Sport Vol 4 PDF

BE R K S H I R E E N C Y C L OP E DI A O F
World
Sport
BE R K S H I R E E N C Y C L OP E DI A O F
World
Sport
VOLUME 4
David Levinson and
Karen Christensen
Editors
BERKSHIRE PUBLISHING GROUP
Great Barrington, Massachusetts U.S.A.
www.iWorldSport.com
Copyright © 2005 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
For information:
Berkshire Publishing Group LLC
314 Main Street
Great Barrington, Massachusetts 01230
www.berkshirepublishing.com
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Berkshire encyclopedia of world sport / David Levinson and Karen Christensen, general editors.
p. cm.
Summary: “Covers the whole world of sport, from major professional sports and sporting events
to community and youth sport, as well as the business of sports and key social issues”—Provided
by publisher.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-9743091-1-7
1. Sports—Encyclopedias. I. Levinson, David, 1947- II. Christensen, Karen, 1957-
GV567.B48 2005
796.03--dc22
2005013050
Editorial and
Production Staff
Project Director Designers
David Levinson Joseph DiStefano and Linda Weidemann
Editorial and Production Staff Printers

Rachel Christensen, Tom Christensen, Elizabeth Eno, Thomson-Shore
Jess LaPointe, Courtney Linehan, Marcy Ross,
Gabby Templet Composition Artists
Brad Walrod and Linda Weidemann
Photo Coordinator
Joseph DiStefano Production Coordinator
Marcy Ross
Copy Editors
Eileen Clawson, Robin Gold, Mike Nichols, Proofreaders
Carol Parikh, Mark Siemens, Daniel Spinella Mary Bagg, Eileen Clawson, and Elizabeth Larson
Information Management and Programming Indexers

Trevor Young Peggy Holloway and Barbara Lutkins
Editorial Board
Editors Editorial Board
David Levinson Edward Beauchamp, University of Hawaii
Karen Christensen Jay Coakley, University of Colorado, Colorado
Berkshire Publishing Group Springs
Allen Guttmann, Amherst College
Leslie Heywood, State University of New York,
Binghamton
Gertrud Pfister, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
Roland Renson, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Belgium
Allen L. Sack, University of New Haven
Thierry Terret, University of Lyon, France
Wayne Wilson, Amateur Athletic Foundation
Contents
List of Entries, ix
Reader’s Guide, xiii
Entries
volume i:
Academies and Camps, Sport–Dance
2
volume ii:
DanceSport–Kinesiology
443
volume iii:
Kite Sports–Sexual Harassment
903
volume iv:
Sexuality–Youth Sports
1357
Index 1751
VII
List of Entries
Academies and Camps, Sport Athletes as Celebrities Boomerang Throwing

Adapted Physical Education Athletes as Heroes Boston Marathon
Adventure Education Athletic Talent Migration Bowls and Bowling
Aerobics Athletic Training Boxing
Aesthetics Australia Brand Management
African Games Australian Rules Football Brazil
Agents Austria British Open
AIDS and HIV Auto Racing Bulgaria
Aikido Bullfighting
All England Lawn Tennis and Badminton Burnout
Croquet Club Ballooning Buzkashi
Alternative Sports Baseball
Amateur vs. Professional Debate Baseball Nicknames Cameroon
American Sports Exceptionalism Baseball Stadium Life Camogie
American Youth Soccer Baseball Wives Canada
Organization (AYSO) Basketball Canoeing and Kayaking
America’s Cup Baton Twirling Capoeira
Anemia Beauty Carnegie Report
Animal Rights Belgium Carriage Driving
Anthropology Days Biathlon and Triathlon Central American and
Anti-Jock Movement Billiards Caribbean Games
Arab Games Biomechanics Cheerleading
Archery Biotechnology Child Sport Stars
Argentina Bislett Stadium China
Arm Wrestling Boat Race (Cambridge vs. Oxford) Clubsport Systems
Art Boating, Ice Coaching
Ascot Bobsledding Coeducational Sport
Ashes, The Body Image Coliseum (Rome)
Asian Games Bodybuilding Collective Bargaining
Astrodome Bondi Beach College Athletes
IX
x BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD SPORT
Commercialization of ESPN Globalization

College Sports Euro 2004 Goalball
Commodification and European Football Championship Golf
Commercialization Eurosport Greece
Commonwealth Games Exercise and Health Greece, Ancient
Community Extreme Sports Growth and Development
Competition Extreme Surfing Gymnastics, Apparatus
Competitive Balance Gymnastics, Rhythmic
Cooperation Facility Management
Country Club Facility Naming Rights Handball, Team
Cricket Falconry Hang Gliding
Cricket World Cup Family Involvement Hazing
Croquet Fan Loyalty Henley Regatta
Cross-Country Running Fantasy Sports Heptathlon
Cuba Fashion Highland Games
Cultural Studies Theory Feminist Perspective Hockey, Field
Curling Fencing Hockey, Ice
Cycling Fenway Park Hockey, In-line
Czech Republic Finland Holmenkollen Ski Jump
Fishing Holmenkollen Sunday
Dance Fitness Home Field Advantage
DanceSport Fitness Industry Homophobia
Darts Floorball Honduras
Davis Cup Flying Horse Racing
Deaflympics Folk Sports Horseback Riding
Denmark Footbag Human Movement Studies
Diet and Weight Loss Football Hungary
Disability Sport Football, Canadian Hunting
Disordered Eating Football, Flag Hurling
Diving Football, Gaelic
Drake Group Foro Italico Iditarod
Duathlon Foxhunting India
France Indianapolis 500
East Germany Franchise Relocation Injuries, Youth
Economics and Public Policy Free Agency Injury
Egypt Injury Risk in Women’s Sport
Eiger North Face Games of the New Emerging Innebandy
Elfstedentocht Forces (GANEFO) Interallied Games
Elite Sports Parents Gay Games Intercollegiate Athletics
Endorsements Gender Equity International Olympic Academy
Endurance Gender Verification International Politics
Environment Germany Internet
LIST OF ENTRIES xi
Interpretive Sociology Marathon and Distance Running Pain

Iran Marketing Pan American Games
Ireland Mascots Parachuting
Ironman Triathlon Masculinity Paralympics
Islamic Countries’ Women’s Masters Pebble Beach
Sports Solidarity Games Media-Sports Complex Pelota
Israel Memorabilia Industry Pentathlon, Modern
Italy Mental Conditioning Performance
Mesoamerican Ball Court Games Performance Enhancement
Jamaica Mexico Personality
Japan Mixed Martial Arts Physical Education
Japanese Martial Arts, Traditional Motivation Pilates
Jogging Motorboat Racing Play vs. Organized Sport
Jousting Motorcycle Racing Play-by-Play Announcing
Judo Mount Everest Poland
Jujutsu Mountain Biking Polo
Mountaineering Polo, Bicycle
Karate Movies Polo, Water
Karting Multiculturalism Portugal
Kendo Postmodernism
Kenya Naginata Powerlifting
Kinesiology Narrative Theory Prayer
Kite Sports Native American Games and Professionalism
Koreas Sports Psychology
Korfball Netball Psychology of Gender Differences
Netherlands
Lacrosse New Zealand Race Walking
Lake Placid Newspapers Racism
Law Nextel (Winston) Cup Racquetball
Le Mans Nigeria Radio
Lesbianism Norway Religion
Lifeguarding Nutrition Reproduction
Literature Revenue Sharing
Lord’s Cricket Ground Officiating Ringette
Luge Olympia Rituals
Olympic Stadium (Berlin), 1936 Rodeo
Maccabiah Games Olympics, 2004 Romania
Madison Square Garden Olympics, Summer Rome, Ancient
Magazines Olympics, Winter Rope Jumping
Management Orienteering Rounders and Stoolball
Maple Leaf Gardens Osteoporosis Rowing
Maracana Stadium Ownership Rugby
xii BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD SPORT
Russia and USSR Spain Track and Field—Jumping and

Ryder Cup Special Olympics Throwing
Spectator Consumption Track and Field—Running and
Sail Sports Behavior Hurdling
Sailing Spectators Tug of War
Salary Caps Speedball Turkey
Scholar-Baller Sponsorship Turner Festivals
School Performance Sport and National Identity
Scotland Sport as Religion Ultimate
Senegal Sport as Spectacle Underwater Sports
Senior Sport Sport Politics Unionism
Sepak Takraw Sport Science United Kingdom
Sex and Performance Sport Tourism
Sexual Harassment Sporting Goods Industry Values and Ethics
Sexuality Sports Medicine Venice Beach
Shinty Sportsmanship Violence
Shooting Sportswriting and Reporting Volleyball
Silat Squash Volleyball, Beach
Singapore St. Andrews
Skateboarding St. Moritz Wakeboarding
Skating, Ice Figure Stanley Cup Weightlifting
Skating, Ice Speed Strength Wembley Stadium
Skating, In-line Stress Wimbledon
Skating, Roller Sumo Windsurfing
Ski Jumping Sumo Grand Tournament Women’s Sports,
Skiing, Alpine Series Media Coverage of
Skiing, Cross-Country Super Bowl Women’s World Cup
Skiing, Freestyle Surf Lifesaving Worker Sports
Skiing, Water Surfing World Cup
Sled Dog Racing Sweden World Series
Sledding—Skeleton Swimming World University Games
Snowboarding Swimming, Synchronized Wrestling
Snowshoe Racing Switzerland Wrigley Field
Soaring Wushu
Soccer Table Tennis
Social Class Taekwando X Games
Social Constructivism Tai Chi
Social Identity Technology Yankee Stadium
Softball Tennis Yoga
South Africa Title IX Youth Culture and Sport
South East Asian Games Tour de France Youth Sports
Reader’s Guide
College Sports Officiating European Football Championship

Amateur vs. Professional Debate Performance Enhancement Games of the New Emerging
Carnegie Report Personality Forces (GANEFO)
College Athletes Professionalism Gay Games
Drake Group Rituals Henley Regatta
Intercollegiate Athletics Sex and Performance Highland Games
Racism Spectators Holmenkollen Sunday
Title IX Sport as Religion Iditarod
Sport as Spectacle Indianapolis 500
Culture of Sport Sport Politics Interallied Games
Adapted Physical Education Sportsmanship Ironman Triathlon
Adventure Education Islamic Countries’ Women’s
Athletes as Celebrities Events Sports Solidarity Games
Athletes as Heroes African Games Le Mans
Baseball Stadium Life America’s Cup Maccabiah Games
Baseball Nicknames Anthropology Days Masters
Baseball Wives Arab Games Nextel (Winston) Cup
Burnout Ashes, The Olympics, 2004
Clubsport Systems Asian Games Olympics, Summer
Coaching Boat Race (Cambridge vs. Oxford) Olympics, Winter
Coeducational Sport Boston Marathon Pan American Games
Fan Loyalty British Open Paralympics
Gender Verification Central American and Caribbean Ryder Cup
Hazing Games South East Asian Games
Home Field Advantage Commonwealth Games Special Olympics
Homophobia Cricket World Cup Stanley Cup
Mascots Davis Cup Sumo Grand Tournament Series
Mental Conditioning Deaflympics Super Bowl
Motivation Elfstedentocht Tour de France
Multiculturalism Euro 2004 Turner Festivals
XIII
xiv BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD SPORT
Wimbledon Play-by-Play Announcing Poland

Women’s World Cup Radio Portugal
World Cup Sportswriting and Reporting Romania
World Series Women’s Sports, Rome, Ancient
World University Games Media Coverage of Russia and USSR
X Games Scotland
National Profiles Senegal
Health and Fitness Argentina Singapore
Aerobics Australia South Africa
AIDS and HIV Austria Spain
Anemia Belgium Sweden
Athletic Training Brazil Switzerland
Biomechanics Bulgaria Turkey
Biotechnology Cameroon United Kingdom
Diet and Weight Loss Canada
Disordered Eating China Paradigms and
Endurance Cuba Perspectives
Exercise and Health Czech Republic Cultural Studies Theory
Fitness Denmark Feminist Perspective
Fitness Industry East Germany Human Movement Studies
Injury Egypt Interpretive Sociology
Injury Risk in Women’s Sport Finland Kinesiology
Jogging France Narrative Theory
Nutrition Germany Physical Education
Osteoporosis Greece Postmodernism
Pain Greece, Ancient Social Constructivism
Performance Honduras Sport Science
Pilates Hungary
Reproduction India Sports Industry
Sports Medicine Iran Agents
Strength Ireland Athletic Talent Migration
Stress Israel Brand Management
Tai Chi Italy Collective Bargaining
Yoga Jamaica Commodification and Commer-
Japan cialization
Media Kenya Competitive Balance
ESPN Koreas Endorsements
Eurosport Mexico Facility Management
Internet Netherlands Facility Naming Rights
Magazines New Zealand Fashion
Media-Sports Complex Nigeria Franchise Relocation
Newspapers Norway Free Agency
READER’S GUIDE xv
Management Social Identity Sports—Body Movement

Marketing Sport and National Identity and Strength
Memorabilia Industry Technology Baton Twirling
Ownership Values and Ethics Bodybuilding
Revenue Sharing Violence Capoeira
Salary Caps Cheerleading
Spectator Consumption Behavior Sports—Air Dance
Sponsorship Ballooning DanceSport
Sport Tourism Flying Gymnastics, Apparatus
Sporting Goods Industry Hang Gliding Gymnastics, Rhythmic
Unionism Kite Sports Powerlifting
Parachuting Rope Jumping
Sport in Society Soaring Tug of War
Aesthetics Weightlifting
American Sports Exceptionalism Sports—Animal
Animal Rights Bullfighting Sports—Combative
Art Buzkashi and Martial
Beauty Carriage Driving Aikido
Body Image Falconry Archery
Commercialization Foxhunting Arm Wrestling
Community Horse Racing Boxing
Competition Horseback Riding Bullfighting
Cooperation Hunting Buzkashi
Country Club Jousting Fencing
Economics and Public Policy Polo Japanese Martial Arts, Traditional
Environment Rodeo Jousting
Gender Equity Judo
Globalization Sports—Ball Jujutsu
International Politics Basketball Karate
Law Bowls and Bowling Kendo
Lesbianism Floorball Mixed Martial Arts
Literature Footbag Naginata
Masculinity Goalball Shooting
Movies Handball, Team Silat
Prayer Korfball Sumo
Psychology Mesoamerican Ball Court Games Taekwando
Psychology of Gender Differences Pelota Wrestling
Religion Netball Wushu
Scholar-Baller Volleyball
Sexual Harassment Volleyball, Beach Sports—Environmental
Sexuality Sepak takraw Fishing
Social Class Speedball Hunting
xvi BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD SPORT
Foxhunting Sledding—Skeleton Sports—Stick and Ball

Mountaineering Snowboarding Baseball
Orienteering Snowshoe Racing Billiards
Cricket
Sports—Field Sports—Mechanized Croquet
Australian Rules Football and Motor Golf
Camogie Auto Racing Rounders and Stoolball
Football Carriage Driving Softball
Football, Canadian Cycling
Football, Flag Hockey, In-line Sports—Throwing
Football, Gaelic Karting Boomerang Throwing
Hockey, Field Motorboat Racing Darts
Hurling Motorcycle Racing Heptathlon
Innebandy Mountain Biking Ultimate
Lacrosse Polo, Bicycle Track and Field—Jumping and
Rugby Skateboarding Throwing
Shinty Skating, In-line
Soccer Skating, Roller Sports—Water
Canoeing and Kayaking
Sports—General Sports—Mixed Diving
Alternative Sports Biathlon and Triathlon Extreme Surfing
Disability Sport Duathlon Lifeguarding
Fantasy Sports Extreme Sports Polo, Water
Folk Sports Heptathlon Rowing
Native American Games and Pentathlon, Modern Sail Sports
Sports Sailing
Senior Sport Sports—Racket Skiing, Water
Worker Sports Badminton Surf Lifesaving
Racquetball Surfing
Sports—Ice and Snow Squash Swimming
Boating, Ice Table Tennis Swimming, Synchronized
Bobsledding Tennis Underwater Sports
Curling Wakeboarding
Hockey, Ice Sports—Running Windsurfing
Luge and Jumping
Skating, Ice Figure Cross-Country Running Venues
Skating, Ice Speed Heptathlon All England Lawn Tennis and
Ski Jumping Marathon and Distance Croquet Club
Skiing, Alpine Running Ascot
Skiing, Cross-Country Race Walking Astrodome
Skiing, Freestyle Track and Field—Running and Bislett Stadium
Sled Dog Racing Hurdling Bondi Beach
READER’S GUIDE xvii
Coliseum (Rome) Olympic Stadium (Berlin), 1936 Anti-Jock Movement

Eiger North Face Pebble Beach Child Sport Stars
Fenway Park St. Andrews Elite Sports Parents
Foro Italico St. Moritz Family Involvement
Holmenkollen Ski Jump Venice Beach Growth and Development
International Olympic Academy Wembley Stadium Injuries, Youth
Lake Placid Wrigley Field Play vs. Organized Sport
Lord’s Cricket Ground Yankee Stadium School Performance
Madison Square Garden Youth Culture and Sport
Maple Leaf Gardens Youth Sports Youth Sports
Maracana Stadium Academies and Camps, Sport
Mount Everest American Youth Soccer
Olympia Organization (AYSO)
SEXUALITY 1357
If the Bible has taught us nothing else, and it hasn’t, it’s that
girls should stick to girls’ sports, such as hot oil wrestling,
foxy boxing, and such and such. ■ HOMER SIMPSON
Christian Influences
Sexuality Christianity ended the pagan adoration of the athletic
body. References to the human body as a prison, a
A s manifestations of human physical embodiment,

