COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Inte
ARCHITECTURE
LEARNING OUTCOME 01
2020

M.R.M. SHADIR
KIT48/19/12
HND 48
1 Contents
2 Main Subsystems ................................................................................................................ 2
2.1 Von Neumann Architecture ........................................................................................ 2
2.2 Central Processing Unit ............................................................................................... 3
2.2.1 Components of a CPU ......................................................................................... 3
2.2.2 Functions of a CPU .............................................................................................. 3
2.2.3 Purpose of a CPU ................................................................................................. 4
2.2.4 How CPU works? ................................................................................................ 4
2.2.5 Performance of a CPU ......................................................................................... 4
2.3 Memory ....................................................................................................................... 5
2.3.1 Volatile Memory .................................................................................................. 5
2.3.2 Non- Volatile Memory ......................................................................................... 5
2.3.3 Types of Memory ................................................................................................. 5
2.4 Motherboard .............................................................................................................. 13
2.5 Buffer ........................................................................................................................ 13
2.6 Interrupt ..................................................................................................................... 13
2.7 System Bus ................................................................................................................ 14
3 How Subsystem organized and connected with computer .............................................. 14

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2 Main Subsystems
Subsystem that enables and allow data to be input, processed and output. Computer system
consists of several subsystems and each subsystem performs independently as well as
cooperates with each other. To implement the functionality of the subsystem it consists
hardware and software together. Computer consists of four main subsystems.
• Von Neumann Architecture
• CPU
• Memory
• Input and Output Systems
2.1 Von Neumann Architecture
The computer architecture defines how functions works. The main functions of computer
system are to input, process and store the data, and produce information whenever needed. Von
Neumann Architecture was designed and developed by John Von Neumann in 1945. Most of
the today’s computers run on this architecture.

Figure 1 Von Neumann Architecture

Input comes in and stores in main memory. The input becomes the command ready to process.
The processor gets the command from main memory. The data and information which are to
be stored are sent to secondary memory. Register stores the data before it processes, Arithmetic
Logic Unit works to perform mathematic functions and Control Unit gives command to stores
the result in memory and display the output.

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2.2 Central Processing Unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU) is also called as processor, central processor, main processor
and micro processor. The main component of computer system is CPU therefore, it is called
brain of the computer. It handles basic instructions it receives from hardware and software as
well as controls data flow.
2.2.1 Components of a CPU
In the CPU, there are three main components.
• Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU)
• Control Unit
• Register
Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU) Performs all mathematical and logical
functions.
Control Unit Controls all devices of a computer system.

Register Temporarily stores data needed for the

function of ALU and the information
produced by ALU.
Figure 2 Components of CPU

2.2.2 Functions of a CPU

Instructions are kept in memory before it is executed. While CPU doing its operation it follows
fetch, decode, executes and store steps. These are functions of the CPU.
• Fetch: retrieve the instructions from memory.
• Decode: the instruction converted into signals before it is executed by the relevant parts of
the CPU.
• Execute: basic arithmetic and logical calculation done to instructions.
• Store: after executing an instruction it gives feedback and output data written to the
memory.

Figure 3 CPU

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2.2.3 Purpose of a CPU
• Without CPU unable run any operations on any software.
• To communicate with all device installed on a computer.
• To understand and process the machine language which is used in operating systems.
2.2.4 How CPU works?
In three steps it can be defined how it works. Fetch, decode and execute these three steps repeat
again and again to instructions. These steps are known as instruction cycle. As well as it
depends on CPU Architecture that used in a CPU whether it Von Neumann Architecture or
Harvard Architecture or any other architecture.
Example:
Assume the calculator application is open in a computer. An input is given by the keyboard
and the mouse. (input is 5=5)
Step 1: This input will be sent as a copy to the temporary memory with the command of the
Control Unit.
Step 2: Copy of the input will be sent to the ALU and the Register through the command of
the Control Unit.
Step 3: Then Control Unit will command ALU to perform the calculation.
Step 4: According to the command and the input ALU will calculate (5+5=10).
Step 5: After the calculation with the command of the Control Unit the copy of the answer will
be sent to the RAM again for the temporary storage.
Step 6: Then Control Unit will command the output device to get ready for the incoming
message.
Step 7: RAM will send the copy of the answer (10) to the output device in this case the monitor
and the printer.

2.2.5 Performance of a CPU

The performance of the CPU depends on its clock speed, which refers how many program
instructions it can run in a second. The unit used to measure clock speed of a computer is
Megahertz (MHz) and Gigahertz (GHz). More instruction can be done depend on how faster
CPU is used and number of cores.

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2.3 Memory
Memory is the place capable of storing data and information permanently or temporarily in
the computer. The data is processed and instructions required for processing is stored in
memory. The memory is divided into large number of small parts which is called as cell and
each cell has its unique address.
2.3.1 Volatile Memory
It is a computer memory which requires power to maintain the stored information and when
the power goes down the content will be lost. (Example: RAM)
2.3.2 Non- Volatile Memory
It is a computer memory which does not require power to maintain stored information and
keeps content even power is lost. (Example: ROM, flash memory)
2.3.3 Types of Memory
There are three types of Memory for Computers.
• Cash Memory
• Primary/Main Memory
• Secondary Memory
1.3.3.1 Cash Memory
Cache memory is a very high-speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them.

