Research Article

Received: 3 December 2009 Revised: 12 February 2010 Accepted: 30 March 2010 Published online in Wiley Interscience: 13 May 2010

(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI 10.1002/jsfa.3999

Incorporation of Chlorella vulgaris

and Spirulina maxima biomass in pasta
products. Part 1: Preparation and evaluation†
Mónica Fradique,a∗ Ana Paula Batista,a M Cristiana Nunes,a,d
Luı́sa Gouveia,b Narcisa M Bandarrac and Anabela Raymundoa,d

Abstract
BACKGROUND: Microalgae are able to enhance the nutritional content of conventional foods and hence to positively affect
human health, due to their original chemical composition. The aim of the present study was to prepare fresh spaghetti enriched
with different amounts of microalgae biomass (Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina maxima) and to compare the quality parameters
(optimal cooking time, cooking losses, swelling index and water absorption), chemical composition, instrumental texture and
colour of the raw and cooked pasta enriched with microalgae biomass with standard semolina spaghetti.

RESULTS: The incorporation of microalgae results in an increase of quality parameters when compared to the control sample.
The colour of microalgae pastas remained relatively stable after cooking. The addition of microalgae resulted in an increase
in the raw pasta firmness when compared to the control sample. Of all the microalgae studied, an increase in the biomass
concentration (0.5–2.0%) resulted in a general tendency of an increase in the pasta firmness. Sensory analysis revealed that
microalgae pastas had higher acceptance scores by the panellists than the control pasta.

CONCLUSION: Microalgae pastas presented very appellative colours, such as orange and green, similar to pastas produced with
vegetables, with nutritional advantages, showing energetic values similar to commercial pastas. The use of microalgae biomass
can enhance the nutritional and sensorial quality of pasta, without affecting its cooking and textural properties.

c 2010 Society of Chemical Industry

Keywords: pasta; microalgae; texture; colour; Chlorella vulgaris; Spirulina maxima

INTRODUCTION whey proteins, yeast protein concentrates and germinated pigeon

Pasta is a traditional food product with origins dating back to pea.6 This was a way that producers and industry have found gives
the first century BC1 where it was a staple food in people’s diets some answer to the growing interest in the so-called functional
in many countries known at that time. Pasta products are well foods that can provide physiological benefits such as having
accepted by consumers for their sensory attributes, low cost, ease an anti-hypertensive, antioxidant or anti-inflammatory effect, in
of preparation and transportation. They also have a relatively long addition to the nutritional and energetic benefits.7 Consumers
shelf life if properly stored, are easy to cook and can be employed
in the preparation of a wide variety of meals.2
∗
The processing steps involved in pasta manufacture are, Correspondence to: Mónica Fradique, Núcleo de Investigação em Engenharia
essentially, mixing of durum wheat semolina and water, extrusion Alimentar e Biotecnologia, Instituto Piaget – ISEIT de Almada, Quinta da
Arreinela de Cima, 2800-305 Almada, Portugal.
and dehydration. Pasta cooking quality can be expressed in terms E-mail: hfradique@almada.ipiaget.org
of firmness, stickiness, cooking and overcooking tolerance, water
absorption, degree of swelling, loss of solids to cooking water and † Part 2: Toxicology and bioavailability of carotenogenic Chlorella vulgaris (to be
colour.3 submitted).
Pasta is mainly used as an energy source due to its complex a Núcleo de Investigação em Engenharia Alimentar e Biotecnologia, Instituto
carbohydrate content, being regarded as a product with low Piaget – ISEIT de Almada, Quinta da Arreinela de Cima, 2800-305 Almada,
glycaemic index. These nutritional advantages, along with the Portugal
appeal of pasta amongst consumers, have made this food
b Unidade de Bioenergia, Laboratório Nacional de Energia e Geologia (LNEG),
product a potential vehicle for nutraceuticals such as vitamins Estrada do Paço do Lumiar, 1649-038 Lisboa, Portugal
or polyunsaturated fatty acids.4 In fact, pasta was one of the first
foods for which the US FDA permitted vitamin and iron enrichment c UnidadedeValorizaçãodosProdutosdaPescaedaAquicultura,INRB/L-IPIMAR,
in the 1940s.5 Pasta products have been fortified to enhance their Av. Brası́lia 1449-005 Lisboa, Portugal
nutritional properties with supplements from various high-protein
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d CEER – Engineering Biosystems, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Tapada da

sources, such as soy flours, soy isolates, milk and milk products, Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal

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Incorporation of microalgae biomass in pasta products www.soci.org

in most developed countries are turning to more natural and biomass and to compare the properties of the dough and the
nutritional products such as seaweed-based products, many of cooking quality parameters (optimum cooking time, swelling
which have unrivalled health properties.8 It is now possible to find index, water absorption, cooking losses) as well as pasta colour,
a large variety of products derived from macro- and microalgae in texture and sensorial characteristics, with standard durum wheat
several countries and a huge increase in consumption is expected semolina spaghetti.
in the future.9
Japan plays an important role in the utilisation of microalgae
and there has also been a recent upsurge in research and develop- MATERIALS AND METHODS
ment on the utilisation of microalgae as an ingredient and source Microalgae production
of a wide range of metabolites such as bioactive compounds, Chlorella vulgaris (INETI 58) (Cv) and Spirulina maxima (LB 2342)
pigments, and essential fatty acids. The production of these valu- (Sm) were cultivated in the appropriate growth medium28
able biochemicals is based on the exploitation of their relatively and grown in airlift bioreactors with bubbling air, at the
efficient photosynthetic machinery, constituting their biomass a optimal temperature for each microalgae and at low light
reservoir of natural substances of high commercial value.10 Some conditions (150 µE m−2 s−1 ). Cv (green) and Sm were recovered by
studies have been published concerning incorporating seaweed stopping agitation, centrifugation and freeze-drying. Cv (orange)
into pasta products: Chang and Wu11 have studied the potential suffered carotenogenesis by nitrogen starvation, NaCl addition
of green seaweed (Monostroma nitidum) powder in oriental fresh (30%) at high luminosity favoured by culture dilution (1000 µE
egg noodles; while Prabhasankar et al.12 have evaluated the effect m−2 s−1 ).17
of different levels of brown seaweed Undaria pinnatifida on the Chemical proximate composition of freeze-dried microalgae was
sensory, cooking, nutritional and biofunctional quality of pasta. determined and presented by the authors:29
Nowadays, there are numerous commercial applications for
microalgae. For example, microalgae can be used to enhance the • Cv (green): 38.0% protein, 5.1% fat, 24.2% ash
nutritional value of food and animal feed due to their chemical • Cv (orange): 12.3% protein, 27.6% fat, 34.8% ash
composition.13 They also play a crucial role in aquaculture14 and • Sm: 44.9% protein, 3.6% fat, 30.9% ash
they can be incorporated into cosmetics. Moreover, they are
cultivated as a source of highly valuable molecules. For example, Pasta making
polyunsaturated fatty acids are added to infant formulas and Fresh pasta was made of commercial durum semolina flour
nutritional supplements and pigments are important as natural (Cerealis, Portugal), water and microalgae biomass 0.5, 1.0 and
dyes.15 2.0% (w/w). The mixture was extruded as spaghetti (1.5 mm
Chlorella vulgaris has been used as an alternative medicine in diameter, 200 mm length) using a benchtop pasta maker (Biffinet,
the Far East since ancient times and it is known as a traditional Italy). The pastas were dried at 60 ◦ C for 5 min, until final moisture
food in the Orient. Chlorella has health benefits, such as assisting of 30–32% (w/w). Pasta without microalgae biomass (control) was
disorders such as gastric ulcers, wounds, constipation, anaemia, also prepared.
hypertension, diabetes, infant malnutrition and neurosis.16 In
addition to the health aspects, Chlorella is also important as a
Cooking procedure
source of natural pigments, namely carotenoids, and can be used
Optimum cooking time
as a natural colouring agent. Under certain culture conditions
Optimum cooking time (minutes) for each sample was determined
(light stress, nutrient depletion and high salinity), Chlorella is
according to the AACC method 66–50.30 Pasta (10 g) was cooked
able to accumulate high concentrations of carotenoids such as
in 100 mL of boiling distilled water and analysed every minute
canthaxanthin, in order to protect against oxidation.17
until it reached the optimum cooking time, considered as the time
Arthrosphira (Spirulina) grows profusely in certain alkaline lakes
necessary to obtain complete gelatinisation of starch, shown by
in Mexico and Africa and has been used as a food by local
the disappearance of the white central core, after having pressed
populations since ancient times, due to its high protein content and
the spaghetti strand between two transparent glass slides.31 – 34
its excellent nutritive value, such as having high γ -linolenic acid
After cooking and draining, samples were analysed for swelling
levels. This microalga has various health promoting effects such
index and water absorption. Aliquots of cooking water were used
as hypocholesterolaemic, suppression of hypertension, protection
for determination of cooking losses.
against renal failure, growth promotion of intestinal Lactobacillus
and anticarcinogenic effect.18 – 20
In recent years, several products prepared from microalgae Swelling index
biomass have been developed, rich in carotenoid and polyun- Swelling index of cooked pasta was evaluated by drying pasta
saturated fatty acids, namely emulsions coloured with natural samples to constant weight at 103 ◦ C34 by converting the weight
pigments and microalgae biomass,21 – 23 gelled desserts,24,25 and difference of cooked and dried pasta to volume (ρ = 1000 kg m−3 ),
biscuits coloured with microalgae biomass and enriched with using the following expression:
polyunsaturated fatty acids.26,27
Besides nutritional purposes, the quality of pasta may also be volume of water absorbed during cooking
. (1)
evaluated by its appearance, flavour and textural attributes. Partial weight after drying
substitution or addition of another flour or functional ingredients
could alter its textural and sensory profiles. Therefore, the impact of Water absorption
these changes should be studied in order to predict the consumer Water absorption of drained pasta was determined as:32,35,36
acceptance of the new developed products.
The aim of this study was to prepare fresh spaghetti enriched weight of cooked pasta - weight of raw pasta
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with different amounts of Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina maxima × 100. (2)
weight of raw pasta

