events from the Buddha’s life,
Jatakas and Avadanas.
 Padmapani and Vajrapani images are very common in the Ajanta
caves. Some paintings cover the entire wall of the caves. Example:
Simhala Avadana, Vidhurpundita Jataka and Mahajanaka Jataka.
 In many paintings, events are grouped geographically. Famous
example of painting from cave no.1 – Padmapani Boddhisattva.
Ellora
 Important cave site in Aurangabad. Located 100 km from Ajanta.

 It has 32 Buddhist, Jain and Brahmanical caves.
 It is a unique historical site in India as it has monasteries
associated with the three religions from the 5th to the 11th
century AD.
 Buddhist caves:
 12 in number.
 Images belong to Vajrayana Buddhism like Tara, Akshobhya,
Mahamayuri, Avalokiteshvara, Maitreya, etc.

 Are big in size and are of single, double and triple storeys.
 Triple storeyed cave is found only at Ellora.
 Have massive pillars.
 All caves were plastered and painted but nothing is visible
today.
 The sculptures are monumental.
 The shrine Buddha images are big generally guarded by the
images of Padmapani and Vajrapani.
 Jain caves:
 Are more ornate than the Buddhist caves.
 The decorative forms are heavily protruded.
 Belong to 9th century AD and onwards.
 Brahmanical caves:
 Numbered 13 – 28.
 Cave no. 14 is the only double storey cave here.
 Have images of Shiva and Vishnu and their different forms.
 Prominent Shaivite themes: Andhakasurvadha, Ravana
shaking Mt. Kailas and Kalyanasundara.
 Prominent Vaishnavite theme: avatars of Vishnu.
 Ellora caves have been carved by various artisan guilds that came
from Vidarbha, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Most diverse site in
India.
 Cave no. 16 – also called Kailashleni. Here, a rock-cut temple is
carved out of a single rock.
Elephanta Caves
 Located in Elephanta Island in Mumbai Harbour.

 Originally a Buddhist site, later dominated by Shaivism.
 Contemporary with Ellora caves.
 Sculptures are slender in body images with stark light and dark
effects.
Cave Tradition in Eastern India
 Mainly located in the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh and

Odisha.

 Main sites in AP – Guntapalle in Elluru.
 Unique because structural stupas, viharas and caves are excavated
in one place.
 Guntapalle Chaitya Cave – circular hall with a stupa and a chaitya
arch at the entrance.
 Most of them date back to the 2nd century BC.
 Most of the caves are vihara type.
 The biggest rock-cut stupas in India are found at Anakapalli near
Vishakhapatnam. Carved during the 4th – 5th centuries AD.
 Earliest examples in Odisha – Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves near
Bhubaneswar.
 Scattered caves with inscriptions of Kharavela kings. As per the
inscriptions, the caves were intended for Jaina monks.

Part III
Seated Buddha, Katra Mound, Mathura
 Period: 2nd century AD.

 Buddha with two Boddhisattva attendants. Buddha is seated in
Padmasana (cross-folded legs).
 Right hand is in Abhayamudra raised above the shoulder level and
left hand is on the left thigh.
 Ushanisha (hair knot) is vertically raised. S
 culptures of this period from Mathura have light volume and a
fleshy body.
 The sanghati (dress) covers only the left shoulder.
 Buddha is seated on a lion throne. He has a large halo which is
decorated with geometric motifs. His face is rounded having
fleshy cheeks.
 The attendants are identified as the Boddhisattvas Padmapani
(holding a lotus) and Vajrapani (holding a thunderbolt).
 Two flying figures diagonally above the halo.
 This image is important for an understanding of the Buddha image
development in the later periods.
Buddha Head, Taxila

 Period: 2nd century AD, Kushana Period.
 Taxila in Gandhara region, now in Pakistan.
 The sculpture has Greco-Roman elements. Buddha head has
Hellenistic elements.
 Thick curly hair with sharp and linear strokes over the head. Big
forehead plane, protruding eyeballs, half-closed eyes.
 Face and cheeks are not rotund unlike the images found in other
parts of the country.
 Elongated ears and earlobes; Surface is smooth and the outlines
are quite sharp.
 Expressive image; shows a remarkably calm expression.
 Gandhara images of this period showcase heaviness. This style
assimilates influences from Parthian, Bactrian and Acamenian
traditions with the local style.
Seated Buddha, Sarnath
 Period: 5th century AD.

 Fine example of the Sarnath School.
 Made from Chunar sandstone.
 Buddha is seated in Padmasana.
 Image represents dhammachackrapravartana which is evident
from the figures in the panel below the throne. The panel has a
chakra in the centre and a deer on each side. Buddha’s hands are
also shown in dhammachackrapravartana mudra placed below the
chest.
 Body is slender and slightly elongated. The outlines are delicate
and rhythmic.
 The robe clings to the body. Face is round although the cheeks are
less rounded as compared to the earlier images from the Kushana
period. Lower lip is protruding. Eyes are half-closed.
 Ushanisha has circular curled hairs.
 The back of the throne is richly decorated with carvings of
creepers and flowers. The halo is plain.
Padmapani Boddhisatva, Ajanta
 Located in Ajanta Cave No.1.

 Period: Late 5th century AD.
 Image of a Boddhisattva holding a Padma or lotus.
 Large shouldered with 3 bends in the body creating the impression
of a movement.
 Soft modelling, outlines merged with the body creating a 3-D
effect.
 Eyes are half-closed and a bit elongated. Nose is straight and
sharp. Small chin.
 Adorning a beaded necklace.
 Right hand is holding the lotus and the left hand is extended into
space.
 Small figures surround the image.
 Thread over the body is seen with spiral lines.
 Colours used: light red, green, brown and blue.
 Cave No.1 paintings are better preserved.
Mara Vijaya, Ajanta
 Location: Cave No.26, Ajanta Caves.

 The theme of this image has been portrayed as paintings in the
caves but this is the only sculpture.
 Image of Buddha in the centre surrounded by Mara’s army and his
daughter.
 Buddha is in padmasana.
 Mara represents desire here. This representation is the
personification of the tumult of mind that the Buddha underwent
at the time of his enlightenment.
 Buddha’s right hand is shown towards the earth symbolising his
generosity.
 The panel contains many highly voluminous images.
Maheshmurti, Elephanta
 Period: Early 6th century AD.

 Located in the main cave shrine at Elephanta Caves.
 Best example of sculpting images in rock-cut caves in the western
Deccan tradition.

 Large image. Central head is of Shiva. Other two heads are of
Bhairava and Uma.
 Central face is round with thick lips and heavy eyelids.
 The face of Bhairava in profile is shown in anger with bulging eye
and moustache.
 Uma’s face has feminine features.
 This image is considered as a representation of the five
integrated faces of Shiva mentioned in one of the Shilpa texts.
The top and the back heads are invisible.
 Characteristic features of the sculptures of the Elephanta Caves:
smooth surface, elongation and rhythmic movement.
Mural Painting In India

Introduction
 After Ajanta, very few sites with paintings have survived.

