© 2010 Christian

Schrade

BASIC GRAMMAR
Christian Schrade, attorney-at-
law
TESOL, College of
Teachers

www.e sl- la w.com

1
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Heritage Children’s Dictionary © 2010 Houghton Mifflin Company

Basic Grammar in Use, Murphy/Smalzer © 2002 Cambridge University Press
rd
Practical English Usage, 3 edition © 2005 Michael Swan

CONTENTS

Pronouns – I, Me, My, Mine, Myself Page 03

Article/Plurals Page 04
Number v. Amount - Much, Many, Little, Few, Some, Any Page 05
Comparison - Comperative/Superlative Page 06
Present - Simple/Progressive Page 07
Past - Simple/Progressive Page 08
Post-Present/Future - Simple/Progressive Page 09
Questions Page 10
Passive Voice - Past, Present, Post-Present, Future Page 11
Modals - Degrees of Certainty; Permission, Prohibition, Obligation Page 12
Collocations - Word Combinations, Idioms, Phrasal Verbs Page 13
PRONOUNS – I, ME, MY, MINE, MYSELF

PERSONAL

Subject People Object

I I know Jim and he knows me. me

you You know Jim and he knows you. you
he/she He/She knows Jim and he knows him/her. him/her
we We know Jim and he knows us. us
they They know Jim and he knows them. them

it/they Things it/them

POSSESSIVE
They tell us who owns something. To own means to have and keep something: Jim
owns a lot of books. Bob is owner of a restaurant. To possess also means to own or have
something: Everything that I possess is in my bedroom.

I my mine It’s my money. It’s mine.

you your yours It’s your money. It’s yours.
he/she his/her his/hers It’s his/her money. It’s his/hers.
it its NYC is famous for its skyscrapers.
we our ours It’s our money. It’s ours.
they their theirs It’s their money. It’s theirs.

REFLEXIVE
They tell us that subject (I/we/etc.) and object (me/us/etc.) are the same person.

I me myself I cut myself.

you you yourself I love you for yourself.
he him himself He looked at himself in the mirror.
she her herself She talks to herself sometimes.
it it itself The bag itself is nice but small.
we us ourselves We enjoyed ourselves.
you (Pl.) you yourselves Please help yourselves.
they them themselves They paid for themselves.
 © 2010 Christian
Schrade
ARTICLE - A, AN,
THE
a, an the

Can you give me a pen? Can you give me the pen?

a pen = any pen the pen = the one in your hand

A/an means one out of many: Red is a color (there are many colors).
The tells us which one: The red of your shirt is nice (only this red).

Use an before a/e/i/o/u:

Ease of pronunciation*

* pronunciation - how you speak the sound of words; to pronounce (v.); pronunciation (n.)
a an

a banana an apple
a hat an umbrella
a boring TV program an interesting TV program

a university (pronounced: yuniversity) an hour (h is not pronounced = silent)

PLURALS - FLOWER/S, BUS/ES

The plural of a noun is usually: noun + s/es

a week two weeks

a box many boxes

Some plurals are irregular:

man men woman foot feet sheep sheep

women child tooth teeth fish fish
children mouse mice person people
 © 2010 Christian
Schrade
NUMBER v.
AMOUNT

none a little/a few some much/many all

None of the sq uare is black . A little/Some/Much of the s quare is bla ck. All of the squar e is
bla ck.

MUCH, MANY

Much means a lot, a great quantity or amount: There’s not much food in the icebox.
Many means a large number: There are many different colors.

much + uncountable noun* many + countable noun**

much money/food/time many books/people/days

* Uncountable noun: We see them as masses and not as separate objects.

** Countable noun: We can use numbers and the article a/an; they have plurals.

LITTLE, FEW

A little means a small amount or quantity: Sue drank only a little of her milk.
A few means a small number, not many: There are only a few apples on the tree.

a little + uncountable noun a few + countable noun

a little money/food/time a few books/people/days

SOME, ANY
Some means a number or quantity that is not known: Brenda didn’t read all her
books. She read only some of them.

