Noise Control

Engineering Basics

Dave Yantek
NIOSH - Pittsburgh Research Laboratory
Hearing Loss Prevention Branch
 Topics
• Basics of sound
• Measurement of sound
• Measurement practices
• Noise source identification
• Noise controls
 Basics of Sound
Physical Parameters
Sound Power (watts)
• Sound energy generated by a source per unit time
• Independent of surroundings, property of a source
• Used for comparing sound sources, calculating
sound pressures
Sound Intensity (watts/m2)
• Measure of the sound power per unit area
• Vector quantity (magnitude and direction)
Sound Pressure (Pascal)
• Pressure fluctuation from atmospheric pressure
• Depends on sound power of source, distance from
source, environment Note: 1 PSI = 6,900 Pascal
 Basics of Sound
Characteristics of Sound: Amplitude
Deviation of the pressure from atmospheric pressure
atmospheric
pressure
amplitude
PRESSURE

TIME

The higher the amplitude, the higher the sound pressure level
 Basics of Sound
Characteristics of Sound: Frequency
The number of pressure fluctuations per second
Period, T
PRESSURE

TIME

Frequency is related to the period: f = 1/T

Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz)
1 Hz = 1 cycle per second
 Basics of Sound
Characteristics of Sound: Wavelength
The distance required for the wave to repeat itself
wavelength
PRESSURE

DISTANCE

wavelength
Wavelength is related to frequency by the speed of sound: λ = c/f
low frequency – long wavelength high frequency – short wavelength
 Basics of Sound
Sound Fields (acoustic environments)
In typical indoor environments (including mines)
• A region close to the source is dominated by direct
sound
• A region far from the source is dominated by
reverberant sound

• For a given source, the sound level measured indoors

(underground) will usually be higher than the sound
level measured outdoors (above ground)
 Measurement of Sound
A sound level meter (SLM) or a microphone &
data acquisition system is used to measure
sound pressure levels

microphone
preamplifier
 Measurement of Sound
90
Sound level w/ fast time constant (125 ms)
Sound level w/ slow time constant (1000 ms)
89 Equivalent continuous sound level
Sound Level, dB(A)

88

87

86 The equivalent continuous sound level (LEQ)

is often used for machinery measurements

85
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time [seconds]
 Measurement of Sound
Examples of Sound Pressures and SPLs
SPL
Sound Source Sound Pressure
(dB)
Military jet takeoff with 89 Pascal
afterburner from aircraft 130
carrier at 50 feet (0.013 PSI)
0.51 Pascal
Leaf blower at 25 feet 85
(0.000074 PSI)
0.020 Pascal
Conversation at 3 feet 60
(0.0000041 PSI)
NOTE: Atmospheric pressure is 101,325 Pascal (14.7 PSI)

Source: Noise and Vibration Control, Edited by Leo L. Beranek, Revised Edition. 1998.
Published by the Institute of Noise Control Engineering, Washington, DC.
 Measurement of Sound
Examples of Sound Pressures and SPLs
% of SPL
Sound Source Atmospheric
Pressure (dB)
Military jet takeoff with
afterburner from aircraft 0.088% 130
carrier at 50 feet
Leaf blower at 25 feet 0.00050% 85

Conversation at 3 feet 0.000028% 60

NOTE: Atmospheric pressure is 101,325 Pascal (14.7 PSI)

 Measurement of Sound
A-weighting
10

-10
The A-weighted sound level
Attenuation, dB

-20 What does A-weighting

correlates do to the well
reasonably sound?
Example:
withAir-rotary
hearingdrill
lossrigand
sound
is clip
-30 Alternating un-weighted for 2 seconds
commonly +used in noise
-40 regulations
A-weighted forand standards
2 seconds
A-weighting significantly
-50 attenuates the level of
sounds below 1000 Hz

10000
20

30
40
50

100

300
400
500
200

2000
1000

3000
4000
5000
Frequency (Hz)
 Measurement of Sound
Mathematics of Decibels

• Decibels are logarithmic, not linear

• Cannot simply add, subtract, or average
sound levels
• Two sources with equal sound levels
increase sound level by 3 dB

Example
90 dB + 90 dB ≠ 180 dB
90 dB + 90 dB = 93 dB
 Measurement of Sound
Frequency Content

• The frequency range for human hearing is

20 Hz to 20 kHz
• The frequency content of sound helps to
identify noise sources
• Octave-band or 1/3-octave-band filters
are used to examine frequency content
• We may think of these filters as a
frequency ‘bin’ where the energy in a
small frequency band is counted
Example: 1/3-Octave-Band Spectrum
Vibrating Screen Noise – Vibration Only, Without Coal
95