 In many places, sculptures were also plastered and painted.
Badami
 Example of later mural tradition.

 Badami was the capital of the western Chalukyan dynasty.
 This dynasty ruled the area from 543 CE to 598 CE.
 Chalukya king Mangalesha patronised the excavation of the
Badami caves.
 Mangalesha was the younger son of Pulakesi I and the brother of
Kirtivarman I.
 Cave No. 4 is also known as the Vishnu Cave because of the
dedication of the image of Vishnu. The date 578 – 579 CE is
mentioned here. Thus, we get the period during which the cave
was carved and also the Vaishnava leanings of the patron.
 Paintings depict palace scenes. A painting shows Kirtivarman
seated in the palace and watching a dance scene with his wife
and feudatories.
 The paintings are an extension of the mural painting tradition
from Ajanta to Badami in south India.

 The faces of the king and queen are reminiscent of the modelling
seen in Ajanta, with their eye-sockets large, eyes half-closed
and protruding lips.
 These artists of the 6th century CE were able to create volume
by contouring different parts of the face to create protruding
structures of the face itself.
Murals under the Pallava, Pandava and Chola Kings
 The Pallavas succeeded the Chalukyas further south in Tamil

Nadu.
 They were great patrons of the arts.
 Mahendravarma I (7th century) built many temples in
Panamalai, Mandagapattu and Kanchipuram.
 An inscription at Mandagapattu mentions the king
Mahendravarma I with several titles such as Vichitrachitta
(curious-minded), Chaityakari (temple-builder) and
Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists) – showing his interest
in artistic activities.
 Paintings at the temple at Kanchipuram was patronised by
the Pallava king Rajasimha.
 Painting of Somaskanda here – only traces remain – large,
round face.
 There is increased ornamentation in this period as
compared to the previous. But, the depiction of the torso is
much the same although a bit elongated.
 Pandyas also patronised art.
 Examples: Tirumalaipuram caves and Jaina caves at
Sittanvasal.
 Paintings are seen on the ceilings of the shrine, in verandas
and on the brackets.
 Dancing figures of celestial nymphs are seen.
 Contours are in vermillion red and the bodies are painted
yellow. Dancers have expressions on their faces and show
supple limps. Their eyes are elongated and sometimes
protrude off the face. This is a distinctive feature seen in
many later paintings in the Deccan and South India.

 The Cholas ruled over the region from 9th to the 13th century
CE.
 The Cholas were at the height of their power in the 11th
century CE and this is when their masterpieces appear.
 Temples built during the reign of Rajaraja Chola and his son
Rajendra Chola – Brihadeswara Temple at Thanjavur, at
Gangaikonda Cholapuram, at Darasuram.
 Chola paintings are seen in Nartamalai. Most important
paintings are seen in the Brihadeswara Temple.
 Two layers of paint were seen. The upper layer was
executed during the Nayaka period (16th century). The
Chola paintings (original layer) depict narrations and various
forms of Lord Shiva, Shiva in Kailas, Shiva as Nataraja, as
Tripurantaka. Also there is a portrait of Rajaraja, his
mentor Kuruvar, etc.
Vijayanagara Murals
 After the Chola decline, the Vijayanagara Dynasty brought the

region from Hampi to Trichy under its control.
 Hampi was the capital.
 Paintings at Tiruparakunram, near Trichy (14th century)
represent the early phase of the Vijayanagara style.
 Virupaksha Temple at Hampi
 Paintings on the ceilings of the Mandapa.
 Depicting events from dynastic history and also from the
Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
 Examples of paintings: portraying Vidyaranya, Bukkaraya
Harsha’s spiritual teacher carried in a palanquin in a
procession; incarnations of Vishnu.
 Faces and figures are shown in profile. Large frontal eyes,
narrow waists.
 Lepakshi in Andhra Pradesh – paintings on the walls of the Shiva
Temple.
 Features of Vijayanagara paintings:
 Lines are still but fluid.
 Faces are in profile.

 Figures and objects are shown two-dimensionally.
 These features were adopted by later artists such as those
of the Nayaka Period.
Nayaka Paintings
 Extension of the Vijayanagara styles.

 17th and 18th centuries.
 Seen in Thiruparakunram, Sreerangam and Tiruvarur.
 Nayaka paintings showcase episodes of Mahabharata, Ramayana
and Krishna Leela.
 In Thiruparakunram, paintings from two periods are observed –
14th and 17th centuries.
 The 14th century paintings show scenes from the life of
Mahavira.
 In Tiruvarur, there is a panel describing the story of
Machukunda.
 Sri Krishna Temple at Chengam, Arcot – 60 panels narrating the
Ramayana. (Late phase of the Nayaka period).
 Male figures are shown with slim waists but less heavy abdomens.
 Painting of Nataraja at Tiruvalanjuli – good example of Nayaka
art.
Kerala Murals (16th – 18th centuries)
 Distinct style was developed but a lot of the features of the

Nayaka and Vijayanagara styles were adopted.
 The artists took ideas from the contemporary traditions of
Kathakali and Kalam Ezhuthu.
 Vibrant and luminous colours, human figures shown 3-
dimensionally.
 Paintings on the walls of the shrines, on cloister walls of temples,
also in palaces.
 Theme of the paintings – from locally popular episodes of Hindu
mythology, local versions of the Mahabharata and Ramayana
through oral traditions.
 More than 60 sites with mural paintings

 Three palaces: Dutch Palace (Kochi), Krishnapuram palace
(Kayamkulam), Padmanabhapuram palace (Travancore, now in
Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu).
 Pundareekapuram Krishna temple
 Panayanarkavu (temple), Thirukodithanam
 Sri Rama temple, Triprayar
 Vadakkunathan temple, Thrissur
Traditional forms of murals:
 Pithoro in parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat.

 Mithila paintings, Mithila region,
 Bihar Warli paintings, Maharashtra
Temple Architecture In India-I

Temple Architecture and Sculpture
Basic Form of the Hindu Temple
 The basic elements that comprise a Hindu Temple are given below:
 Garbhagriha: Literally means womb-house. It is a cave-like
sanctum which houses the main icon of the temple. In earlier
times, it was a small cubicle with one entrance. In later periods, it
grew into a larger chamber.
 Mandapa: The entrance to the temple. It could be a portico or a
collonaded hall where worshippers stand.
 Shikhara/Vimana: Noticed from the 5th century CE. It is a
mountain-like spire on top. In north India, it is called Shikhara and
is curving in shape. In the south, it is like a pyramidal tower and is
called Vimana.
 Amalaka: Stone-like disc seen at the top of the temple. Mostly in
north Indian temples.
 Kalasha: It is the topmost part of the temple. Mainly seen in north
Indian styles.
 Antarala: It is a vestibule between the Garbhagriha and the
Mandapa.
 Jagati: This is common in north Indian temples and is a raised
platform where devotees can sit and pray.

