Ancient History Notes
Ancient History Notes
Ancient History Notes
Hunters and food gatherers; tools used were axes, choppers and cleavers.
Earliest lower Palaeolithic site is Bori in Maharashtra.
Belan valley in UP
Luni valley (Rajasthan)
Son and Narmada rivers
Bhimbetka
Upper Palaeolithic age
Starting of agriculture
Moving from nomadic to settled life
Wheel discovered. Ragi, wheat and horse gram were cultivated
They knew to make fire
Knew pottery
Paiyampalli (AP)
Chirand (Bihar)
Evidence of houses
Other settlements at
Brahmagiri Navada Toli (Narmada region)
Chirand (Ganga region) and
Mahishadal (West Bengal)
Iron Age
The Indus Valley Civilization was spread over an area of 1,260,000 sq.
km over modern-India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan
The civilization extended from Ghaggar-Hakra Valley in the east to
Markran coast of Baluchistan in the west, from Afghanistan in the
northeastern to Daimabad in Maharashtra in the south.
Fact# 2: The Population of Indus Valley Civilization was over 5 million
Since the first settlement was discovered along the banks of river Indus,
the archaeologists named the civilization as Indus Valley
Civilization. But on contrary only around 100 sites have been found in
the Indus Valley, while over 500 sites are found along the Gaggar-Hakra
River (The present day Saraswati River).
Most of the archaeologists prefer to call them as ‘Indus-Saraswati
Civilization’ based on the two river systems, while other prefer to name
them as Harappan Civilisation as the first settlement was discovered in
this city (Harappa).
And, according to some archaeologists, the sites along the Gaggar-Hakra River
are preserved as they lie in the uninhabited desert.
Fact# 8: The British used 4000-year old bricks from the Indus Valley
Civilization to lay down 93 miles of railway track
In 1856, when the British were building the East Indian Railway Company
line from Karachi to Lahore, they faced a shortage of bricks.
They took bricks from the nearby village of Harappa where they found
bricks from a ‘ruined city’.
These 4000-year old bricks were used for the railway track stretching to 93
miles (150 km).
Fact# 9: World’s first planned cities were found in the Indus Valley Civilization
The cities of the civilization were planned in grid patterns with streets
crossing at right angles.
These marvels of urban planning were thousands of years older than the
period of Hippodamus of Miletus, considered the ‘father of European
urban planning’.
Fact# 10: The cities were not chaotic despite being densely populated
Fact# 13: The oldest Indus Valley settlement was established around 7000 B.C.
Mehrgarh is the oldest known settlement dating back to around 7000 B.C.
It began during the Pre-Harappan period.
Mehrgarh was a farming village.
Fact# 14: The cities and towns of the Indus Valley Civilization were
standardised
Apart from being well-planned and having excellent drainage systems, the
Harappan cities and towns were also standardised.
Almost all the places excavated are seen as having a similar structure and
pattern.
Even the bricks of the houses had similar dimensions!
The Indus Valley cities and towns had a rectangular grid pattern.
The main streets were along the North-South direction and the secondary
streets were along the East-West direction.
The streets intersected at right angles. This precise pattern is believed to be
owing to religious or astronomical beliefs.
Fact# 16: No congestion on the streets
Harappan streets were paved with burnt bricks to facilitate the easy
movement of ox carts.
The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization had channels running along the
streets for the disposal of drainage water.
The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization could be divided into distinct
neighbourhoods.
Each neighbourhood had inhabitants who were engaged in a particular
profession.
The granaries in Harappa used advanced technology that was seen in Rome
2800 years later.
The sites also had citadels, bathing platforms and burial grounds.
Fact# 21: The Indus Valley Civilization used standard burnt bricks everywhere
There were two types of bricks used in the Mature Harappa Period. One
measured 7 X 14 X 28 cm and the other measured 10 X 20 X 40 cm in size.
The bigger bricks were used to construct public buildings.
The smaller bricks were used to build houses.
Both types of bricks followed the 1:2:4 ratio.
The ratio 1:2:4 was not limited to bricks, but to all aspects.
So advanced was their architecture and masonry that Harappa had two and
three-storied houses.
These spacious houses had central courtyards and accessible flat terraces
too.
Fact# 24: The Indus Valley houses could keep off dust and noise
None of the houses in the Indus Valley had windows facing the main
streets.
The houses had only one door.
All the windows and the door of the houses would open into the central
courtyard.
Thus, they were strategically designed to avoid noise and dust.
Indus Valley civilization was perhaps the first in the world to have houses
with attached bathrooms.