90 ‘broadband source’
A-wtd Sound Pressure Level (dB)

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

45

8000
1250

2500

5000
1000

1600

2000

3150

4000

6300
125

160

250

315

500

630
100

200

400

800

1/3-Octave Band Center Frequency (Hz)

Example: 1/3-Octave-Band Spectrum
Air-rotary Drill Rig - Drilling Noise
95

90 Source dominated by
A-wtd Sound Pressure Level (dB)

high frequencies
85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

45
1250

2500

5000
1000

1600

2000

3150

4000

6300

8000
125

160

250

315

500

630
100

200

400

800

1/3-Octave Band Center Frequency (Hz)

 Measurement Practices
• Several factors may influence
measured sound levels
– Instrumentation calibration & set-up
– Background noise
– Measurement locations
– Machinery operation
– Measurement environment
 Measurement Practices
Calibration & Set-up

• Calibrate before and after testing

• Set the level of the calibrator to 114 dB
when ambient SPL is high
• Select the desired weighting prior to testing
• Measure the LEQ with a 15 to 30 second
measurement duration
 Measurement Practices
Background Noise

• Measure ambient sound levels (aka

background noise) before and after
machinery sound level measurements
• Wind (or airflow from ventilation fans) can
be a source of background noise
• Use a windscreen to reduce wind noise
• Turn off other machinery near the
measurement area to reduce BG noise
 Measurement Practices
Background Noise

• BG SPL must be at least 3 dB below SPL of

machinery
• If BG SPL is 10 dB lower than the SPL of
machinery, it has little effect on the
measured SPL
(in practice the effect is considered to be
negligible)
• Must correct for BG noise when the BG
SPL is 3 to 10 dB lower than the
machinery SPL
 Measurement Practices
Measurement Locations

• Make operator ear SPL measurements as

close to the ear as possible
• If we are examining noise radiated to the
environment
– Measurements should not be made close to the
machine or reflective surfaces, if possible
– A measurement distance of 3 feet (1 m) is
commonly used
– Measurements close to the machine or
boundaries will be significantly affected,
particularly at low frequencies
 Measurement Practices
Equipment Operation

• Warm-up machinery prior to testing

• Operate machinery in a ‘typical’ manner
(RPM, load, equipment functions, etc.)
when measuring operating sound levels
• Perform tests with well-defined
parameters to limit test-to-test variability
when evaluating noise controls
 Measurement Practices
Measurement Environment

• Modern test equipment is relatively

insensitive to atmospheric conditions
• Clear the area of large reflective surfaces
• Observers and the person making the
measurements can influence the data
– Use a tripod and stand to the side and behind
the sound level meter
– If a tripod is not used, hold the SLM away from
the body
– Ask observers to stay away from the
measurement area
Noise Source Identification
Examples of Noise Sources

Mechanical Noise Flow Noise

Engine block vibration Ventilation systems
Road-tire interaction Engine cooling systems
Drilling, cutting, grinding Water sprays
Electric motors Dust scrubbers
Bearings Engine intake & exhaust
systems
Gears
Conveyor systems
Noise Source Identification
• The first step in controlling noise is to
determine the most dominant source
• In terms of worker exposure, determine
the machine and/or operation responsible
for the highest percent dose
• In terms of machinery sound levels, we
must determine the source generating the
highest sound level

Why is this important?

 Noise Source Identification
Multiple Noise Source Example
Three Noise Sources: 90 dB, 88 dB, & 85 dB
Overall Sound Level: 92.9 dB
Case 1: Reduce 85 dB source to 75 dB
Overall Sound Level: 92.2 dB (0.7 dB reduction)
Case 2: Reduce 88 dB source to 78 dB
Overall Sound Level: 91.4 dB (1.5 dB reduction)
Case 3: Reduce 90 dB source to 80 dB
Overall Sound Level: 90.2 dB (2.7 dB reduction)
Case 4: Eliminate 88 dB source
We must identify and treat the dominant
Overall Sound Level: 91.2 dB (1.7 dB reduction)
noise source(s) to get the most sound
level reduction for the least cost!
 Multiple Noise Sources
Procedure to Rank Order Sources
• List noise sources on equipment
• Apply treatments to all sources (turn off or
disconnect when possible)
– Treatments do not have to be practical or durable
– Goal is to reduce the level of each individual
source by 10 dB or more
• Remove treatment from 1st source, measure
sound levels, reinstall treatment
• Remove treatment from 2nd source, measure
sound levels, reinstall treatment
• Continue for all sources
 Multiple Noise Sources
Rank Ordering – Vibrating Screen Example
Primary W.O.
18 Cyclones (12)