 Vahana: It is the vehicle of the main deity which along with the
standard pillar or Dhvaj which are placed axialy
Types of Indian Temple Architecture/Styles
Basically there are 3 kinds of temple architecture:
1. Nagara Style
2. Dravida Style
3. Vesara Style
4. Became popular in northern India.
5. Entire temple is generally built on a stone platform with steps
leading to it.
6. No grand boundary walls or gateways (unlike the Dravida style).
7. Earlier temples had one shikhara whereas latter temples had
many.
8. The garbhagriha is located directly beneath the tallest shikhara.
Subdivisions of Nagara Style
Rekha-prasada/Latina:
 Simple shikhara with square base and whose walls slope inwards to
a point on top.
 Most common.
 In later periods, latina type became more complex with several
towers clustered together.
 The tallest tower was at the centre and the garbhagriha was
directly beneath it.
Phamsana:

 Roofs composed of many slabs that gently rise to a single
point over the building’s centre.
 Roofs do not curve inwards like the latina type, but they
slope upwards on a straight incline.
 Phamsana structures are generally broader and shorter than
latina ones.

 In many temples, the latina type is used to house the
garbhagriha whereas the mandapa has a Phamsana style of
architecture.
Valabhi:
 Rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted

chamber.
 Also called wagon-vaulted buildings.
Nagara Style in Various Regions:-
Central India
 Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan.

 Made of sandstone.
 Oldest surviving structural temples from the Gupta period are in
MP. They are small shrines with four pillars to support a small
mandapa. The mandapas are basically small porch-like structures
before the garbhagriha which are also rather small. Examples:
temple at Udaigiri – part of a larger Hindu complex of cave shrines
(outskirts of Vidisha); temple at Sanchi (which was a Buddhist
site).
 This shows how similar architectural developments were
incorporated in both religions.
Dashavatara Vishnu Temple, Deogarh, UP
 Classic example of the late Gupta period temple architecture.

 Patrons are unknown.
 From the architecture and imagery, it is known that the temple
was built in early 6th century CE.
 Panchayatana Style of architecture.
 Main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four
subsidiary shrines that are smaller and at the 4 corners.
 Hence, there are a total of five shrines and hence the name,
Panchayatana.
 This temple has a rekha-prasada type of shikhara.
 It is a west-facing temple. Most temples are north or east facing.

 Has a grand doorway with figures of Ganga and Yamuna on the left
and right side respectively.
 Depicts Vishnu in various forms. 3 main Vishnu reliefs on the
temple walls: Sheshashayana on the south; Nara-Narayan on the
east; and Gajendramoksha on the west.
 Since it was assumed that the subsidiary shrines had avatars of
Vishnu in them, the temple was mistaken to be Dashavatara
temple.
Khajuraho Temples (MP)
 Built in the 10th century CE.

 It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Patronised by Chandela Kings.
 All temples made of sandstone.
 From the temple at Deogarh (built about 400 years before
Khajuraho temples), the development of the Nagara architectural
style is visible here.
 These temples are known for their extensive erotic sculptures.
Mostly Hindu, though some Jain temples are also present.
 There are also temples dedicated to Yoginis which form part of
Tantric worship indicating the rise and spread of tantric cult after
the 7th century. E.g. Chausanth Yogini temple.
 Important temples in Khajuraho: Kandariya Mahadeo (dedicated
to Lord Shiva) and Lakshmana temple.
Lakshmana temple
 Grandest of the Khajuraho temples.

 Dedicated to Vishnu.
 Built by the Chandela King Dhanga in 954 CE.
 Structure is placed on a high platform that is accessed by stairs.
 Has small temples in four corners.
 Has high shikharas, amalak and kalash. Also has projecting
balconies and verandas.
West India

 Gujarat, Rajasthan and western MP.
 Sandstone is most common, grey to black basalt is also seen in
some 10 – 12th century temples.
 Also seen is soft white marble in 10 – 12th century Jain Temples
at Mount Abu and a 15th century temple at Ranakpur.
 Samlaji in Gujarat is an important art historical site. Many
sculptures made of grey schist are found here.
Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat
 Built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki dynasty in 1026 CE.

 Temple complex features a huge rectangular stepped tank known
as the ‘Surya Kund’ in the front. This is a noticeable feature from
earlier times – proximity of a sacred water body. By early 11th
century, this was a common feature of many temples.
 The Surya Kund is a 100 sq.m pond – one of the grandest of its
kind in the country. 108 miniature shrines are carved in between
the steps inside the tank.
 A large ornamental torana (gateway) leads to the sabha mandapa
or assembly hall that is open on all sides.
 Lavish carving and sculpture work is present.
 The central shrine walls are plain. The temple is east-facing and
every year at the time of equinoxes, the sun shines directly onto
the central shrine.
Temple Architecture & Sculpture – Part II

Nagara Style in Various Regions: – (Contd.)
East India
 North-East, Odisha and Bengal.

 Each region produced a distinct type of architecture.
 Terracotta was the main medium in Bengal and north-east until the
7th century.
 Assam
 There is evidence of Gupta influence from a sculpted door
frame dating to the 6th century CE from DaParvatia near

Tezpur; and sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate near
Tinsukia.
 The Gupta influence is seen till the 10th century.
 By 12th to 14th centuries, a distinct Ahom style developed
in the region around Guwahati. This style evolved from the
mixing of the style brought to the area by the Tais of Upper
Burma with the Pala style of Bengal. Example: Kamakhya
Temple – a Shakti Peeth dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya
built in 17th century.
 Bengal
 Regions: West Bengal, Bangladesh, Bihar
 Style between 9th and 11th centuries – Pala Style. The Palas
were patrons of Buddhist monastic styles. The temples in
this region showcased the local Vanga style.
 Style of temple architecture from the middle of the 11th
century to middle of the 13th centuries – Sena style.
 Siddheswara Mahadeva temple in Barakar in Burdwan
District – 9th century; tall curving Shikhara crowned by a
large amalaka – early Pala style.
 Many temples were located at Telkupi in Purulia District – 9th to

12th century but were submerged due to dam construction. These
temples showed all the Nagara sub-styles prevalent in the north.
 Some temples survive.
 Made of black to grey basalt.
 Had chlorite stone pillars and arched niches.
 They influenced early Bengal Sultanate buildings at Gaur and
Pandua.
 Local vernacular building traditions also influenced the temples.
Most noticeable of these influences was the curving or sloping side
of the bamboo roof of a Bengali hut.
 This feature was adopted in Mughal buildings and is known as
the Bangla Roof.
 From the Mughal period onwards, several terracotta brick temples
were built which had elements from the earlier Pala style, from
the local bamboo hut styles, and arches and domes from Islamic
architecture.

