INTERMEDIETE BOOKLET

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Topic: Quantifiers

Quantifiers are words used before a noun to indicate its amount or quantity.

The following can used before a noun:

Some/any much/many each/every both fewer/less several all/no enough
With count nouns only With uncount nouns only With both count and uncount nouns
(not) many cigarettes (not) much luck Some nomey
A few cars A little cheese Some eggs
Very few trees Very little experience (not) any water
Fewer books Less time (not) any friends
Several answers More/most rice
More/most people
All/no work
All/no children
Enough food
Enough apples

With singular count nouns only With plural nouns only

Each boy Both parents
Every time

Most of the quantifiers can be used without a noun. No, all, every and each cannot.
Have you got any money? Not/ alittle/enough.
Are there any eggs? A few/not many.
Have some more wine. I don´t want any.
Did Ann and Sam go? Both
Most of the quantifiers can be used with of+the /my/ those,etc.+noun. No and every
cannot.
They took all of my money. Take a few of these tablets.
Very few of my friends smoke. Not much of the food was left.

For ,no and every, we use none and every one and all. In formal, written English, none
is followed by a singular form of the verb.
None of the audience was listening. All of the hotels were booked.
None of the guests has arrived yet.

In formal, Writtrn English, none is followed by a singular form of verb, but in informal
English a plural is possible.
None of the guests has arrived yet. None of my friends smoke.
Note:When we use none with a plural noun or pronun, the verb can be singular or
plural.Grammatically, it should be singular but people often use the plural when they speak.

None of my friends are coming. None of my friends is coming.

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Topic: Some, any and no its compounds
The basic rule is that ´some´ and ´´its compounds´´ are used in affirmative sentences
and ´´Any´´ and ´´its compounds´´ in negative and questions.
I need some help I need somebody to help me
I don´t need any shopping is there any sugar left?
´´Some´´ and ´´its compounds ´´are used in requests or invitations, or when we expect
the answer´´ yes´´.
Have you got some money you could lend me? Would you like something to eat?

´´Any´´ and ´´its compounds´´ are uesd in affirmative sentences that have a negative
meaning. He never has any money You made hardly any mistakes.
Nobody, no one, nowhere, nothing
These are more emphatic forms. They are used at the beginning of sentences.
I saw nobody all weekend. I No one was saved.
´ve eaten nothing all day. Nobody understand me

Much, many, a lot of, lots of, a great deal of, a large number of and
plenty of
Much and many are usually used in questions and In affirmative sentences these forms are found.
negative. Spoken/informal
How musch does it cost? There´ll be pleny of food/people.(uncount and count)
How many people came to the party? We´ve got lots of time/friends.(uncount and count)
I don´t have much money. I lost a lot of my furniture/things.(uncount and count)
You don´t see snakes in England. Written/more formal
We find much and many in affirmativ sentences A geat deal of money was lost last week.( uncount)
after so, as, and too. A large number of students hate math.(count)
She hasn´t got as many friends as I have. These forms are found without nouns.
You make too many mistakes.
Have you got enough socks? ´Lots`.
He´s so much money.
How many people were there? ´A lot`.

(A) Little, (a) few, fewer and less

A little and a fw express a small amount or number in Fewer is the comparative of few, less is the
a positive way.Although there is only a little,it is comparative of little.
probably enough. Fewer people go to church these days.(count)
Can you lend me a little sugar? I spend less and less time doing what I want
A few friens are coming round tonight. to. ( uncount)
Little and few express a small amount in a
negative way. There is no enough.
Very few people passed the exam.
There´s very little milk left.

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All
We don´t usually use all to mean everybody/everyone/everything, but if all is followed
by a relative clause it can mean everything.
Everybody had a good time. All (that) I own is yours
Everything was ruins in the fire. I spend all I earn.
This structure can have a negative meaning, expressing ideas such as nothing more or
only this. All I want is a place to sleep. All I had was a couple of beers.
Before a noun with a determiner both all and all of are possible.
You eat all (of) the time All (of) my friends are coming tonight

Before a noun no determiner, we use all of. All people are born equal
With personal pronouns, we use all of. All of you passed.Well done!