Electrical Room
15

12
Machine
Meters

Well Circuit 2 Cycl

9 Refuse Scr
Stairs
Circuit 1 Cycl
6
Refuse Scr
# 169
3

0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Meters
Side 2 Side 1
 Multiple Noise Sources
Rank Ordering – Vibrating Screen Example
 Multiple Noise Sources
Rank Ordering – Vibrating Screen Example
• The sound level at any location is the result of all
surrounding screens
• Cannot process coal on the test screen with all of
the other screens off
• Large changes to the sound level from the test
screen would result in only a small (insignificant)
change in the measured sound level
• Quilted fiberglass-vinyl-fiberglass barrier hung
around test screen to reduce background noise
from other equipment
 Multiple Noise Sources
Rank Ordering – Vibrating Screen Example

Vibrating Screen Noise Sources:

Screening noise:
Noise generated by the flow of material due to
coal-coal, coal-chute, and coal-screen impacts
Drive noise:
Noise radiated by the vibration mechanism
housings, screen sides, and the building due to
excitation by the gears, bearings, and eccentric
weights of the mechanisms
Rinse water spray noise:
Noise due to spraying water onto coal
 Multiple Noise Sources
Rank Ordering – Vibrating Screen Example
BARRIER AT DISCHARGE END OF #169

Remember, treatments do not have

to be practical for these tests!
 Multiple Noise Sources
Rank Ordering – Vibrating Screen Example
BARRIER BETWEEN #169 and #167
 Multiple Noise Sources
Rank Ordering – Vibrating Screen Example
1.Side 1 and Side 2 processing
coal, #169 OFF (BG noise for #169
overall level)

SIDE 2 SIDE 1
2.Side 1 and Side 2 processing
coal, #169 processing coal (Can
calculate level due to #169 by
subtracting levels of test 1)

Yields total sound level for test

screen (drive noise + screening
noise + water spray noise)
 Multiple Noise Sources
Rank Ordering – Vibrating Screen Example
3. Side 1 processing coal, Side 2
off (BG noise for #169 drive noise &
#169 water spray noise)

SIDE 2 SIDE 1

4.Side 1 processing coal, Side 2

off, #169 vibe only (Can calculate
level of #169 drive noise by subtracting
levels of test 3)

Yields sound level for drive noise

 Multiple Noise Sources
Rank Ordering – Vibrating Screen Example
5.Side 1 processing coal, Side 2
off, #169 water spray only (Can
calculate level of #169 water spray noise
by subtracting levels of test 3)

Yields sound level due to water #169

spray noise
SIDE 2 SIDE 1
6.Subtract sound levels due to
drive noise and water spray
noise from total sound level
due to all three sources
Yields sound level due to screening
noise
 Multiple Noise Sources
Rank Ordering – Vibrating Screen Example

Test Condition or Overall Sound

Noise Source Level
Total, processing
92 dB(A)
coal (measured)
Drive noise
91 dB(A)
(measured)
Screening noise
87 dB(A)
(calculated)
Rinse water spray
80 dB(A)
(measured)
 Noise Controls
• Four basic types of treatments
(often used together)
– Absorbers
– Barriers
– Vibration Isolators
– Vibration Damping
 Noise Controls
Absorbers
• Applied at a reflective surface to absorb
energy and reduce reflection of sound
• Typically made of porous materials (open
cell foam, fiberglass, mineral wool)
• The sound absorption coefficient is used to
describe the ability of a material to absorb
sound
• Most effective at higher frequencies
• Absorber thickness influences absorption
 Noise Controls
Absorbers
• Flammability may be a concern with some
sound absorbing materials or their facings
• Lining cabs, enclosures, engine
compartments, overhead guards, and
ducts may reduce noise
• Good sound absorbing materials are NOT
usually good sound barriers
 Noise Controls
Barriers
• Barriers are materials that block
transmission of sound
• Good barrier materials are dense, limp
materials
• The transmission loss (TL) is used to
describe the performance of barrier
materials
• In general, TL increases with frequency
• Even a small opening will greatly reduce
the overall TL
 Noise Controls
Barriers
Resulting TL vs. % Open Area for a Material with a TL of 30 dB
30