 Eg. Terracotta Temple, Vishnupur (17th century)
 Odisha
 Three orders of architectural features:
 Rekhapida (Rekha Deula): Tall straight building (looking like
a shikhara) covering the garbhagriha.
 Pidhadeul: It is the mandapa, a square building where
worshippers are present and also where dancing takes place.
 Khakra (Khakra Deula): Rectangular building with a truncated
pyramid-shaped roof. Temples of Shakti are usually in this
type.
 Location: Ancient Kalinga – that includes modern Puri District
including Bhubaneswar (ancient Tribhuvanesvara, Puri and Konark).
 Odisha temples are a distinct sub-style of the Nagara style
called Kalinga Style.
 Shikhara is called Deul and is almost vertical and suddenly curves
sharply inwards at the top.
 In front of the deul, there is the mandapa, called jagamohana in
Odisha.
 Exterior of the temples are richly carved while the interiors are
plain.
 Temples generally have boundary walls.
 Konark Sun Temple
 Sun temple built around 1240.
 Its shikhara which was said to be 70m high fell in the 19th
century.
 The jagamohana (mandapa) has survived. This is the largest
enclosed space in Hindu architecture although it is not accessible
any more.
 The temple is set on a high base. There are detailed carvings.
There are 12 pairs of gigantic wheels sculpted with spokes and
hubs representing the chariot wheels of the sun god. The whole
temple resembles a processional chariot.
 On the southern wall there is huge sculpture of Surya or sun god
made of green stone. It is believed that there were 3 more such
images in different directions made out of different stones. The

fourth wall had the doorway from which the sun rays would enter
the garbhagriha.
The Hills
 Region: hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and Kashmir

 Style: Ancient Gandhara style (because of the proximity of
Kashmir to that region) with Gupta and post-Gupta traditions from
Sarnath, Mathura, Gujarat and Bengal.
 We can see both Buddhist and Hindu traditions in the hills.
 Its own local tradition: wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
 Many temples showcase the garbhagriha and shikhara of the latina
type, and the mandapa in wooden architecture.
 Sometimes a pagoda shape is seen to the temples.
 Karkota Period, Kashmir – Most significant in terms of
architecture.
 Temple at Pandrethan –
 8th and 9th centuries; temple built on a plinth in the middle
of a water tank.
 Possibly Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva.
 Wooden building. Peaked roof that slants slowly outwards
(due to the snowy conditions)
 Moderately ornamented – a row of elephants at the base and
a decorated doorway.
 Sculptures at Chamba (Himachal Pradesh) –
 Local traditions mixed with the post-Gupta style. g.: Images
of Mahishasuramardini and Narasimha at Laksna-Devi
Mandir.
 Styles: Post-Gupta and the Kashmiri metal sculpture
traditions. Images’ yellow colour is possibly an alloy of zinc
and copper which were popular in Kashmir.
 Inscription in the Laksna-Devi Mandir states that it was
built during the reign of Meruvarman in the 7th century.
 Temples of Kumaon: classic examples of Nagara of this region –
temples at Jageshwar (near Almora) and Champavat (near
Pithoragarh), both in Uttarakhand.

Temple Architecture And Sculpture Part-III
Dravidian Style of Architecture
Dravida or South Indian Style
 The temple is enclosed within a compound wall.

 Gopuram: The entrance gateway in the centre of the front wall.
 Vimana: The shape of the main temple tower. It is a stepped
pyramid that rises up geometrically (unlike the Nagara style
Shikhara that is curving).
 In the Dravida style, shikhara is the word used for the crowning
element at the top of the temple (which is shaped like a stupika or
octagonal cupola).
 At the entrance to the garbhagriha, there would be sculptures of
fierce dvarapalas guarding the temple.
 Generally, there is a temple tank within the compound.
 Subsidiary shrines could be found wither within the main tower or
beside the main tower.
 In many temples, the garbhagriha is located in the smallest tower.
It is also the oldest. With the passage of time and the rise of the
population of the temple-town, additional boundary walls were
added. The newest structure would mostly have the tallest
gopuram.
 Example in the Sriranganathar Temple at Srirangam,
Tiruchirappally, there are 7 concentric rectangular enclosure walls
each having gopurams. The tower at the centre has the
garbhagriha.
 Famous temple towns of Tamil Nadu: Kanchipuram, Thanjavur
(Tanjore), Madurai and Kumbakonam.
 In the 8th to 12th centuries – temples were not confined to being
religious centres but became administrative centres as well with
large swathes of land.
Subdivisions of Dravida Style
1. Kuta or Caturasra: square-shaped

2. Shala or Ayatasra: rectangular-shaped
3. Gaja-prishta or vrittayata or elephant-backed: elliptical
4. Vritta: circular

5. Ashtasra: octagonal
Pallava architecture
 The Pallava dynasty was ruling in the Andhra region from the 2nd
century AD onwards. They then moved southwards to Tamil Nadu.
 They built many monuments and temples during the 6th to the 8th
centuries.
 Although they were mostly Shaivite, some Vaishnava monuments
are also seen. Their architecture was also influenced by the
Buddhist heritage of the Deccan.
 Their early buildings were rock-cut whereas the later were
structural.
 The early buildings were built during the reign of Mahendravarman
I, a contemporary of the Chalukya king Pulakeshin II of Karnataka.
 His son Narasimhavarman I, also known as Mamalla, was a great
patron of the arts. Most buildings in Mahabalipuram (also called
Mamallapuram in his honour) are attributed to him.
 In Mahabalipuram, there are exquisite monolithic rathas and
mandapas. The five rathas are known as Panchapandava Rathas.
Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram
 Built during the reign of Pallava king Narasimhavarman II, also

known as Rajasimha (700 – 728 AD).
 It has three shrines – one Shiva shrine facing east, one Shiva
shrine facing west, a middle shrine to Vishnu in Anantashayana
pose. The presence of three main shrines is unique.
 It is probable that the shrines were not all built at the same time
but were added later.
 There is evidence of a water reservoir and a gopuram.
 There are sculptures of Nandi the bull (Shiva’s mount) along the
walls of the temple. There are several carvings as well.
Brihadiswara Temple, Tanjore
 Shiva temple, also called Rajarajeswara Temple.

 Completed around 1009 AD. Built by Rajaraja Chola.

 It is the largest and tallest of all Indian temples. This Chola
temple is bigger than any of the previous Pallava, Chalukya or
Pandya structures.
 More than 100 temples of the Chola Period are preserved. A lot
of temples were constructed during the Chola period.
 Its pyramidal multi-storied vimana is almost 70 metres high.
 There is a monolithic shikhara atop the vimana.
 The shikhara is a dome-shaped octagonal stupika. It has two large
elaborately sculptured gopuras. On the shikhara, there are large
Nandi images.
 The kalasha on top of the shikhara is 3m and 8cm tall.
 There are hundreds of stucco figures on the vimana. Many might
have been added later on in the Maratha period.
 The main deity of Shiva is portrayed as a huge lingam set in a
double-storied sanctum.
 The surrounding walls of the sanctum are adorned with painted
murals and sculptures of mythological stories.
Architecture in the Deccan
 A hybridised style mixing elements from both Nagara and Dravida

styles emerge as a distinct style during the middle of the 7th
century in regions like Karnataka.
 This is referred to as Vesara in some ancient texts.
 Some of the temples are either completely nagara or dravida. Not
all temples in the Deccan are in vesara style.
Kailashnath Temple, Ellora
 Completely in Dravida style.

 Main deity is Lord Shiva.
 There is also a Nandi shrine.
 Vimana rises 30 m.
 This temple was carved out of a portion of a hill.
 The temple is grand and imposing.
 Built during the Rashtrakuta phase at Ellora.
Chalukya Architecture

 Western Chalukya kingdom was established by Pulakesin I when he
took control of the land around Badami in 543 AD.
 Early western Chalukyas ruled the region till around the mid-8th
century.
 Early activities are rock-cut caves while structural temples were
built later on.
 Ravana Phadi cave at Aihole
 Important structure at this site: Nataraja
 This image is surrounded on the right by four large
saptamatrikas and on the left by three large ones.
 The figures have slim, graceful bodies. They have long oval
faces. They wear short pleated dhotis and tall cylindrical
crowns.
 Distinct feature of Chalukya architecture: mixing and
incorporation of several styles.
 Temples at Pattadakkal, Karnataka
 Pattadakkal is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 There are 10 temples. Four are in Dravida style, four are in
Nagara style, one (Papanatha Temple) is a fusion of both and
one is a Jain temple.
 Jain Narayana temple – built by Rashtrakutas in the 9th
century.
 Virupaksha Temple – built by the chief queen of Chalukya
king Vikramaditya II (733 – 44), Loka Mahadevi. Best
example of Dravida style.
Durga Temple, Aihole
 Apsidal shrine resembling a Buddhist Chaitya hall.

 Surrounded by a veranda.
 Shikhara is like a nagara one.
The Lad Khan temple at Aihole
 Located south of the Durga temple. Built in the 5th century.

 Inspired by the wooden-roofed temples of the hills, but is made
out of stone.

 Built in the Panchayatana style.
 So named because a person named Lad Khan had used it as his
residence for some time.
Hoysalas
 Hoysalas grew into prominence in South India after the Chola and
the Pandya power declined.
 Centred at Mysore.
 Chief temples are at Belur, Somnathapuram and Halebid.
 These temples have a plan called the stellate plan. This is because
the plan which emerged from being a straightforward square to a
complex one with many projecting angles began to resemble a star.
 The star-like ground plan is a distinct feature of Hoysala
architecture.
 Style is Vesara.
 Made of soapstone which is relatively soft. This enabled artists to
carve intricate details like jewellery.
Hoysaleshvara Temple, Halebid
 Made of dark schist stone in 1150.

 Dedicated to Nataraja (Shiva).
 It is a double building with a large hall for the mandapa.
 A Nandi pavilion is in front of each building.
 The temple’s tower fell a long time back. The structure of the
temple is evident from the detailed miniature ones at the temple’s
entrance.
 Very intricate and detailed carvings.
Vijayanagara Architecture
 City of Vijayanagara (City of victory) founded in 1336.

 Visited by international travellers like Niccolo di Conti, Domingo
Paes, Duarte Barbosa, Abd, al-Razzaq, etc. who have given vivid
accounts of the place.
 Synthesizes the Dravida style with Islamic styles of the
neighbouring sultanates.

 The sculpture tries to recreate the Chola tradition but the
foreign influence is also seen.
Buddhist And Jain Architecture

Buddhist architecture
 Along with Hindu art and architecture, Buddhist temple building

and artwork also went on along with other religions.
 Ellora has Buddhist, Jain and Hindu monuments.
 Bodh Gaya (or Bodhgaya)
 Most important Buddhist site because Prince Siddhartha
achieved enlightenment here to become Gautama Buddha.
 The Bodhi Tree is important.
The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya:



 The first shrine situated at the base of the Bodhi tree
was probably built by Emperor Ashoka.
 The vedika around the shrine is post-Mauryan built
during 100 BC.
 Many sculptures in the niches in the temple belong to
the Pala Period (8th century CE).
 The temple itself was constructed during the colonial
period.
 It is a 7th century design. It is neither nagara or
Dravida in style.
 Nalanda University
 It was a monastic university.
 It is a Mahavihara since it is a complex of many monasteries.
 Only a small portion of the place has been studied as most
of it lies buried under present civilisation and impossible to
excavate.
 The records of the Chinese traveller Xuan Zang (Hsuan-
tsang) gives a huge amount of information about Nalanda.

 As per the records, the foundation of the learning centre
was laid down by Kumaragupta I, the Gupta king in the 5th
century CE. Later kings added to the original centre.
 Evidence for all three Buddhist doctrines of Theravada,
Mahayana and Vajrayana taught here.
 Monks came from China, Tibet and Central Asia in the north;
and from Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, and other countries in
Southeast Asia.
 Nalanda was a centre for art production and Buddhist
sculptures and manuscripts were taken from here by monks
to their countries. So, art in Nalanda had a profound impact
on art in all the Buddhist countries.
 The Nalanda School of sculpture was influenced by Buddhist
Gupta art of Sarnath, the local Bihar tradition and Central
India. This synthesis emerged during the 9th century.
 Features of Nalanda School of sculpture:
 Sculptures have an ordered appearance with little
effect of crowding.
 They are depicted in three-dimensional forms.
 Delicate ornamentations.
 Back slabs of the sculptures are detailed.
 Nalanda bronzes: dating from 7th and 8th centuries to
the 12th century; outnumber the metal images from
entire eastern India.
 Initially depict Mahayana Buddhist deities like
standing Buddhas, bodhisattvas like Manjusri Kumara,
Naga-Nagarjuna and Avalokiteshvara seated on a lotus.
 In the late 11th and 12th centuries, Nalanda became an
important tantric centre. Then, Vajrayana deities
dominated such Vajrasharada (a form of Saraswati),
Avalokiteshvara, Khasarpana, etc.
 Many Brahmanical images have also been found at
Nalanda. Many such images are still worshipped at
nearby villages.
 Buddhist sites: Sirpur in Chhattisgarh (550 – 800 CE); Lalitagiri,
Vajragiri and Ratnagiri in Odisha.

 Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu was also a Buddhist centre until the
Chola Period. A reason could be that it was a port-town and there
were trade activities with Sri Lanka which was and continues to
be predominantly Buddhist.
Jain architecture
 Jain temples are found all over India except in the hills.
 Oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are in Bihar.
 In the Deccan: Ellora and Aihole.
 In central India: Khajuraho, Deogarh, Chanderi and Gwalior.
 Karnataka has many Jain shrines.
 Statue of Gomateshwara: Granite statue of Lord Bahubali
commissioned by Camundaraya, the prime minister of the
Ganga kings; located at Sravana Belagola; 18m or 57 feet
high; world’s tallest monolithic free-standing structure.
 Gujarat and Rajasthan have a rich Jain heritage continuing to this
day.
 Jain bronze images found from Akola (near Baroda) belong to the
late 5th – late 7th century CE; made using the lost-wax process;
the images have been inlaid with silver and copper for
embellishments.
 Jain bronze sculptures also found from Chausa (Bihar), Hansi
(Haryana) and many places in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
 Jain Temples at Mount Abu, Rajasthan
 Constructed by Vimal Shah.
 Also called Dilwara temples. Built between the 11th and 13th
centuries.
 Every ceiling has unique patterns. Richly sculptured on white
marble. The exteriors are simple but the interiors are finely
carved and exquisitely decorated.
Indian Bronze Sculptures

Introduction
 Apart from sculpturing in terracotta and stone, ancient Indian

artists were masters in bronze sculpting as well.

 The Lost Wax Technique or the ‘Cire-Perdu’ process has been
known from the time of the Indus Valley Civilization itself. This
process is in use even today.
 Bronze is an alloy of basically copper and tin. Sometimes zinc was
also added although most of the component is copper.
 The alloy-making process of mixing metals was known to the
ancient Indians.
 Bronze sculptures and statuettes of various icons of Hinduism,
Buddhism and Jainism have been found from various parts of India
dating from the 2nd century CE to the 16th century CE.
 Most of the images were used for religious and ritualistic
purposes.
 The metal casting process was also used for making articles of
daily use like utensils.
North India
 The statue of the Dancing Girl found from Mohenjo Daro is one of
the finest examples of Indus Valley art. It is a bronze statue
showing remarkable achievements of the artists of the Indus
Valley. The figurine is about 4 inches tall. Datable to 2500 BC. It
is said to be in the tribhanga It is one of the oldest bronze
sculpture.
 Chariot at Daimabad: datable to 1500 BC.
 Images of Jain Teerthankaras
 Found in Chausa, Bihar belonging to the Kushana Period (2nd
century CE).
 Images show the mastery of artists in modelling masculine
human physique.
 A remarkable depiction of Adinath or Vrishabhanath (the
first Teerthankara) with long hair (generally the
Teerthankaras are shown with short curly hair).
 Buddha images have been found in north India, particularly UP and
Bihar.
 Standing Buddhas with the right hand in Abhaya Mudra.
 Gupta and pre-Gupta period.

 The Sanghati or the robe is wrapped over the shoulders and
turn over the right arm, while the other end of the robe
covers the left arm.
 The clothes of the Buddha figures are thin.
 Youthful and proportionate figures.
 Bronze images from Dhanesar Khera, UP: Mathura style
drapery which is a series of dropping down curves.
 Buddha image at Sultanganj, Bihar: Sarnath style, less
drapery.
 Bronze from Phophnar, Maharashtra: Vakataka images,
contemporary to Gupta period. Influenced by the 3rd
century Amaravati style from Andhra Pradesh. These images
were portable and were carried by monks from place to place
for personal worship or installation at a vihara.
 Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir regions Buddhist and Hindu deities.
 Period: 8th, 9th and 10th
 Growth of different types of iconography of Vishnu images
is seen.
 Worship of four-headed Vishnu: Chaturanana or Vaikuntha
Vishnu.
 Nalanda School of Bronze (Buddhist)
 Emergence: 9th century CE. Pala Period.
 In regions of Bengal and Bihar.
 Four-armed Avalokiteswara: Good example of a male figure
in the tribhanga pose.
 During the Vajrayana phase of Buddhism, worship of the
female form was seen. Tara images were popular.
South India
 The bronze casting technique and the sculpting of bronze images

reached its zenith in the south during the medieval period.
 Pallavas:
 Best Pallava bronze: Icon of Shiva in Ardhaparyanka asana
(one leg kept dangling).
 Right hand in Achamana Mudra (indicating he is about to
consume poison).

 Period: 8th century.
 Cholas:
 Chola bronze art is the most sought-after today in the world
of art.
 Period: 10th – 12th century CE.
 Exquisite pieces of art developed during this period. This
technique is still practised in south India, particularly in
Kumbakonam.
 Great patron of Chola bronze work: widowed queen Sembiyan
Maha Devi (10th century).
 World famous image: Shiva as Nataraja. (discussed below)
 Wide range of Shiva iconography in the Tanjore region.
 Kalyanasundara Murti: 9th century; marriage is represented
by 2 separate statuettes; Shiva and Parvati’s marriage or
panigrahana.
 Ardhanarisvara image: union of Shiva and Parvati is
represented.
 There are independent images of Parvati also.
 Vijayanagara:
 Period: 16th century.
 Portrait sculpture is seen wherein artists tried to preserve
the knowledge of the royal patrons for the future
generation.
 Tirupati: There is a life-size standing bronze sculpture of
King Krishnadevaraya with his 2 queens Tirumalamba and
Chinnadevi.
 The physical body is shown as graceful and yet imposing.
 The king and his queens are in praying posture (Namaskara
Mudra).
Nataraja (Chola bronze)
 Shiva’s dance is associated with the end of the cosmic world.

 Nataraja means ‘Lord of the Dance’.
 Shiva is seen balancing on his right leg. The foot of the right leg
is suppressing the apasmara (the demon of forgetfulness or
ignorance).

 His left hand is in Bhujangatrasita stance (depicting kicking away
tirobhava or illusion from the devotee’s mind).
 Four arms are outstretched.
 Main right hand is in Abhayahasta.
 Upper right hand holds the Damaru (his favourite musical
instrument – a percussion instrument to keep rhythm).
 Main left hand is in Dolahasta and connects with the right hand’s
Abhayahasta.
 Upper left hand carries a flame.
 Entire dancing figure is surrounded by the jvala mala or the
garland of flames.
 Shiva’s locks fly on either side touching the jvala mala.
 Many variations of this model are found.
Indo-Islamic Architecture – Part-I

Introduction
 Islam came to India in the 7th and 8th centuries CE chiefly

through Muslim traders, merchants, holy men and conquerors.
 The religion spread in India over a time period of 600 years.
 Muslims in Gujarat and Sind had begun construction work in the
8th century itself. But it was only in the 13th century that building
activity on a large scale began by the Turkish State after the
Turkish conquest of North India.
 Muslims absorbed many aspects of local architectural traditions
and amalgamated them into their own practices.
 Architecturally, a mix of many techniques, stylised shapes and
surface decorations evolved through a continuous amalgamation of
architectural elements from the various styles. Such
architectural entities that showcased multiple styles are known
as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.
 While the Hindus were allowed to portray God in their art and
were allowed to conceive manifestations of the divine in any
form, the Muslims were forbidden by their religion to replicate
living forms on any surface. So, their religious art and
architecture mainly consisted of arabesque, calligraphy and
geometrical patterns on plaster and stone.