Topic: Introducing Like, Introduction like

Like can be a verb or preposition. Like as verb can be followed by ind or to, sometime
with a change in meaning.

To talk about enjoying activities in general, we use like...ing ( especially in Brit) or like+
infinitive.

We can use like+ infinitive to talk about choices and habits.

I like going out at weekend ( General enjoyment).
I like to sit in hot bath and read ( habits and preferences).
Like as verb has a person as the subject and as preposition an objective after it.
I like modern art. I don´t like the way he look at me
He´s nothing like his father. Like father like son

What...like?
What+to be+ like.
What´s your teacher like? She´s very patient.
What are your parents like? They are very kind.

What... like? is used to ask about things that don´t change for example people´s
character and appearance and also something. What´s your brother like?

Like in question is a preposition, not verb and another way can be a verb.
What´s Jim like? He´s intelligent.
What does Jim like? He likes playing tennis.

Note: We don´t use like in the answer.

She´s patient. Not She´s like patient.
How is your mother like?(ask about health, it doesn´t ask for description)
How is your mother like? She´s very well. Thank you.

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Topic: Present Perfect Continuous

It’s been raining. (= It has been…)

Have/Has been + -ing is the present perfect continuous:

We use the present perfect continuous to express an activity which began in the past
and continues to the present.
We´ve been waiting here for hours. It´s been raining for days.
We use the present perfect continuous to refer to an activity with result in the present.
I´m hot ´cause I´ve been running. I haven´t got any money ´cause I´ve been shopping.

Note: Sometimes there is little or no difference between the present perfect

continuous and present perfect in the meaning.
How long have you been working here? How long have you worked here?

Topic: Present perfect continuous and simple

Compare these two situations:
I’ve been painting my bedroom. I’ve painted my bedroom.

There is paint on Kate’s clothes. She has The bedroom was green. Now it is yellow. She
been painting her bedroom. has painted her bedroom.

Has been painting is the present perfect Has painted is the present perfect simple.
continuous.
Here, the important thing is that something
We are thinking of the activity. It does has been finished. ‘She has painted’ is a completed
not matter whether it has been finished or not. In action. We are thinking about the result of the activity
this example, the activity (painting the bedroom) (the painted bedroom), not the activity itself.
has not been finished.
Compare these examples:
 My hands are very dirty. I’ve been  My bike is OK again now. I’ve repaired
repairing my bike. it. (= I’ve finished repairing it)
 Joe has been eating too much recently.  Somebody has eaten all the chocolates.
He should eat less. The box is empty.
 It’s nice to see you again. What have you  Where’s the book I gave you?
been doing since we last met?  What have you done with it?
 Where have you been?  Have you ever played tennis?
 Have you been playing tennis?

We use the continuous to say how long We use the simple to say how much,
(for something that is still happening): how many or how many times (for completed
actions):
 How long have you been reading that book?
 Amy is writing emails. She’s been writing emails  How many pages of that book have you read?
all morning.  Amy has sent lots of emails this morning.
 They’ve been playing tennis since 2 o’clock.  They’ve played tennis three times this week.
 I’m learning Arabic, but I haven’t been learning it  I’m learning Arabic, but I haven’t learnt very
very long. much yet.
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Topic: The passive voice
This house was built in 1981. ( ‘This house was built’ is passive)
Compare active and passive:
Somebody built this house object in 1981. (active)
This house subject was built in 1981. (passive)

When we use an active verb, we say what the subject does:

My grandfather was a builder. He built this house in 1981. It’s a big company. It employs two hundred people.

When we use a passive verb, we say what happens to the subject:

‘How old is this house?’ ‘It was built in 1981.’ Two hundred people are employed by the company.

When we use the passive, who or what causes the action is oft en unknown or
unimportant:
A lot of money was stolen in the robbery. (somebody stole it, but we don’t know who).
Is this room cleaned every day? (does somebody clean it? – it’s not important who).
If we want to say who does or what causes the action, we use by:
This house was built by my grandfather. Two hundred people are employed by the company.

The passive is be (is/was etc.) + past participle (done/cleaned/seen etc.):

(be) done (be) cleaned (be) damaged (be) built (be) seen etc.

The past participle oft en ends in -ed (cleaned/damaged etc.), but many important
verbs are irregular (built/done/stolen etc.).

A table of Active tense and their Passive equivalents

Tense/ verb form Active voice Passive voice

Simple present Keeps Is kept
Present continuous Is keeping Is being kept
Simple past Kept was kept
Past continuous Was keeping Was being kept
Present perfect Has kept Has being kept
Past perfect Had kept Had being kept
Condional Would keep Would be kept
Perfect conditional Would have kept Woulf have been kept
Present infinitive To keep To be kept
Perfect infinitive To have keep To have been kept
Present participle/gerund Keeping Being kept
Perfect participle Having kept Having been kept
Future Will keep Will be kept
Note: some verbs, for example give, send, show, have two objects, a person and thing. In
the passive we often make the person the subect, not the thing.

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Topic: Question tags

A Question tag a stament into a question:

We usally use a Question tag when we are fairly sure of the answer. It is direct than an
ordinary question.

We make Question tags like this:

Normally we use a negative question tag … and a positive question tag after a
after a positive sentence: negative sentence:
positive sentence+ negative tag negative sentence+ possive tag

Kate will be here soon, No, she won´t? Kate won’t be late, Will she?
There was a lot of traffic, Wasn´t there? They don’t like us, Do we?
Joe should pass the exam, Woulndn´t he? You haven’t eaten yet, Have you?

Notice the meaning of Yes and no in answer to a negative sentence:

‘You’re not going out this morning, are you? ‘Yes. ’ (= Yes, I am going out
‘No.’ (= No, I am not going out)

With the verb to be , we form the tag with the verb and the subject.
It isn´t raining, is it? She is your sister, isn´t she?
Note: with Am the negative is aren´t I?
When a verb has an auxiliary, we form the tag from the auxiliary and subject.
You can swim, can´t you? She won´t be in, Will she?

When the verb hasn´t got any auxiliary, we form the tag from the auxiliary that, we
would normally use for making qustions in that tense.

They arrived yesterday, didn´t they? You like ice-cream, don´t you?

When the subject of the statement is a nouns, we replace it with a pronoun in the tag.
Ana works in an Office, doesn´t she? Teresa and Lucia are twins, aren´t they?

Topic: Conditional Mode

Zero conditional
Form: if/when+Present simple,+Present simple

Jenny never says thank you if you do something for her.

If/when you do something for her, jenny never says thank you.

Zero conditional sentences refer to all time, not just the present or future.They express a
stuaction that is always true.If means when or whenever.
If I promise to do something, I do. When a friend gets in touch with me, I always reply.

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First conditional
Form: If+ Present+Will

If you pass your, exams I´ll buy you a car.

I´ll help you if I have time.

First conditional sentences are based on fact in real time. They express possible
condition and its probable result in the present or future.
If I´ve something to say, I´ll text back. If she likes it, I´ll tell her it looks good.

Second conditional
Form: If+Past simple+Would

Second conditional sentences are not based on fact. They express a situation which is
contrary to reality in the present and future. This unreality is shown by a tense shift from
present to past. They express a hypothetical conditional and its probable result.
If I were taller, I would join the police force. What would you do if you won the lottery?

Note: The difference between first and second cpnditional sentences is not about time.
Both can refer to the present and future. By using past tense forms in the second conditional the
speaker suggests the situation is less probable, or impossiveble, or imaginary.
Compare the pairs of sentence

If it rains this weekend,I´ll...(said in England where it often rains).

If it rained in the Sahara, it would...(this would be most unsual)

Third conditional
Form: If+past perfect+would have

Third conditional sentences are not based on fact. They express a situation which is
contrary to reality in the past. This unreality is shown by a tense shift from to Past perfect.
If you´d come to the party, you´d have had a great time.
I wouldn´t have met my wife if I hadn´t gone to France.

Topic: Agreement
To agree with a positive statement, we use this structure:
So+auxiliary verb+ subject
I went to the Movies last night, so did I. I´ve seen Rerminator, so have I.
With the verb To be or if the verb already has an auxiliary, we use that.
He´s seventeen, so Am I. I´ve bought some new clothes, So have I.

If the verb hasn´t got an auxiliary, we use the auxiliary that we would normally use for
a question in that tense.
I like Jazz, so do I. We went to London last week, so did we.

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To agree with a positive statement, we use this strucure:

Nor+auxiliary verb+subject
He isn´t seventeen yet, nor Am I. We didn´t go to London last week,Nor did we.

Topic: Disagreeing
To Disagree with positive statement, we use this structure:
Oh, I+ negative auxiliary verb
I had a great time at John´s party, Oh, I hadn´t. I´ve seen Terminator, Oh, I´m not.

With to be or if the verb already has an auxiliary, we use that.

I´ve alreaady seen it, Oh, I haven´t. He´s seventee.Oh, I´m not.

If the verb hasn´t got an ayxiliary, we use the auxiliary that we would normally use for
a question in that tense.
I like Jazz. Oh, I don´t. We went to London last week. Oh we didn´t.

To disagree with a negative statement, we use this structure:

Oh, I+ positive auxiliary
She isn´t eventeen. Oh I am. I don´t like Jazz. Oh, I do.

Topic: Reported Speech

There are two ways of relating what a person has said: Direct and Indirect (reported)
speech.

In direct speech we repeat the original speaker´s exact words:

He said,I have lost my unbrella

Remarks thus repeated are place between inverted comma, and a comma or colon is
place immediately before the remark. Direct speech is found in conversations in books, in plays
and in quotations.

Indirect speech we give the exact meaning of a remark or a speech, without

necesserily using the speaker´s exact words:
He said that he had lost his umbrella.

There is no comma after Say in indirect. That can be omitted. Indirect speech is
normally used when conversation is reported verbally, though direct speech is sometimes
employed here to give a more dramatic effect.

Reported speech statements

When we report what someone has said, we must make certain changes. Some of the
tenses change.

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In these examples Rosy is Reporting to Torry what Kim said.

Direct speech Indirect speech

Past Perfect Past Perfect
I had gone back to the car. She said that she had gone back to the car.
Past Simple Past Perfect
I saw Vince with Andrea. She said that she´d seen Vince with Andrea.
Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
They were lying on the ground together. She said that she hadn´t been lying on the ground together.
Present Perfect Prast Perfect
I haven´t heard from Vince since Sunday. She said that she hadn´t heard from Vince since Sunday.
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
I´ve been crying. She said that she had been crying.
Present Simple Past Simple
I hate Vince. She said that she hated Vince.
Present Continuous Past Continuous
I´m doing away for the weekend. She she said was going away for weekend.
Future Conditional
I won´t be at gym. She said that she wouldn´t be at the gym.
Conditional Conditional
I would like everyone to leave me alone. She said that she would like everyone to leave her alone.

Adverbs and Adverbial phrases of time change as followes:

Direct speech Indirect speech

Today That day
Yesterday The day before
The day before yesterday Two days before
Tomorrow The next day/ the following day
The day after tomorrow In two days´ time
Next week year etc. The following week/ year etc.
Last week/ year etc The previous week/ year etc.
A year etc. A year before/ the previous year
I saw her the day before yesterday, he said( he said he´d seen her two day before).
I´ll do it tomorrow, he promised ( he promised that he would do it the next day.)

The pronouns and possessive adjectives cheng. As a general rule, First ( I,me,my;we, us
our change to the person( He,him ,his, she , her; they, them, their) but it depends on who is
reporting to who.
If Rosy reportes to Terry whatKim said, the pronouns and adjectives
change:
Kim: He´s broken my heart.
Rosy: Kim said that Vince had broken her heart.
If Rosy reports what she said herself, the pronouns and adjectives
change in a different way:
Rosy: I thinkthat you´re messing things up for all of us
Rosy: I said that I thought she was messing things up for all of us.

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Say and Tell

You ‘’say’’ something, so we use ‘’say’’ when we You ‘’ tell’’ someone something, so we ’’ tell’’
don´t mention the person who is spoken to. when we mention the person who is spoken to.

The Clerk said that alot of young people were looking The Clerk told John that alot of young people were
for job.She needed better qualifications. looking for jobs.She told him he needed better qualifications.

Note: That can be left out if there is more than one reported sentences, we usually only
put ´´that´´ in first sentences.

Reported speech: Questions

When we rport questions, we make the following changes:
The tense and pronouns change as for statements, With ´´Yes´´/´´No´´ questions, the reported
the word order changes to a statement word order. questions starts with ´´whether´´ or ´´if´´. There is no
What´s your name? question Mark at the end of a reported question.
The Clerk asked John what his name was.
Have you got any good jobs?
Verbs have a statement form.
John asked her whether (if) they had any good jobs
Where do you live?
She asked him where he lived. We use ´Ask´ for both asking something and
asking someone something.

Topic: Prefixes and Suffixes

A prefix is a letter or grounp of letter add the beginning of the Word. A prefix has a mean. For
example the prefix ´un´mean ´not´.

When a prefix is added the beginnig of the word it changes the word´s meaning.

Prefixes Meaning Simple Word

Anti Aguest Antigravity
Dis Not Disagree
Un Not Unpopular
Semi Half Semicircle
Re Again Reuse
Mis Wrong Misteach
In Not Incorrect
Im Not Impossible
Il Not Illegal
Ir Not Irregular
Ex Out former Ex-boyfriend

A suffix is a letter added to the end of a word.

Suffixes: verb+nouns
Verb Noun
Improve Inprovement
electi election
manange manangement
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Note: Preffixes are often used to give adjective negative meaning.
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Note: Er, or and ist these are commun noun suffixes. Add to exist noun or verbs. They
describles people and their jobs.

Er Or Ist
Farmer-farm Actor-act journalist-journal
Teacher-teach Director-direct Economist-Economy
Driver-drive Operater-operate

Adjective Suffixes Noun

Weak Ness Weakeness
Happy Ness Happiness
Dark Ness Darkness
Stupid Ity Stupdity
Punctual Ity Punctuality
Similar Ity Similarity

Topic: Phrasal verbs

There are four types of phrasal verbs. Type one, two, three can be a literal or
idiomatic. Type four is nearly always idiomatic.
Types one
Verb+ Particle+object (no object)
a) He put on his coat and went out. Examples with literal meaning
b) I disn´t put enought wood on the fire and it went out. sit down Please go away
She stood up and walked out
In ´´a´´ the verb and particle are used letiral.In ´´b´´ the
verb and particle are used idiomatically. Go out meaning ´´stop Examples with Idiomatic meaning
The marriage didn´t wolk out. (succed)
burning´´
Our plans fell throung. ( fell)
Type two
Verb+Particle+object (separable)
a) I put up the picture. Examples with literal meaning
b) I put up my sister for the night. The waiter took away the plates Don´t throw it away
They´re pulling that old building down
In ´´a´´ the verb and particle are used letiral.In ´´b´´ the verb
and particle are used idiomatically. Put up means ´´give someone
Examples with Idiomatic meaning
food a place to sleep uaslly for the night or a few days´´.
I put off the meeting.(Post ponce Don
Type two phrasal verbs are separeble. The object ´t let me down.(disappoint)
(noun or pronon) can come between the verb and the Note: if the object is a pronoun, it always comes between
particle. the verb and particle

I put up the picture= I put the picture up. I put it up not I put up it.
I put up my sister= I put my sister up. I put her up not I put up her.
Type three
Verb+Particle+object (inseparable)
a) She came across the room. Examples with literal meaning
b) She came across an old friend. I´m looking for Jane They ran across the park
We drove past them
In ´´a´´ the verb and particle are used letiral.In ´´b´´ the verb and
particle are used idiomaticallyCome across means ´´find by accident.
Examples with Idiomatic meaning
Type three phrasal verb arew inseparable.The objct(noun or I´m kooking after it for you (care for)
pronoun) always come after particle. Written by: Estefânio He never got over the death of his wife(recover from)
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Type four
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Verb+Particle+Partilcle
a) I get along very well withmy boss
b) I´m looking forward to it
c) How can you put up with that noise?

Type four is nearly always idiomatic. The object cannot change position. It
cannot come before the particles or between the particles.

Topic: Verb patterns

Use of the - ing form

1. The ing form (gerund or present participle) is 2. The ing form is used after certain verbs.
used after prepositions.
I enjoy visiting my relative.
I´m good at running. She denies stealing the money.
We’re thinking of seeing your book. I
´m looking forward to meeting you Here are some other verbs followed by ing:
avoid, admit, finish, can´t stand, don´t mind, adore,
Notece that in the last examples, to is a preposition, give up keep on, can´t stop, can´t help.
so it is followed by ing. Not part of the infinitive.
4. The ing form is used as the object or subject
3. There are some verbs that are followed by an
of a sentence
object+ing.
Living in big city is exciting.
I hate people telling me what to do.
Smoking is bad for your health.
You can´t stop me doing what I want.
I find working in the garden a real bore.
I can hear someone playing violin

5. The ing form is used after certain idiomatic Note: Suggest can be followe by ing or a that
expressions. clause.

It´s no use talking to her. She never listens. She suggested going to London to look for work
There´s nopoint in doing it your way. It won´t work. I suggest (that) we all go to bed.
It+s no good sayingg you´re sorry. It´s not enough.

Form of the infinitive and its uses

I want to have a bath Infinitive are used certain verbs.
Present
simple It´s time to go I can´t afford to pay the bill
It´s nice to be sitting here with you. I hope to see you again soon
Present I´d like to be lying next a swimming pool. Here are some other verbs followed by the
continuous infinitive:
They seem to be haveing a few problems
Perfect I´d like to have seen his face when you
told him. agree,attempchoose,dare,decide,help,expect,wamt,learn,k
I´d like to be promoted to sales manager anage,need,offer,promise,refuse, seem and long.

There´s alot of tidying up to be done. There are some verbs that followed by an
Passive
I asked to be informed as soon as there object+the infinitive.
was any news
He advised me to listen carefully.
They invited her to have lunch
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There are verds that sometimes take an object

13 the infinitive, and sometimes don´t.
Here are some verbs like this:
Allow I want to go home or I want you to go home. I
Order ´d like to help you or I´d like you to make up your own mind.
Encourange
Here are some verbs like this:
Persuade
Remind Someone to do something Ask,beg
Teach expect
Force would love,
Tell need Someone to do something to

would prefer
The infinitive is used after make, let and
would hate
allow.
Note: Help can be used with or without to
She made me do the excercise again.( active-without)
She help me tidy/ to tidy up
He allowed me go home.(active-without to).
I was made to stand in the corner.(passive-with to).
He allowed me to go home. The infinitive is used after certain nouns.
I was allowed to borrow the car.
It´s time to go.
Let in this tense isn´t possible in the passive. It´s a good idea to ask for her.
I was let... There´s no need to ask for permission.

The infinitive is used after certain The infinitive is used to express purpose
adjectives.
I came here to learn English
It´s difficult to explain how to get there. I need more money to buy all the things I want.
It´s impossible to get through to her.
The infinitive can be used with too and
Pleased to meet you.
enough.
I´m surprised to see you here.
The infinitive is used after certain
question words I was too tired to eat.
There were too many people to getin the house.
I don´t know what to do. It´s cold enough.
Can you tell me how to get there?
Relative clauses
It is important to understand the difference between two kinds of relative clauses.

Defining relative (DR) clauses qualify a Non-defining relative (NDR) clauses add
noun, and tell us exactly which person or thing is secondary information to a sentence,almost as an
being referred to. afterthought.

She likes people who are good fun to be with. My friend Andrew, who is Scottish,plays the bagpipes.
Politicians who tell lies are odious. Politicians, who tells lies, are odious.

She likes people on its own doesn´t My friend Andrew is clearly defined. We
mean very much; we need to know which don´t need to know which Andrew is being
people she likes. discussed. The clause who is Scottish gives us extra
information about him.
Who tell lies tells uas exactly which
politicians are odious. Without it, the speaker is The clause who tell lies suggests that all
saying that all politicians are odious. politicians tell lies.It isn´t necesssary to identify
only those that deceive-they all do.

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 INTERMEDIETE BOOKLET

When we speak, there is no pause before

14 or after a DR clause, and before and after and
DR clauses are much more common in pause when we write. With NDR clauses, there are
the spoken language, and NDR clauses are more commas before and after and pauses when we
common in the written language. In the spoken speak.
language, we can avoid a NDR clause. I like the things you say to me.(no commas, no
My friend Andrew plays the bagpipes. He´s pauses)
Scottish, by the way. My aunt (pause), who has been a widow for
twenty years (pause), loves travelling .
we cannot leave out the pronoun if it is the
subject of clause.

Defining relative (DR) clauses

Notice how we can leave out the relative

pronoun if it is the object of the relative clause. This is
Pronoun not left out
very common. I met a man who works in advertising. I
´ll lend you the book that changed my life.
Pronoun left out The ring that helped me most was knowing I wans´t alone
Did you like the present ( ) I gave you?
Who was that man ( ) you were taliking to? Notes: That is preferred to which after superlatives,
The thing () I like about Dave is his sense of humour. and words such as all, every(thing), some(thing),
any(thing), and only.
Here are the possible pronons. The words in brackets
are possible but not as common.____means nothing. That´s the funniest film that was ever made. The
only thing that´ll help you is rest.
Person Thing
Subject Who (that) That (which) That is also preferred after it is....(It is a film that will
Object ____ (that) ____ (that) be very popular).

Prepositions usually come at the end of the relative

clause.
Non-defining relative (NDR) clauses
Relative pronouns cannot be left out of NDR clause. Come and meet the people I work with.
She´s a friend I can always rely on.

Relative pronoun as subject Look at the possible pronouns. Whom is

Paul jennings, who has written several books addressed possible, but not as common.
the meeting.
Person Thing
Relative pronoun asobject Subject ... , who ..., ... , which ... ,
Paul Jenning, who I knew at university, addresssed the Object ..., who (whom)... , ... , which ... ,
meeting.
Which can be used in NDR clause to refer to the
Note: Prepositions can came at the end of the whole of sentence before.
clause. In a more formal written style, prerpositions
Whose can be used in both DR and NDR clause.
come before the pronoun.
He tlaked about theories of market forces, which I What is used in DR clauses to mean the thing that.
´d never ever heard of.
The privatization of railways, to which the Why can be used in DR clauses to mean the reason
present goverment is committed, is not universally popular. why.

When and Where can be used in DR and NDR

Written by: Estefânio
clauses.
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