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 www.soci.org M Fradique et al.

Cooking loss RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Cooking loss in the cooking water collected from each sample Physicochemical composition
was determined by evaporation to constant weight in an air oven Physicochemical compositions of raw and cooked pastas are
103 ◦ C, according to the following expression:32,34,35 presented in Fig. 1, expressed as % w/w.
Moisture values ranged between 31–36% for raw pastas and
weight of cooking water dried residue
× 100. (3) 61–73% (w/w) for the cooked pastas, with the higher values
weight of raw pasta being for Chlorella vulgaris orange fresh pasta (Cv orange) (Fig. 1).
Physicochemical characterisation Commercial fresh pastas usually present moisture values of
31–32%, as assessed in previous work (unpublished results) and
After preparation and cooking, pasta samples were analysed for
according to other authors (e.g. Petitot et al.37 ). Consequently, a
crude protein (Kjeldhal, <EQ>), total fat (Soxhlet extraction), total
second drying process would be necessary before packaging, if it
ash and moisture.33 Carbohydrates were calculated by subtracting
is intended to store and commercialise these fresh pastas.
the total fat, ash and protein content from 100%.
The cooking parameters related to this moisture variation will
be discussed later in the paper.
Texture analysis
Food texture is closely related to the chemical composition
Textural analysis of pastas was determined by using a TA-XTplus (proteins, fat, moisture and structural carbohydrates, e.g. cellulose,
Texture Analyser (Stable Micro Systems, UK) with a 5 kg load starch and pectic). Alterations in texture are caused by changes
cell, following the AACC method 16–50.30 Pasta firmness was in moisture, fats, hydrolysis of polymeric carbohydrates and
determined by measuring the cutting force (newtons) required coagulation or hydrolysis of proteins.38
to cut raw and cooked spaghetti strips using a blade set with Although there are differences in the protein content of the three
guillotine (HDP/BSG). Each pasta sample was analysed raw and microalgae in this study,29 there are no significant differences
cooked at the optimal cooking time.34 Measurements were (P < 0.05) in the protein content for the raw control and
replicated five times in duplicate for each sample.
microalgae enriched pastas (Fig. 1a).
After cooking (Fig. 1b), the protein content decreased for all
Colour measurement samples in comparison with the corresponding raw pasta. The
The colour of pasta samples was measured instrumentally using a protein content of Sm-enriched cooked pastas was significantly
Minolta CR-300 (Japan) colorimeter with standard illuminant D65 higher (P < 0.05) (7.1–8.6%) when compared to the control
and a visual angle of 2◦ . The results were expressed in terms of sample (4.7%) and Cv (green, 4.5–5.2; orange, 3.5–5.2%) pastas,
L∗ , lightness (as values increase from 0 to 100%); a∗ , redness to due to the higher protein content of Sm microalgae (Cv green,
greenness (60 to −60 positive to negative values, respectively); 38%; Cv orange, 12.3%).29
b∗ , yellowness to blueness (60 to −60 positive to negative values, Total fat of raw pastas ranged between 1.4% and 3.4% for
respectively), according to the CIELab system. Chroma, C ∗ ab the microalgae pastas, higher than the control (1.3%) which was