25
Transmission Loss, dB

20
Opening
15

10

0
0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10%
% Open Area
 Noise Controls
Vibration Isolators

• Vibration isolators are flexible components

used to reduce transmitted vibration
• The source of vibration energy may not be
the dominant source of radiated noise
• A large, flat surface set into vibration can
act like a sounding board and radiate
noise
 Noise Controls
Vibration Isolators

• Select based on equipment weight, operating

speed, and environment
• A rigid mounting location is needed on both
the source and the support structure
• It is critical to make sure that no ‘shunt
paths’ exist
Noise Controls
Vibration Isolators

Vibration isolators at corners

of two motor-driven pumps
 Noise Controls
Vibration Isolators - Impact Isolation

• Impacts can create noise

• Impacts can cause surfaces to ‘ring’ or ‘buzz’
• Isolation pads made of rubber, cork, urethane
and similar can be used to ‘cushion’ impacts
Example:
Coated flight bars for a continuous mining machine
 Noise Controls
Vibration Damping

• Damping material can be applied to

vibrating surfaces to convert
mechanical motion into a small
amount of heat
• Two types of commonly-used
damping treatments
◦ Free-layer damping
◦ Constrained-layer damping
 Noise Controls
Vibration Damping

Free-layer damping
• Applied to a surface via spray, roller, or brush
• Useful for relatively thin structures
• Applied damping material is thicker than the
structure itself
Constrained-layer damping
• Damping material is bonded to the structure
• Stiff constraining layer is bonded to the damping
material
• Must use a stiff adhesive
• Surfaces must be clean
 Noise Controls
Constrained-layer Damping Demonstration
Constrained-layer
damping patch

No Damping 10% Coverage 50% Coverage

• 3-inch wide x 5-inch high aluminum plates
• Samples were suspended and struck with a
small metal object
 Noise Controls
Constrained-layer Damping Demonstration
No Damping 10% Coverage 50% Coverage
4 4 4

Pressure [Pa]
Pressure [Pa]

Pressure [Pa]
2 2 2

0 0 0

-2 -2 -2

-4 -4 -4
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Time [s] Time [s] Time [s]
80 80 80
80 80 80
75
75 LP = 77.4 dB 75
75 LP 70.7 dB 75
75 LP = 68.5 dB
70
70
70 70
70
70

SPL [dB]
SPL [dB]

SPL [dB]

Pressure dB/2e-005 [Pa]

Pressure dB/2e-005 [Pa]

Pressure dB/2e-005 [Pa]

65
65
65
65
65
65
60
60
60 60
60
60
55
55
55
55
55
55

50
50
50 50
50
50
45
45
45
45
45
45
40
40
40
40
40
40

10000
10000

10000

1000

2000

5000
100
1000

2000

5000

1000

2000

5000

200

500
100

500
200

200

500
100

100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000
Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]

Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]

 Noise Controls
Cabs, Barriers, and Enclosures

• Cabs, barriers, and enclosures can be very

effective at reducing noise
• It is critical to limit gaps to a minimum
– Pipe penetrations and openings around
hydraulic lines or electrical wiring should be
sealed as well as possible
– Doors and windows should use a flexible seal
 Noise Controls
Cabs
• Hydraulic lines resting on cab surfaces can
increase noise
• Rattling doors and windows can increase noise
• Use laminated glass for windows because it has
higher damping (higher TL)
• Use barrier material with a closed cell foam
backing on the floor and/or firewall
• Install vibration isolators to reduce structure-born
noise (watch out for shunt paths!)
• Line with sound absorbing material to reduce
build up of reverberant sound
• Treat vibrating surfaces with damping material
 Noise Controls
Barriers
• Should be installed either close to the
noise source or close to the worker
• Must be high enough to create an
‘acoustic shadow’
• Place sound absorbing material on
reflective surfaces above the barrier to
increase noise reduction

Sound absorbing
material

Barrier
 Noise Controls
Enclosures
• Use materials with high transmission loss
• If airflow is required, the worker should not have
‘line of site’ to the enclosed noise source
• Line with sound absorbing material to reduce
build-up of reverberant noise
• Use barrier-absorber materials to increase noise
reduction
• Vibration isolate enclosure from structure with
compliant materials
• Add damping treatments to the enclosure to
reduce vibration of the enclosure
 For more information

Dave Yantek

Phone: 412-386-4498 Fax: 412-386-4865

DYantek@cdc.gov
www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining