Information Theory: Mohamed Hamada

Information Theory
Mohamed Hamada
Software Engineering Lab
The University of Aizu
Email: hamada@u-aizu.ac.jp
URL: http://www.u-aizu.ac.jp/~hamada
Today’s Topics
• Watching a Coding Video (50 mins.)

• What is Information Theory
• Information Source
• Introduction to Source Coding
• What is Information Theory
Information Theory
- What is Information Theory?
- What is the purpose of information theory?
- Why we need to study information theory?
What is information theory (IT) ?
IT is the science that deals with the concept “ Information” :

Its measurement & its application
What is the purpose of IT?
Transmission of information in an efficient way : minimum time & space
Why we need to study information theory?
Because of the revolution of communication dealing efficiently with information and its
transmission becomes a necessary requirement for a computer engineer.
What is Information?
There are 3 types of Information
Syntactic Information Semantic information Pragmatic information
Related to the structure Related to the Related to the usage and

of the messages meaning of the effect of the messages
(characters) that forms messages
the information
Example:
i. I eat sushi by hashi
ii. By hashi I eat sushi
iii. There is a typhoon in Japan
iv. There is a typhoon in Kanto area in Japan
i. and ii. are syntactically different but semantically & Pragmatically equal
iii. and iv. are syntactically, semantically & pragmatically different
(iv. gives more information than iii.)
INFORMATION TRANSFER ACROSS CHANNELS
Sent Received
messages messages
symbols
source encoderChannel
Source
channel
channel
Channel
decoderSource receiver
coding coding decoding decoding
Compression Error Correction Decompression

Source Entropy Channel Capacity
Capacity vs Efficiency
Digital Communication Systems
Information User of
Source Information
Source Source
Encoder Decoder
Channel Channel
Encoder Decoder
Modulator De-Modulator
Channel
Information Source
Examples:
1. English text
2. A man speaking
3. Photographs
4. Motion of films,
....... etc.
A chief aim of information theory is to study how such sequence of symbols (signals)
can be most effectively encoded for transmission (by electrical means).
For Information source we have:
· Information expressed as a finite set of symbols : Source Alphabet
· A ( discrete) information source : is a source that generates a sequence of symbols
· The symbols are denoted by a1, a2, …., am and the alphabet by A = { a1, a2, …, am }
· A finite sequence of symbols is called word. The set of all words is denoted by A*
Information Source
Memoryless
Memoryless means the generated symbols (of a source message ) are

independent.
Stationary
The idea of stationary of a source demands no change with time
Discrete
The source produces independent symbols in different unit times
Memoryless
Memoryless means the generated symbols (of a source message ) are independent.
X
source
P(X = i | X1, X2, …, Xn ) = P ( X = i )
i.e. The probability of the output X is conditionally independent of previous channel

inputs or outputs X1, .., Xn
Example:
Coin toss 8 times : the probability to get head

Each time is ½ x …x ½ = (½)8 = 1/256 = 0.0039 = 0.4 %
Coin toss number 9 : The probability to get head is still ½
So it is independent of the previous 8 toss

Stationary
A process is called Stochastic if its output is associated with a probability distribution.
A stochastic process is said to be stationary when the process is (temporally

homogeneous ) remain invariant under every translation of the time scale
Example 1 : Assume a source produces an infinite sequence of the form:
Source AE AE AE AE AE etc.
i.e. What comes later is like what has gone before. Stationary is a designation of such
source of characters
Example 2 : Assume the source that produces:
Source AE AAEE AAAEEE etc.
such source is not stationary
The idea of stationary of a source demands no change with time
i.e P(X = i ) = C (constant)

Digital Communication Systems
Source of User of
Information Information
Source Source
Encoder Decoder
Channel Channel
Encoder Decoder
Modulator De-Modulator
Channel
Source Coding
· We consider memoryless, stationary, discrete information source S ,
a1 a2 …. am
S= where pi = p(Xn =ai)
p1 p2 …. pm
so that
P(Xn = ai) = C for a constant C
i.e. probability doesn’t depend on the trial ( n )

Source Coding
-Information source encoding (enciphering) :
is a procedure for associating words constructed from a finite alphabet

of a language with given words of another language in a one-to-one
manner.
i.e. encoding is a procedure for mapping a given set of messages

{m1, m2, ... , mi } onto a new set of encoded messages {c1, c2, ... , ci }
in a one-to-one manner.
-A measure of the encoded information is entropy :

which is the shortest mean encoding.
The unit measure of entropy is bit : binary digit.
Example: The entropy of a fair coin toss is 1 bit
Later on we will study entropy in more details.