(saturation), and hue, hab , were also calculated, as defined by the significantly higher (P < 0.05) only for the 2.0% Cv orange pasta
following equations: C ∗ ab = [(a∗2 + b∗2 )]1/2 ; hab = arctan(b∗ /a∗ ). which is the microalga with the higher fat content (28%).29 The
The total colour difference between the control and those samples cooking process resulted in a reduction in the fat content of all
with microalgae incorporated in them was determined according pastas (control, 0.7%; enriched pastas, 0.7–1.1%). There were no
to the following equation: E = [(L∗ )2 +(a∗ )2 +(b∗ )2 ]1/2 . The significant differences (P < 0.05) between the total fat content of
measurements were conducted under the same light conditions, the control and the microalgae-enriched pastas.
using a white standard (Y = 92.7, x = 0.3161, y = 0.3322), at Microalgae incorporation in raw pastas resulted in an increase
20 ◦ C, replicated six times in duplicate. of total ash (1.2–1.8%) content compared to the control (1.2%),
especially for the pastas prepared with a higher concentration
Sensory analysis of microalgae biomass. After cooking, the ash content decreased
A sensorial analysis study of the fresh pasta (control and microalga significantly (P < 0.05), which resulted from the ion migration into
enriched) was carried out in order to evaluate the impact of the cooking water.
microalgal biomass incorporation on the sensorial performance. Carbohydrates are the major component of pastas, representing
An untrained panel of 43 individuals tested cooked pasta, 57% (w/w) of raw control which is mainly starch. With the
which had undergone the optimal cooking time (5–8 min), for incorporation of microalgae, semolina is replaced by microalgae
four sensory attributes: colour, odour, flavour and texture on a biomass; consequently, the carbohydrate content of microalgae
structure and discontinuous scale, ranging from 1 to 5 or 1 to 3, enriched pastas decreases in relation to the control sample. This
depending on the attribute. effect is more pronounced in cooked pastas (from 31% to 19–27%
Each pasta formulation was cooked and served immediately in in microalgae pastas), due to the amylose migration into the
white plastic plates. Samples were served in random order to the cooking water.33,39
panellists who were asked to taste samples and rate the attributes During cooking, gelatinisation of starch involves a two-stage
from ‘don’t like’ (score 1) to ‘like a lot’ (score 5). Panellists were also irreversible process: (1) initial swelling of the granules and
asked if they detected a strange flavour in the cooked pastas and (2) amylose dissolution for hot water. Then, amylose forms a
to rate this strangeness from ‘undetectable’ (score 1) to ‘strongly colloidal solution that tends to be deposited as a thick layer on
detectable’ (score 3). the surface of the gelatinised granules held by the chemical bonds
that exist in the granules.39
Statistical analysis The energetic value of the control and raw pastas prepared with
ANOVA–post hoc comparisons–Scheffé test, at 0.05 probability microalgae incorporation is presented in Fig. 2. The control sample
level, using StatSoft STATISTICA program, version 6.0 (2001), was presents an energetic value 1720 kJ (405 kcal) similar to the pastas
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performed on all results. with microalgae biomass incorporation which range from 1716 to