sports and sexuality have always been intimately
related. Depending on the historical era and the cul-
charnel house, a grave, or a sink of corruption were
ubiquitous in the religious literature of late antiquity
as ascetic men and women were inspired to join the
tural context, this intimate relationship has been ranks of “those who have made themselves eunuchs
celebrated, acknowledged, condemned, or denied. for the sake of the Kingdom of Heaven” (Matthew
These contradictory responses have often occurred 19:2). Late in the fourth century or early in the fifth,
simultaneously. Christian antipathy brought an end to the Olympic
Games and to gladiatorial combats. Rather than
Greek and looking to athletes and gladiators as icons of mas-
Roman Athletes culinity, devout Christians venerated saints like
The Romans were less obsessed with the athletic body Simeon Stylites, who glorified God by spending thirty
than were the Greeks, but they, too, understood—and for physically inactive years atop a sixty-foot-high Byzan-
the most part accepted—the association of sports and tine pillar.
sexuality. Odd as it may seem to us, the gladiator who en-
tered the arena and risked his life in armed combat was THE IMPORTANCE
a sexually charged figure whose physicality excited OF TOURNAMENTS
Roman women of every social class. The gladiator with The medieval tournament was a stage for the ostenta-
his sword or trident—not the orator and certainly not the tious demonstration of martial skill and valor. It was
poet—was the embodiment of Roman masculinity. As the preferred place for aristocratic men to vaunt—and
upper-class brides were prepared for the initiation into for aristocratic women to admire—proud masculinity.
womanhood, it was customary to part their hair with a Tournament lists may seem far removed from the do-
spear that had been dipped in the blood of a slain glad- main of Eros, but the relationship between feats of
iator. The word gladius (“sword”) was often used as a arms and the code of courtly love was strikingly direct.
slang term for the penis. The sexual aspects of the tournament were glaringly
Writing of sexuality and death in the Roman arena, obvious when the victor’s prize was a puellam deco-
the poet Ovid observed, in The Art of Love, “on that sor- ram valde (“nicely dressed young girl”), which was the
rowful sand Venus has often contested.” Gladiators were case at a tournament in the German town of Merse-
legally “infamous,” but Roman women responded burg in 1226. Sexuality also played a central—if more
nonetheless (and perhaps all the more) to their sexual at- subtle—role in later tournaments, at which knights
tractiveness. Graffiti found in Pompeii proclaim that the demonstrated their prowess as warriors and suggested
gladiator Celadus was suspirium puellarum (freely trans- their potential as lovers. In time, tournaments became
lated: “the heart-throb of all the girls”). His colleague less bellicose and more theatrical, but the erotic di-
Crescens was the puparum dominus (“master of the mension continued to play a major role. Tournaments
girls”). Poets such as Juvenal were outraged when re- became allegories in which men and women mas-
spectable women chose gladiators as their lovers: “The queraded as Lancelot and Guinevere, as Tristan and
sword is what they dote on.” His anger was impotent. Isolde, or as other suitably romantic Arthurian fig-
Propertius’ poems, which include rhapsodic references to ures. In the typical sixteenth-century tournament, bold
athletic Spartan girls, testify that Roman men were also knights rescued distressed damsels, after which they
fascinated by the erotic dimension of women’s sports. retired to a “Temple of Love,” where the gallant men
1358 BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD SPORT
doffed their battered helmets and received kisses of ■ When Senda Berenson introduced basketball to the
gratitude. Although the military functions of the tour- young women of Smith College, in Northampton,
nament never wholly disappeared, the erotic function Massachusetts, the students were chastely clothed
—properly conventionalized—became increasingly from neck to ankle and the only man allowed in the
prominent. gymnasium was the president of the college, a man
Conventionalization of the erotic did not diminish whose age and dignity were thought to immunize
the opposition of the Roman Catholic Church, which him from the danger of sexual arousal.
repeatedly—and vainly—condemned the medieval and ■ When the Australian press reported positively, in Oc-
the Renaissance tournament. Clerical hostility was tober 1907, on “the brown skinned specimens of
aroused by the un-Christian bloodshed that character- manhood” and the “bronze Venuses” that were to be
ized the earlier tournament, but sublimated sexuality seen on the beaches and in the surf, there were im-
was also an abomination in ascetic eyes. Illuminated mediate protests against “heaps of sprawling men
manuscripts frequently depicted medieval women en- and lads, naked but for a nondescript rag around the
gaged in fabulous jousts. A marginal illustration to Pier- middle.”
art dou Tielt’s Saint Graal shows a combat between ■ In 1933, when Sunny Lowry swam the English Chan-
two naked women armed with distaffs, one upon a nel, she was berated as a “harlot” because she exposed
goat, the other on a ram. The scene is imaginary, but it her bare knees.
testifies to the association, in the minds of clerical ■ In 1934, Cardinal Rodrigue Villeneuve of Quebec,
misogynists, of Eros and sports. condemning the “pagan” cult of the body as mani-
fested in sports, bemoaned the rampant concern for
“hysterical strength, sensual pleasure, and the devel-
Modern Reactions opment of the human animal.”
In the modern era, as sports once again assumed the ■ Meanwhile, his European colleagues thundered Epis-
central role that they played in pagan antiquity, Christ- copal anathemas against female gymnasts who per-
ian ascetics—Protestant as well as Roman Catholic— formed before mixed audiences. Their denunciations
were initially hostile. Clerical critics were not motivated are repeated today, almost verbatim, by Islamic fun-
to condemnation simply by profanation of the Sabbath damentalists horrified by the public display of fe-
(although that was a common theme from the seven- male limbs.
teenth to the twentieth centuries). Sports were also de-
plored because of their sensuality and their ability to In response to the recurrent charge that sports are
entice, excite, and sexually arouse participants and spec- a sensual if not a satanic indulgence, most athletes
tators alike. and spectators have defended their passion for sports
as if the pleasure they derived from them had no con-
■ In the Victorian era, presidents of evangelical colleges nection whatsoever with human sexuality. Whenever
warned ominously that football games were orgiastic outraged religious traditionalists have called atten-
affairs more fit for pagan thickets than for the groves tion to the erotic appeal of the human body at play,
of academe. In 1892, for instance, the Wesleyan Chris- high-minded progressive reformers have blandly ex-
tian Advocate complained that the violent game un- patiated on the benefits of sunlight, fresh air, and un-
leashed “the lower impulses of the physical man” and encumbered movement. In 1921, for example, the
allowed young males to “find their pleasure in mere German gymnastics journal, Die Freie Turnerin,
sensual energy.” showed off its new logo—a youthful nude. The edi-
SEXUALITY 1359
tors distanced themselves from imputations of porno- life, for instance, attest to the continued prevalence of ho-
graphic intent by claiming the logo represented “a mosexuality among healthy adolescent football players
free maiden, with a joyful sense of her strength and (soccer and rugby) tutored by naively moralistic men-
her trained body, whose nakedness is unashamed be- tors. The English critic and editor Cyril Connolly re-
cause it is natural.” This kind of wholesome nudity called his early twentieth-century schooldays at
was not, they emphasized, sexual. Countering alle- sports-mad Eton and added that homosexuality was “the
gations of prurience, a contributor to Sport im Bild Forbidden Tree around which our Eden dizzily revolved.”
announced in 1928 that sports participation actually (Like a typical first-year student, Connolly fell in love
dissipated “the mists of the erotic” that had enveloped with a boy who was “good at games and older than I.”)
German women. Thanks to sports, women were American physical educators seem never to have no-
“cleaner, more free, fresher.” ticed that the high-school romance of popular fiction
YMCA workers, physical educa- pairs the most athletic of the boys
tors, and coaches went beyond (the star of the football team) with
mere self-deceptive denial. In re- the most athletic of the girls (the
sponse to the critics’ exasperated captain of the cheerleading squad).
insistence that sports can quite ob-
viously be an occasion for erotic Sexualization
play, enthusiasts for sports have of Sports
propagated the modern myth that By the end of the nineteenth cen-
a heated contest and a cold shower tury, mainstream Protestants had
divert or diminish adolescent sex- altered their opposition to sports
uality. With luck, they assert, sports to the point where YMCA workers
may totally extinguish sexual were leading the way in inventing
impulses. new sports (such as basketball and
This was the conventional wis- volleyball) and in propagating
dom in the heyday of “muscular sports—for girls as well as boys—
Christianity,” when nineteenth- throughout the United States and
century sports were instrumen- elsewhere. Similarly, in 1945, Pope
talized in a misguided effort to Pius XII broke ranks with his pred-
dampen erotic ardor and to distract ecessors and affirmed the positive
young people from sexual activity. value of modern sports. By the end
Even as British games masters of the twentieth century, religious
and American physical educators opposition to sports had all but
praised sports as a healthy alterna- disappeared. There is continued
tive to fornication and “self-abuse,” opposition to the association of
the cult of athleticism that they en- sports and sexuality, but the oppo-
couraged actually contributed to sition is motivated less by a rejec-
the sexual activity that was rife in A common sight at boxing tion of “pagan sexuality” than by
elite British and American boys’ matches, a ring girl holding distress at levels of promiscuity
schools such as Eton and Groton. a round card. and outrage at the incidence of sex-
Memoirs of English “public-school” Source: istockphoto/pcwfoto. ual predation. “Baseball Annies”
Success is not the result of spontaneous

combustion; you must set yourself
on fire first. ■ REGGIE LEACH
and other young women eager for sexual unions with Birgit Palzkill, and a number of other homosexual writ-
their athletic idols have, almost literally, thrown them- ers have condemned sports for their complicity in the
selves at the feet of collegiate and professional athletes. social construction of “hegemonic masculinity,” “com-
Basketball star Wilt Chamberlain, who boasted of hav- pulsory heterosexuality,” and “heteronormativity.”
ing slept with 20,000 women, is a notorious example
of the athlete willing to accept sexual favors from ador- The Ideal Body
ing admirers. Champion boxer Mike Tyson and a num- The discussion of sports and sexuality must include
ber of other high-profile athletes have stood trial for comments on the ideal body. Young men are judged
rape. That a number of collegiate and professional ath- not only by their sports prowess but also by the mus-
letes have been found guilty of rape and other forms of cularity of their bodies (enhanced, in many cases, by
sexual assault, including domestic violence, has caused anabolic steroids). Young women are exposed to daily
understandable concern. Although most athletes are exhortations to exercise and diet. Feminist critics be-
not sexual predators, empirical studies have found that lieve these women are coerced into in a hopeless
varsity athletes are more likely than are other college quest for an unattainably perfect body. Crippling in-
students to be accused of sexual offenses. juries and eating disorders are said to be among the
The negative critique of sports and sexuality is no consequences of the overemphasis on sports and
longer a prominent part of the Christian tradition. As fitness.
mainstream churches took to celebrations of the joy of There is some truth to the critics’ indictment. Al-
sports, to the construction of basketball courts, and to though no cultural absolute defines the ideal masculine
the establishment of church-related sports leagues, body, the muscularity of the Greek athlete, celebrated in
Marxist scholars began to deplore the “sexualization” of antiquity by sculptors and vase painters, remains the
sports in capitalist society. Drawing from Sigmund ideal promoted by modern mass media. That body
Freud as well as from Karl Marx, these scholars blamed seems functionally related to what were, until recently,
sports, which they defined as “the capitalistically de- the taken-for-granted male roles of physically active pro-
formed form of play,” for the psychological “castration” tector and provider. Although there is considerable
of the male athlete and for the deflection of male sexu- agreement about the desirability of what might be
ality into sadism, masochism, narcissism, exhibition- termed the standard mesomorphic male body, cultural
ism, and homosexuality. Radical feminists have also ideals for women have varied across a much wider
condemned sports because they enhance a female ath- range—from the sinewy bodies of Spartan girls to the
lete’s heterosexual attractiveness and thus increase her debility of foot-bound Chinese brides unable to walk,
“erotic exchange-value.” (The greater the value in the much less run, on their mutilated feet. Despite the range
sexual marketplace, the more extreme the exploitation.) and variation in cultural ideals, some scholars see a
Although admitting that some women have benefited pattern cut by the determined scissors of patriarchal
from sports and from the fitness boom, the sport soci- power: In their book Face Value: The Politics of Beauty
ologist Nancy Theberge (1987) nonetheless alleges that (1985) Robin Tolmach Lakoff and Raquel L. Scherr
sports programs promising enhanced attractiveness rep- argue that female desirability over time has stressed
resent “not the liberation of women . . . but their con- “feminine helplessness and passivity” while male beauty
tinued oppression through the sexualization of physical in art is rarely depicted that way.
activity.” The assumption behind the charge of “sexual- Other scholars see quite a different pattern. The an-
ization” is that sports are not inherently sexual. thropologist April Fallon suggests that focus on exotic
The reticulation of assertion and denial has recently extremes, like the Karen women of Burma, whose
become even more bizarrely tangled as Brian Pronger, stretched and weakened necks require the support of
SHINTY 1361
twenty-four brass rings, deflects attention from the Further Reading

nearly universal consensus that the ideal—at least for Guttmann, A. (1996). The erotic in sports. New York: Columbia Uni-
versity Press.
a young woman—is “roundness rather than angular- Heywood, L., & Dworkin, S. L. (2003). Built to win. Minneapolis: Uni-
ity,” a firm rather than a flabby body, health rather versity of Minnesota Press.
than sickness. The athletic female body widely prized Hortleder, G., & Gebauer, G. (Eds.). (1986). Sport-Eros-Tod. Frankfurt:
Suhrkamp.
today in Europe and North America is quite similar to Miller, T. (2001). Sportsex. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
the women’s bodies valorized in ancient Sparta (if not Pronger, B. (1990). The arena of masculinity. New York: St. Martin’s
Press.
in other Greek cities). This may or may not be the “nat- Theberge, N. (1987). Sport and women’s empowerment, Women’s
ural” body, but it is, for the moment, the dominant Studies International Forum, 10(4), 89.
ideal.
Global Views
Consideration of non-Western civilizations compli-
cates speculations about physical ideals. In the Is-
lamic cultures of West Asia, the Zurkhanah (“House
Shinty
of Strength”) attracts wrestlers and weightlifters
whose powerful bodies are the cultural ideal. In East
Asia, however, the ideal is very different. Mark Elvin,
S hinty is Scotland’s national sport. Shinty (from the
Gaelic word sinteag meaning “leap”) is first men-
tioned toward the end of the eighteenth century in
a scholar in Chinese history, notes that in traditional
records of the Highlands and Inner and Outer He-
China the human body was not glorified, as was the
brides islands of Scotland. As with mob football,
case with the classical Greek culture with its statues
which was popular on the Scottish borders, shinty
of young unclothed male athletes. Images of the Bud-
was a highly physical contact-and-collision sport
dha enthroned on a lotus leaf seem effeminate to Eu-
played on a vast area with a minimum of rules or rest.
ropean and American museumgoers. The gates to
Its primitive structure and its amalgam of unmasked
Japanese temples are often flanked by larger-than-life
violence and community festival are summarized in
carved figures—the nio—whose hypermuscularity
this description:
and weaponry symbolizes their role as threatening
guardians, but these are lesser deities whose bulky Games were contested between whole clans or parishes
bodies mark their inferior status in the heavenly without limit as to numbers or time until darkness
order. Ordinary men and women may idolize sumo stopped play among the walking wounded. The field of
wrestlers, but the Japanese elite has long expressed a play was undelineated except by the occasional pail of
preference for unathletic elegance. The East Asian glo- visge-beatha (whisky). In an interclan match, a combatant
rification of the cerebral scholar or the otherworldly who had failed to disable at least one opponent within a
mystic can best be understood as a futile attempt to reasonable time had his curved stick (caman) confiscated
transcend the physical, whose presence and power is as a punishment by the chieftain so that he could only
acknowledged by the almost superhuman effort at its kick the ball (cnaige) or his opponents. (McWhirter and
suppression. Asceticism is the bitter tribute that mind McWhirter 1975)
pays to body. Sports—and the sexuality that inheres
in sports—are, in all likelihood, here to stay. Origins
Historians do not agree on the origins of shinty. R. W.
Allen Guttmann
Henderson, a U.S. sports historian and expert on the
See also Beauty; Feminist Perspective; Homophobia evolution of ball games, wrote:
It has been claimed that shinty came to Scotland by way have gone, they have taken shinty with them as a part
of Ireland, but so far evidence is not conclusive. In Irish of their culture. For example, soldiers of the Lovat
mythology Cuchulain, Fionn, and Fingall play huge club Scouts played shinty during the Boer War in South
and ball games over the land of the Gaels, and many are Africa at the beginning of the twentieth century.
the mythological men who are proficient with ball and Before World War I shinty developed rapidly, and
club. Allowing for the fact that these legends date back rules that all players could agree to were needed. Cod-
hundreds of years B.C., we must again remember that ifying those rules helped in the sport’s expansion. After
they were written A.D. The highly imaginative, romantic, World War I and up until the 1950s, however, socioe-
legendary accounts should not be taken as historical conomic factors led to the decline of shinty. Significant
sources. (Henderson 1974) numbers of Scots moved away from the Highlands and
islands and settled in industrialized Glasgow and the
Hugh Dan Maclennan, a shinty expert, has a differ-
north of England. Maclennan quotes one shinty player,
ing view. He played shinty at Lochaber High School in
Roger Hutchinson, who says, “The game of shinty
Fort William, Scotland, during the 1970s and then
ceased to be played during the first four decades of the
gained a Blue (the equivalent of an athletic letter in the
20th century. It was an inexorable decline.”
United States) at Glasgow University. After playing for
Originally shinty resembled hurling, which is Ire-
Fort William and then Inverness, he turned to broad-
land’s premier sport. Today the sports, as played at an
casting and journalism. In 1990 he received the first
elite level, have major differences in technique. In shinty
Shinty Reporter of the Year Award.
each team has twelve players, and seven officials are re-
Maclennan underscores the fact that shinty (in Gaelic
quired. Unlike in most field games, in shinty the pitch
the word is camanachd) has a long history. In the
(field) size is not fixed and varies greatly from club to
United States baseball and football have histories of be-
club. The recommended size of a pitch is 155 meters by
tween 100 and 150 years. Shinty, by contrast, may
73 meters. This area is considerably larger than the area
have pagan roots and goes back thousands of years.
required for U.S. football, rugby, or soccer (association
Shinty was introduced to northwestern Scotland along
football). The goal posts may seem similar to those
with Christianity and the Gaelic language nearly two
used in U.S. football or rugby union football, but they
thousand years ago by Irish missionaries.
are actually much narrower: The cross bars are only
3.6 meters wide. The crooked, broad-bladed shinty stick
Development bears some resemblance to a field hockey stick.
However, shinty is not a major sport. Scotland’s pre-
mier sport is soccer, followed by rugby. Many more Practice
Scottish children participate in golf, swimming, netball, The twelve players on a shinty team are a hail-keeper
track and field, basketball, and other sports than in (goalkeeper), a fullback, three halfbacks, a center back,
shinty. Shinty players number only in the low thou- a centerfield, a center forward, three half-forwards, and
sands, but forty shinty clubs exist, and although the re- a full forward. A game lasts ninety minutes, with a half-
gional base continues to be in the Highlands and time of five minutes. The game is essentially aerial, with
islands, that does not tell the whole story. For example, the ball being tossed and flicked and passed. Only the
university clubs exist at Aberdeen, St. Andrews, and goalkeeper may handle the ball. This rule is the major
Edinburgh; Tayforth has a Lowland club; and emigre contrast to hurling, in which all players may catch and
Scots can play for London Camanachd. Maclennan cau- strike the ball. A goal is scored when the ball passes
tions that one should not see shinty as just a minor wholly over the goal line, between the goal posts, and
sport played regionally in Scotland. Wherever Scots under the cross bar, which is set at a height of 3 meters.
SHOOTING 1363
I think my favorite sport in the Olympics is the one in which you make
your way through the snow, you stop, you shoot a gun, and then you
continue on. In most of the world, it is known as the biathlon, except
in New York City, where it is known as winter. ■ MICHAEL VENTRE
The ball is covered with leather and has a core of Henderson, R. W. (1974). Ball, bat and bishop: The origin of ball games.
cork and worsted wool. The stick has a cylindrical shaft. Detroit, MI: Gale Research Company.
Maclennan, H. D. (1993). Shinty: 100 years of the Camanachd Associ-
The head must be able to pass through a ring 63 milli- ation. Nairn, UK: Balnain Books.
meters in diameter. McWhirter, N., & McWhirter, R. (1975). Guinness book of records. Lon-
don: Guinness Superlatives.
A game of shinty is tough. Fouls such as kicking, Smout, T. C. (1986). A century of the Scottish people, 1830–1950. New
catching, or throwing the ball, obstructing, charging, Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
hacking, pushing, and jumping at an opponent are pe-
nalized. Shinty, like hurling, is a game in which the
level of ball flow, spatial movement, and player fluidity
create spectator exhilaration.
Recently corporate sponsorship and segments of the
Shooting
tourist industry have helped to revitalize shinty. This re-
vitalization has resulted in the United Kingdom’s Prince
Edward associating himself with the development of a
M odern shooting sports evolved from the use of
arms for hunting and combat. Today, sport
hunters lead conservation efforts and fuel a huge indus-
youth shinty league, and Diana, the late princess of try in shooting gear. A wide variety of competitions with
Wales, was given a shinty stick at a meeting of the Bute rifles, shotguns, and pistols entertain shooters year-round.
Highland Games during the early 1990s. English Some of the most skilled compete at the Olympic Games.
cricket star Ian Botham has played the game, and in
1991 two Scottish teams (Skye and Kinguissie) visited History
Cape Breton and reintroduced the sport to Canada’s Shooting sports arose from the use of weapons and
maritime region after an absence of 150 years. hunting implements. Long before gunpowder, hunters
defended themselves and killed game from a distance.
The Future Rocks and spears gave way to boomerangs, arrows,
What is shinty’s future? Is it to be a modern sport or a darts, and bolts. “Chinese snow” appeared in fireworks
relic of Celtic culture? Maclennan (1993) makes this a couple of centuries before English friar Roger Bacon
observation: described gunpowder in 1249. In 1327, England’s Ed-
ward II used guns to invade Scotland, but their per-
For life-force and continuing success, the game must con-
formance didn’t match their novelty.
tinue to aspire to skill and spectacle at the highest level.
The first guns were heavy tubes that required two at-
If these remain the ideals of the greatest game in the
tendants. One held the tube while his partner lit a prim-
world, and as long as the unique enduring comradeship
ing charge with a burning stick or rope. The first lock
“after battle” can be maintained, then shinty will maintain
was a lever by which a smoldering wick was lowered to
the traditions which were founded thousands of years ago
the touch-hole in the barrel. Such guns were called
and have stood the test of time. It will also remain one of
matchlocks. Sixteenth-century German gun designers
Scotland’s truly national assets.
replaced the wick with a spring-loaded jaw that held
Scott A. G. M. Crawford pyrite (flint) against a serrated bar. Pulling the bar
across the pyrite showered sparks into a pan that held
a trail of fine gunpowder leading to the touch-hole.
Further Reading Around 1515 in Nuremberg the bar was replaced by a
Arlott, J. A. (Ed.). (1975). The Oxford companion to world sports and spring-loaded sprocket wound with a spanner wrench.
games. London: Oxford University Press.
Cuddon, J. A. (1979). International dictionary of sports and games.
Pulling the trigger released the wheel to spin against a
New York: Schocken Books. fixed shard of pyrite held against the wheel’s teeth. The
Man poised to
shoot clay pigeon.
Source: istockphoto/Gards.
subsequent flintlock featured