They also had access to running water.
In addition, they had toilets with advanced drainage facilities.
Even in those ancient times, the Indus Valley Civilization was way ahead
of its time in terms of civic sense.
There were dustbins placed along the streets in Mohenjo-Daro!
These were brick containers especially for garbage disposal.
So advanced was their water management system that they had separate
channels lining the Harappan streets for wastewater and storm water
(rainwater).
The wastewater drains were underground, and had opening terracotta lids
for cleaning purposes!
Fact# 31: Indus Valley had large-scale maritime trade relations with other
civilizations
Stone cubes have been excavated from the sites of this civilization.
Archaeologists believe them to be weights for measurement.
These weights increase in a ratio of 5:2:1. They had weights of 0.05, 0.1,
0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units.
They are different from the system of measurement of Egypt and
Mesopotamia of that time, so it can be concluded that this system was
developed indigenously.
The smallest division on a marking on an ivory scale was around 1.704 mm
found in Lothal, Gujarat. This is the smallest recorded division found from
the Bronze Age.
Fact# 35: They even tested the purity of gold by the touchstone technique
Fact# 36: The Indus Valley Civilization even had dentists among them
In 2006, Nature journal declared that the first evidence of drilling of the
human teeth in a live person was found in Mehrgarh, present Pakistan.
This discovery was done in 2001 when eleven drilled molar crowns were
unearthed from a Neolithic grave in Mehrgarh dating between 5500 B.C.
and 7000 B.C.
This remarkable discovery shows that people of the Indus Valley
Civilization had knowledge of proto-dentistry.
The world’s first buttons were found here dating back to 2800 – 2600 B.C.
Buttons were made out of seashells and some of them had holes pierced in
them for them to be attached to clothes with threads.
Buttons in the Indus Valley were used more for their ornamental value
rather than for utility.
Fact# 39: The world’s oldest signboard can be found here
Among the artefacts that have been found in sites like Mohenjo-Daro are
toys and games.
They have unearthed cubical dice having one to six holes (quite like the
ones we have today)!
Other toys include clay figures of bullock carts, spinning tops, marbles,
miniature pots and utensils, etc.
Fact# 41: They had exquisite art and craft
Art and craft during the Indus Valley period were highly sophisticated.
Their artefacts display a high level of achievement in terms of aesthetic
value and the technique used.
Their ware includes terracotta, bronze, copper and other metals.
They were also experts in bead-making.
This is a very important discovery because it shows the expertise of the
Indus Valley civilization in metal blending and casting. It also signifies the
importance of dance as a form of entertainment in those times.
Archaeologist Sir John Marshall (who discovered the Indus Valley
Civilization in a way) has remarked, “When I first saw them I found it
difficult to believe that they were prehistoric…”
Historians are not sure what led to the decline of the Indus Valley
Civilization.
Experts are now sure that it wasn’t invasion, disease or any other calamity
that caused their decline.
The cities and settlements started declining gradually and they seemed to
have been abandoned by the inhabitants who might have migrated to
greener pastures.
It is believed that the gradual drying up of the Saraswati River might have
led to this.
The civilization did not come to an abrupt end but declined gradually and
got assimilated into other cultures.
Fact# 43: Over 4000 seals have been found from the sites
These seals are small, rectangular stone slabs with inscriptions on them.
They also have images of animals and other figures on them.
The use of these seals is uncertain.
Fact# 44: The Indus Valley Script has still not been deciphered
One of the reasons we don’t know much about this civilization is that their
script has not yet been deciphered.
Around 400 different symbols have been identified inscribed in objects.
They appear in strings of between 3 and 20.
Historians believe they are probably names and don’t have any other
meaning.
Although some weapons like spears, knives and arrow-heads have been
excavated from the sites, there is no evidence of warfare from the Indus
Valley Civilization.
It is concluded that they were in general a peace-loving people.
It is also possible that this was because they had no natural enemies and
the other settlements had good trade relations with them.
Indus Valley art emerged during the second half of the third millennium
BCE (i.e. from 2500 BC onwards).
Forms of art: seals, pottery, sculpture, gold jewellery, terracotta figures,
etc.
The two major sites of this civilisation, Harappa and Mohenjodaro
showcase excellent town planning as well, like houses, planned streets,
public baths, drainage systems, storage facilities, etc.
Harappa and Mohenjodaro are in Pakistan.
Major sites in India are: Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab),
Kalibangan and Balathal (Rajasthan), Lothal and Dholavira (Gujarat).
Stone statues
Two male statues in stone – the Bearded Man (priest king) and a torso in
red sandstone.