 Types of architectural buildings: mosques for daily prayers, Jama
Masjids, dargahs, tombs, hammams, minars, gardens, sarais or
caravansarais, madrasas, Kos minars, etc.
Categories of Styles
1. Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate)

2. Provincial Style (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur)
3. Mughal Style (Delhi, Agra, and Lahore)
4. Deccani Style (Bijapur, Golconda)
Architectural Influences
 The architecture of Jaunpur and Bengal is distinct.

 Gujarat had more local influence than other styles. Example:
toranas (gateways) from local temple traditions, carvings of bell
and chain motifs, lintels in mihrabs, and carved panels depicting
trees.
 Example of provincial style: Dargah of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of
Sarkhej (in white marble; 15th century).
Decorative Forms
 Designing on plaster through incision or stucco.

 Designs were either left plain or filled with colours.
 Motifs of varieties of flowers (both Indian and foreign) were
painted or carved.
 In the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, tiles were used to surface
the walls and domes. Blue, green, yellow and turquoise were the
popular colours.
 In the wall panels, surface decoration was done by the techniques
of tessellation (mosaic designs) and pietra dura (a decorative art
that is an inlay technique of using cut and fitted, highly polished
coloured stones to create images).
 Other decorative forms: arabesque, calligraphy, high and low
relief carving and a profuse use of jalis.
 The roof was generally a mix of the central dome and other
smaller domes, chatris and tiny minarets.
 There was generally an inverted lotus flower motif and a metal or
stone pinnacle atop the central dome.

Construction materials
 The walls were quite thick and made of rubble masonry.

 They were then coated with chunam or limestone plaster or
dressed stone.
 Stones used: sandstone, quartzite, buff, marble, etc.
 Polychrome tiles were also used.
 Bricks were used from the 17th century.
Forts
 Forts symbolise the seat of power of a ruler. Many large forts

with embattlements were built in the medieval times.
 When a fort was captured, it meant the ruler who owned the fort
had to surrender.
 E.g.: Chittor, Gwalior and Daulatabad
 Chittorgarh is the largest fort in Asia.
 Forts were constructed using great heights so that they were
impregnable to enemy forces. Inside there were places for offices
and residences.
 Many complex features were added in the structure and design so
as to making breaching the walls of the forts challenging.
 Golconda Fort (Hyderabad) had concentric circles of outer walls.
Daulatabad Fort had staggered entrances so that even elephants
could not be used to open the gates
Minars
 Minar was a form of stambha or tower.

 Examples of medieval minars: Qutub Minar in Delhi, Chand Minar
at Daulatabad Fort.
 Everyday use of the minar: azaan (call to prayer).
 Qutub Minar
 13th century
 Construction started by Qutub-ud-din Aibak (Delhi
Sultanate ruler) and completed by his successor Iltutmish.
 UNESCO World Heritage Site
 234 feet high

 Tower is divided into five storeys
 Mix of polygonal and circular shapes
 Material: red and buff sandstone with some marble in the
upper storeys
 Highly decorated balconies
 There are inscriptions intertwined with foliated designs
 It came to be associated with Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar
Kaki, a revered saint of Delhi
 Chand Minar, Daulatabad
 15th century
 210 feet high
 Tapering tower has four storeys
 Work of architects from Delhi and Iran
Tombs
 Tombs are monumental structures over the graves of rulers and

royalty.
 They were a common medieval feature in India.
 Examples: tombs of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Akbar, Abdur
Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Itmaduddaula.
 Idea behind the tomb according to Anthony Welch was “eternal
paradise as a reward for the true believer on the Day of
Judgement.”
 Walls had Quranic verses. Tombs were generally placed within
paradisiacal elements like a garden or a water body or both (as in
the Taj Mahal).
Sarais
 Sarais were built on a simple rectangular or square plan around

cities.
 They were meant to provide temporary accommodation to
travellers, traders, pilgrims, etc.
 They were basically public spaces and a hub of cross-cultural
interaction.
Structures for Common People

 Buildings such as those for domestic usage, temples, mosques,
dargahs, khanqahs, pavilions in the buildings and gardens, bazaars,
commemorative gateways, etc.
 Here also, a mixing of styles, techniques and decorative patterns
were seen. This was a feature of the medieval period.
Jama Masjid
 Large mosques sprang up during the medieval times in India.

 Congregational prayers were held every Friday afternoon. A
quorum of 40 Muslim male adults was required for this to take
place.
 At the time of the prayers, a khutba was read out in the name of
the ruler along with his laws for the realm.
 Generally, a city had one Jama Masjid and this place became the
centre of the town for religious, commercial and political
activities.
 Generally, Jama Masjids were large with open courtyards.
 They were surrounded on three sides by cloisters with the Qibla
Liwan to the west. The mihrab and the mimbar for the Imam were
located here.
 The mihrab indicated the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca and so
people faced the mihrab while offering prayers.
Indo-Islamic Architecture – Part II

Architecture in Mandu, Madhya Pradesh
 Mandu is located 60 miles from Indore in Madhya Pradesh.

 The city is at an elevation of 2000 feet overlooking the Malwa
Plateau to the north and the Narmada Valley to the south.
 It was constantly occupied by the Parmara Rajputs, Afghans and
Mughals because of its natural defence.
 It was the capital of the Ghauri Dynasty (1401 – 1561) founded by
Hoshang Shah.
 Great example of the medieval provincial style of art and
architecture.
 It has many official and residential pleasure palaces, mosques,
artificial reservoirs, pavilions, baolis, embattlements, etc.

 Most structures have arched pavilions, and are light and airy, so
that they do not retain heat.
 Local stone and marble were used.
 Great example of architectural adaptation to the environment.
 Royal Enclave: Set of romantic buildings built around 2 artificial
lakes.
 Hindola Mahal
 Audience hall of the Sultan
 Resembles a railway viaduct bridge with its large buttresses
to support the walls
 Batter was used to give the impression of swinging (hindola)
walls
 Jahaaz Mahal
 Two-storeyed ship-palace
 Built between 2 reservoirs
 Has open pavilions, balconies and a terrace
 Built by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khilji possibly for using as his
harem
 Had a terrace swimming pool
 Rani Rupamati’s double pavilion
 Baz Bahadur’s palace
 Asharfi Mahal – a madrassa
 Hoshang Shah’s tomb
 Example of the robustness of Afghan structures
 Majestic structure with a beautiful dome
 Has marble jail work, courts, porticos and towers
 Also has lattice work, toranas and carved brackets
 Jama Masjid
 Has a grand gateway and a squat dome
 Building is faced with red sandstone
 Mihrab has a lotus bud fringe
 Qibla Liwan is supported on carved brackets
Taj Mahal