a cock or hammer with a
clamped flint that struck a
steel plate above the pan.
In 1806 Scotch clergyman
Alexander John Forsythe be-
came the first on record to ig-
nite a spark inside the
chamber of a gun. He used an
explosive fulminate to gen-
erate sparks. In 1814, sea
captain Joshua Shaw of Phila-
delphia upstaged a host of
experimenters to produce a
viable percussion cap. forty New York and New Haven investors bought out
Columbus reached the Americas while armed with a Smith, Wesson, and Palmer to form the Volcanic Re-
triggerless matchlock. Pilgrims carried long 75-caliber peating Arms Company. Their first director, shirt sales-
smoothbore flintlocks, although the superior accuracy of man Oliver F. Winchester, hired B. Tyler Henry to
rifled bores had been proven as early as 1498 in Ger- reengineer both rifle and ammo. In 1860 Henry came
many. Americans did come to favor the jaeger (hunter) up with a fifteen-shot repeater that would later impress
rifle with a 61- to 76-centimeter barrel of 65 to 70 cal- Confederates as the “damned Yankee rifle you loaded on
iber. To conserve lead, frontier gunsmiths made jaegers Sunday and fired all week.”
with small bores. To shave weight, they trimmed the But the Henry lacked the punch needed by buffalo
stock. The svelte “Kentucky rifle,” derived mostly from hunters, who favored Remington Rolling Block and
Pennsylvania-based German gunmakers, resulted. Under- Sharps 1874 dropping-block single-shots chambered
size balls in greased patches speeded loading. for cigar-size cartridges. When the Sharps Rifle Com-
As the frontier edged west, the needs of hunters pany folded in 1880, the sustenance and market hunt-
changed. Grizzly bears, bison, and elk were hard to kill ing was over. Human scavengers would glean more
with Kentucky rifles, whose barrels were also awkward than three million tons of bison bones from the plains.
in the saddle. Brothers Sam and Jake Hawken of The days of buffalo hunting were short and shameful.
St. Louis developed a shorter rifle with a half-stock and By that time Winchester had discovered John Moses
heavy 50-caliber soft-iron barrel with a slow rifling Browning, a frontier gun genius working from a crude
twist. Mid-nineteenth-century mountain men coveted shop in Ogden, Utah. Between 1883 and 1900, Brown-
their Hawkens. ing would deliver forty-four designs to Winchester’s New
In 1848, New York inventor Walter Hunt developed Haven plant. The Model 1886 lever-action brought
a repeating rifle with the charge in the base of his Browning $50,000 in 1885. The first successful gas-
“rocket ball” bullets. Financier George Arrowsmith and operated guns came from Browning, whose machine
mechanic Lewis Jennings made the rifle more reliable. gun cycled 1,800 rounds in Colt’s test lab without mal-
In 1849 Arrowsmith sold this “Volitional” repeater for function. It weighed half as much as a Gatling. A fear-
$100,000 to railroad magnate Courtland Palmer. With some succession of weapons followed. Hermann
Palmer’s backing, Horace Smith and Daniel Wesson Goering would remark that if Germany had had Brown-
developed a metallic cartridge for it. In 1855 a group of ing .50s, it might have defeated Britain’s RAF.
SHOOTING 1365
By 1900 three of every four guns used by American Remington’s new target rifle, a .44-90 shooting 550-
sportsmen were Winchesters of Browning design. Only grain conical bullets, came off the line in March 1874.
Peter Paul Mauser, who developed the bolt-action rifle On 26 September, a favored Irish team shooting muzzle-
in Germany during the 1880s, has had such lasting loaders bowed to the Americans and their new Rem-
impact on the design of modern sporting guns. His ington and Sharps breech-loaders. The score was 934 to
rifles would allow twentieth-century designers like Roy 93l. Matches held in 1875 and 1876 were won more de-
Weatherby to extend the reach of hunters, target shoot- cisively by the U.S. team. Remington Creedmoor rifles
ers, and tactical marksmen. posted the highest scores.
The period between 1820 and 1900 was the most Experiments to test and improve the inherent
active in the history of firearms design. From flintlock to accuracy of rifles led, in mid-nineteenth century, to a
caplock, muzzle-loader to breech-loader, single-shot to sport that has since grown. Benchrest shooting
repeater, firearms became more effective and reliable. started as a noncompetitive diversion for hobbyists in
They also determined the games that would entertain the northeastern United States. After the 1930s, when
sportsmen and women. benchrest competition blossomed, participants took
While hunters established the rifle market on the the science of rifle accuracy more seriously. Women
western frontier, target shooting became popular in the participated too. Sharpshooter Mary Louise DeVito
East. German- and Swiss-style Schuetzenfests included fired ten shots into a group of less than 20 centime-
beer, sauerbraten, and beautiful single-shot rifles. The ters at 914 meters, a world record during the Vietnam
first recorded Schuetzenfest occurred in New York the era. Shooters and rifles kept improving. In August
year after the Civil War ended. Most shooting was done 2003, Kyle Brown put ten shots into a 10.7-centime-
at 183 meters, offhand. The rifles weighed from 5.5 to ter group at 914 meters.
7.3 kilograms, with 32- to 45-caliber bores and so- Laurels in benchrest shooting go to competitors
phisticated aperture sights. Shortly after 1900, scopes with the most accurate rifles and ammunition, and to
were permitted in some events. those who can best read wind and mirage. In the
By that time, riflemen were competing in long-range past, however, accolades went to the most flamboyant
matches shot prone with rifles resembling those used by shooters, many of whom were employed by traveling
buffalo hunters. In fact, Lewis L. Hepburn modified the shows and gun and ammunition firms for exhibitions
Rolling Block as he began work for Remington on a rifle during the late nineteeth and early twentieth cen-
that would help beat the Irish sharpshooters who had turies. Annie Oakley was one of these talents.
won at Wimbledon in 1873. The Irish had subsequently Phoebe Ann Moses was born in a log cabin in
challenged “any American team” to another contest. The Darke County, Ohio, in 1860. She shot her first
team would comprise six men who would fire three game, a squirrel, at age eight. Subsistence hunting re-
rounds of fifteen shots, one round each at 732, 823, and fined her skills with a rifle. At a local rifle match, she
914 meters, onto targets 3.7 meters high and 1.8 meters beat visiting sharpshooter Frank Butler. She was only
wide, with 91-centimeter-square bull’s-eyes. The Sharps fifteen! A year later they married, and Annie joined
and Remington companies soon came up with prize his traveling show under the name of Annie Oakley.
funds and promised rifles for the event. An Amateur Later, she joined Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show.
Rifle Club was formed to conduct tryouts. A fledgling Sweet-tempered and petite, Annie became an instant
National Rifle Association and the cities of New York star. The German crown prince, later Kaiser Wilhelm
and Brooklyn put up $5,000 each to build a rifle range II, once asked her to shoot a cigarette from his lips.
on Long Island’s Creed’s Farm. Deeded to the NRA for She obliged, remarking after World War I that a miss
$26,250 in 1872, it would be called Creedmoor. might have changed history. Her sharpshooting
The fascination of shooting as a sport depends

almost wholly on whether you are at the right
or wrong end of the gun. ■ P. G. WODEHOUSE
demonstrations included an exhibition in 1884 when What Is Competitive Shooting?

she used a .22 rifle to shatter 943 glass balls out of There are three main categories of target shooting:
1,000 tossed. (1) rifle and (2) pistol shooting, and (3) shotgunning.
If Annie had an equal, it was Ad Topperwein, born in
1869 near New Braunfels, Texas. With a .22 Winches- RIFLE AND PISTOL SHOOTING
ter 1890 pump rifle, young Ad began shooting aerial The most common rifle competition now practiced in
targets and wound up shooting for a circus. In 1894, he the United States is conducted by clubs affiliated with
used a rifle to break 955 of 1,000 clay 5.7-centimeter the National Rifle Association, which has published
disks tossed in the air. Dissatisfied with the score, he re- rulebooks governing all of its sanctioned shooting
peated twice, shattering 987 and 989. Standard clay events. The “black bull’s-eye” matches developed for ri-
shotgun targets proved too easy; he broke 1,500 flemen accommodate a range of shooters and equip-
straight, the first 1,000 from 9.1 meters, the last 500 ment. A BB gun match limits competitors to
from 12.2 meters. Ad was also a showman. Holding a smoothbore air- or gas-powered guns firing .177 steel
Model 63 with the ejection port up, he’d fire a car- balls. Iron sights only are permitted. Firing distance: 5
tridge, then shoot the ejected case in the air. He could meters. A three-position match comprises ten shots each
riddle five tossed cans before any hit the ground. He in prone, kneeling, and offhand; four-position matches
drew Indian-head caricatures in tin with up to 450 bul- add ten shots in a sitting position. Precision air rifle
lets fired at a shot a second. After shooting at a washer competitions are three-position events using iron sights
tossed aloft, he’d tell onlookers the bullet went through at 10 meters with air- or gas-powered rifles. Sporter air
the middle. Challenged by the audience, Ad would stick rifle events mandate lighter-weight rifles. They can in-
a postage stamp over the hole, toss the washer again clude four-position matches and optical sights.
and perforate the stamp. Topperwein began working Several courses of fire exist for .22 rimfires, including
for Winchester, where he met, wed, and teamed with three- and four-position matches, prone matches, and
Elizabeth Servaty. To audiences, she became “Plinky,” a team events. Some are fired at 15 meters on indoor
fine shot in her own right. In 1916 she blasted 1,952 ranges, others outdoors at longer yardage. Some spec-
of 2,000 clay targets with a Model 12 shotgun. ify iron sights; others allow scopes. A two-day prone
Topperwein’s exploits drew exciting competition, cul- match comprises 160 record shots each day at 46 me-
minating with the remarkable performance by Rem- ters, 50 meters, and 92 meters. The first day is shot with
ington salesman Tom Frye when he shot 100,004 out iron sights, the second with a scope.
of 100,010 5.7 ✕ 5.7-centimeter airborne blocks with High-power (centerfire) rifle matches require longer
Nylon 66 autoloaders. Frye missed two of his first ranges. The National Match Course includes 183-meter
43,725 targets. offhand and rapid-fire sitting stages, plus prone stages
Other exhibition shooters entertained American au- at 274 and 549 meters, all with iron sights. Service rifle
diences during the first half of the twentieth century, but and open categories level the playing field and en-
such events dwindled after World War II. Herb Par- courage practice with military rifles. International rules
sons, the last gun wizard to shoot for Winchester, for rifles, targets, and courses of fire are generally more
recorded his stunts on film during the 1950s. Tom stringent than NRA rules. One Olympic event is free
Knapp, who now shoots for Benelli, upstaged Parsons’s rifle, consisting of 40 shots prone, 40 offhand, and 40
feat of hand-tossing seven clay targets at once and kneeling at 300 meters with an iron-sighted centerfire
breaking them all with seven shots from a Winchester target rifle. All bull’s-eye rifle competition (NRA and in-
pump. Knapp emphasizes that the autoloading Benelli ternational) is by the clock, though the deadline for
he used to hit nine clays might have helped Parsons too. each shot comes much more quickly in timed and
SHOOTING 1367
rapid-fire events. At 105 minutes, the standing stage of A practical extension of bull’s-eye shooting is police
free rifle gives marksmen more than 21⁄2 minutes for combat shooting. The target is black-on-white, as in
each record round. bull’s-eye shooting, but it is shaped like a human torso.
Bull’s-eye shooting has little to offer spectators. But Prone, sitting, kneeling, and standing positions are all
metallic silhouette matches entertain. In 1967 Roy included in police combat. Shooters hold guns with
Dunlap and fellow shooters at Nogales, Arizona, im- both hands, as they would in a real emergency. In some
ported this sport from Mexico. Original course of fire: matches, shooters use small “backup” guns. In others,
10 shots each at steel gallinas (chickens) at 200 meters, caliber designations apply.
guajalotes (turkeys), at 385 and borregos (sheep) at A notch up in excitement from police combat is action
500. Dunlap added a bank of javelinas (pigs), to be pistol, another series of contests emphasizing speed and
shot at 300 meters. On April 12, 1969, the first Amer- precision in real-world shooting scenarios. The Los
ican metallic silhouette match unfolded at the Tucson Alamitos Pistol Match includes five stages, for a total of
rifle range. An entry fee of 30 pesos, or $2.40, included forty-two shots at 6, 9, and 23 meters. The same dis-
all the pit-barbecued beef you could eat. Matches that tances apply to moving target, twenty-four shots. During
followed were for centerfire rifles only, with an in- barricade events, shooters fire from behind simulated
creased maximum weight of 4.6 kilograms to accom- wall corners at 9, 14, 23, and 32 meters, six shots each
modate scope sights. Still, all shots had to be taken in five, six, seven, and eight seconds. Shooters feel the
offhand (standing), without a sling or artificial support. same urgency in the falling plate event, as they fire at 20-
The National Rifle Association has developed metal- centimeter round metal disks. In some courses, com-
lic silhouette courses for black-powder cartridge rifle, petitors must use their weak hand; in others, timing
long-range pistol, short-range pistol, small-bore (rimfire) starts with a holstered gun. Action pistol events have
rifle, even air rifle and air pistol. Target sizes and dis- spawned a cottage industry in “race guns” tuned and
tances vary. In centerfire and rimfire rifle matches, com- modified for superior speed and accuracy.The events are
petitors fire 40, 60, 80, or 120 shots in five-round telegenic and carry substantial purses. Competitors earn
strings, with no sighting shots. national recognition and endorsement packages in high-
Approximately 17,230,000 shooters fire at paper profile championships like the Bianchi Cup.
targets each year in the United States, including Cowboy action shooting was developed in 1979 by
10,966,000 handgunners. Traditional bull’s-eye pistol Harper Criegh, Bill Hahn, and Gordon Davis, who
matches call for one-handed shooting, typically with formed the Single Action Shooting Society, the sport’s
autoloading guns that can be reloaded easily for ten- organizing body. Matches feature various competitions
shot strings. The National Match Course includes a ten- using handguns, rifles and shotguns most typical of the
shot, slow-fire string at 46 meters, plus five-shot American West from 1860 to 1900. The emphasis is on
timed-fire (20-second) and five-shot rapid-fire (10- speed and accuracy. Shooting scenarios have a Wild
second) strings, both at 23 meters. There are gallery West theme, born from actual incidents, movie scenes,
events for indoor shooting, and matches for certain or match designers’ imaginations. Participants enjoy
types of handguns (rimfire or centerfire, pistol or re- dressing up in clothing of the Old West era, and each
volver). Most but not all matches specify iron sights. In- must have a pseudonym or “handle,” adding a histori-
ternational rules apply to additional courses: rapid fire, cal and theatrical flavor to the sport.
center fire, sport pistol match, standard pistol, air pis-
tol, and free pistol. The latter, like the free rifle event, SHOTGUNNING
showcases superaccurate equipment fired very deliber- Hitting targets in the air with a cloud of pellets from
ately. The distance in this case is 50 meters. a smoothbore gun was recorded as early as 1793 in
England’s Sporting Magazine. Live pigeons were Birds visibly broken, even of only chipped, count as
placed in shallow cavities in the ground and “trapped” hits. Experts commonly break twenty-five.
there with old hats. At the gunner’s signal, a jerk on Doubles trap challenges shooters by lofting two birds
the line attached to a hat released the pigeon. at once. However, unlike singles trap, the doubles rou-
The first formal trap shoot in the United States oc- tine puts targets on known paths. International double
curred in Cincinnati in 1831. The passenger pigeon, a trap is different still: an Olympic sport that incorporates
wild bird but then plentiful and easy to catch, was the three traps with birds traveling 16 kilometers per hour
target of choice. By 1850, live pigeon shooting had faster than in ATA events. International trap for single
drawn lots of interest—but also complaints from peo- targets, an Olympic event since 1900, places competi-
ple who objected to wholesale killing. Also, wild pi- tors 16 meters behind a row of fifteen traps in a bunker.
geons had become scarce. States began outlawing the Extreme angles and speeds of up to 177 kilometers per
sport. Then, in 1866, Charles Portlock of Boston im- hour make these targets devilishly difficult.
proved on a sling device or trap used in England to Skeet, a game not invented until about 1920, uses the
throw glass balls. The balls flew and broke inconsis- same disks, about 10 centimeters in diameter. They
tently; nonetheless, the sport grew. Captain Adam Bor- streak from two traps, one in a “high house,” one in a
gardus, market hunter and exhibition shooter, devised “low house,” at either end of an arc-shaped firing line
a better trap. George Ligowsky of Cincinnati developed comprising seven stations. A final station, number eight,
a clay disk that flew flatter and faster. In 1880 he lies between the houses. Targets emerge on fixed flight
demonstrated the target at a live bird shoot on Coney paths, but jet across the line of fire instead of away
Island. A year later his improved trap gave the disks from it. Various angles are provided by the array of fir-
even more appeal. An Englishman named McCaskey ing points. On four stations, shooters must also take
soon made them easier to break by substituting river silt doubles. As in trap, a round of skeet is twenty-five shots.
and pitch for the ground clay and water used by Charles Davies of Andover, Massachusetts, apparently
Ligowsky. Limestone later replaced the silt. “Clay pi- came up with the first skeet field because trap shooting
geons” or “clay birds,” as they’re known today, are still wasn’t giving him practice for the steep angles he en-
made of limestone and pitch. countered when hunting birds. A young friend of Davies,
Initially, trap shooters using the new disks partici- Bill Foster, published an article on the novel game in the
pated in teams of six, one man behind each of five trap February 1926 issues of both National Sportsman and
houses and an “extra” that rotated out after position Hunting and Fishing magazines. He asked that readers
number five. In 1885, W. G. Sargent of Joplin, Missouri, name the event, offering a $100 prize to the winning sug-
changed the game to incorporate three traps. Two years gestion. Mrs. Gertrude Hurlbutt of Dayton, Montana,
later, five shooters were shooting from five stations became up with skeet, an old Scandinavian word for
hind one trap. So the game remains. “shoot.”
In American or ATA (Amateur Trapshooting Associ- Unlike trap targets that quickly test the reach of a
ation) Trap, the clay bird leaves the trap at about 65 shooter’s gun, skeet targets fly close. Neither a heavy
kilometers per hour, its direction determined by the charge of shot nor a tight choke, the constriction at
trap arm, which pivots in a 44-degree arc. The target barrel’s end that squeezes a shot column together as it
typically sails 46 meters if not hit; most hits occur at exits is necessary. Skeet includes games for 12-, 20-, and
around 32. Regulations call for the shooting pad or line 28-gauge guns, even .410s.
to be 15 meters behind the trap. In handicap events, the International skeet is more difficult than American
starting distance is 25 meters. A round of ATA Trap con- skeet for several reasons. First, shooters must start with
sists of twenty-five shots, five from each of five stations. the gun-butt at hip level. Second, the targets zoom by at
SHOOTING 1369
An old sign warning against entry into a firing range.

Source: istockphoto.com/eas.
89 kilometers per hour, not 65, and they go farther. to scoot along the ground, bouncing unpredictably.
Also, there can be up to three seconds’ delay for target Doubles are part of sporting clays. A “true pair” means
release after the shooter calls for the bird—an impedi- a simultaneous toss. A “report pair” gives you the second
ment to timing. Finally, the six easiest targets in Amer- bird at the sound of your first shot. A “following pair”
ican skeet do not appear at all on the International puts one bird up at your call and the second target aloft
skeet card; they’re replaced by doubles at the difficult at the pleasure of the trap operator. A round of sporting
middle stations. clays uses up fifty shot shells. Scores on most courses are
A game of more value to hunters than trap or skeet is much lower than on trap and skeet fields. About
sporting clays. Originating in England, it came to the 5,393,000 shotgunners fired at clay targets in organized
United States in the early twentieth century and has be- U.S. events during 2002.
come exceedingly popular since 1989, when the Na-
tional Sporting Clays Association (NSCA) was founded. Competition at the Top
Sporting clays courses are all unique, usually laid out to The first World Shooting Championships occurred in
include field, woodland, and, where convenient, marsh. Lyons, France, in 1897, when a local club organized a
Traps are installed to throw targets at tough angles, into 300-meter rifle event on its twenty-fifth anniversary.
the sun and through thick vegetation where gunners get Women began to compete formally in 1958. Now,
only a small window for the shot. “Rabbits” add variety. world championships for men and women are held
They’re special clay disks made to launch on edge and every four years.
Push yourself again and again. Don’t give an

inch until the final buzzer sounds. ■ LARRY BIRD
French nobleman Baron Pierre de Coubertin arranged The Grand hosts seven thousand competitors annually.
the first modern Olympic Games in Athens in 1896, a The facility at Vandalia features one hundred trap fields set
year before the historic Lyons match. A former French side by side, where 5 million traps are thrown and more
pistol champion, de Coubertin urged the inclusion of than a million dollars in prize money is awarded.
shooting as one of the nine featured sports. In 1907, l’U- The National Sporting Clays Championship, hosted
nion des Federations et Associations Nationals de Tir by the National Sporting Clays Association, attracts more
was established. Its successor, the UIT (Union Interna- than one thousand competitors annually to the San An-
tional de Tir or International Shooting Union), imposes tonio, Texas, event.
competition rules. It is headquartered in Munich. The National Skeet Shooting Association hosts the
The number of Olympic shooting events has varied World Skeet Shooting Championship annually in San
from two (in 1932) to twenty-one (in 1920). Individual Antonio, at its National Shooting Complex, the world’s
and team events were slated until 1948, when UIT largest skeet shooting facility.
eliminated team matches. Women from the United The NRA National Outdoor Rifle and Pistol Cham-
States began winning in 1976, with Margaret Mur- pionships is an annual event at Camp Perry, Ohio, dur-
dock’s silver in three-position rifle. Eight years later in ing July and August. Here, the national championships
Los Angeles, the Olympic Games included three shoot- in pistol, small-bore rifle three-position, small-bore rifle
ing events for women: air rifle, three-position rifle, and prone, high-power rifle, and high-power long range are
sport pistol. Since the first Olympics, men and women established. Each of these categories encompasses a va-
shooting for the United States have won ninety medals. riety of individual and team championship events.
Of the top U.S. Olympic performers of all time, three
are shooters. Only track and field and swimming have Governing Bodies
garnered more medals for the United States than the Olympic shooting in the United States got a boost in
shooting sports. In 2004, the Athens Olympics sched- 1978 with passage of the Amateur Sports Act and es-
uled seventeen rifle, pistol, and shotgun events, in which tablishment of national teams, national development
390 men and women competed. Ages ranged from fif- teams, coaching staffs, and training sites and programs.
teen to fifty. In 1995 the United States Olympic Committee assem-
The Grand American World Trapshooting Champi- bled USA Shooting, a nonprofit corporation, to be the
onships, hosted by the Amateur Trapshooting Associa- national governing body for shooting events. Its mis-
tion, is perhaps the premier shooting event in the world. sion: prepare athletes for the Olympic Games and pro-
Only the modern marathon has more participants in a mote the shooting sports at the local level. USA
single day of competition. It debuted at the Interstate Shooting is headquartered at the Olympic Training Cen-
Park in Queens, New York, in 1900, moved to Chicago, ter, a sophisticated complex in Colorado Springs with
St. Louis, and Columbus before settling in Vandalia, 101 firing points and three 10-meter running-target
Ohio, in 1923. In 2006, however, the Grand will once ranges indoors. It is the largest indoor shooting facility
again move, this time to the World Shooting Complex in the western hemisphere. Outdoors are four trap and
in Sparta, Illinois. Among the tens of thousands of skeet fields. The 41-hectare Olympic Training Center
shooters who have participated have been celebrities hosts competitions as well as training camps, coaching
such as John Philip Sousa and Roy Rogers. Annie Oak- seminars, and visiting athletes.
ley competed only once, at age sixty-five, breaking The Amateur Trapshooting Association, headquar-
ninety-seven of one hundred clays. She passed away tered in Vandalia, Ohio, governs that sport’s rules and
the following year. regulations and seeks ways to further enhance the sport
SHOOTING 1371
and increase participation. It oversees more than six When Theodore Roosevelt, an ardent shooter, became
thousand registered shoots each year conducted by U.S. president, the NRA had an ally in its drive to
more than one thousand affiliated gun clubs. bridge state boundaries. By 1905, it had introduced a
The National Skeet Shooting Association, founded in rifle shooting program to public schools. Meanwhile,
the early 1930s, is headquartered in San Antonio, crowding at Sea Girt forced construction of a new range
Texas. The nonprofit NSSA, owned and operated by its near the shore of Lake Erie. Just before the 1907
approximately twenty thousand members, is the largest matches were held there, the facility was dedicated as
organization in the world dedicated solely to the sport. Camp Perry, after the commodore who triumphed over
It is dedicated to the development of the sport at all lev- the British on Lake Erie in the War of 1812. In 1994 the
els of competition and meaningful fellowship within its NRA moved its headquarters to Fairfax, Virginia. By
membership. 2000, the NRA’s membership had reached 4.3 million.
The National Sporting Clays Association was founded In 1961, the National Shooting Sports Foundation
in March 1989 and serves as the official premier sport- (NSSF) was established as a trade association for the
ing clays association, dedicated to the development of hunting and recreational shooting sports industry. Now
the sport at all levels of participation. It, too, is based in headquartered in Newtown, Connecticut, the NSSF pro-
San Antonio, Texas, a hotbed of competitive clay-bird motes participation and safety in firearms use. Among
shooting. With a total of seventeen thousand members, the shooting sports it promotes are scholastic rifle and
NSCA clubs host numerous tournaments for the serious shotgun programs. The rifle program tests speed and ac-
competitor and the casual shooter. curacy. The shotgunning programs include trap, skeet,
Despite the importance of those governing bodies, and sporting clays. These programs teach young people
the two most influential organizations in the shooting through high school age firearms safety and shooting
sports are the National Rifle Association and the Na- fundamentals while bringing them through intrasquad
tional Shooting Sports Foundation. practices leading to state and national competitions.
A group of National Guard officers began the NRA The NSSF has also embraced novice shooters through
in 1871 to emphasize better marksmanship in support STEP OUTSIDE, a program that reaches out to experi-
of national defense. Civil War hero General Ambrose E. enced sportsmen to introduce and mentor newcomers to
Burnside was chosen as the NRA’s first president. the sport.The foundation owns and sponsors the annual
Money from the NRA and the New York state govern- Shooting, Hunting, and Outdoor Trade Show (SHOT
ment secured a 28-hectare tract on Long Island, New Show), which brings together all facets of the shooting
York, called Creed’s Farm. Renamed Creedmoor, it was sports industry. The NSSF has partnered with federal
soon developed as a shooting facility. The first matches agencies and state and local law enforcement agencies to
there commenced 21 July 1873. The NRA’s first annual distribute free firearms safety kits, including gun locks,
matches were held 8 October of that year. The 1874 and to encourage safe firearms storage.
contest between Ireland and the United States made The foundation, through its range division, the Na-
Creedmoor a legendary place. tional Association of Shooting Ranges, has helped up-
For financial reasons, the NRA deeded Creedmoor to grade and standardize environmental and professional
New York state in 1890, and later moved the national practices to maintain the physical and fiscal health of the
matches to Sea Girt, New Jersey. In 1903 Congress ap- facilities that host the shooting sports in the United States.
proved a National Board for the Promotion of Rifle
Wayne van Zwoll
Practice. Subsequently, surplus arms were transferred to
state militias to encourage shooting at the local level. See also Hunting
Further Reading dreds of years. Knowledge of martial arts traditions in

Anderson, R., & Buckner, B. (2002). Jack O’Connor. Long Beach, CA: the Malay world was predominantly passed on through
Safari.
Barnes, F. (1993). Cartridges of the world. Iola, WI: Krause.
oral tradition, hence there are very few reliable written
Fadala, S. (1990). Great shooters of the world. South Hackensack, NJ: sources about the early development presently available.
Stoeger.
Ferber, S. (Ed.) (1977). All about rifle shooting and hunting in America.
New York: Winchester. PRE-HINDU PERIOD
Knopf, R. (1999). Wing and clay shooting made easy. Woodland, WA: Reaching the furthest back in time into the pre-Hindu
Outdoor Management Network.
Migdalski, T. (1998). The complete book of shotgunning games. New
period are vivid origin myths and legends. One of the
York: McGraw-Hill. more colorful ones links Alexander the Great to the ur-
Sharpe, P. B. (1938). The rifle in America. New York: William Morrow. ancestors of the Minangkabau ethnic group and to the
van Zwoll, W. C. (2001). The hunter’s guide to ballistics. Guilford CT:
Lyons. emergence of silat in West Sumatra, at Pariangan near
van Zwoll, W. C. (2002). The hunter’s guide to accurate shooting. Guil- Mount Merapi. Many origin myths credit divine inspi-
ford, CT: Lyons.
Venturino, M. (2002). Shooting buffalo rifles of the Old West. Livingston,
ration of a mythic or historic figure with the creation of
MT: MLV. silat; others weave tales of a legendary founder observ-
ing animals and nature and thereby learning the foun-
dations of silat movement and spirit. One of the more
widely accepted theories places the origin of silat in the
Silat Riau islands between Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula
at around the sixth century. From there it probably
S ilat, or pencak silat, is the general term for a wide

variety of indigenous martial arts traditions of the
Malay-speaking world, encompassing the countries of
spread first to Sumatra and then to Sunda and Java. Typ-
ical of cultural processes in the Malay world, these early
indigenous self-defense techniques adapted various
Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei Darussalam, streams of influence from major high cultures of main-
and to a lesser extend some parts of the Philippines and land Southeast Asia, China, India, and the Middle East
southern Thailand. Since the late twentieth century, it that continuously flowed through the Malay world
also has been practiced in Europe, America, and Aus- along ancient trading routes. This process eventually
tralia. Silat is a mixture of self-defense, athletics, and created distinct local Malay martial arts through long
dance, with strong spiritual, aesthetic, and ritual quali- periods of acculturation and synthesis—a process that
ties. Performed in a wide variety of sociocultural cir- continues to this day.
cumstances, its practice settings range from small family
groups to large international athletic championships. HINDU-BUDDHIST PERIOD
The official name currently in use is pencak silat. How- Various historical and archeological sources indicate
ever, regional differences persist, with the term pencak the presence of highly developed, distinct martial arts
and its dialectic variations often in use in Java and systems at the court of the Malay Srivijaya empire. From
Madura, and silat predominantly used in other areas of the seventh to thirteenth centuries, this Hindu-Buddhist
Indonesia and Malaysia. Another application is to use empire, centered in Palembang on Sumatra, extended
the term pencak for the more artistic movements and its dominion over large parts of the Malay area and con-
silat for the actual self-defense applications. trolled the strategic Straight of Malacca. It was eventu-
ally eclipsed by the mighty Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit
Origins and Historical Context empire on Java (thirteenth to fifteenth centuries). In
Predecessors of what today is called pencak or silat both courts martial arts were practiced by the court
were known under various names and go back hun- elite, guards, and military forces. Both empires had a
SILAT 1373
prolonged interchange with major cultural centers in sentment, silat practice in turn fell under a ban on pub-
India and Indochina, which most likely led to influ- lic assembly issued by the Japanese authorities.
ences from Hindu and Chinese martial arts styles in the
further development of silat. INDEPENDENCE AND BEYOND
After the end of World War II, the declaration of inde-
ISLAMIZATION pendence by Indonesia in 1945, and the eventual recog-
With the fall of the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit empire nition of the Republic of Indonesia as an sovereign
and the ascent and spread of Islam throughout the state in 1949, the new nation sought to shape a post-
Malay world, martial arts also underwent changes. Es- colonial national identity to unify the country‘s many
pecially, elements of the early mystical Sufi Islam ethnic, religious, and cultural groups. Along with na-
blended well with indigenous spiritual aspects of silat. tional efforts of the administration addressing issues of
Over the centuries many Islamic doctrines and teachings education and language, leaders also looked to pencak
found their way into silat philosophy and practice. Silat silat’s potential as a pan-Indonesian national art and
training gradually began to emphasize the development sport. Efforts were undertaken to integrate silat educa-
of noble character and the pursuit of a righteous path, tion into the public school system. In the late twentieth
along with the mastery of effective self-defense tech- century, silat also became a competitive sport in the in-
niques. The development of physical as well as mental ternational arena. The emphasis in silat was again
strength, outer and inner control, became strongly con- shifted, this time onto the sport aspects. (see “Official
nected to the practice of faith. Organizations” following). Malaysia reached inde-
pendence from British colonial rule in 1957 and fol-
COLONIAL PERIOD lowed a similar path to make silat a national sport.
During the early periods of Dutch colonization of Java
and the British colonization of the Malay Peninsula, silat Social and Cultural Context
continued largely unaffected by the Western powers.With The practice of silat is intricately interwoven with the
expanding Dutch colonization of the wider Indonesian cultural fabric of the Malay world. Its principles embody
archipelago in the nineteenth century, however, the colo- and perpetuate central cultural values, and silat plays an
nial government tightened its control over its subjects, important role in the cultural identity and education of
and silat became a source of concern as a likely source of the younger generation. Proper silat practice aims at the
anticolonial sentiment. Many silat schools were banned, following goals: mastery of self-defense, strengthening
but practice often continued in secret. When the Indone- of mind and character, development of aesthetic/artis-
sian independence movement emerged in force in the tic sensibility, and enhancement of general fitness and
early twentieth century, many silat masters and students athletic ability. Depending on the style or circumstance,
joined and were subject to intensifying harassment by the one aspect might be emphasized more than others,
colonial police and military. however, all four aspects are always present. A master
During the brief interlude of Japanese occupation of of silat is highly respected in society and often referred
Indonesia toward the end of World War II (1942– to by the honorary title pendekar. This title is reserved
1945), silat was initially encouraged by the Japanese as for masters who epitomize the core values of silat specif-
a means to strengthen a native fighting force within its ically and of Malay culture generally. They are recog-
scheme for the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere; nized as elders and spiritual leaders in the community;
influences of Japanese martial arts in silat stem mostly often they are healers or believed to possess supernat-
from this brief period. However, as initial enthusiasm ural powers. In the ideal of the pendekar one often
for the Japanese presence changed to widespread re- finds an intriguing synthesis of old animistic, Hindu,
Silat practitioners in
West Sumatra, Indonesia.
Source: Kirstin Pauka.
and Islamic beliefs. Fre-

quently, silat is performed as
an integral part of traditional
celebrations such as harvests,
weddings, circumcisions, and
many other community and
religious festivals. In these cul-
tural contexts the perform-
ances focus on the artistic and
aesthetic aspect and are often
accompanied by traditional
musical orchestras such as
gamelan, kendang, or talempong ensembles. However, sus linear approaches, and many feature positions low
it is not only viewed as entertainment, but also believed to the ground. Many styles or single techniques are in-
to bestow protection over the participants and com- spired by animal movements or other elements in na-
munity. Due to its inherent aesthetic qualities, silat ele- ture. The training is preferably held in a natural outdoor
ments have also been integrated into dance and theater environment, often at night, in a practice area custom-
genres, for example Randai dance-drama of the Mi- arily called gelanggang. The foundation of all silat is
nangkabau, various Malay and Sundanese dances, and specific footwork called langkah. Basic fighting tech-
Javanese Ketoprak theater. niques include kicks, punches, grabs, blocks, parries,
locks, and throws, all with the aim to unbalance the op-
Techniques, Styles, and Schools ponent and bring him into a position from which he
Traditional silat is practiced predominantly in rural can no longer attack. More advanced training includes
areas all over the Malay Peninsula and Indonesian ar- techniques aiming at vital points; on the next higher
chipelago were many regional styles called aliran have level special training for inner strength (kebatinan) is
developed. Hundreds of such regional aliran are still emphasized. True masters can eventually execute long-
practiced today and their techniques and approaches distance strikes without physically touching their op-
differ greatly. These countless regional styles and varia- ponent. The kind of approach used depends on the
tions have developed over the past hundreds of years, circumstance. Obviously, the techniques applied in a
owing to different environmental conditions, varying ex- live-threatening self-defense situation are quite differ-
posure to other martial arts traditions, contact with ent from those used in a tournament situation with
multitudes of philosophies and religions, and support strict rules or in a public performance.
or suppression through political and social circum- Among all the martial arts styles in the world, silat
stances. Last but not least manifold styles resulted from employs one of the largest arsenals of weapons. Fore-
the distinct skills, inventiveness, expertise, and genius of most among them is the keris. Expertly crafted, this
individual teachers and masters. Several basic charac- long, wave-bladed dagger is the most important weapon
teristics however are shared among silat styles. Fore- in Malay and Indonesian cultures. It possesses deep spir-
most among them is its general evasive or defensive itual and ceremonial significance. Straight-bladed ver-
quality, in which the aim is to unbalance opponents and sions exist as well, along with multiple other variations
diminish their advantage. All styles include basic pos- of knives, daggers, machetes, halberds, and swords of
tures, steps, and greeting etiquette that precede actual variable length and shape, augmented by a dizzying
attack-defense exercises. Many styles favor circular ver- array of spears, staffs, tridents, chains, discs, whips,
SILAT 1375
shields, and other handheld or throwing weapons. Quite The tournament rules are set by PERSILAT to in-
a few of these were imported from mainland Southeast clude one category for the sports silat (olahraga) variant
Asia, China, India, or the Middle East and then adapted, of full-contact fighting and three for the arts silat (seni)
while many others are of indigenous origin, highly spe- variant. The sports competition, called tanding, con-
cialized and only used in a specific region. Costuming sists of three 2-minute rounds of one-on-one full-contact
for silat practice, performance, and competition typi- fighting. The combatants wear protective gear; permis-
cally consists of a long-sleeve shirt and loose trousers, sible targets include the torso and limbs, hits to the
preferably of black or dark cloth, a bright colored sash, head, groin, and spine are illegal. Combatants compete
and a head cloth, wrapped in the various distinct local in standard weight divisions for men and women. A ref-
fashions. The various styles are taught in schools or eree and judges use a point system to determine the
clubs, called perguruan, ranging in size from very small winner. The seni category is subdivided into three com-
groups with just a handful of select students to large or- petition types. The first, tunggal, consists of choreo-
ganizations with memberships in the tens of thousands graphed forms, preset by PERSILAT, in which a single
and branches all over Indonesia and abroad. Some competitor performs one part empty-handed and two
schools teach only one style under one master, with the parts with weapons, using the golok and tongkat (a type
knowledge predominantly passed on through oral tra- of machete and staff respectively). The second type is the
dition. Others teach several styles separately or as a syn- ganda, in which a duo of performers presents their own
thesis. The more modern types of schools have written choreography, using empty-handed techniques as well
rules and regulations. The master teacher of a school is as weapons. The third is the regu, a standardized three-
referred to as maha guru (grand master) or pendekar. person sequence performing a set choreography. In all
Silat students, called pesilat, owe loyalty and respect to three seni categories the competitors are evaluated by a
their teachers and lifelong connections are typically point system for accuracy of movement, level of skill,
formed between student and master. precision, and timing. In addition, the ganda category
is also graded for creativity of the individual choreog-
Competitions raphy showcasing beautiful and effective silat moves. All
There are two types of competitions: traditional ones seni forms are three minutes long. Both arts and sports
within an aliran, and modern ones in the context of competitions are typically held concurrently at all major
sports tournaments. The traditional ones are part of the championships; male and female participants compete
standard training process and give students within a in both. Although silat was historically predominately
school the opportunity to compete against fellow stu- a male activity, many notable female silat masters are
dents according to the rules of the specific aliran. known all over the Malay world. Since the 1970s girls
Since the 1980s modern competitions are organized and women also participate in increasing numbers in
regularly by the national federations and every two years competitions on the regional level as well as in national
world championships are held by PERSILAT. Silat com- and international tournaments. The vast majority of
petitions have been included in the Southeast Asia Games. silat practitioners are amateurs. A small elite of profes-
Efforts are underway as of 2004 to make silat part of the sional athletes and trainers has developed along with ef-
Olympic Games as well. World championships are at- forts to make silat a national and international sport.
tended by increasing numbers of member states and par-
ticipants, as the worldwide appeal of this art and sport Governing Bodies
genre grows continuously. The Twelfth World Champi- In 1948 the first national silat organization was
onship in Penang, Malaysia, in 2002, for instance, at- founded in Indonesia by Mr. Wongsonegoro and other
tracted over 150 participants from twenty nations. leaders in the silat community. Called Indonesian
Pencak Silat Federation or IPSI (Ikatan Pencak Silat In- Wahab, A. A. (1989). Silat olahraga: The art, techniques and regula-
donesia, www.pencaksilat.co.uk/psfIPSI.htm), its goals tions. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.
were the coordination and systematization of silat

schools and practices within Indonesia, and the con-
solidation of silat as a national sport.
In 1980 the International Pencak Silat Federation or
PERSILAT (Persekutuan Pencak Silat Antarbangsa, www.
Singapore
persilat.net/persilat) was established in Jakarta in order to
coordinate silat in the international arena. For this IPSI
was joined by the official silat federations in Malaysia
S ingapore is an equatorial island city-state of four
million people. Independent since 1965, it is a mul-
ticultural democracy, in which Chinese, Malays, and In-
(PESAKA), Singapore (PERSISI), and Brunei Darussalam dians are the dominant groups. Sport is seen as playing
(PESIB). In addition to the four founding member states, an ongoing role in nation building, with particular em-
the PERSILAT federation includes more than twenty phasis on sport for all, sports excellence, and sport as
other official member organizations in other areas, such an industry. Most sports are of British origin with as-
as Pentjak Silat USA (www.pentjaksilatusa.com), the Eu- sociation football being accepted as the national game.
ropean Pencak Silat Federation (www.pencaksilat.co.uk/
epsfwlcm.htm), and groups in Asia, Africa, the Middle History
East, North and South America, and the Pacific region. The indigenous sports that exist are Malay in origin. A
The main goals of PERSILAT and its members are to game played with a rattan ball (sepak takraw) is still a
promote, develop, and disseminate pencak silat world- popular three-person team game. Sailing and silat (a
wide. PERSILAT issues guidelines and rules for training, martial art) are the other traditional activities. Colo-
promotion, and competition; organizes regular tourna- nization by the British brought with it the range of
ments and championships; and trains and licenses team and individual sport associated with middle- and
coaches and judges. It also holds regular seminars and late-nineteenth-century diffusion. The games were fully
sponsors publications on silat. In 1997 the organization adopted by the 1930s, by which time many sports had
also established an official silat training center in Jakarta, local administrative associations. A love of gambling,
known as Padepokan. It has to be added that there are a trait shared by the colonial power and the migrant
numerous silat schools throughout Indonesia and Chinese, has long been a complementary activity. The
Malaysia who do not join PERSILAT or the national colonial government paid little attention to sport, con-
federations in order to retain their individual style and sidering it a fundamentally amateur activity. Funding
training philosophy. for representative competitive sport was often the sole
Kirstin Pauka responsibility of the individual athlete. The system of
subscription and donation did ease the burden of fi-
nance before independence.
Further Readings
Alexander, H., & Chambers, Q. (1970). Pentjak-silat: The Indonesian
fighting art. Tokyo: Kodansha International. Participant and
Chambers, Q., & Draeger, D. F. (1978). Javanese silat: The fighting art Spectator Sports
of Perisai Diri. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
Badminton and weightlifting were the most successful
Draeger, D. F. (1992). Weapons and fighting arts of the Indonesian ar-
chipelago. Rutland, VT: C. E. Tuttle. sports during the late colonial period, with Singapore
Mustaffa, K. A. (1978). Silat Melayu: The Malay art of attack and de- sportsmen winning international honors in the Thomas
fense. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Oxford University Press.
Notosoejitno. (1997). The treasury of pencak silat. Jakarta, Indonesia:
Cup and Commonwealth Games respectively. Swim-
Sagung Seto. ming, sailing, and, more recently, table tennis have been
SINGAPORE 1377
the most productive sports in the South East Asian pioneer female Olympian competed in Helsinki in
(SEA) Games and the Asian Games since independ- 1952. Since then one in seven Singaporean Olympians
ence. The state-operated system now recognizes the sta- have been women.
tus of core and merit sports. Track and field, badminton,
silat, sailing, soccer, swimming/water polo, table tennis, Youth Sports
and bowling now receive the most emphasis within the Youth participation in sport exists within the school
sports excellence program. Soccer operates a profes- system and among the clubs and associations. The Peo-
sional league, which includes an additional team each ple’s Association (a statutory body) provides extensive
from Japan and China. The major venue for interna- developmental programs at community clubs. Regional
tional games and contests is the national stadium. fitness and recreational centres provide a sophisticated
A wide range of sport is played at both competitive range of facilities and amenities.
and recreational levels. Well-established team games
(basketball, volleyball, rugby, hockey, and cricket) and Organizations
individual games (golf, tennis, squash, and billiards) The major national organization is the SSC, which is a
have been supplemented by martial arts (judo, tae- statutory board of the Ministry of Community Develop-
kwondo, and wushu). Outdoor adventure activities, ment and Sports (www.ssc.gov.sg/SportsWeb/index.jsp).
water sports, and healthy lifestyle activities are available The Vision of the SSC is to create “A Sporting Singa-
for all age groups. The most recent inclusion to the pore! Our Way Of Life,” and the mission statement
SEA games has been international chess, which has a elaborates the need to “develop sports champions and
wide following in schools. The quadrennial Asian create enjoyable sporting experiences for Singapore.”
Games and the biennial SEA Games are the most The individual National Sports Associations are affili-
prominent regional competitions. Singapore has won ated to the SSC and to the Singapore National Olympic
only one medal in the Olympic games—a silver medal Council (SNOC, www.snoc.org.sg).
achieved in weightlifting by Tan Howe Liang in 1960. The educational arm of the SNOC is the Singapore
National identity in relation to sport has become an Olympic Academy, which organizes an annual session
increasingly important issue as calls for success are for trainee teachers of physical education. The Academy
made. Achievement in international games is promoted also links the Olympic associations within the South
through direct policies and growing expenditure. The East Asian region and Asia beyond by inviting dele-
sports excellence programs are supported by initiatives gates to its residential course.
to nurture young athletes, for example in a new sports
school. Talented athletes from countries like China are Sports in Society
encouraged to develop their talent in Singaporean pro- The general societal perception of sport is that as an in-
grams, with a view to adopting citizenship.The dilemma stitution it has to compete with the twin demands of ed-
now exists that foreign talent is not always seen to reflect ucation and employment. It has not been easy to
the national sporting profile. provide a balance of emphasis. The local news media
concentrate on international sporting events and
Women and Sport leagues, while the homegrown professional scene en-
One concern has been the lack of Singaporean women’s joys only moderate support. Globalization has placed
participation in sport at all forms. The Women and the English Premier League and the NBA into sharp re-
Sport Group, working under the auspices of the Singa- lief for the local population.
pore Sports Council (SSC), has become one of the fore- There have been periodic examples of illegal per-
most bodies promoting sport for women in Asia. The formance enhancement, but not to a significant degree.
The most controversial issues in recent years concern Asian Society: Past and Present (pp. 67–98) London and Portland,
the sports excellence program. Among these, the fore- OR: Frank Cass.
Horton, P. A. (2001). Complex Creolization: The evolution of modern
most has been the foreign-talent identification scheme, sport in Singapore. In J. A. Mangan (Ed.), Europe, sport world:
which is perceived by some observers to limit the po- Shaping global societies (pp. 77–104). London and Portland, OR:
Frank Cass.
tential of local-born athletes. Singaporeans do not find Horton, P. A. (2003). Shackling the lion: Sport and modern Singapore.
it easy to accept foreign talent as their own. The estab- In J. A. Mangan (Ed.), Sport and Asian Society: Past and present (pp.
lishment of the new Sports School, which has a long- 243–274). London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass.
term plan to create champions, caused some concern

about the policy to focus initially on potential entrants
with above-average academic qualifications at primary-
school level. The relatively low status of elite sport and
the relatively high status of educational achievement in
Skateboarding
society as a whole means that the combination of sports
and academic excellence is often viewed with some
scepticism.
S kateboarding involves riding a wheeled board. The
first skateboards were created by connecting roller
skate wheels to a wooden plank. Thus, the terms “skate”
and “board” were also connected to name the activity.
The Future Technology has dramatically improved from these first
The most significant trend has been toward the cre- iterations. For example, the wheels have gone though
ation of a sports hub as a component of a sports in- numerous upgrades from clay wheels of roller skates ini-
dustry. Hosting major international sporting events has tially used to polyurethane ones currently used. Even
become an important item on the agenda. Sports for all though skateboards are now massed produced, there is
remains an important pillar in the development of the no “official” standard for the composition or shape of
culture of sport, but the perception is that excellence in boards and wheels; instead, these vary according to
competition, and the underlying commercial interest in techniques and styles within skateboarding. Part of this
sport, must generate gains that benefit the economy as flexibility can be explained by skateboarding’s histori-
a whole. Five hundred million dollars have been com- cal appeal to those seeking alternatives to formalized
mitted to the concept of “Team Singapore” over the next sport and its association with antiestablishment youth
five years. The plan has been to steer the people toward culture.
accepting the concept of an identifiable culture known
as Sporting Singapore. Brief History
Nick Aplin Skateboarding’s history began in southern California,
and much of the industry is still located there.The initial
popularity occurred in the early 1960s when skate-
Further Reading boards were first mass produced. Since then, skate-
Aplin, N. G. (2000). Beyond the Boundaries of Propriety: Singapore’s boarding has gone through many “boom or bust” cycles.
Pioneer Women Athletes. Olympika: The International Journal of
Olympic Studies, 9, 91–114.
These cycles are often linked to the legal status of skate-
Aplin, N. G., & Teoh C. S. (2001). Singapore. In Karen Christensen, boarding as well as the general health of the economy.
Allen Guttmann, & Gertrude Pfister (Eds.), International Encyclo-
During the first cycle of popularity, the infrastructure to
pedia of Women and Sports (Vol. 3, pp. 1013–11014). Farmington
Hills, MI: Gale Group. develop safe and secure places to skate was weak. Thus,
Aplin, N. G. (2002). To the finishing line: Champions of Singapore. Sin- skateboarders commonly used sidewalks, school play-
gapore: SNP Editions, SNP Corporation
Aplin, N. G., & Quek, J. J. (2003) Celestials in touch: Sport and the
grounds, and parking lots as their parks. This caused
Chinese in Colonial Singapore. In J. A. Mangan (Ed.), Sport and concern from store owners and public officials because
SKATEBOARDING 1379
A boy at a skate park.

Source: istockphoto.com/ csdesigns.
or bowl skating, but this oc-

curred illegally in drained
pools or at ramps located in
private residences. Skate-
boarders embraced the punk
rock movement as well. In a
sense, skateboarding became
more “underground” during
the 1980s. In addition, the
style became more airborne
and was taking place prima-
rily in urban settings. Christ-
ian Hosoi and Tony Hawk
were considered the top ramp/
bowl skaters because of their
many skaters were disrupting commercial transactions ability to get height above and outside of the ramps (“to
and were incurring injury. City officials were concerned, get air”) and because of their creativity.
and many medical associations warned people of the in- The other significant style developed in the 1980s
herent danger of the sport. These two widespread con- was “street.” The crucial innovation for this style was the
cerns led to waning support and participation in the “ollie”: a technique that enables the skater to propel the
late 1960s and early 1970s. board completely off the ground.This skill is essential for
Skateboarding made a comeback in the 1970s pri- other more elaborate tricks that allow a skateboarder to
marily through groundbreaking technology that al- “jump” onto a variety of objects. Once the board lands
lowed smoother and safer rides: the creation of the on an object, the skater will generally ride the board over
polyurethane wheel. The boards were long and skinny it by sliding along the object. This style commonly takes
and most people rode in slalom style or freestyle. place in everyday city settings rather than in commer-
Downhill rides were common as were tricks such as cially produced skateboard parks. For example, skate-
doing handstands while riding on the board. Skate- boarders often jump their board onto handrails, then
boarding’s commercial appeal increased as other youth- slide their boards down those rails. The variations
oriented products, such as soda companies, began skaters create involving this jumping and sliding are the
sponsoring competitions. During this cycle, privately basis for current “street style” of skateboarding.
owned skate parks started to spring up around the Skateboarding’s association with legal problems,
United States. These parks were a sea of cement, in- urban settings, and punk rock and grunge music effec-
cluding toboggan like runs as well as pool-like “bowls.” tively helped to distance itself from the mainstream.
Through its first two decades, skateboarding was pri- And this “edgy” connotation was used by the industry
marily associated with suburban middle classes and as commercial appeal to a worldwide youth market.
gradually gained mainstream appeal. During the late One chief executor officer claimed that he was selling
1970s and the early 1980s, however, there were wide- the “California lifestyle” abroad. In the late 1980s, skate-
spread closures of skateboard parks because of liability boarding reached a peak in actual participation, but
issues. These legal barriers encouraged skateboarding to the economic recession of the late 1980s and early
change in style and location, which, in turn, severed ties 1990s took a toll on skateboarding: the lowest partici-
to the mainstream. Skaters continued to practice ramp pation rates were during the early 1990s.
Twenty years ago you could win a world

title with a double axel. Now they need
at least seven triples. ■ ELLEN BURKA
Renewed Popularity and The Future