Bearded man (Priest)
1. Appears to be of a priest
2. A shawl is draped over the left shoulder
3. Slightly elongated eyes as if in half-meditation
Bronze casting
The bronze statues found in Harappa were made by the technique called
Lost Wax technique.
This technique is used in some parts of the country even today showing
continuity of traditions.
This technique was popular in almost all the sites.
First, wax figures were made and then covered with clay. The clay as
allowed to dry and then the figure was heated to melt the wax. This wax
was drained out through a hole in the clay. After that, the hollow clay was
filled with the metal of choice. After cooling the metal, the clay was
removed revealing the desired metal figurine.
Both animal and human figures were made this way.
Examples of bronze figures: Dancing Girl, Buffalo with uplifted head.
Dancing Girl
Terracotta
Terracotta images were also created but they were less refined as compared
to the stone statues.
Most important terracotta images are those of the mother goddess.
Male figures are also found with similar features and positioning in all the
figures indicating perhaps the image of a god.
Terracotta toys have also been found (wheels, whistles, rattles, gamesmen,
discs, birds and animals).
Seals
A variety of ornaments have been found which were used by both men and
women.
Made from precious metals, gemstones, bone and baked clay.
Ornaments worn by men and women: fillets, necklaces, finger-rings,
armlets.
Ornaments worn by women: earrings, girdles, anklets.
Well-crafted ornaments have been found including necklaces of gold and
semi-precious stones, copper bracelets and beads, head ornaments and
earrings made of gold, steatite and gemstone beads, faience pendants and
buttons.
Cemetery found in Farmana (Haryana) – where dead bodies were buried
with ornaments.
Bead factories at Lothal and Chanhudaro.
Beads made from cornelian, amethyst, lapis lazuli, quartz, crystal, jasper,
turquoise, steatite, etc. Metals were also used like gold, bronze and copper.
Beads were also made from shells and terracotta.
Beads were of various shapes disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-
shaped, and segmented.
The Rigveda is divided into ten books which are known as Mandalas
It is a collection of 10,600 verses and 1,028 hymns
It is the oldest text in any Indo-European language
It has originated from early as 1700 BC
The Angiras (rishi family) has composed 35% of the hymns and the Kanva
family who has composed 25% of Rig Veda.
Many verses of the Rig Veda are still used as very significant Hindu
prayers and during rituals.
It contains numerous secrets and clarifications about the origin of the
world, the importance of the Gods and a lot of advice for living a satisfying
and successful life.
As per to the Rig Veda, the Universe devised from Prajapati, the initial God
and the principle basis of creation.
The hymns are known as Sukta that were composed to be used in rituals.
Indra is the chief deity cited in the Rig Veda.
The sky God Varuna, fire God Agni, and the Sun God Surya were some of
the other chief deities who were important in the Rig Veda beside older
Aryan deities.
The God of storms and mountains Rudra, as cited in the Rig Veda is the
origin for Lord Shiva, the Hindu God.
Lord Vishnu who is one of the Trimurti of Hindu Gods was also a minor
deity, as mentioned in the Rig Veda.
The universally famous Gayatri mantra (Savitri) is also in Rig-Veda.
The varna system, Four-fold division of society, ‘Sudra’, Gamester’s
Lament, Purusha Shukta Hymns are mentioned in this Vedic text
Rig Veda had the original concept of the caste system which is still
practiced in modern Hindu society today.
Vedic Civilization
Indo-Aryan Migration
They worshipped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder, etc. by
personifying them into deities.
The Varna system of social distinction became more distinct. This became
less based on occupation and more hereditary.
The four divisions of society in decreasing social ranking were: Brahmanas
(priests), Kshatriyas (rulers), Vaishyas (agriculturists, traders and artisans),
and Shudras (servers of the upper three classes).
Women were not permitted to attend public assemblies like Sabhas and
Samitis. Their position in society lowered.
Child marriages became common.
Sub-castes based on occupation also emerged. Gotras were
institutionalised.
Economic structure:
The word ‘Veda’ originated from the root ‘vid’ which means spiritual
knowledge/subject of knowledge/means of acquiring knowledge.
The four Vedas are: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.
Rig Veda was composed during the Early Vedic Age. The other three were
written in the Later Vedic Age.
Rig Veda – this is the oldest religious text in the world. It contains 1028
hymns and is classified into 10 mandalas.
Yajur Veda – this deals with the ways to perform rituals.
Sama Veda – deals with music. Indian music is said to be originated from
Sama Veda.
Atharva Veda – contains spells and magical formula.