Source Coding
-The goal of source coding is to make encoding as short as

possible
- Code : For the alphabet A = { a1,…., am }

a code C is a nonempty set of words, i.e. C is a subset of A*
-Code word : Is an element of the code
- Code word length : Is the number of symbols is the code word.

For a code word x, l(x) denote its length
Source Coding
Example : for the source information { Red, Blue} and the code alphabet is {0,1 }.
Let C (Red) = 00 and C (Blue) = 11
Then C = { 00, 11 } is a subset of { 0, 1 }* and the length is l( 00 ) = 2 and l(11) = 2
- Binary Source Coding : Is the code whose alphabet is { 0, 1 }

Decoding
Is the inverse process of encoding.

i.e. The operation of assigning code words to the corresponding words of the
source information.
ck Source sk Information
Decoder Destination
Decoding
Is the inverse process of encoding.

i.e. The operation of assigning code words to the corresponding words of the
source information.
Various Coding Techniques :
- Comma Code : is a code C with the code words

1, 01, 001, 0001, ….., 0…01, 000…0
where the last two codes have n-1 and n 0's respectively.
-Variable length Code : is the code with codeword of different lengths.
- Instantaneous code : is the code in which each codeword in any string

of codewords can be decoded (reading from left to right ) as soon as it is received.
- Singular Code : A code is singular if some codewords are not different

Examples of Information Source Coding
Symbol Pro C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
A 0.4 00 1 1 1 0 0
B 0.3 01 01 01 00 1 0
C 0.2 10 001 001 010 10 10
D 0.1 11 0001 000 011 01 01
MCL 2 2 1.9 1.9 1.3 1.3

MCL = Mean code length
C1 : fragile ( recovery impossible if letters drop out)

C2 : robust ( recovery possible if letters drop out);
variable-length code (non-equal length code );
C3 : smarter comma code (incorporating maximum length)
C3, C4 : also (variable- length) instantaneous codes;
C5 : decoding impossible;
D A A C
010 01 0 or 0 10
C6 : singular code (so decoding impossible)
Coding/Decoding Example
Bad Code
Example: Code I
One input can be interpreted
to many different outputs.
Source Binary Code
Symbol Representation
a 0
Information aad Source 0011
Source Encoder b 1
Error Free c 00
aad or, Channel
aabb or,
Source d 11
cd or, Decoder
cbb 0011

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Information Theory

• Watching a Coding Video (50 mins.)

- What is Information Theory?

- What is the purpose of information theory?

- Why we need to study information theory?

What is information theory (IT) ?

IT is the science that deals with the concept “ Information” :

What is the purpose of IT?

Transmission of information in an efficient way : minimum time & space

Why we need to study information theory?

There are 3 types of Information

Syntactic Information Semantic information Pragmatic information

Related to the structure Related to the Related to the usage and

Compression Error Correction Decompression

For Information source we have:

· Information expressed as a finite set of symbols : Source Alphabet

· A ( discrete) information source : is a source that generates a sequence of symbols

Memoryless means the generated symbols (of a source message ) are

The idea of stationary of a source demands no change with time

P(X = i | X1, X2, …, Xn ) = P ( X = i )

i.e. The probability of the output X is conditionally independent of previous channel

Coin toss 8 times : the probability to get head

So it is independent of the previous 8 toss

A process is called Stochastic if its output is associated with a probability distribution.

A stochastic process is said to be stationary when the process is (temporally

Example 1 : Assume a source produces an infinite sequence of the form:

Example 2 : Assume the source that produces:

Source AE AAEE AAAEEE etc.

such source is not stationary

The idea of stationary of a source demands no change with time

i.e P(X = i ) = C (constant)

· We consider memoryless, stationary, discrete information source S ,

P(Xn = ai) = C for a constant C

i.e. probability doesn’t depend on the trial ( n )

-Information source encoding (enciphering) :

is a procedure for associating words constructed from a finite alphabet

i.e. encoding is a procedure for mapping a given set of messages

-A measure of the encoded information is entropy :

Example: The entropy of a fair coin toss is 1 bit

Later on we will study entropy in more details.

-The goal of source coding is to make encoding as short as

- Code : For the alphabet A = { a1,…., am }

-Code word : Is an element of the code

- Code word length : Is the number of symbols is the code word.

- Binary Source Coding : Is the code whose alphabet is { 0, 1 }

Is the inverse process of encoding.

Is the inverse process of encoding.

Various Coding Techniques :

- Comma Code : is a code C with the code words

-Variable length Code : is the code with codeword of different lengths.

- Instantaneous code : is the code in which each codeword in any string

- Singular Code : A code is singular if some codewords are not different

C 0.2 10 001 001 010 10 10

D 0.1 11 0001 000 011 01 01

MCL 2 2 1.9 1.9 1.3 1.3

C1 : fragile ( recovery impossible if letters drop out)

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