Cultural Appeal Skateboarding has historically been associated with
The advent of the X-games in the mid-1990s catapulted youth who wanted to practice an alternative to main-
skateboarding back into mainstream consciousness. stream sport. This is represented in the lack of formal
This made-for-television event was the idea of an ESPN structures and continual changes in style and technol-
(an all-sport network) executive. The goal was to reach ogy. This alternative ethos evolved in the 1980s and
a young audience by creating the “Olympics” of alter- 1990s to represent antiauthoritarianism. The direction
native sports. Ramp skateboarding became a central of skateboarding will be affected by this most recent
feature of these games. The X-games are now a global commercialization and use of skateboarding as a sym-
phenomenon with competitions held throughout the bol of “cool.” It will be interesting to see if there is a
world. Another broadcast corporation created a similar backlash to this mainstream appeal, or whether skate-
event, the “Gravity Games,” to compete in that market. boarding becomes accepted as a conventional sport.
Skateboarding has evolved with many different styles,
Becky Beal
although ramp, pool, and street skating are still the
most familiar forms. Even at its height of popularity, the
underlying ethos of being alternative has fueled politi- Further Reading
cal struggles over whether a universal governing body Beal, B. (1995). Disqualifying the official: An exploration of social re-
for the sport should be formed. sistance in the subculture of skateboarding. Sociology of Sport Jour-
nal, 2,252–267.
The most famous participant, Tony Hawk, represents Borden, I. (2000) Skateboarding, Space and the City. Oxford, UK: Berg.
the newfound popularity of skateboarding. In a poll Brooke, M. (1999). The Concrete Wave: The History of Skateboarding.
conducted by a teen marketing research firm in 2002, Toronto, Canada: Warwick.
Davis, J. (1999). Skateboard Roadmap. London: Carlton Books.
Tony Hawk was voted the “coolest big-time athlete” Davidson, B. (1976). The Skateboard Book. New York: Grosset & Dunlap.
ahead of more traditional sport athletes such as Tiger Layden, T. (2002, June 10). What is this 34 year old man doing on a
skateboard? Making millions. Sports Illustrated, 80–92.
Woods, Michael Jordan, and Derek Jeter. The number of Rinehart, R., & Sydnor, S. (Eds.), (2003). To the extreme: Alternative
participants was at an all-time high at the turn of the sports inside and out. New York: State University of New York Press.
twenty-first century, reaching approximately 12 million. Wheaton, B., & Beal, B. (2003). “Keeping it real”: Subcultural media
and the discourses of authenticity in alternative sport. International
Females constituted approximately 10 percent of those Review for the Sociology of Sport, 38, 155–176.
participants, and skateboarders such as Cara Beth Burn- Wheaton, B. (Ed.) (2004). Understanding lifestyle sports: Consump-
tion, identity, and difference. London: Routledge Press.
side and Jen O’Brien made livings as professionals.
As the sport has become popular, the clothing and
lifestyle have taken on greater cultural appeal to the
youth market. Currently, more money is made from
sales of shoes and specialty clothing to a general audi-
ence than from the sales of boards to core participants.
Skating, Ice Figure
Skateboarding and many other alternative sports be-
came a symbol of the active, creative, independent, and
ultimately, “cool” teenager in the later 1990s. The sig-
I ce figure skating is a sport that combines athletic
skills, musical interpretation, and choreography. Per-
formances and competitions are organized in four cat-
nificance of skateboarding as a cultural marker of “cool” egories: women’s singles, men’s singles, pairs, and ice
can be demonstrated by looking at the how many dif- dancing. A judged, aesthetic sport, ice figure skating
ferent corporations use the symbols of skateboarding to spans the borders of art and entertainment. During the
sell products not directly related, such as video games, late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, ice figure
music, fast food, and drinks. skating was an elegant art practiced primarily by upper-
SKATING, ICE FIGURE 1381
class men in cold climates. Today ice figure skating is a racing on skates, a pastime that would eventually turn
middle-class sport in which girls heavily outnumber into the formal sport of speed skating. In London and
boys at all but the highest levels. Clubs are as likely to other big cities skating was a pastime of young boys and
be found in Australia or California as in Oslo, Norway, well-to-do gentlemen. While the boys played games on
or Toronto, Canada, and spectators are as likely to frozen ditches or canals, the gentlemen practiced a se-
watch skaters performing in competitions as in highly date and dignified style of gliding on small ponds and
staged television specials. lakes in urban parks and estates.This “gentle art” was the
style of skating that would eventually turn into ice figure
Early History skating.The product of elegant and noble manners, it be-
Early skaters were sliders; they slid across frozen lakes came a popular court entertainment, honed at ice balls
and rivers on runners made from sharpened bone or and masquerades and at other aristocratic gatherings
wood, sometimes using poles or sticks to propel them- across the continent.
selves and to maintain their balance. About the four- With few exceptions—Marie Antoinette (wife of
teenth century the Dutch replaced these runners with King Louis XVI of France) being one—early practi-
blades made of iron. Sharpened metal blades have dis- tioners of the gentle art were men. Women, bundled in
tinct edges that grip the ice, allowing for stronger fur robes, were more likely to be pushed about the ice
pushes and more speed. The edge of the blade cutting in carved wooden sleighs. In Russia the first skating
into the ice gives each stroke its distinctive sound and club, founded in 1865, had even a special department
requires the curving step that is the basis of all modern of “chaise” skating. Skating historians do not know why
skating. so few women outside of the Netherlands skated. Some
In the Netherlands skating was both transportation historians suggest that feminine skating would have
and recreation. Sixteenth-century Dutch paintings show been considered too liberated or immoral. Others sug-
men, women, and children of all classes skating on the gest that women were afraid of breaking through the ice
iced-over canals. The integration of skating into every- or that women’s clothing made skating impractical.
day life seems to have been unique to the Netherlands, The world’s first skating club was founded in Edin-
as was the democracy of Dutch skating. Apart from a burgh, Scotland, during the mid-1700s. Until 1910
few attempts to use skates in the military, skating membership in the club was restricted to upper-class
evolved throughout the rest of Europe and North Amer- men. Potential members were vetted for social standing
ica as a form of recreation that took different forms and given a test of their skating skills that required
among people of different classes. them to skate a circle on each foot and to jump over
Until the late 1800s skaters were tied to the landscape three hats stacked on the ice. Although later clubs in Eu-
in obvious ways. If no ice existed, no one skated. If the rope and North America also catered exclusively to
river was long, and the ice was solid, skaters might run upper-class men, many began to offer memberships to
races or use their skates to travel quickly and easily from women during the late 1800s. Women’s memberships,
village to village. On ponds where no distance captured however, usually depended on the women’s ties to hus-
their imaginations, skaters explored the technical possi- bands, brothers, or fathers. In some clubs, if a woman
bilities of the blade on the ice. Different landscapes led ceased to live in the home of a male club member, her
to different forms of skating, and these different forms own membership would be terminated.
became associated with the people who practiced them. During the second half of the nineteenth century tech-
In the Fen District of England, for instance, where the nical developments made skating easier, more comfort-
still, flat water froze in great smooth stretches, farm la- able, and more accessible. In many cities skating was
borers—mostly men—invented courses and formats for moved from frozen lakes and rivers to flooded urban
fields to avoid the danger of drowning. Steel blades were skater, Jackson Haines (1845–1879), is generally cred-
developed in Philadelphia in 1848. The first covered ited with creating this style. Trained as a dancer, Haines
rink (over natural ice) was built in Quebec City, Canada, saw in skating tremendous theatrical and artistic possi-
in 1858, complete with gas lights to allow safe skating bilities. He fit his skating to music, developed new
at night. Processes for making artificial ice were invented moves (including the sit spin, which for many years
in London in 1876.With these improved conditions, the was called a “Jackson Haines spin”), and invented a
number of skating clubs increased dramatically, as did one-piece skate. Although nonskating audiences found
the numbers of women skaters. him thrilling to watch, few skaters adopted his radical
style. In 1864 Haines left the United States and traveled
Competing Skating Styles to Europe to find a more receptive audience.
During the late 1700s and early 1800s the art of skat- Evidence suggests that he skated to warm receptions
ing involved little more than long rolling edges that were in Norway, Sweden, and Russia and that his exhibitions
sometimes embellished with expressive head and arm in those countries prompted the founding of ice figure
movements. According to Robert Jones, author of the skating clubs and the building of ice rinks. However, in
first skating textbook, published in England in 1772, the Vienna, Austria, Haines had his greatest success, and his
primary goal of the skater was easy movement and performances changed the future development of skat-
grace. For Jones technique was far less important than ing. The book Tracks on the Ice, written in 1881 by Vi-
aesthetics. Skaters in France also emphasized artistic ennese skaters Demeter Diamantidi, Carl Von Korper,
movement and expressive poses, whereas Canadian and and Max Wirth, turned Haines’s technical accomplish-
U.S. skaters were more inclined to focus on tricky foot- ments into a system that eventually served as the basis
work combinations and spins. In England and elsewhere for international competition rules. The system pro-
in Europe stunts such as jumps and spins were frowned vided the technical ground upon which skating could
upon and were considered by many not to be true grow: edges, turns, and school figures. For the first time
skating. the turns were skated as part of large figure eights
By the mid-1800s British society was increasingly (school figures), a concept that revolutionized skating
organized around industry and science. Skating re- and remained fundamental to its practice until the late
flected this organization. British skaters turned their 1980s. Tracks on the Ice stressed the aesthetic compo-
primary interest from aesthetics toward technical inno- nent in both figures and free skating movements. The
vation. What came to be called the “English style” em- idea behind the system was that after skaters had mas-
phasized long edges and turns, and this style is reflected tered the basic techniques they could engage with ice
in the English term figure skating. It demanded a stiff figure skating as an art.
upright posture and tremendous control. Knees were
not to bend. Arms were not to lift. Nothing fanciful was Institutionalization of the Sport
to interfere with precision. It could not have been more Eager to promote their style of skating, the Viennese or-
different from the flowing style of Robert Jones’s time ganized some of the first international competitions
nor the heavily choreographed performances of today. during the 1870s and 1880s. Thus, their artistic style,
While British skaters were practicing this exacting ice which was known as the “international style,” and not
science, skaters on the continent were pushing their the stiff English style, came to be institutionalized as a
aesthetic limits. In other languages, including French, sport. English skaters were, however, the first to be gov-
Spanish, Italian, and German, this style is known as erned by a national organization. The National Skating
“artistic skating”; it has evolved into the music-based ice Association (NSA) was founded in England in 1879 to
figure skating with which we are familiar today. A U.S. curb gambling and professionalism in speed skating,
but ice figure skaters joined the organization in 1880. In the first ISU competitions school figures deter-
The NSA became responsible for administering a series mined 67 percent of a skater’s final score, whereas free
of graded tests to raise the level of skating skills. Such skating determined just 33 percent. During that era
tests remain the foundation of instructional skating pro- free-skating programs included single rotation jumps
grams in many parts of the world today. and various spins that were connected with long edges,
Outside of England most national skating organiza- dance steps, and turns. Carriage and flow were em-
tions were founded to standardize the rules of compe- phasized more than athleticism. In 1882 Axel Paulsen
titions. On the encouragement of the Dutch federation, (1855–1938) first performed the famous one-and-one-
fifteen delegates from European federations came to- half rotation jump that would take his name. However,
gether in 1892 to found the International Skating despite his spectacular jump and his ability to spin at
Union (ISU). Although the ISU immediately imple- blistering speed, he placed third. Dash and athleticism
mented rules for speed skating, it did not implement were not what counted most.
rules for ice figure skating until 1897, a delay that sig- Until about the mid-twentieth century competitive
naled differences of opinion and tense relations be- skaters were adults. Although men and women were
tween some of the members of the organization. generally capable of the same feats, decorum and long
Before the founding of the ISU, competitions had skirts limited women’s ability to practice jumps in pub-
been organized for women and men at both local and lic. The first jump by a woman in international compe-
international levels in figure skating and free skating. In tition was performed by bronze medalist Theresa Weld
many competitions women and men competed against (1893–1978) of the United States during the 1920
each other in the same events. Despite this tradition, Olympic Games. Weld was chastised by the judges for
ISU world championships, which began in 1896, were her unfeminine behavior. Some say her jump cost her
open only to men. In 1902 the English skater Madge the gold medal. However, her daring opened the door
Syers (1881–1917) challenged the ISU’s restrictions for further change.
and became the first woman to compete for an official At the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France,
world title. Unable to imagine that a woman would an eleven-year-old girl from Norway stunned the crowd
ever dare to skate against men, members of the ISU had and the judges with her youth, her combination of ath-
no rule with which they could block Syers’s participa- leticism and artistry, and the shortness of her skirt. Sonja
tion. She went on to win the silver medal behind the Henie (1912–1969), who would become the most pop-
great Swedish skater Ulrich Salchow (1877–1949). At ular ice figure skater of all time, finished last in this first
the ISU Congress in 1903 members discussed (but international appearance. She would eventually win ten
never passed) a rule explicitly prohibiting women from world championships and three Olympic gold medals.
competing. They argued that women’s long skirts pre- To say that she changed the face of ice figure skating is
vented judges from seeing their feet. Not until 1906 did an understatement. As a child participating in what had
the ISU approve a women’s championship. Madge previously been an adult sport, Henie introduced an
Syers took the first ISU women’s championship. She athleticism that had not been seen in women’s skating.
won the ISU title again in 1907. She also won the first Because of her youth, she broke no rules of decorum by
Olympic title in 1908 when ice figure skating made its wearing the short skirts that allowed her to do jumps
Olympic debut at the Summer Games in London, one of and innovative spins. She was also among the first
the first sports to allow women to compete. Not until skaters to choreograph a skating program as if it were a
1924 did the ISU permit women to compete for the ballet solo. Prior to this innovation free-skating routines
title of world champion. Women were not permitted to relied heavily on the turns and edges used in school fig-
judge international skating championships until 1947. ures, linked by a few special tricks. Henie’s programs
The ten-step, showing

the man’s steps.
told a story with jumps and

spins worked into a seamless
whole.
Retiring from competition
after the 1936 season, Henie
toured with her own skating
show before heading for Hollywood.
There she rented a rink and gave a per-
formance that helped to launch her career
with Twentieth Century-Fox. The first
of Henie’s eleven movies, One
in a Million, was produced
that same year. During the era
before television, Henie’s films
brought ice figure skating to a
huge public for the first time.
From its earliest days ice figure
skating had been a pastime of
the elite. Competitions took
place in exclusive rinks and re-
ceived only modest newspaper
coverage—usually on the society rather
than the sports pages. In such a context Henie
was figure skating. Her sequined and bejeweled cos-
tumes, her use of toe-steps, and her often doll-like ap- tremendous difficulty of what she does. Male skaters
pearance led to popular understandings of figure skating have not been similarly locked into a single mold. The
as a feminine style of dancing on ice rather than a com- two men who dominated skating during the 1920s and
petitive sport. On the one hand, this shift led to a 1930s, Gillis Grafstrom (1893–1938) and Karl Schae-
tremendous growth in the sport among young girls seek- fer of Austria (1909–1976), were lauded for creating
ing to emulate their idol. On the other hand, this shift poetry on ice. After World War II U.S. skater Dick But-
made skating seem too girlish for boys and men. Bi- ton (b. 1930), Olympic gold medalist in 1948 and
ographies of male skaters routinely speak of fathers 1952, was lauded for his athletic prowess, especially for
being disappointed by their son’s choice of sport. Even being the first skater to land a double axel (1947) and
today, after decades of loosening gender expectations in a triple jump in competition (1952). In Button’s wake
the general culture, many people consider ice figure skat- some male skaters focused so much on the athletic con-
ing to be an effeminate sport. tent of their programs that they became wooden and
In many ways women’s ice figure skating has not uninspiring to watch. During this period jumps came to
broken the “ice princess” mold that Sonja Henie set be- be the measure of a skater’s technical achievement. Crit-
fore World War II. For the past seventy years the ideal- ics continue to lament this trend, arguing that skaters
ized woman skater has been conventionally pretty and focus on jumps to the detriment of their other skills.
feminine and, until the 1990s, invariably white. She During the 1970s Canada’s Toller Cranston
has skated with a graceful lyricism that masks the (b. 1952) and Britain’s John Curry (1949–1994) tried
to return men’s skating to its more lyrical roots. Curry, pairs and ice dancing events are designed to highlight
1976 Olympic champion, skated with an elegant and the social and physical differences between men and
balletic style. His skating appeared effortless. By con- women—the man is required to lift the woman, he of-
trast, Toller Cranston, the 1976 Olympic bronze medal- fers his partner up for display. In these events gender re-
ist, skated with fire and passion. His performances were lations are a required part of the performance. Soviet
full of odd angles and innovative moves. These two skaters Ludmila (b. 1935) and Oleg (b. 1932) Pro-
men were instrumental in expanding the range of ac- topopov were Olympic pairs champions in 1964 and
ceptable styles in men’s skating. Today male skaters 1968 and world champions from 1965 to 1968. They
span the gamut from the artistic Canadian Emanuel were known for extremely elegant programs that were
Sandhu (b. 1980), who is a classically trained ballet reminiscent of ballet duets. The Protopopovs’ success
dancer, to the fist-pumping, Lycra-wearing U.S. skater, with judges and popular audiences ensured that of the
Michael Weiss (b. 1976), who recently performed to many ways that men and women might choose to skate
music by the 1970s rock group Santana. Women’s skat- together, heterosexual conventions would dominate
ing can seem monochromatic by comparison. pairs competitions.
Pairs Ice Dancing

The first pairs skaters were men. They skated side-by- Although ice dancers were admitted to the world cham-
side, executing dance steps and gliding movements pionships only in 1952 and to the Olympic Games in
while holding hands. When the ISU established rules 1976, ice dancing has been important to the history of
for pairs, pairs could be composed of two men, two ice figure skating. People’s fascination with waltzing on
women, or one woman and one man. However, by the ice during the late nineteenth century led to the first sig-
time the ISU inaugurated the first pairs championship nificant increase in the number of skaters. Indeed, danc-
in 1908, mixed pairs were the only ones invited to ing was key to getting women onto the ice. The pleasure
compete. At that time pairs performances were much of dancing motivated many skaters to work hard to im-
like dances. However, as accomplished singles skaters prove their technical skills. Their demands for reliable
turned to pairs skating, the routines grew more com- ice—for more than one or two months of the year—
plex. In 1923 British skaters Mildred and T. D. Richard- helped to prompt the invention of artificial ice.
son introduced shadow skating to world competition, At first skaters tried simply to transpose ballroom
performing free skating movements in close unison, an dance steps to the rink. Before long they began to invent
extremely difficult feat to accomplish while moving at dances to take advantage of the unique properties of
high speed across the ice. Lifts, the moves that currently skating. Skating clubs hired rinkside orchestras, and so-
define pairs skating, were introduced to international cial dances and formal balls became regular events on
competition in 1924 by the French skaters Andrée Joly the skating calendar. In England the NSA held compe-
(1901–1993) and Pierre Brunet (1902–1991), to the titions to inspire the creation of new dances. Today’s
dismay of some judges who called the daring new skaters continue to learn the steps of some of the win-
moves “circus tricks.” Joly and Brunet married in 1925. ning entries, in addition to those of more recent inven-
They won the first of four world titles in 1926. They tion. These set pattern dances are called “compulsory
were also Olympic gold medalists in 1928 and 1932. dances.” They make up the first of the three components
Ice figure skating is one of the few sports in which of contemporary ice dancing competitions.
teams of men and women compete against other teams Initially no difference existed between pairs skating
of men and women. However, unlike racquet sports, and ice dancing. The two disciplines split when pairs
which also have mixed-gender teams, ice figure skating skaters started to incorporate lifts, jumps, and throws
into their routines. Competitive ice dancers are not per- these marks have been called different things.The former
mitted to perform jumps or throws and may only per- was once called “sporting merit,” whereas the latter has
form small lifts. Although the specific rules of ice been called “general impression” and the better-known
dancing have changed frequently through the years, the “artistic impression.”
somewhat vaguely defined requirement to impart the Throughout its history ice figure skating has been
feel of dance remains constant. Current competition in- rocked by all manner of judging scandals. At one time
volves three parts: the compulsory dances; the “original host countries would stack the judging panel with their
dance” which is a short program skated to prescribed own judges. During the Cold War countries on either
rhythms (such as the rumba or the waltz or the foxtrot); side of the Iron Curtain commonly collaborated in vote-
and the long free program. swapping schemes with their allies: “I’ll give your skater
a good placing in dance, if you give mine a good plac-
Judging ing in men’s.” At the 1998 Olympics in Nagano, Japan,
Like gymnastics and diving, skating is an aesthetic, a Canadian judge taped a phone conversation in which
judged sport. Unlike running or shot put, ice figure skat- a Ukrainian judge asked her to agree in advance on the
ing includes no single objective measure by which to de- outcome of an event. For such a blatant breach of the
termine a winner. Consequently, the sport has always rules, the Ukrainian judge received only a one-year sus-
been plagued by judging controversies. At the European pension. Amazingly, the whistle-blowing judge was also
championship of 1893 Swedish and Austrian judges suspended.The most recent scandal occurred during the
could not agree on the means by which the winner 2002 Olympic Games in Salt Lake City, Utah, where a
would be declared and the results of the competition French judge admitted to marking the pairs competition
were annulled. In many early competitions skaters were according to a deal made by the French and Russian fed-
awarded points for each aspect of the competition. The erations. After being pressured by the International
skater with the most points at the end was the winner. Olympic Committee, the ISU eventually awarded two
It seemed to be a clear and simple system. However, as- gold medals in the event: the first on the evening of the
signing points to something as complex as a skating competition to Elena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharu-
performance, either in school figures or in free skating, lidze of Russia, the second a few days later to Jamie Salé
is not easy. Which should count more—flow, speed, and David Pelletier of Canada, who had originally been
technique, or the overall impression left by a perform- awarded the silver.
ance? In 1897 the ISU passed regulations that would be Notorious for ignoring the corruption in their midst,
followed for more than a century: The winner of skating ISU officials could not ignore the public outcry that fol-
competitions would be determined not by the total lowed the events in Salt Lake City, especially the sugges-
marks a skater received but rather by the total of his or tion by the IOC that if ice figure skating were not cleaned
her placings. The skater with the lowest total—the low- up it could be pushed out of the “Olympic family.” As a
est number of ordinals—would win. These regulations response the ISU has approved a new scoring system to
recognized that skaters were not being measured against be implemented during the 2004–2005 season. Ironi-
an objective standard but rather against each other. The cally, the new system returns to the points system re-
relationship between the skaters (their placings) would jected as unfair and unwieldy during the late nineteenth
determine the outcome. In 1901 the ISU introduced the century. Judges will award points for each element of a
famous 0–6.0 judging scale, in which a mark of 6.0 rep- skater’s program. The system leans heavily toward easily
resented a “faultless” performance. In the most recent ver- quantifiable technical skills rather than aesthetic achieve-
sion of this scale, skaters received two marks: one for ments.Whereas some commentators believe the new sys-
technique and one for presentation. Through the years tem of scoring will make judging more objective and will
help clean up the sport, others worry that the system will ability to trace school figures, placed ninth in the free
rob the sport of its creativity. Some frustrated skaters and skating portion of the competition—the only part of
officials believe the problems in the ISU are greater than the competition seen by television viewers, who could
the scoring system alone and have given up on the ISU not understand why such a lackluster skater was on the
entirely. In 2003 they started a new governing body—the top of the podium. With the introduction of the short
World Skating Federation. program, figures fell to 30 percent of the total mark.
They were finally phased out altogether in 1990.Today’s
Recent Developments competitors in all events perform a short technical pro-
Skating continues to evolve technically and aestheti- gram that includes a series of required elements. Each
cally. A slim technical gap remains between men skaters missed element leads to a deduction of marks.
and women skaters, with women routinely performing During the mid-1990s ice figure skating became
the same jumps as men except the triple axel and tremendously popular as a consequence of the Kerrigan–
quadruple jumps. If spins, for instance, were more val- Harding scandal. At the 1994 U.S. Nationals gold medal
ued than jumps, this gap would mean little. A handful favorite Nancy Kerrigan (b. 1969) was hit on the knee by
of women have performed the triple axel in competi- a pipe-wielding assailant hired by the husband of Kerri-
tion, and many more have performed it in practice. In gan’s main rival,Tonya Harding (b. 1970). Harding went
December 2003 the first woman to perform a quadru- on to win the nationals after Kerrigan was forced to with-
ple salchow (a jump with a takeoff from the back inside draw.The scandal made public the cutthroat side of skat-
edge of one skate followed by one or more full turns in ing and led to massive media interest in the women’s
the air and a landing on the back outside edge of the event at the 1994 Olympic Games. For competitive
opposite skate) in competition was fourteen-year-old skaters the increase in media interest spawned an in-
Miki Ando of Japan at the Junior Grand Prix final in The crease in the number of competitions and the amount of
Hague, Netherlands. For their part men at the highest prize money offered. Professional skaters benefited from
levels are paying more attention to style and aesthetic an increase in the number of tours, shows, and televised
concerns than they once did. Although stereotypes sug- specials. More agents became involved in the sport, more
gest that women are the more artistic skaters, in many promoters organized events, more sports journalists cov-
instances men are pushing the bounds of the sport in ered the skaters. This boom of interest lasted almost a
artistry, for instance, by performing to a broader range decade. However, as television schedules became satu-
of music and by designing more complex footwork. rated with skating shows, audiences began to fall off. But
The technical advances in ice figure skating are, in while the traditional ice figure skating audience in North
part, a result of improved coaching techniques and bet- America and western Europe may have reached the lim-
ter facilities and equipment. They are also a result of the its of expansion, new audiences are growing in places
now-commonplace tendency of elite athletes to begin such as Hong Kong and Brazil, where few people skate.
training at a young age and to train full-time. However, Skating has become a global entertainment commodity,
more importantly, free skating has benefited immensely and the invention of materials that can substitute for ice
from the elimination of school figures from competi- now means that skating shows appear regularly in trop-
tion. Where figures once counted for 60 percent of a ical environments without permanent ice rinks.
skater’s score, in 1968 they were reduced to 50 percent.
In 1973 the ISU introduced the short program to singles The Future
and pairs events. The ISU was responding to public out- Since the days of Jackson Haines ice figure skating has
cry after Austria’s Beatrix Schuba (b. 1951) won the spanned the boundaries of sport, art, and entertainment.
1972 world championships. Schuba, unmatched in her Although the dictates of sport have had the greatest
Studio executives are intelligent, brutally overworked men and women who share one
thing in common with baseball managers: they wake up every morning of the world
with the knowledge that sooner or later they’re going to get fired. ■ WILLIAM GOLDMAN
impact on the structure of ice figure skating, the artistic ing. Whereas figure skating tended to be the domain of
and entertainment aspects of skating will ensure its fu- town dwellers and the wealthy during the sixteenth and
ture. They attract the imagination of skater and specta- seventeenth centuries, ice speed skating was the do-
tor alike; they set skating apart from other types of main of the lower classes. Members of the lower classes
athletic contests. The future of ice figure skating will be competed in races in which the goal was to reach the
determined not by the limits of the human body, but next town before other skaters.
rather by the potential of the human imagination.
Mary Louise Adams