Other Vedic texts were the Brahmanas (explains the meaning of sacrifices);
Upanishads (also called Vedantas, 108 in number, source of Indian
philosophy); and Aranyakas (books of instructions).
The great Indian epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana were also composed
during this period.
Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenid Empire in ancient Iran invaded the
North-Western front of India in 550 BC.
At that time, there were many small provinces like Gandhara, Kamboja and
Madra who were constantly fighting one another.
At that time, Bimbisara of Haryanka dynasty was ruling over Magadha.
Cyrus succeeded in bringing under Persian control all the Indian tribes west
of the Indus like Gandhara.
Punjab and Sindh were annexed by Darius I, Cyrus’s grandson.
Son of Darius, Xerxes, could not move ahead with the further conquest of
India because of war with the Greeks. He had employed Indian cavalry and
infantry.
Effects of Persian invasion
Son of Ajatasatru.
Shifted the capital to Pataliputra (Patna).
Last of the major Haryanka rulers.
Succeeded by three kings – Aniruddha, Manda and Nagadasaka.
Sisunaga Dynasty
According to Sri Lankan chronicles, the people of Magadha revolted during the
reign of Nagadasaka and placed an amatya (minister) named Sisunaga as king.
Sisunaga
Son of Sisunaga.
Kalasoka shifted the capital to Pataliputra.
He conducted the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali.
He was killed in a palace revolution that brought the Nanda dynasty to
the throne.
Nanda Dynasty
This was the first non-Kshatriya dynasty. The first ruler was Mahapadma Nanda
who usurped the throne of Kalasoka.
Mahapadma Nanda
Magadha was located on the upper and lower parts of the Gangetic
valley.
It was located on the main land route between west and east India.
The area had fertile soil. It also received enough rainfall.
Magadha was encircled by rivers on three sides, the Ganga, Son and
Champa making the region impregnable to enemies.
Both Rajgir and Pataliputra were located in strategic positions.
Economic factors
It teaches the Middle Path renouncing extreme step like indulgence and
strict abstinence.
The four noble truths (Arya satya) in Buddhism are:
1. Right understanding
2. Right resolve
3. Right speech
4. Right action
5. Right living
6. Right efforts
7. Right thought
8. Right self-concentration.
1. Sutta Pitaka
2. Vinaya Pitaka
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka
Split in Jainism
When Bhadrabahu left for South India, Sthulabahu remained in the North
with his followers.
Sthulabahu changed the code of conduct and said that white clothes could
be worn. Thus, split Jainism into two sects:
1. Swetambaras: White-clad; Northerners
2. Digambaras: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners
Jain Councils
First council
Second Council
Kadamba dynasty
Ganga dynasty
Amoghavarsha
Kumarapala (Chalukya dynasty)
North India
Bimbisara
Ajatasatru
Chandragupta Maurya
Bindusara
Kharavela
The last of the Nanda rulers, Dhana Nanda was highly unpopular due to his
oppressive tax regime.
Also, post Alexander’s invasion of North-Western India, that region faced
a lot of unrest from foreign powers.
They were ruled by Indo-Greek rulers.
Chandragupta, with the help of an intelligent and politically astute
Brahmin, Kautilya usurped the throne by defeating Dhana Nanda in 321
BC.
Chandragupta Maurya
Son of Chandragupta.
He ruled from 297 BC to 273 BC.
Also called Amitraghata (Slayer of foes) or Amitrochates in Greek sources.
Deimachus was a Greek ambassador at his court.
He had appointed his son, Ashoka as the governor of Ujjain.
Bindusara is believed to have extended the Mauryan Empire to Mysore as
well.
Chanakya
Mauryan Administration
Central Government
Espionage
Transport
The transport department fixed the width of the chariots, cattle tracks and
pedestrians.
Ashoka was not the eldest son of Bindusara and so was not the heir
presumptive.
Bindusara wanted his elder son Susima to be crowned the next king.
But Ashoka was trained in military and weapons and showed great skills
as an administrator when he was made the governor of Ujjain.
In the war of succession that followed Bindusara’s death in 272 BC,
Ashoka emerged victorious aided by his father’s ministers.
When he became the king, he was said to be bad-tempered, ruthless and
very cruel.
He even built a torture chamber to torture his prisoners to death. This
earned him the moniker Chandashoka (cruel Ashoka).
Once he became the king, he started expanding his empire by conquest. In
the ninth year of his reign, he waged a war with Kalinga (in present-day
Odisha).
Conversion to Buddhism
The battle with Kalinga fought in 265 BC was personally led by Ashoka
and he was able to vanquish the Kalingas.
Whole cities were destroyed and more than a hundred thousand people
were killed in the war.
The horrors of war disturbed him so much that he decided to shun violence
for the rest of his life and turned to Buddhism.
Ashoka’s 13th Rock Edict describes the Kalinga war vividly.
He now became Dharmashoka (the pious Ashoka) from Chandashoka.
In about 263 BC Ashoka converted to Buddhism. Moggaliputta Tissa, a
Buddhist monk became his mentor.
Ashoka even conducted the third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in 250
BC under Moggaliputta Tissa’s presidency.
Ashoka’s Dhamma (or Dharma in Sanskrit)
There are two main sources: Buddhist sources and Ashoka’s edicts.
James Prinsep, a British antiquary and colonial administrator was the first
person to decipher Ashoka’s edicts.
Ashokavadana (Sanskrit) written in the second century AD, Dipavamsa
and Mahavamsa (Sri Lankan Pali chronicles) give most of the information
about Ashoka.
Pillar Edicts
There are seven pillar edicts.
Two types of stones are used: spotted white sandstone (from Mathura)
and buff coloured sandstone and quartzite (from Amaravati).
All the pillars are monoliths (carved out of from stone).
They have been found from different places like Kandahar (Afghanistan),
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan), Delhi, Vaishali and Champaran (Bihar),
Sarnath and Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh), and
Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh).
Fragments of the same edict are found in different places.
Many pillars are as high as 50 feet high and weigh as much as 50 tons.
The pillars depict animals such as elephants and lions, and wheels and
lotuses which are all significant symbols in Buddhism.
The following table gives the Edict number and what it talks about.
Pillar List of animals and birds that should not be killed on certain
Edict V days. Another list which mentions animals that should never be
killed.
Pillar Ashoka’s work for fulfilling Dhamma. Tolerance for all sects.
Edict VII
Major Rock Edicts
There are 14 major rock edicts.
Major Care for man and animals. Mentions the Pandyas, Satyapuras and
Rock Keralaputras of South India.
Edict II
Major Ashoka’s first visit to Bodh Gaya and the Bodhi tree (his first
Rock Dhamma Yatra).
Edict
VIII
Major Disapproves of the individual’s desire for fame and glory and
Rock stresses on Dhamma.
Edict X
Minor rock edicts are found on 15 rocks across the country and in
Afghanistan also.
An example
Major Rock Edict VI
Beloved of the Gods speaks thus: Twelve years after my coronation I started to
have Dhamma edicts written for the welfare and happiness of the people, and so
that not transgressing them they might grow in the Dhamma. Thinking: “How
can the welfare and happiness of the people be secured?” I give my attention to
my relatives, to those dwelling far, so I can lead them to happiness and then I
act accordingly. I do the same for all groups. I have honoured all religions with
various honours. But I consider it best to meet with people personally.
After the death of Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire split into two halves –
western and eastern parts. This weakened the empire.
Kalhana, author of the work Rajatarangini which is an account of
Kashmir’s history says that after Ashoka’s death, his son Jalauka ruled over
Kashmir as an independent ruler.
This partition resulted in invasions from the northwest.
After Ashoka, under the later kings, the centre’s hold over the vast empire
began to disintegrate. This led to the emergence of various kingdoms.
It is already mentioned that Jalauka ruled over Kashmir independently.
Kalinga became independent.
According to Tibetan sources, Virasena ruled over Gandhara
independently.
Vidarbha broke away from Magadha. As per Greek sources, a king named
Subhagasena (Sophagasanus) began to rule over the north-western
provinces independently.
Internal revolt
During the rule of Brihadratha, there was an internal revolt led by his army
chief Pushyamitra Shunga in about 185 or 186 BC.
Bana describes in Harshacharita how Shunga killed Brihadratha during an
army parade.
This ended the rule of the Mauryas over Magadha and thence started the
Shunga dynasty’s rule.
Foreign invasions
During the reign of the first three Mauryan kings, no foreign power tried
to attack India from the north-west as there was a fear of the mighty
Mauryan army.
But after Ashoka’s death, the kingdom split up into two. This led to the
Greek king Antiochus to attack India unsuccessfully.
But in time, foreign tribes attacked and established their kingdoms on
Indian soil. The notable ones were the Indo-Greeks, the Sakas and the
Kushanas.
Ashoka’s policies
Sunga Dynasty
Pushyamitra Sunga
Pushyamitra Sunga was Brahmin army chief of Brihadratha, the last king
of the Mauryas.
During a military parade, he killed Brihadratha and established himself on
the throne in 185 or 186 BC.
According to some historians, this was an internal revolt against the last
Mauryan king. Some say it was a Brahminical reaction to the Mauryan
overwhelming patronage of Buddhism.
Pushyamitra Sunga’s capital was at Pataliputra.
He successfully countered attacks from two Greek kings namely,
Menander and Demetrius.
He also thwarted an attack from the Kalinga king Kharavela.
He conquered Vidarbha.
He followed Brahminism. Some accounts portray him as a persecutor of
Buddhists and a destroyer of stupas but there has been no authoritative
evidence to this claim.
During his reign, the Stupas at Sanchi and Barhut were renovated. He built
the sculptured stone gateway at Sanchi.
He performed Vedic sacrifices such as Ashvamedha, Rajasuya and
Vajapeya.
Pushyamitra Sunga patronised the Sanskrit grammarian Patanjali.
According to the Puranas, his reign lasted for 36 years. He died in 151 BC.
Agnimitra
As per the puranas, there were four kings of the Kanva dynasty namely,
Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Narayana and Susarman.
The Kanvas were Brahmins.
The Magadha Empire had diminished by this time considerably.
Northwest region was under the Greeks and parts of the Gangetic plains
were under different rulers.
The last Kanva king Susarman was killed by the Satavahana (Andhra)
king.
Cheti Dynasty (Kalinga)
The Cheti or Chedi dynasty emerged in Kalinga in the 1st century BC.
The Hathigumpha inscription situated near Bhubaneswar gives
information about it.
This inscription was engraved by king Kharavela who was the third Cheti
king.
Kharavela was a follower of Jainism.
The Satavahana rule is believed to have started around the third century
BC, in 235 BC and lasted until the second century AD.
Some experts believe their rule started in the first century BC only.
They are referred to as Andhras in the Puranas.
The Satavahana kingdom chiefly comprised of modern-day Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra. At times, their rule also included
parts of Karnataka, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
Their capital cities varied at different times. Pratishthana (Paithan) and
Amaravati were its capitals.
Simuka founded the dynasty.
They were the first native Indian rulers to issue their own coins with the
portraits of the rulers. This practice was started by Gautamiputra
Satakarni who derived the practice from the Western Satraps after
defeating them.
The coin legends were in Prakrit language. Some reverse coin legends are
in Telugu, Tamil and Kannada.
They patronised Prakrit more than Sanskrit.
They supported both Buddhism and Brahminism although they were
Hindus and claimed Brahminical status.
They successfully defended their territories against foreign invaders and
had many on-going battles with the Sakas (Western Satraps).
Satakarni I (180 - 124 BC)
The last Indo-Greek king was Strato II. He ruled the Punjab region until 55
BC, some say until 10 AD.
Their rule ended with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians (Sakas).
The Sakas
Origins
The Saka Empire started declining after their defeat at the hands of the
Satavahana Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni.
The Saka rule in northwest India and Pakistan came to an end after the
death of Azes II (12 BC) when the region came under the Kushanas.
In western India, their rule came to an end in the 4th century AD when
the last Western Satrap Saka ruler Rudrasimha III was defeated by
Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty.
Kushanas are considered to be one of the five branches of the Yuezhi tribe
who lived in the Chinese frontier or central Asia.
They are known as Guishuang in Chinese sources.
They eventually acquired dominance over the other Yuezhi tribes.
They moved eastward towards India defeating the Parthians and the Sakas
in the 1st century AD.
Kujula Kadphises (Reign: AD 30-AD 80) or Kadphises I
Kujula Kadphises was the first Yuezhi chief to lay the foundation of the
Kushana Empire in India.
He established his supremacy over Kabul, Kandahar and Afghanistan.
He was succeeded by his son Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (AD 80 -AD 95)
who expanded the empire into northwest India.
Vima Kadphises (Reign: AD 95-AD 127)
Considered the greatest Kushana king and also a great king of ancient
India.
Son of Vima Kadphises.
His kingdom included Afghanistan, parts of Sindhu, parts of Parthia,
Punjab, Kashmir, parts of Magadha (including Pataliputra), Malwa,
Benaras, perhaps parts of Bengal, Khotan, Kashgar, Yarkhand (last three
in modern China). His empire covered Gandhara, Peshawar, Oudh,
Pataliputra, Kashmir and Mathura. His kingdom also included parts of
Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.
His main capital was Peshawar, then known as Purushpura.
After the capture of Pataliputra, he is said to have taken away the Buddhist
monk Ashvaghosha with him to Peshawar.
The scholars in his court included Parsva, Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra,
Nagarjuna, Charaka and Mathara. He also patronised the Greek engineer
Agesilaus.
Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalvana in
Kashmir.
He patronised Buddhism although he was very tolerant in his religious
views. His coins contain a mix of Indian, Greek and Zoroastrian deities.
He was also a patron of art and architecture. The Gandhara School of art
flourished under him.
He also propagated the Mahayana form of Buddhism and he was largely
responsible for propagating it in China.
It is not known how he died.
Significance of the Kushana Empire
Gupta Empire
Origins
The Gupta Empire rose to prominence in 320 AD and spread to large parts
of northern India, central and small parts of southern India.
The founder of the Gupta dynasty is Sri Gupta.
The original homeland of the Guptas is not known for certain. But they
might have originated from Bengal. Some scholars think they are from
Prayaga (Allahabad in UP).
They are thought to be either Brahmins or Vaishyas.
Early kings
The first ruler was Sri Gupta (reign from 240 AD to 280 AD).
He was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha (reign: 280 – 319 AD).
Both Sri Gupta and Ghatotkacha are mentioned as Maharaja in
inscriptions.
Chandragupta I (Reign: 320 – 335 AD)
Sanskrit literature flourished under the Guptas. Kalidasa, the great poet and
playwright was in the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. He composed
great epics such as Abhijnanashaakuntalam, Kumarasambhavam,
Malavikagnimitram, Ritusamharam, Meghadootam, Vikramorvashiyam
and Raghuvamsham.
The celebrated Sanskrit drama Mṛcchakatika was composed during this
time. It is attributed to Shudraka.
Poet Harisena also adorned the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. He
wrote the Allahabad Prashasti (inscription).
Vishnusharma of Panchatantra fame lived during this era.
Amarasimha (grammarian and poet) composed a lexicon of Sanskrit,
Amarakosha.
In the fields of science, mathematics and astronomy also, the Gupta age
saw a lot of interesting advancements.
Aryabhatta, the great Indian mathematician and astronomer wrote Surya
Siddhanta and Aryabhattiya. Aryabhatta is believed to have conceptualised
‘zero’. He also gave the value of Pi. He postulated that the earth is not flat
and it rotated around its own axis and also that it revolved around the sun.
He also gave the distance between earth and sun which is remarkably close
to the actual value. He wrote on geometry, astronomy, mathematics and
trigonometry.
The Indian number system with a base of 10 which is the present numeral
system evolved from scholars of this era.
Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita. He was an astronomer and an
astrologer.
Dhanvantari, the great physician is supposed to have lived during this time.
Sushruta, composed the Sushrutasamhita around 600 AD. He has detailed
surgical procedures in this work.
The Nalanda University, a centre of Buddhist and other learning attracted
students from abroad. The Guptas patronised this ancient seat of learning.
Art & architecture
The Gupta decline started during the reign of Skandagupta, the grandson
of Chandragupta II. He was successful in retaliating against the Huns and
the Pushyamitras, but his empire was drained of finances and resources
because of this.
The last recognised king of the Gupta line was Vishnugupta who reigned
from 540 to 550 AD.
Internal fighting and dissensions among the royal family led to its
weakening.
During the reign of a Gupta king, Budhagupta, the Vakataka ruler
Narendrasena of western Deccan attacked Malwa, Mekala and Kosala.
Later on, another Vakataka king Harishena conquered Malwa and Gujarat
from the Guptas.
During Skandagupta’s reign, the Huns invaded northwest India but were
restricted. But in the sixth century, they occupied Malwa, Gujarat, Punjab
and Gandhara. The Hun invasion weakened the Gupta hold in the country.
Independent rulers emerged all over the north like Yasodharman of Malwa,
the Maukharis of U.P., the Maitrakas in Saurashtra, and others in Bengal.
The Gupta Empire was restricted to Magadha only. (Yasodharman had
joined forces with Narasimhagupta to successfully retaliate against the Hun
chief Mihirakula.)
The later Guptas’ following of Buddhism rather than Hinduism unlike their
ancestors also weakened the empire. They did not focus on empire-
building and military conquests.
So weak rulers along with incessant invasions from foreign as well as
native rulers caused the decline of the Gupta Empire.
By the beginning of the sixth century, the empire had disintegrated and was
ruled by many regional chieftains.
Harshavardhana
Facts about Harsha (Reign: 606 A.D to 647 A.D.)
The Pallavas
Origins
The origins of the Pallavas are shrouded in mystery. There are several
theories propounded by historians.
Some historians say they are a branch of the Pahlavas of the Parthians
who moved to the South.