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Incorporation of microalgae biomass in pasta products www.soci.org

(a)
100% Raw
Pastas
90%

80%

70% Moisture

Carbohydrates
60%
Ashes
50%
Total fat
40%
Protein
30%

20%

10%

0%
Control Sm 0.5% Sm 1.0% Sm 2.0% Cv green Cv green Cv green Cv orange Cv orange Cv orange
0.5% 1.0% 2.0% 0.5% 1.0% 2.0%

(b)
100%

90% Cooked
Pastas
80%

70%
Moisture
60%
Carbohydrates
50%
Ashes
40% Total fat
Protein
30%

20%

10%

0%
Control Sm 0.5% Sm 1.0% Sm 2.0% Cv green Cv green Cv green Cv orange Cv orange Cv orange
0.5% 1.0% 2.0% 0.5% 1.0% 2.0%

Figure 1. Physicochemical composition of raw (a) and cooked (b) pastas with microalgal biomass incorporation (% w/w).

500.0

405.2 407.2 404.5 409.6 405.7 407.1 410.1 407.9 409.7 411.6
400.0
0.0%
0.5%
Energy value (kcal)

1.0%
300.0
2.0%

200.0

100.0

0.0
Control Sm Cv (green) Cv (orange)

Figure 2. Energy values of pastas with microalgae biomass incorporation.

1745 kJ (404–412 kcal). The average chemical composition of four nutrients, especially antioxidants and polyunsaturated fatty acids,
commercial semolina fresh pastas which were analysed was 9.8% of very important to health promotion and prevention of many
protein, 2.7% of total fat, 1.3% of ashes and 57.7% of carbohydrates. kinds of disorders such as gastric ulcers, constipation, anaemia,
This results in an energy value which ranges from 1658 to hypertension, diabetes, infant malnutrition and neurosis.16,18 – 20
1677 kJ (391–396 kcal). Hence, pastas prepared with microalgae
incorporation present energy values similar to the commercial Cooking quality
ones with the advantages in terms of nutritional benefits. The cooking quality parameters of the pastas – optimal cooking
The addition of Chlorella and Spirulina to pastas may be time, cooking losses, swelling index and water absorption – are
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an appealing way to increase the daily intake of functional presented in Table 1.

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 www.soci.org M Fradique et al.

Table 1. Cooking quality attributes of pastas with microalgae incorporation

Optimal cooking Swelling index (mL g−1 Water

Sample time (min) Cooking losses (%) dry matter) absorption (%)

Control 5 3.1 ± 0.4abc 0.87 ± 0.11a 69.2 ± 7.0a

Sm 0.5% 5 3.1 ± 0.2abc 1.1 ± 0.1bc 70.1 ± 6.3ab

Sm 1.0% 5 2.2 ± 0.2a 1.0 ± 0.1ab 94.6 ± 6.2bc
Sm 2.0% 6 2.9 ± 0.2ab 1.0 ± 0.1ab 89.5 ± 2.9bc

Cv (green) 0.5% 6 3.5 ± 0.7abc 1.1 ± 0.1abc 92.4 ± 5.3c

Cv (green) 1.0% 6 2.6 ± 0.1ab 1.2 ± 0.1bc 89.6 ± 6.5bc
Cv (green) 2.0% 7 3.5 ± 0.4bc 1.2 ± 0.1bc 94.3 ± 9.3c
Cv (orange) 0.5% 7 3.9 ± 0.3c 1.1 ± 0.1bc 92.6 ± 9.9c
Cv (orange) 1.0% 7 2.7 ± 0.3ab 1.2 ± 0.1bc 106.5 ± 10.7c
Cv (orange) 2.0% 8 4.0 ± 0.6c 1.2 ± 0.1c 96.6 ± 7.3c

Values within columns with the same subscript are not significantly different (P < 0.05) (ANOVA post-hoc, Scheffé test).