Britain Imports Skating
Ice skating was brought to Britain during the eighteenth
century by people from the Dutch province of Friesland
Further Reading who came to build canals in the eastern part of Eng-
Malone, J. (1998) The encyclopedia of figure skating. New York: Facts land. Scholars think that the first ice speed skating com-
on File. petition was held on the Fens, a low-lying district in
Shulman, C. (2001). Complete book of figure skating. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics.
eastern England, in 1763. Skating was popular not only
Smith, B. (1995) Figure skating: A celebration. Toronto: McClelland & in England, but also in Scotland, where the first club
Stewart. was formed in 1742. Skaters held many competitions in
Whedon, J. (1988) The fine art of ice skating. New York: Harry N.
Abrams Britain through the latter part of the nineteenth century,
and almost every town in the north and the east of
England had its own champion.
British races were largely the domain of men. How-
ever, in the Netherlands women participated in touring
speed skating races. In 1805 in Leeuwarden 130 women
Skating, Ice Speed took part in such a race.Town-to-town races and touring
races were open to women as separate events; women
I ce skating was born out of a need for rapid move-

ment in the winter climates of the Northern Hemi-
sphere. Scholars do not know the origins of ice skating.
did not compete against men. However, women’s com-
petitions became increasingly peripheral as the nine-
teenth century advanced, and speed skating became
However, the oldest pair of skates found in Europe is increasingly organized by men.
thought to be more than four thousand years old; thus, People considered ice speed skating to be unsuitable
we can trace skating to the pre-Christian era. and immodest for women. However, women continued
Modern ice skating originated in the Netherlands. to participate, and the first official women’s world record
During winters in Amsterdam, markets were supplied was set in Poland in 1929. Men had been setting world
by goods that were moved along frozen canals, includ- records since 1893 and competing internationally since
ing eggs carried in baskets on women’s heads. In the 1885, but women had to wait until 1936 to have their
same way that cycling and running originated in prac- own world championships recognized. Olympic recog-
tical usage, ice skating was often the only way for peo- nition for women speed skaters came even later.
ple to travel quickly and even to conduct business Women’s speed skating was a demonstration sport at
during the long winters. Most Dutch people learned to the 1932 Olympics in Lake Placid, New York, but did
skate at an early age, holding themselves upright on the not become a formal event until the games in 1960 at
ice by pushing a chair in front of them. Squaw Valley, California. In contrast, men’s ice speed
Probably because of its usefulness, ice speed skating skating had been part of the Winter Olympics since the
developed about one hundred years before figure skat- 1924 Games in Chamonix, France.
SKATING, ICE SPEED 1389
Skating, Ice Speed

Speed in Boston in the Early 1800s
Several exciting races came off at the Skating Park, next party consisted of Mrs. George Farnum,
Boston, on Saturday, the 4th inst. The first was for Mrs. John L. Brown, and Mrs. Carrie Ashley. The for-
ladies, with prizes of a silver goblet, valued at $25, mer won in 2:59, her companions being distanced.
and a pair of skates valued at $10, for the best time; The prize was awarded to Mrs. Farnum, and the sec-
distance, half-mile. The second race was for gentle- ond to Miss Fogg.
men, consisting of a goblet valued at $35, and a pair Next in order was the gentleman’s race, a distance
of skates valued at $10. of five miles, for which appeared Wm. F. Smith,
For the ladies’ race there were entered, the Misses F.G. Lawrence, Emory Lawrence, Gabrial F. Worden,
Lucy Crocker, Addis M. Fogg, Carrie St. Clair, Edward Spencer, and George E. Lawrence. The first
M.B. Lunt, Eliza Yenehki, Alice Twombly, M.D. Lamb, mile was made well together in 4:24. On the fifth
and Mrs. John L. Brown and Mrs. Carrie Ashley of mile an exciting contest took place between the two
Boston; Mrs. Anna Walker, of Rosbury; Mrs.George Lawrences, which was decided in favor of George.
Farnam, of Lowell; Miss W.A. Roberts, of Andover. Time, 22:46; his brother was two seconds later. The
These were Divided into two parties, Miss Alice prizes were presented to the winners by the judges,
Twombly, Miss M.D. Lamb, Miss Anna Walker, and Messers. Wheildon, Fuller, and Cumston. The affair
Miss Addie M. Fogg first. After a pleasant contest, passed off pleasantly, and gave great satisfaction to
the latter won, making the half-mile in 3:11, and the large crowd present.
Miss Lamb in 3:35. The others were distanced. The
Ice speed skating has lagged behind figure skating in speed skating debuted at the same Olympics, appearing
recognition as an Olympic-level sport for women. Fig- as a demonstration sport at the 1988 Calgary Olympics
ure skating fulfills the norms of femininity and was in Canada and as part of the official program at the
therefore acceptable, whereas ice speed skating has el- 1992 Albertville Olympics in France.
ements of strength and endurance that were regarded as
less suitable for women. Rules and Play
However, the participation of men and women in or- The goal of ice speed skating is simple: to skate faster
ganized competition developed at the same pace in than competitors. All of the races in international com-
short-track speed skating. Although scholars have not petitions are spread over two days. Because most speed
documented the precise dates of short-track speed skat- skaters compete in several races and because the sport
ing’s origins, they think it began in indoor skating halls. requires high levels of speed and endurance, the num-
Interest in indoor skating peaked during the 1920s and ber of races in which skaters compete during two days
1930s. Those early competitions were unorganized cir- is remarkable. Their feat is comparable to runners com-
cuit races. The first official short-track competition was peting in the 100-, 200-, 800-, and 1,500-meter races
held in Ayr, Scotland, in 1948, but not until 1967 did during two days.
the International Skating Union (ISU) recognize short- Long-track speed skating consists of two skaters rac-
track speed skating.The first ISU-recognized competition ing on a two-lane, 400-meter track, but they race against
in which men and women were almost equally repre- the clock, not each other. Racing pairs are drawn by bal-
sented was held in 1978 in Solihull, England. Skaters lot. During the race the skaters must skate in both lanes;
from eight nations took part in that competition. Both otherwise, one racer would have an unfair advantage.
men’s short-track speed skating and women’s short-track Lanes are changed at a point of the track called the
“crossing line.” The rules for long-track speed skating their eggs to market on the frozen canals. The Soviet
were developed with the men’s competition in mind Union, East Germany, and United States have domi-
and were later adopted for the women’s competition. nated long-track skating. Lidia Skoblikova of the Soviet
The only difference between the men’s races and the Union won two gold medals in the 1960 Squaw Valley
women’s races is the length. Women race in 500-, Olympics and gold in all four events at the next
1,000-, 3,000-, and 5,000-meter races, whereas men Olympics in 1964 at Innsbruck, Austria. Like runners,
race in an additional distance of 10,000 meters but ice speed skaters must concentrate on their particular
have no 3,000-meter race. talents, and multidistance champions such as Skob-
People sometimes assume that short-track speed skat- likova are a rarity. Bonnie Blair is the most successful
ing and long-track speed skating differ only in that short- winter Olympian for the United States, having won six
track skating takes place indoors and long-track skating medals during four Olympics. Although Blair won the
takes place outdoors, but this assumption is wrong. same number of medals as Skoblikova, Blair won her
Short-track skating takes place on a much smaller track medals over a greater number of Olympics. Blair dom-
—only 111 meters. Skaters wear more protective gear inated the 500- and 1,000-meter races.
than do long-track skaters; because short-track races are At the 2002 Winter Olympics at Salt Lake City, Utah,
peloton races (a pack of skaters racing on the same short-track speed skating gold medal winners were: men’s
track), the chance of collision or injury is greater. The 500-meter, Marc Gagnon of Canada; men’s 1,000-meter,
short-track races at the 1992 Olympics at Albertville in- Steven Bradbury of Australia; men’s 1,500-meter, Apolo
cluded a 500-meter individual race and a 3,000-meter Anton Ohno of the United States; men’s 5,000-meter
relay. A 1,000-meter race was added at Lillehammer, relay, Eric Bedard, Marc Gagnon, Jonathon Guilmette,
Norway, in 1994. Spectators find the pack start and the Francois-Louis Tremblay, and Mathieu Turcotte of
sharply angled turns of the short-track skaters more Canada; women’s 500-meter, Yang Yang of China;
thrilling to watch than those of long-track skaters. Short- women’s 1,000-meter, Yang Yang of China; women’s
track skating is popular in countries whose climate 1,500-meter, Gi-Hyun Ko of South Korea; and women’s
would ordinarily not allow residents to participate in 3,000-meter relay, Min-Kyung Choi, Min-Jin Joo, Hye-
winter sports. For example, South Korea, a country not Won Park, and Eun-Kyung Choi of South Korea.
known for its success in long-track skating, won the gold
medal in the women’s relay at Lillehammer in 1994 The Future
and the women’s 1,500-meter race and women’s 3,000- Ice speed skating is a demanding and at times danger-
meter relay in Salt Lake City, Utah, in 2002. . ous sport that is never likely to attract great numbers of
participants of either gender. Women, however, after
Dutch Treat starting late, have begun to
Although people often associate ice speed skating with catch up with men in all
the Dutch, not until 1968 did Carolina Geijessen, a aspects of the sport.
twenty-one-year-old Dutch secretary, win Olympic gold
J. P. Anderson
in the 1,000-meter race. During winters
in Amsterdam Geijessen skated to
work each day, a mirror of the
seventeenth-century women carrying
A Friesland skate.
SKATING, IN-LINE 1391
Further Reading During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth cen-
Heller, M. (Ed.). (1979). The illustrated encyclopedia of ice skating. New turies in-line skates were used in theatrical productions
York: Paddington Press.
Pratty, J. (1998). Hinged blades skate through records. Sports Technol-
as a substitute for ice skates. Experiments with different
ogy, 1, 5–9. configurations eventually led to the cushioned dual-
Publow, B. (1999) Speed on skates. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. axle roller skate with its superior maneuverability. The
Wallechinsky, D. (1992). The complete book of the Olympics. London:
Aurum Press. in-line form survived into the 1970s largely as an off-
season training tool for ice skaters and skiers. It also
benefited from the introduction of polyurethane wheels
and plastic components. Scott Olson, a nineteen-year-
old U.S. semiprofessional hockey player, in 1979 dis-
Skating, In-Line covered the in-line skate as an off-season training tool.
He modified the design for use in hockey and in 1984
I n-line skating is a type of roller skating that uses

skates that have wheels, generally four or five, that
are set in a straight line, mimicking an ice skate. How-
sold the patent rights to a private investor. Rollerblade,
the resultant company, began a major marketing cam-
paign that popularized in-line skating and made the
ever, in-line skates are freed from the necessity of a company’s name synonymous with in-line skates.
frozen surface and sacrifice the precise control of dual-
axle roller skates for superior adaptability to a variety of Development
surfaces, greater speed, and easier mastery. The modern in-line skate bears little resemblance to its
The popularity of in-line skating developed in the nineteenth-century predecessor. Early in-line skates were
United States and has spread to Europe and parts of wooden platforms mounting wooden wheels, attached to
Asia. The most popular form is recreational outdoor the skater’s feet with straps of leather or fabric. Modern
skating. Roller hockey, speed skating, and stunt or “ag- in-line skates are made of space-age materials. The boot,
gressive” skating are other forms. As in other skating or shell, encases the skater’s foot. Recreational in-line
sports, in-line skaters receive the benefits of low-impact skates and their heavier stunt versions generally have a
cardiovascular exercise and toning of all major muscle plastic outer shell and a removable lining for comfort, of-
groups. In-line skating is open to people of all ages; in- fering stability and support. Hockey skates and racing
dustry figures indicate an even split between male and skates have leather or leather and nylon boots, which sac-
female skaters; the average age is twenty-seven. rifice some stability and support for decreased weight and
increased flexibility. Beneath the boot is the frame, which
History mounts the wheels and can be constructed of metal, plas-
In-line skates are the oldest type of roller skate, although tic, or nylon.The frame can incorporate a number of fea-
in-line skating did not have widespread popularity be- tures depending on its purpose, including “rocker”
fore the 1980s. The earliest recorded attempt to move features to enhance maneuverability, brake pads, and
skating from the winter ice was made by Joseph Merlin even active braking systems. A skater chooses wheels to
(1735–1803), a Belgian maker of musical instruments. suit the intended surface and activity, with variations in
He introduced roller skating to the public at a reception size and hardness.
in London in 1760. As he played the violin and skated During the late 1980s and early 1990s in-line skat-
about for the crowd in front of a large mirror, Merlin ing had an explosive growth of popularity. In 1993 in
discovered that he could not turn or brake on his new the United States an estimated 12 million people tried
invention. Merlin survived the discovery. His violin and the sport at least once. Now in-line skates are found
the mirror were not as fortunate. around the world and are used for both practical and
recreational purposes. The U.S. Amish community, fa- formed professional leagues and includes profes-
mous for its rejection of modern technology and recre- sional ice hockey players.
ational pursuits, has adopted in-line skates as a means In-line skates quickly replaced traditional roller skates
of transportation. The Amish continue to shun the use in speed competitions sanctioned by the FIRS and na-
of automobiles, electricity, and most modern conventional governing organizations and in less formal com-
iences, but they have accepted in-line skating because of petitions, which increased in number as the popularity
its practicality and simplicity. However, the Amish still of in-line skating increased. The configuration of in-line
frown on use of the skates for pure entertainment. skates allows for larger wheels and a reduced area in
In-line skaters are not limited to tamely rolling down contact with the skating surface, allowing greater effi-
sidewalks and around skating rinks. Those uses, al- ciency and decreased drag in comparison with the con-
though the most popular activity, often serve as merely figuration of traditional roller skates. In addition, larger
the introduction to a number of organized forms of in- wheels tolerate rough surfaces better, improving the ap-
line skating. The least regulated form is “aggressive” peal of outdoor and long-distance competitions.
skating—performing acrobatic stunts. Aggressive skat- Artistic roller skating is the only form of internationally
ing is similar to stunt skateboarding in its nature and its organized skating that remains untouched by in-line
largely adolescent demographics. Aggressive skating skates. Artistic roller skating remains dominated by dual-
also shares some of skateboarding’s negative reputa- axle skates because of their superior control and maneu-
tion because of their close relationship and the damage verability. However, artistic skating events are open to
each inflicts on public property through stunts and the in-line skates, and inventors continue to improve in-line
often rebellious actions of youthful subcultures. In 1992 designs. One European innovation demonstrated at the
the in-line industry formed the Skatesmart program, U.S. national championships in 1994 featured a modi-
which promotes skating safety, to improve the reputa- fied four-wheel in-line configuration designed for artistic
tion of aggressive skating. skating. Perhaps in time even the conservative world of
figure skating will welcome in-line skaters.
Competition The popularity of in-line skating may be attributed to
The Federation Internationale de Roller Skating its close relationship with the international ice skating
(FIRS) governs organized competitive roller skating in- and roller skating communities and to in-line skates’
ternationally. The FIRS accepts in-line skates in all outdoor adaptability. Beyond the appeal of exhilarating
categories and has established hockey and speed di- motion to young skaters, in-line skating offers a mode
visions for in-line skaters. The regimented and codified of transportation that is almost as efficient as bicycling
nature of these forms of in-line skating stands in sharp but in a more compact form. That factor may help ex-
contrast to the more informal world of stunt skating, plain in-line skating’s urban popularity because it re-
as does organized skating’s popularity among people duces the security and logistics concerns associated
in a broader range of age groups. with bicycling.
The introduction of in-line skates gave roller
hockey a substantial boost in popularity. The 1992 The Future
Olympic Games in Barcelona, Spain, featured an ex- In-line skating has not spread far into cultures that are not
hibition of roller hockey, the first roller sport featured familiar with ice skating or roller skating and/or bicy-
in the Olympics. The sport is based on ice hockey, cling. However, the sport continues to grow in popular-
with a few modifications pertaining to the different ity, with participants and manufacturers in Europe, Asia,
surfaces involved. In-line roller hockey, in keeping the Americas, and Australia.
with its early ties to the ice hockey community, has Jeffery Charlston
SKATING, ROLLER 1393
Sports do not build character.