 Built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife
Mumtaz Mahal.
 Built from 1632 and took almost 20 years to complete.
 Built by 20000 specialised workers.
 It is a mausoleum.
 It has a simple plan and elevation.
 One of the most famous architectural marvels of India worldwide.
 The structure is breathtakingly symmetrical.
 Made of white marble brought from the Makrana Mines,
Rajasthan.
 It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Its monumental gateway is made of red sandstone.
 The tomb is set in a Chahar Bagh, criss-crossed with paths and
water courses, along with pools and fountains.
 The tomb is on a floor terrace. On the four sides of the terrace,
there are four tall minarets which are 132 feet high each.
 The main building has a drum and a dome with four cupolas.
 Towards the west of the structure is a mosque made of red
sandstone.
 Towards the east is a similar structure to maintain the balance.
 Interior arrangements of the mausoleum: crypt below, vaulted,
octagonal tomb chamber above; there is a room at each angle
which are all connected via corridors.
 Light comes into every corner of the building through perforated
and carved jalis that are set in the arched recesses of the
interior.
 A double dome helps create a void that makes the ceiling as high
as the façade.
 Four types of embellishments:
 Stone carvings in high and low relief on the walls
 Marble carving onto the jalis and volutes
 Creation of arabesques with pietra dura on walls and
tombstones, and geometric designs with tessellation
 Calligraphy – used in the inlay of jasper in white marble to
write verses from the Quran

Gol Gumbad
 Location: Bijapur, Karnataka.

 Mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah (1626–1656), Adil Shahi
Dynasty of Bijapur (1489–1686).
 Built by Muhammad Adil Shah himself.
 Tomb is a complex consisting of a gateway, a mosque, a Naqqar
Khana, and a sarai within a big-walled garden.
 The building is a huge square one with a circular drum. Above the
drum is a majestic dome.
 Material: dark gray basalt with decorated plasterwork.
 The whole building is over 200 feet high.
 The tomb has a square chamber.
 The dome is the largest in the world with a diameter of 125 feet
and an uninterrupted floor space of 18337 square feet.
 Pendentives helped build the hemispherical masonry dome over the
square base.
 The building has an impressive acoustic system with a whispering
gallery where sounds get magnified and echoed multiple times.
 At the four corners of the building there are seven-storeyed
octagonal spires or minarets.
 This structure is a mix of many styles including local, Timurid and
Persian styles.
Difference between Gandhara and Mathura School of Art

G A N DH A R A S CH OO L OF A R TS
During Kushana rule the Gandhara art prospered in India. Above all,
Kanishka, the greatest of the Kushanas was a famous backer of art
and architecture. The Gandhara School of art flourished in his reign.
Gandhara School was profoundly influenced by Greek methodologies.
The figures of Buddha were more spiritual and carved mainly in grey
and bluish-grey color with the finest detailing.
MA TH UR A S CH OO L OF A R TS
The Mathura School of Art was entirely influenced by Indianism. The
stone used in the Mathura school of arts was red sandstone. The
sculptures were less spiritual.

They mostly used the spotted red sandstone for making sculptures
and statues. The initial images of the Buddha and the Bodhisattva are
happy and fleshy figures with little spirituality about them. The
Mathura School of arts prided themselves on creating images of
Buddha and they also made statues of many gods and goddesses such
as Jain Tirthankaras.
D I F F ER EN CE B E TW E EN G A N DH A R A A N D MA TH UR A
S CH OO L OF A R TS
Areas of Gandhara School of art Mathura School of

differences Art
Reign Kushana Dynasty Kushana Dynasty
Area Northwest Frontier Mathura
Outside Greek influence  Purely indigenous

influences  No foreign
influence
Religious Buddhism  Hinduism

influence Buddhism
Hellenistic realism 
 Jainism
 Secularism
Material Used Bluish- Grey sandstone Spotted red sandstone

Grey sandstone
Features of Spiritual Buddha Delighted Buddha

Buddha
Sad Buddha Less spiritual
sculptures
Bearded Buddha Shaven head and face
Less ornamentation Muscularity
Great detailing Energetic
Buddha in Yogi postures Graceful posture of
Buddha
Seated in Padmasana

Greek factors like wavy Buddha surrounded by
hair, large forehead, two monks: Padmapani
long ears (holding Lotus) and
Vajrapani( Holding
Vajra)
Halo around the head
of Buddha decorated
with geometrical
motifs
The Standing Buddhas
of the Sravasti,
Sarnath, and
Kausambhi
Sarvatobhadrika image
of 4 Jain Jinas
Various Abhayamudra- Don’t —

Mudras of fear
Buddha in
Bhumisparshamudra -
Gandhara Art
Touching the earth
Dhyana mudra-
Meditation
Dharmachakramudra- A
preaching mudra

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YUVRAJ IAS

GIST OF ART & CULTURE

FOR UPSC CIVIL SERVICES PREPARATION

1 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 Prehistory: Time period in the past when there was no paper or

1. 3 categories of paintings: man, animal and geometric patterns in

 Paintings in Kupgallu (Telangana), Piklihal and Tekkalkota (both in

1. Mostly in white and red ochre.

 Paintings in the Vindhya ranges at Madhya Pradesh extending

2 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 Two major sites of prehistoric rock/cave paintings in India:

 Continuous occupation of these caves from 100000 BC to 1000

1. Linear representations of animals like bisons, tigers, elephants,

1. Largest number of paintings in this period.

3 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 Period III (Chalcolithic)

1. Paintings indicate an association of these cave-dwellers with the

Indus Valley Civilization – Art & Culture

4 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 The bronze statues found in Harappa were made by the technique

1. 4 inch copper figure

5 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 Thousands of seals have been discovered.

 A lot of pottery has been excavated.

6 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 A variety of ornaments have been found which were used by both

Mauryan Art And Architecture

 Religions of the Shramana tradition, i.e., Jainism and Buddhism

7 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

Pillars & Sculptures

 Erection of pillars was common in the Achamenian Empire (Persian

 Ashoka also patronised rock-cut architecture.

8 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

1. Anda: hemispherical mound symbolic of the mound of dirt used to

 In the early periods, Buddha is represented through symbols like

9 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

Lion Capital And Sanchi Stupa

 One of the finest examples of Mauryan sculpture.

 Originally, the capital had five components:

 The capital was adopted as the National Emblem of India after

10 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 Sanchi Stupa is a UNESCO world heritage site since 1989. Sanchi

11 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture –

12 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara Schools

 Gandhara (in modern Pakistan), Mathura and Sarnath emerged as

13 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 Apart from Stupas, Brahmanical temples also started getting

 The Vengi region in Andhra Pradesh has many stupas, in

14 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture –

 Caves dating from the 2nd century BC have been excavated.

15 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 Located at Karla, Lonavala in Maharashtra.

16 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 Viharas have been excavated at all cave sites.

 Most famous cave site. Located in Aurangabad district,

17 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 Important cave site in Aurangabad. Located 100 km from Ajanta.