Optimal cooking time depends primarily on the rates of water The results of pasta firmness are presented in Fig. 3. The addition
penetration and starch gelatinisation.32 Pastas prepared with Sm of microalgae resulted in a significant (P < 0.05) increase in the
incorporation have an optimal cooking time, similar to the control, raw pasta firmness (1.6–2.5 N) in comparison with the control
and lower than Cv-enriched pastas (green and orange). This may sample (1.2 N) (Fig. 3a). For all the microalgae studied, raising
be related to the chemical composition of the microalgae, since in biomass concentration (0.5–2.0%) results in a general tendency
Cyanophyta microalgae species such as Spirulina the main storage for an increase in firmness. In the case of Sm, the firmness values
product is glycogen, while in the Chlorophyta family the storage are higher (1.9–2.5 N) which may be related to the higher protein
product is starch, composed of amylose and amylopectin.40 and lower fat content, in comparison to Cv (orange and green).29
Considering that the optimal cooking time is the time necessary This higher pasta firmness could be related to a higher protein
to obtain complete gelatinisation of starch, it is likely that the content of microalgae pastas and lower water uptake, compared
additional starch content, present in Cv pastas requires longer to durum wheat pasta. Zhao et al.42 indicated that a reinforcement
cooking times. of the gluten network causes an extra establishment of disulfide
Cooking losses are an important indicator of the overall bonds (S–S), formed between the sulfhydryl (–SH) groups of
spaghetti cooking performance by both consumers and industry,34 cysteine residues, in gluten proteins. Similar results have been
being mainly influenced by dissolving and releasing gelatinised reported by Bahnassey and Khan43 for the fortification of pasta with
starches from the surface of pasta through cooking water. The legume flour (navy bean, pinto bean, lentil, green pea). Edwards
inclusion of microalgae in pasta does not change pasta cooking et al.44 and Brennan and Tudorica45 found a similar behaviour
losses significantly (P < 0.05), presenting values around 3–4%. when xanthan and locust bean gum were added to pasta, as
Considering that cooking loss values lower than 7–8% are Khouryieh et al.46 when whey protein isolates were incorporated
expected for semolina spaghettis,41 the pastas elaborated in the in egg noodles and Oh et al.47 by the use of wheat protein in white
present study can be regarded as high-quality fresh pastas. salt noodle.
Pastas prepared with microalgae present swelling indexes The firmness of cooked pasta is related to the starch granules
higher than the control (Table 1). This results from the ability of hydration, during the cooking process and the subsequent
the microalgae to absorb water and retain it in the protein–starch embedding of gelatinising starch granules in a matrix partially
net. Accordingly, water absorption was also affected (P < 0.05) denatured protein.1 – 3,44 Moreover, differences in firmness values
by the addition of microalgae biomass, which increased from 70% mainly arise from the differences in gluten fraction. Increasing the
in the control pasta to 90–107% in microalgae pastas, with the amount of gluten results in a structural reinforcement expressed
higher values found for Cv orange pasta. This is an agreement with by a higher resistance to cutting and extensional forces.41,48
the higher moisture content of this pasta, which might be due The addition of functional ingredients can result either in an
to a higher water holding capacity of polysaccharides in Chlorella increase or a decrease in the pastas textural properties. Doxastakis
orange during dough formation. et al.41 studied the partial substitution (up to 20%) of semolina
This was also observed in studies from other authors11,12 for the by lupin protein isolate, resulting in high firmness of raw and
addition of dried seaweeds to Chinese noodles and pastas, being cooked pastas. The addition of hydrocolloids and fibre could
related to the hydration afforded by the hydrocolloids present in result in increased pasta firmness, as observed by Sozer et al.48
the seaweed powder. for resistant starch. In contrast, fibre-enhanced pastas (pea, inulin
and guar), showed a progressive reduction in pasta firmness
with increasing fibre concentration, related to the role of fibre
Texture supplements in disrupting the protein–starch matrix within the
Textural parameters, especially firmness, are important attributes pasta microstructure.33 Chang and Wu11 have studied the addition
for pasta cooking quality. The optimisation of texture parameters of seaweed powder (0–8%), resulting in a decrease of cooked pasta
is a critical point to ensure the acceptance of the developed breaking energy, concluding that seaweed could not function as
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products by the consumers. an effective ingredient to fortify network structures of the noodles.

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Incorporation of microalgae biomass in pasta products www.soci.org

Raw samples 0.0%

0.5%
2.5 1.0%
2.8
2.3 2.4 2.0%
2.4
2.4
2.0 2.0 1.9
2.0

Firmness (N)
1.6 1.6
1.6
1.2
1.2

0.8

0.4

0.0
Control Sm Cv (green) Cv (orange)

2.8 0.0%
Cooked samples 0.5%
2.4
1.0%
2.0 2.0%
Firmness (N)

1.5
1.6 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.2
1.3 1.2
1.1 1.0
1.2

0.8

0.4

0.0
Control Sm Cv (green) Cv (orange)

Figure 3. Firmness of microalgae samples in raw (a) and cooked (b) pastas with microalgal biomass incorporation.

In the present work, the firmness values of cooked pastas From the instrumental colour measurements a decrease in
enriched with microalgae biomass (0.5–2.0%) are similar to the the lightness was observed with the addition of microalgae
semolina control (Fig. 3b). As expected, a decrease in firmness (L∗ = 44.8–65.4) compared to the semolina control pasta
was observed with cooking, at the optimal cooking time for each (L∗ = 77.0).
sample (5–8 min). Although the effect of the addition of microal- The addition of Sm and Cv (green) resulted in products
gae to pasta, for all the levels tested, has been smoothened by with negative a∗ and positive b∗ , leading to green hues
the cooking process, it was independent of the microalga source. (h◦ab = 121–155) (Fig. 4b), due to the chlorophyll content of these
microalgae. The greenness (−a∗ ) values are higher compared
Colour with commercial spinach lasagna, characterised by Suman et al.49
The appearance of a food is, among others, a factor that defines its Cv (orange) has positive small a∗ and b∗ , leading to orange
quality and the first impression the consumer gets directly from hues (h◦ab = 56–60), showing the highest chroma values (C ∗ ab =
foods. Colour, as one aspect of appearance, plays a major role on 33–37). This microalga accumulates large amounts of cantaxan-
the acceptability of a food product, being a determinant of its thin carotenoid,23 which is responsible for this orange coloration.
identification, as an indicator of quality, freshness, conservation Colour losses resulting from the pasta cooking process, are
state, flavour expectation and commercial value. expressed in terms of total colour difference (E ∗ ) between
Traditionally, semolina pastas exhibit light yellow colorations, raw and cooked samples (Fig. 5). By increasing the microalgae
derived from β-carotene. In the last few years, several coloured concentration (0.5–2.0%), a lower colour loss was observed which
pasta products have been produced using vegetable ingredients, indicates the resistance of the product to the thermal procedure
such as spinach, tomato, carrot and beetroot. Achieving appealing applied. Cv (orange) pastas presented higher colour losses after
and stable colorations is an important innovation for these types of cooking (E ∗ = 9.3–13.1) while lower differences were found for
product. Microalgae can be a sustainable alternative as colouring Sm pastas (E ∗ = 7.1–10.2). However, the diffusion of pigments
agents, resulting in products similar to vegetable based pastas into the cooking water was visually observed for Sm, probably due
that present nutritional advantages over synthetic colourings. to the hydrophilic character of phycocyanin, the major pigment of
Pastas prepared with Spirulina or Chlorella (green and orange) this microalga (7% w/w, dw).29 Besides pigment diffusion into the
are visually very attractive (Fig. 4a), presenting orange and green cooking water, pasta colour losses may also be associated with the
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colorations. microalgae pigment oxidation during thermal treatment.

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Spirulina maxima (1)

Chlorella vulgaris green (2) Chlorella vulgaris orange (3)

35

30 Cvo 1.0%
Cvo 2.0%
Cvo 0.5%
25
Control
Cvg 0.5% 20
Cvg 1.0%
15
Cvg 2.0%

10
Sm 0.5%
Sm 1.0 % 5
Sm 2.0%

0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30

Figure 4. (a) Pastas containing different levels of Spirulina maxima (1) and Chlorella vulgaris green (2) and orange (3) biomass. (b) Location of the
microalgae pasta samples in the two-dimensional colour space.

15 0.5 %
14 1.0 % 13.14
13 12.37
2.0 % 11.92
12
10.93
11 10.22
10 9.22 9.28
9 8.42
8
D E*

7.15
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Sm Cv (green) Cv (orange)

Figure 5. Total colour difference (E∗ ) between raw

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and cooked pasta samples with microalgal biomass incorporation.

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Incorporation of microalgae biomass in pasta products www.soci.org

(a) that also obtained lower scores for the attributes of odour and
Chlorella vulgaris flavour.
(green) In terms of global appreciation, all samples had a high
Colour acceptance by panellists and Cv orange pastas were preferred.
5.0
These results are in accordance with the aim of this work
4.0
3.0
to develop innovative coloured pastas that are attractive to
2.0
consumers with similar texture and flavour profiles to the
Global appreciation Odour
1.0 traditional common pastas.
0.5% 0.0
2.0%
Control
CONCLUSION
A novel pasta product was successfully produced by adding
Texture Flavour
microalgae biomass to semolina flour. Pastas prepared with
(b)
Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina maxima presented a chemical
composition richer than the control pastas, namely in protein,
Chlorella vulgaris total fat and ash. The cooking quality of pastas was not affected
(orange)
by including microalgae in the fresh pastas, especially cooking
Colour
5.0 losses, which are a commonly used predictor of spaghetti cooking
4.0 performance by consumers and industry.
3.0 Microalgae-enriched pastas resulted in a very attractive
Global appreciation
2.0
Odour
colour – orange and green products due to the major pigments
1.0 that exist in the algae (chlorophylls, phycocyanin and canthaxan-
0.5% 0.0 thin) – and were sensorially well accepted by the panellists. After
2.0% cooking, the colour losses were minor in pastas prepared with the
Control
highest microalgae content.
The textural characteristics of the pastas, namely firmness, are
Texture Flavour
positively affected by the inclusion of microalgae, when compared
to the control pastas. The increase of pasta firmness may be related
(c) to the addition of components rich in protein that, probably have
Spirulina maxima a significant influence in the reinforcement of the gluten network.
Colour
5.0
4.0
3.0
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
2.0
This work is part of a research project ‘Pigments antioxidants and
Global appreciation Odour PUFAs in microalgae based food products – functional implica-
1.0
0.0 tions’ (PTDC/AGR-ALI/65926/2006) sponsored by the Portuguese
0.5% Foundation for the Science and Technology (Fundação para a
2.0% Ciência e a Tecnologia – FCT).
Control
The authors are also grateful to Cerealis SGPS, SA for their
collaboration with the supply of the semolina samples used in
Texture Flavour
this work, to Graça da Conceição for the microalgal biomass
Figure 6. Sensory analysis of cooked spaghetti prepared with 0.5% and production, Patrı́cia Fradinho and all panelists for the sensory
2.0% of Chlorella vulgaris (green) (a), Chlorella vulgaris (orange) (b), Spirulina analysis, and Stephanie Seddon-Brown for the English revision.
maxima (c) biomass and control.

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