Some say they are an indigenous dynasty that arose within the Southern
region and were a mix of various tribes.
Some experts believe them to be of Naga origin who first settled around
the Tondaimandalam region near Madras.
Another theory says that they are descendent from a Chola prince and a
Naga princess of Manipallavam (an island off Jaffna, Sri Lanka).
Some others are of the opinion that the Pallavas were feudatories of the
Satavahanas.
The first Pallava kings ruled during the beginning of the 4th century AD.
By the 7th century AD, there were three kingdoms in southern India
vying for supremacy namely the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pandyas of
Madurai and the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
Extent
Greatest among the early rulers. Ruled in the beginning of the 4th century
AD.
Performed Ashwamedha and other Vedic sacrifices.
Was a Buddhist.
Included Sri Lanka in his kingdom.
Defeated the contemporary Tamil ruler. Pallava history assumes a
definite character from this ruler onwards.
Mahendravarman (Reign: 600 AD – 630 AD)
The beautiful and grand Pallava style of architecture can be divided into
four phases or styles:
The Chalukya dynasty reached its peak during the reign of Pulakesin II.
His grandfather Pulakesin I had created an empire around Vatapi.
Pulakesin II subjugated the Kadambas, the Gangas of Mysore, the
Mauravas of North Konkan, the Latas of Gujarat, the Malavas and the
Gurjars.
He also succeeded in getting submission from the Chola, Chera and Pandya
kings.
He had also defeated King Harsha of Kannauj and the Pallava king
Mahendravarman.
Chalukya Rulers
Son of Pulakesin I.
Conquered Konkan and northern Kerala.
Mangalesha (Reign: 597 AD – 609 AD)
Brother of Kirtivarman I.
Conquered the Kadambas and the Gangas.
Was killed by his nephew and son of Kirtivarman, Pulakesin II.
Pulakesin II (609 AD – 642 AD)
Great-great-grandson of Vikramaditya I.
Last of the Chalukya rulers. Was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king,
Dantidurga.
Administration and Society
They built cave temples depicting both religious and secular themes.
The temples had beautiful mural paintings also.
The temples under the Chalukyas are a good example of the Vesara style
of architecture. This is also called the Deccan style or Karnataka Dravida
or Chalukyan style. It is a combination of Dravida and Nagara styles.
Aihole temples: Ladh Khan temple (Surya Temple), Durga temple,
Huchimalligudi temple, Jain temple at Meguti by Ravikirti. There are 70
temples in Aihole.
Badami temples
The Pala Empire was dethroned by the Hindu Sena dynasty in the 12th
century.
The Pala period is also known as a ‘Golden Era’ in Bengali history.
They built magnificent monasteries and temples: Somapura Mahavihara
(in Bangladesh), Odantapuri Monastery.
They also patronised Buddhist centres of learning like Nalanda Universit y
and the Vikramshila University.
During this time, the Bengali language developed. The first Bengali literary
work Charyapada is attributed to this period. It was written in an Abahatta
(the common ancestor of Bengali, Assamese, Odia and Maithili.
Balaputradeva, the Sailendra king of Java sent an ambassador to Devapala.
Buddhist poet Vajradatta who composed Lokesvarashataka was in
Devapala’s court.
Many Buddhist teachers from the Pala kingdom travelled to Southeast Asia
to spread the faith. Atisha preached in Sumatra and Tibet.
Sanskrit scholars were also patronised by the Pala kings. Gaudapada
composed Agama Shastra during the time of the Palas.
The Pala art (art seen in Bengal and Bihar during the Pala regime) influence
is seen in the art of Nepal, Sri Lanka, Burma and Java.
Pravarapura-Nandivardhana Branch
This branch ruled over Pravarapura (in present Wardha, Maharashtra), Mansar
and Nandivardhan in present Nagpur district.
Grandson of Pravarasena I.
He was succeeded by his son Prithvishena I who reigned from 355 – 380
AD.
Rudrasena II (Reign: 380 – 385 AD)
Son of Prithvishena I.
Married Prabhavatigupta, daughter of Chandragupta II.
Rudrasena II died leaving behind minor sons and during this time, the
imperial Guptas of the north is said to have controlled the Vakatakas
through Prabhavatigupta who was the regent on behalf of her sons.
Vatsagulma Branch
This branch ruled over the territory between the Sahyadri Range and the Godavari
River with its capital at Vatsagulma (present Washim, Maharashtra).
Son of Pravarasena I.
He authored Harivijaya in Prakrit.
Harishena (Reign: 475 – 500 AD)
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