Any means that it does not matter which one: Take any seat you like.

limited unlimited

I like some pop music. I like any pop music.

I don’t like some pop music. I don’t like any pop music.
Is there someone here on Saturday? Is there anyone here on Saturday?
COMPARISON
adjective + -er/-est;
more/most + adjective

Adjective Comperative Superlative

1 syllable : old, fat, late older, fatter, later oldest, fattest, latest
2 syllables: po·lite politer/more polite politest/most polite
3 syllables: beau·ti·ful more beautiful most beautiful

EXAMPLES

Take a seat!
couch chair/seat floor

is the biggest. A couch is the most comfortable to sit in.

is bigger than , , and . A couch is more comfortable than a chair.
, , and are not as big as . A seat is not as comfortable as a couch.
, , and are not so big as . A seat is not so comfortable as a couch.
is as big as . ( is so big as ) A chair is as comfortable as a seat.
and are bigger than . A seat is more comfortable than the floor.
is the smallest. The floor is the least comfortable to sit on.

IRREGULAR

Adjective Comperative Superlative

good better best

bad worse worst
much/many more most
little less least
few fewer/less fewest/least
far farther/further* farthest/furthest

* I can throw a ball farther than you (= distance). Wait for further instructions (= more instructions)
PRESENT
sketches © brainfriendly.co.uk

present simple present progressive (cf. past

progressive)

Jim plays soccer, but he doesn’t play very well.

Does he play soccer? Yes, he does.
Jim is playing computer games now, but he isn’t playing very well.
Is he playing soccer now? No, he isn’t, but he plays soccer often.

PRESENT SIMPLE
Use the present simple for things that happen all the time or that are always true (it
is not about present time, but about timeless facts and permanent situations).

he/she/it + -s/ es

All the Time Negative do not = don’t Question

I play soccer every week. We don’t play soccer. Do you play soccer?
He pla ys soccer every week. She doe sn’t play Does he play
soccer. soccer?
Always True Negative does not = doesn’t Question

Water boils at 100 °C*. Water doesn’t boil at 50 °C*. Does water boil at 50 °C*?

* centigrade

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
am/is/are + -ing

Use the present progressive for actions or situations that are happening at or
around the time of speaking (before, during, and after the moment of speaking).

Around Now Negative is/are not = Question

It’s raining at the moment. It isn’t raining at the moment. Is it raining at the moment?

For point-in-time actions we normally use the present simple: He hits the ball (that’s a
point in time, not a series of events or actions). The radiator* feels cold (that’s a point
in time and also a fact).
* a radiator is used for heating a room
 PAST
PAST SIMPLE

Use the past simple to talk about events in the past. Regular verbs end in [–ed].

Regular Verbs Negative did not = didn’t Question

Mozart lived in Salzburg. Mozart di dn’t live in L.A. When did Mozart live?*

Irregular Verbs Negative Question

Mozart wrote music. Mozart di dn’t write books. Did Mozart write good music?

* 1756 -1791
PAST PROGRESSIVE
sketches © brainfriendly.co.uk

Jim is playing computer games at the moment.

At this time yesterday, Jim was playing soccer.

Compare: What were you doing when you heard the burglar** ? - I was reading in bed.
What did you do when you heard the burglar? - I called the police.

** A burglar is a person who breaks into a house to steal

something

Use the past progressive for actions or situations that were happening at or around
a specific time in the past.

was/were + -ing

Background Events Negative Question

was/were not = wasn’t/weren’t

While I was running down I wasn’t wat ching TV when What we re you doing when
the stairs, I slipped and fell. you called me. I was the telephone rang?
working and didn’t hear
you.
POST-PRESENT AND FUTURE
Jim is going to play soccer in Germany next week. plan post-present
The game starts at 7:00 PM next Saturday. schedule
1
post-present
He’s staying at a hotel near Frankfurt. arrangement
2 post-present
He thinks his team will win. guess
3 future

1
schedule – a list of times; a program of events
2
arrangement – planning we do ahead of time; preparation: Let’s make arrangements for our vacation.
3
guess – to try to think of the answer but having not enough information to be sure of it: I’d guess
that there were more than 1,000 people at the concert.

PRESENT TENSES - FUTURE MEANING

Use going to for plans and intentions (intention = having the mind set on a goal).

Be Going To + Infinitive Negative Question

We’re going t o bu y a car. We aren’t going to buy a car. Are we going to buy a car?

Use the present simple for fixed events (schedules or timetables).

Present Simple Negative Question

The plane arri ves in NYC at The plane doesn’t arrive Does the plane arrive at 7:30
7:30 tomorrow morning. earlier than 7:30 tomorrow in
morning. NYC tomorrow morning?

Use the present progressive for arrangements.

Present Progressive Negative Question

He’s f lying next Friday. He isn’t f lying next Friday. Are you flying next Friday?

FUTURE

Use will to talk about what people think or guess will happen.

Simple: will + infinitive Negative will not = won’t Question

It will be cold tomorrow. It won’t be cold tomorrow. Will it be cold tomorrow?

Progressive: will be + -ing

Good luck! We’ll be This time tomorrow, we Where will you be f lying today?
thi nking of you. won’t be lying on the beach
anymore.
 QUESTIONS
VERB = ONE WORD

verb = one word do + infinitive

1
They play soccer every week. Do they play soccer?
1
Water boils at 100 °C (centigrade). Does water boil at 100 °C?
1
Mozart lived in Salzburg. Did Mozart live in Salzburg?
1
Mozart wrote music. Did Mozart write music?

verb = be do + infinitive

1
Two plus three is five. Is two plus three five?
1
They are all hungry. Are they all hungry?
1 Was he very angry?
He was very angry.

VERB = TWO OR MORE WORDS

verb = two or more words front the first verb

1 2
It is raining at the moment. Is it raining at the moment?
1 2
She was running downstairs too fast. Was she running downstairs too fast?
1 2 3
We are going to buy a new car. Are we going to buy a new car?
1 2
It will be cold tomorrow. Will it be cold tomorrow?
1 2
I can tell you the time. Can you tell me the time?
1 2
I must really write to uncle Bob. Must I really write to uncle Bob?

WH-QUESTIONS

same rules wh-question

1 2
He is talking about English literature. What is he talking about?
1
The brown coat is mine. Which coat is yours?
1 1
They do their homework after school. When do they do their homework?
1 2
We are going to the movies tonight. Where are you going tonight?
1 2
Jim would like some coffee. Who would like some coffee?*
1
I liked Jim best. Whom did you like best?*
1 2 3
Jim is going to buy Bob’s car. Whose car is he going to buy?*
1
Birds fly south because of the climate. Why do birds fly south in winter?
1 2
She might be about 14 years old. How old might she be?

* who - he / whom - him / whose - his

 PASSIVE VOICE
When A does something to B, there are often two ways to talk about it. If we want A
(the doer = the one who acts) to be the subject, we use an active verb. If we want B
(the receiver of the action = the one something is done to) to be the subject, we use a
passive verb.

be + past participle

Examples: chambermaid* (doer/actor) – room (receiver)

* Someone who cleans bedrooms in a hotel (chamber = a room: Harry Potter and the Chamber of
Secrets)

Past Active Chambermaids cleaned the room yesterday.

Simple Passive The room was cleaned (by chambermaids) yesterday.

Past Active Chambermaids were cleaning the room when I arrived.

Progressive Passive The room was being cleaned (by chambermaids) when I arrived.

Present Active Chambermaids clean the room every day.

Simple Passive The room is cleaned (by chambermaids) every day.

Present Active Chambermaids are cleaning the room right now.

Progressive Passive The room is being cleaned (by chambermaids) right now.

Post- Active Chambermaids are going to clean the room soon.

Present Passive The room is going to be cleaned (by chambermaids) soon.

Future Active Chambermaids will clean the room later.

Simple Passive The room will be cleaned (by chambermaids) later.

Future Active Chambermaids will be cleaning the room at this time tomorrow.
Progressive Passive The room will be being cleaned at this time tomorrow.

You can leave out the doer/actor. If you mention (= speak of) the doer, use by:

The room is cleaned every day.

The room is cleaned by chambermaids every day.

Sometimes you can even form two different passive sentences. This happens when the
verb has two objects (= two receivers):

Active Passive
We gave the information to the police. The information was given to the police.
The police were given the information.
 MODALS
DEGREES OF CERTAINTY
Certain means known for sure, feeling no doubt: Are you certain that you left the book
on the bus? Probable means not certain but expected to happen: The probability of a
tossed coin (= flipped coin) landing heads up (or tail up) is 50%. Possible means
something can happen (maybe/perhaps): Rain is a possibility today.

Certainty I will be away tomorrow. I won’t be late on Tuesday.

will, must, can’t You must be tired. That can’t be Jim – he’s in L.A.

Probability She should be here soon. It shouldn’t be too difficult.

should/ought to She ought to be here soon. It oughtn’t to be too difficult.

Possibility The water may not be warm enough to swim.

may, might, could It might rain today. We could all be millionaires one day.

PERMISSION, PROHIBITION, OBLIGATION

Permission means it is all right (= allowed) to do something: Our parents gave us
permission to go to the movies. Prohibition means that something is forbidden (= not
allowed): Smoking is prohibited (not permitted) in public buildings. Obligation is
something a person must do (= it is necessary to do it): He was under obligation to
finish his work in time.

Permission You can use the car if you like. Could I talk to you for a minute?
can, could, may, might May we use the phone? Do you think we might take a break now?

Prohibition Books must not/may not be taken out of the library.

mustn’t, may not, can’t You can’t come in here.

Obligation Students must register in the first week of semester.

must, need, Do I need to get a visa for Canada?
ought to, should She really ought to/should take a shower (weak obligation).

MUST, NEED, HAVE TO

Prohibition You mustn’t tell her - I don’t want her to know.

No obligation You don’t need to tell her - she already knows.
Obligation (internal) I must stop smoking. (I tell myself what my obligation is)
Obligation (external) I have to stop smoking. (someone else tells me, e.g. my doctor)
 COLLOCATIONS
WORD COMBINATIONS
Collocations are words that often go together. You go by train (not: drive with the
train), but you go on foot (not: go to foot). You do exercises (not: make exercises), but
you make mistakes (not: do mistakes). Instead of studying single words, you should try
to remember word combinations. This will increase your fluency and accuracy.

Examples - You can catch a thief or catch a bus (= to get aboard in time); a room can
catch fire (= to start burning) or you can catch a cold (= get an infection that causes a
running nose and sneezing). Have you noticed the collocation running nose?

IDIOMS
Sometimes word combinations can have a special meaning that cannot be
understood from the meaning of the individual words. These are called idioms.

Examples

“Our play opens tonight.” “Well, break a leg!” (= good luck)

1 2 1
She really broke his heart when she broke up with him. (= to make someone feel very
2
sad; to end a relationship)

PHRASAL VERBS
Break up (with somebody) is a phrasal verb. These verbs can have two or three parts
and the meaning is often different from the meaning of the parts taken separately.

Examples

They were making out in the schoolyard (= they were kissing)

Whether we like it or not, we have to put up with it (= we have to tolerate/accept it)

Sometimes a phrasal verb has an object. Usually there are two possible positions:

She switched off the light.

She switched the light off.

If the object is a pronoun, only one position is possible:

She switched it off (not: she switched off it).