Figure 4 Cash Memory

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Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows.
• Cache memory is faster than main memory.
• It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
• It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
• It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows.
• Cache memory has limited capacity.
• It is very expensive.
1.3.3.2 Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.

Figure 5 Primary Memory

Characteristics of Main Memory

• These are semiconductor memories.
• It is known as the main memory.
• Usually volatile memory.
• Data is lost in case power is switched off.
• It is the working memory of the computer.
• Faster than secondary memories.
• A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

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1.3.3.2.1 Random Access Memory (RAM)
This memory temporarily stores data. (Figure 2.40) The data stored in RAM will be deleted
when the computer is switched off. Therefore, this is also called volatile memory. Data coming
from input devices as well as data sent to output devices are held in RAM. When comparing to
ROM, which is discussed after this, RAM has both read-write facility.
RAM is of two types −
• Static RAM (SRAM)
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
1.3.3.3.1 Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips
use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent
leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache
memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM
• Long life
• No need to refresh
• Faster
• Used as cache memory
• Large size
• Expensive
• High power consumption
1.3.3.3.2 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times
per second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
• Short data lifetime
• Needs to be refreshed continuously
• Slower as compared to SRAM
• Used as RAM
• Smaller in size
• Less expensive
• Less power consumption

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There are six types of DRAM
• SDRAM
• RDRAM
• DDRSDR RAM
o DDR1
o DDR2
o DDR3
o DDR4

1.3.3.2.2 Read Only Memory (ROM).

The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-
volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM
stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as
bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like
washing machine and microwave oven.

Figure 6 ROM

Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.
1.3.3.2.2.1 MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.
1.3.3.2.2.2 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there
are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once
and is not erasable.

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 1.3.3.2.2.3 EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge
is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years because
the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a
quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During
normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
1.3.3.2.2.4 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased
one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is
flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −
• Non-volatile in nature
• Cannot be accidentally changed
• Cheaper than RAMs
• Easy to test
• More reliable than RAMs
• Static and do not require refreshing
• Contents are always known and can be verified
1.3.3.3 Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the
main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does
not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents
of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access
it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Figure 7 HDD

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Characteristics of Secondary Memory
• These are magnetic and optical memories.
• It is known as the backup memory.
• It is a non-volatile memory.
• Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
• It is used for storage of data in a computer.
• Computer may run without the secondary memory.
• Slower than primary memories.

Figure 8 Secondary Storage

1.3.3.3.3 Magnetic Media Devices

Data is stored here by using magnetic field.
Example 1 - Hard disk Drive
the Hard Disk Drive (HDD), which is commonly used to store data and information, is located
inside the computer. However, there are external hard disks as well. Today there are hard disks
with large capacity due to the development of the technology. The user can read and write the
data stored in HDD. Therefore, this medium is called Read / Write Memory. The capacity of a
hard disk ranges from 250 GB to 4 TB. The maximum capacity will increase with technological
development.

Figure 9 HDD

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Example 2 - Magnetic Tape
Used mostly in sever computers for back up due to its larger storage capacity. But tape is not
used in day today life as it is slow in reading and writing (Figure 2.45).

Figure 10 Magnetic Tape

1.3.3.3.4 Optical media

Figure 11 OD

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1.3.3.3.5 Solid State Devices
Since these devices contain solid parts and does not contain moving parts they are called Solid
State Devices. They are used to read and write data and information.
Example 1 - USB Flash Drive
This has become a very popular secondary storage device due to its easy portability and the
ability to read and write data fast.

Figure 12 USB

Example 2 - Memory Card

This has the same function of USB flash drive. However, the method of connecting to the
computer is different and it is smaller in physical size. This is used in digital cameras, mobile
phones and computer gaming devices.

Figure 13 Memory Card

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2.4 Motherboard
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together.
It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other
ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a
computer.

Figure 14 Motherboard

Motherboard comes with following features

• Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.
• Motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
• Video cards, hard disks, sound cards have to be compatible with the motherboard to
function properly.
• Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.
2.5 Buffer
To reduce latency the input and output controllers use the mechanism call data buffering.
Buffering is a method used to reduce latency by cashing to be processed data with the help of
drivers. It cashes multiple blocks from the disk drive. This helps the processor to process data
quicker than the hard disk.
2.6 Interrupt
Interrupt is a method used by the computer system subsystem to disturb the ongoing process to
give space for urgent incoming process. This Interrupt message mostly sent by memory.

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2.7 System Bus
he system bus, also called the frontside bus is the bus that connects the CPU to main memory
on the motherboard. I/O buses, which connect the CPU with the systems other components,
branch off of the system bus.

Figure 15 System Bus

Control Bus: The way to give command through Control Unit to CPU, Memory and
Input/output
Address Bus: Allocating the place to data process in the Memory.
Data Bus: All the input and output data travels through this bus.

3 How Subsystem organized and connected with computer

The organizing of subsystems shows the important role because facts needs to be exchanged
between the three subsystems, Connecting Central Processing Unit [CPU] and memory,
Connecting Input/output devices, Addressing input/output devices.
Through the system bus subsystem is connected to the computer.

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