They reveal it. ■ JOHN WOODEN
Further Reading as a pastime of the rich. However, soon after his patents
Joyner, S. (1993). Complete guide and resource to in-line skating. Cincin- expired, cheap imitations of his skates were produced,
nati, OH: Betterway.
National Museum of Roller Skating. (1983). First fifty years: American
and skating became popular with all classes.
roller skates 1860–1910. Lincoln, NE: Author.
Nesbitt, L. (1993, August). The in-line skating experience. Physician and
Sportsmedicine, 21, 81–82.
Development
Powell, M., & Svensson, J. (1997). In-line skating. Champaign, IL: During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
Human Kinetics. organized roller skating sports developed as the popu-
Rappelfeld, J. (1992). The complete blader. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Wickelgren, I. (1994, September). In-line injuries soar. Current Sci-
larity of roller skates increased. As early as 1901 roller
ence, 80, 8–9. hockey teams played throughout Europe. Although the
popularity of roller hockey waned during World War I,
it quickly regained its momentum, and in 1936 the first
world championship of roller hockey was held in
Stuttgart, Germany. A year later the first speed roller
Skating, Roller skating world championships were held in Monza, Italy.
Although competitive artistic roller skating existed at
R oller skating for sport developed from roller skating

for transportation and recreation and is modeled
on ice skating. In 1760 Joseph Merlin, a Belgian maker
the time, the first artistic roller skating world champi-
onships were not held until 1947 in Washington, DC.
World championship competitions in all three rec-
of musical instruments, created the first roller skates ognized disciplines of competitive roller skating—
with metal wheels. He demonstrated his invention in artistic, speed, and hockey—have been held annually
London at a reception by skating across the floor while (with a few exceptions) ever since. The first U.S. speed
playing an expensive violin. Because his skates could roller skating championships were held in 1937 in De-
not be turned or braked, he glided gracefully into a troit, and the first world dance and figures champi-
huge mirror and was seriously injured. onships were held in 1947.
In 1849 roller skates were first successfully seen in The United States Amateur Confederation of Roller
public when Louis Legrange of France used them to sim- Skating (USACRS) governs all three disciplines in the
ulate ice skating in the play Le Prophete (The Prophet). United States. USACRS is recognized by the United
He devised his skates by mounting tiny rollers to the States Olympic Committee as the national governing
center of ice skates. During the mid-1800s a number of body for all roller sports. The Federation Interna-
inventors produced several types of roller skates. All of tionale de Roller Skating (FIRS) governs roller skating
these skates, however, suffered the problem of Merlin’s internationally.
skates—the inability to be effectively turned or braked. Artistic roller skating is further broken down into
dance, singles and pairs freestyle, and figures. Dance
Problem Solved skating requires skaters to perform preannounced dance
In 1863 James Plimpton of New York solved the problem programs, which are detailed series of steps at various
of controlling roller skates. His skates had a rubber cush- points around the floor. Each dance has its own steps,
ion to anchor the axles. This cushion compressed when rhythm, tempo, and progression. Judges evaluate skaters
a skater leaned, enabling the wheels of the skates to turn on their performance of the steps and their adherence to
slightly as the skater shifted his or her weight. Plimpton’s the music. Artistic skating—both singles and pairs
design is considered the basis of the modern roller skate. freestyle—is similar to ice figure skating: Skaters perform
Plimpton opened a number of skating rinks across difficult routines set to music. Judges evaluate skaters on
the United States and Europe, envisioning roller skating their maneuvers, such as jumps and spins, as well as
their use of music, appearance, flow of the program as has parabolic curves. The U.S. home track is at the 7-
a whole, and artistic impression. Figures skating stresses Eleven Velodrome in Colorado Springs, Colorado. Road
fundamentals and is the oldest of the artistic roller skat- competitions are held on a flat course, which may be a
ing disciplines. Figures skating requires skaters to trace closed course or an open stretch of road. Distances of
painted circles on the floor. Judges evaluate skaters on 300, 500, 1,500, 3,000, 5,000, 10,000, and 20,000
their carriage, their ability to stay on the lines, and the meters are skated and include a relay. On the road the
degree to which they make their program look effortless. same distances are skated, but the relay is replaced by
Speed skating is a noncontact sport that requires a marathon. Skaters may wear either dual-axle skates or
skaters to maneuver cleanly through a pack of other in-line skates in outdoor speed skating, but in-line skates
skaters and into winning position. Skaters are disqualified are the choice of most competitors.
for engaging in unsportsmanlike conduct, such as forcing
another skater out of position, blocking, or using their Separate Divisions
arms, legs, or hands to impede the progress of other In-line skates are popular among recreational skaters,
skaters. Speed skating is one of the fastest sports in the and their dominance over dual-axle skates in speed
world in which speed is generated by human energy. skating competitions prompted USACRS to create sep-
Speed skating is broken down into indoor and out- arate divisions in indoor competitions. Recog-
door varieties, with indoor speed skating being an nizing the impact of in-line skates, USACRS
almost exclusively U.S. pastime. Indoor speed also successfully lobbied FIRS to permit in-
skaters compete on a flat, 100-meter track in line skates in international competition. In
individual and relay races. Indoor speed skat- 1992 in-line skates debuted at the world
ing is broken down even further by equip- speed skating championships.
ment (dual-axle skates or in-line skates), The popularity of in-line roller hockey
gender, and age divisions. In individual has increased in the United States and
competition skaters compete in three dis- the rest of the world. However, dual-
tances, receiving thirty, twenty, or ten axle roller hockey has been popular
points for first through third places, re- throughout the world for many
spectively, in each distance.The winner years, most notably in Spain, Italy,
is the skater who has the highest Portugal, and South America. In
point total at the end of the compe- fact, in many of those countries
tition. Relays are staged in combi- dual-axle roller hockey is second in
nations of same-sex or mixed popularity only to soccer.
groups. As skaters finish their leg of Skaters play dual-axle roller
a relay, they tag the next team mem- hockey with a hard, black rubber
bers with a push from behind to ball and a short, curved wooden
help accelerate the next skaters into stick. Four players and a goalkeeper
the flow of traffic. on each team try to place the ball
Outdoor speed skating is the into the net of the opposing team
internationally accepted form of while attempting to prevent the
speed skating. Skaters compete on opposing team from doing the
both banked tracks and road Prize-winning skating same. Although the game is
courses. The banked track is usu- costume worn at a carnival played with an essentially non-
ally about 200 meters long and in London in the 1890s. contact principle, players have to
SKI JUMPING 1395
I do not participate in any sport with ambulances

at the bottom of a hill. ■ ERMA BOMBECK
protect themselves from injury by wearing padding, Origins

helmets, and reinforced skates. A well-hit shot can Jumping on skis began as part of the Nordic (Norwe-
propel the ball off a stick at more than 128 kilometers gian, Swedish, and Finnish) skiing culture, from which it
per hour. has spread over most of the world, wherever climate or
In-line roller hockey more closely resembles its ice technology allows. However, ski jumping as a sport
hockey cousin in the equipment used, including the seems to be a specifically Norwegian invention. Early ski-
rubber puck, the amount of physical contact, and the ing had several local strongholds in Norway: from the
high speeds. However, this form also is played with southeastern inland all the way to the Lappish Finn-
four players and a goalkeeper on each team. In-line mark. The early sagas of the Norse Viking era describe
roller hockey players also need to protect themselves be- dramatic skiing challenges. Versatile Sami (Lappish) ski-
cause a puck can reach speeds of 160 kilometers per ing was described in the seventeenth century.There is ev-
hour off a slapshot. Roller hockey accommodates idence of ski jumping among the Norwegian military ski
young and old alike and both male and female players companies around the turn of the eighteenth century.
in co-ed and separate divisions. The first formal competitions were most often combined
The dual-axle form of roller hockey was a demon- events, either downhill with a terminating jump, or
stration sport at the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona, cross-country with one or more jumps included. A local
Spain. However, the international popularity of the in- race in Trysil in 1862 is the first known pure jumping
line form can be seen in the fact that the first world competition. During that decade, attempts to formalize
championship was held in Chicago in 1995. the activity into a sport also emerged in the cities. From
1879, the annual Huseby races in Kristiania (Oslo)
Andy Seeley
strengthened the urban hegemony. In 1892, the organ-
izers (Foreningen til Skiidrættens Fremme) moved the
Further Reading race to the larger Holmenkollen hill, which has housed
Bass, H. (1958). The skating age. London: Stanley Paul. one of the major events in the sport ever since.
Phillips, A.-V. (1979). The complete book of roller skating. New York: Ski jumping spread from Norway to neighboring
Womman.
Turner. J., & Zaidman, M. (1997). The history of roller skating. Lincoln,
countries and to the countries to which Norwegians em-
NE: National Museum of Roller Skating. igrated. Ski jumping came to Sweden through Norwe-
gian soldiers posted in Stockholm as part of the union
military system. Here the alleged first international ski
jumping contest took place in 1886. The spread contin-
ued to Finland, where skiers rather hesitantly took up the
“Norwegian habit” around the turn of the twentieth cen-
Ski Jumping tury. The original Finnish form of skiing at that time
was cross-country. The Alps region also seems to have
T o spectators, ski jumping represents the height of

skiing prowess, and the sport holds a central role in
the winter sports life of nations such as Finland, Austria,
been introduced to ski jumping through Norwegian stu-
dents and ski instructors, either directly or indirectly:
Germany, Norway, Slovenia, and the Czech Republic. ■ In Austria, a Norwegian baker’s apprentice impressed
In the sport of ski jumping, performers aim to float the locals with a jump of six meters in 1893.
through the air on skis, as far as possible down a pre- ■ In Germany, three Norwegians were among the
pared, snow-covered hill, with both the flight and the founders of the Schneeschuhverein (skiing club) Mün-
landing in the performer’s control. chen, which organized a jumping contest in 1894.
A ski jumper at the

world championship.
Source: istockphoto/clu.
In Switzerland, France, and

Italy, the first real contests did
not occur until the turn of the
twentieth century. Czechoslo-
vakia, Poland,Yugoslavia, and
Japan also embraced the sport
after 1900. As early as the
middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury, however, Norwegian im-
migrants had brought jumping
to North America. By the be-
ginning of the twentieth cen-
tury, ski jumps had been performed in such remote areas ■ Central European events took place in Innsbruck,
as Australia and South Africa as well. As skiing and ski Oberstdorf, Bischofshofen, Zakopane, Harrachow,
jumping were transplanted to new settings, the sport Kulm, and Engelberg, among others.
experienced important cultural and ideological changes. ■ Sapporo, Japan, and various hills in North America
In North America, for example, the interest in “world have also been traditional ski jumping sites.
records” was a new element in ski jumping.
From 1924 until 1952, Norwegian jumpers won all
Olympic races as well as a substantial number of world
Competitions, Sites, and championships. Thereafter, the geographical distribu-
Personalities tion of medals has been more even. In recent decades,
Modern competitive ski jumping has been included in world-class jumpers have come from nations as varied
Olympic Games since the Winter Games in 1924. as Finland, Austria, Germany (both East and West),
Today, these competitions comprise two individual Slovenia, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Japan, Switzerland,
(large and small hill) and one team competition. and Italy as well as from ski-jumping strongholds in
World championships were inaugurated in 1926 as Canada and the United States.
parts of the championships in Nordic skiing. The Matti Nykanen of Finland has won the most cham-
German-Austrian “Springer-Tournee,” initiated during pionships after World War II. He collected nineteen
the winter 1952–1953 is a yearly big event that at- medals from Olympic Games and world champi-
tracts hundreds of thousands of spectators. The New onships. Earlier jumpers had less chances of gaining
Year’s Day race in Garmisch-Partenkirchen has also gold medals. Three Ruud brothers, however, were
become an international tradition on European highly successful at winning gold medals from world
television. championships and Olympic Games:
The World Cup of ski jumping has sought to inte-
grate as many as possible of the sport’s traditional sites, ■ Every Olympic jumping contest between 1928 and
of which there are many: 1948 had a Ruud on the winners’ podium.
■ The brothers won seven of ten available international
■ Around 1900, the Holmenkollen races were the main titles between 1928 and 1938.
event.
■ Finland began its Finnish “Ski-games” in Lahti in 1922. Of the three brothers, Birger stood out—he won the
■ Sweden initiated “Ski-games” in Falun in 1947. last two Olympic gold medals before World War II
SKIING, ALPINE 1397
(1932 and 1936) and came back sixteen years after his preferred to see ski jumping as a way of mastering nat-
first win to capture a silver medal in the 1948 Games ural challenges in the snow-covered mountain terrain,
at St. Moritz. His versatility is illustrated by his winning rather than as a competition in skiing acrobatics. Even
the downhill race—which counted as a part of the though this ideology has been steadily eroded, some of
Alpine combination—in Garmisch-Partenkirchen in its elements have survived. Ski jumping remains an aes-
1936. Another modern jumper who made a remarkable thetic sport—the skier who has the longest jumps does
comeback was the German Jens Weissflog who won a not necessarily win the competition—even if the norms
gold and a silver medal in the 1984 Games (represent- for evaluating what is considered a correct jump have
ing East Germany) and came back after a ten-year changed tremendously over the years.
Olympic medal drought to garner a new gold medal at Ski jumping has been a male-dominated sport since
the 1994 Games at Lillehammer. The achievement was its origins. Some girls and fewer women have tried to
all the more impressive because ski jumping in the compete, but as a sport, ski jumping competition has
meantime had gone through a virtual revolution in the been only for men until recently. Only in 2004 did the
shift to V-style. Federation Internationale de Ski (FIS) officially recog-
Jumping in very large hills, “ski-flying,” has in the last nize ski jumping competitions for women.
decades become a very popular sport. Planica in Slove-
Matti Goksøyr
nia recently holds the world record for the longest
standing jump. In 2003, Matti Hautamaeki of Finland See also Holmenkollen Ski Jump
reached 231 meters.
Controversies Further Reading

Allen, E. J. B. (1993). From skisport to skiing: One hundred years of an
A competitive ski jump is evaluated through length and
American sport, 1840–1940. Amherst: University of Massachusetts
style points. The five referees assign style points from Press.
one to twenty. Norms and rules of evaluation have un- Bo, O. (1993). Skiing throughout history Oslo, Norway: Norske Samlaget.
FIS Bulletin (journal of the Federation Internationale de Ski, Bern,
dergone dramatic changes. The historical tendency has Switzerland).
been to diminish the importance of style. Modern Haarstad, K. (1993). Skisportens oppkomst i Norge. Trondheim, Nor-
equipment allows longer jumps and larger hills. As the way: Tapir Forlag.
Vaage, J. (1952). Norske ski erobrer verden. Oslo, Norway: Gyldendal
hills grew, more aerodynamic styles forced their way in. Norsk Forlag.
The last big innovation was the V-style, introduced by
the Swede Jan Boklov in 1986. His revolutionary idea
was to jump with the skis spread in a V-shape (seen
from behind), instead of jumping with parallel skis.
This style today is the rule in competition. The tele-
mark landing, with bent knees, one foot ahead of the
Skiing, Alpine
other, has remained obligatory.
The tendency towards bigger hills, as well as more
differentiated competitions, means that ski jumping has
A lpine skiing consists of two types of skiing on
snow: slalom (skiing in a zigzag or wavy course
between upright obstacles) and downhill. During the
gone through the same processes of modernization as late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Alpine
most other modern sports have, leading to a de- skiing developed and spread, especially during the
ideologization of what was originally considered a na- 1930s, to every part of the world that had enough
tional Norwegian sport. The traditional ski ideologues snow cover to support the sport. Slalom and downhill
came to dominate recreational and competitive skiing line experienced an economic upturn if they provided
on all levels. accommodation and guides. Mayors and innkeepers
often promoted the development of skiing.
History Switzerland’s touristic infrastructure, already catering
The word Alpine refers to the Alps mountain range of to an extended clientele with a large number of health
central Europe, but long before people skied the Alps, stations, began to convert to winter use. In 1880 the
Siberian tribes, nomadic Sami, and Norwegians had bed count stood at 43,850. The number had doubled
skied fast down their local hillsides when necessary. by 1894 and in 1912 reached 168,625, the year when
When Norwegians first visited the Alps at the beginning 18,000 British visited for winter sporting. These Swiss
of the twentieth century, they told their hosts that the stations were well served by the ease of railway con-
Alps, with their steep, wooded hillsides, were no place nections in comparison with, say, Murzzuschlag, Aus-
to ski and that everyone should stick to the undula- tria, or Chamonix, France. The annual number of
tions of the forelands. visitors to Davos in 1900 was thirteen thousand, al-
Early skiers of Europe’s heartland read the book by most exactly the number who visited the entire country
the Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen (1861–1930) of Norway.
about his 1888 crossing of the Greenland ice cap. The
book contained a long chapter on the history of skiing Home Away from Home
as well as on his use of skis. This utilitarian aspect of British visitors—men and women—came from the top
skis motivated outdoor enthusiasts to try skiing for drawer of society to enjoy strenuous leisure in two se-
sport. From the start skiing appealed to the middle and lect clubs, stayed in hotels reserved for themselves, and
upper classes of the heartland, in contrast to Norway, re-created an England of public school and officers mess
where skis provided a way of getting about in winter among the stunning vistas of the Swiss Alps.
country. The wealthy of Europe found a new preoccu- One of these clubs was the Ski Club of Great Britain,
pation for their winter days that promised exercise, founded in 1903, which spent its time devising tests and
health, and amusement. Only in the military was skiing running competitions. The key word is tests. These tests
taken up by recruits from mountain villages; in France, were supposed to produce an all-round skier. Arnold
for example, only with difficulty were the local lads Lunn wrote about passing his third-class test in 1905:
persuaded to leave their animal-heated dens and odor- “Up and down 1,500 feet in two hours. Passed easily,
ous dwellings for a breath of high country air. though skis were coming off the whole way up. Came
Until about 1900 skiers tended to slide around val- down with ski unfastened.” Style was important because
ley floors, occasionally making a trip to a pass or a col skiing was perceived to be aesthetic: “He who habitually
(a ridge connecting two higher elevations), and some of uses sticks [poles] to control ski is supposed to be dis-
the more adventurous, often simulating their summer qualified.” Competent judges were hard to come by.
excursions, strove for a peak. On the return the exhila- The British were by no means the only people to enjoy
ration of the downhill rush was often commented upon. the new sport. In the years before 1914 the wealthy of
It was “the nearest approach to flying,” Arnold Lunn Vienna, Berlin, Munich, Prague, Paris, Grenoble, and
(1888–1974) confided to his diary in 1905. Turin also took to skiing and were tested by their own
Whereas a Norwegian country lad skied out of his Kunstlauf (skill race), Hindernisluaf (obstacle race), and
back door, the wealthy of Europe had to travel from the Stilgemssse Lauf (style point race).Viennese high society
cities to the ski fields. The development of transporta- had easy access to the slopes at Potzleinsdorf. Later they
tion was vital for skiing to grow into a sport. Many out- took the train to Semmering, Murzzusclag, and particu-
of-the-way Alpine villages that happened to be on a rail larly to Lilienfeld, where their instructor, Mathias Zdarsky
SKIING, ALPINE 1399
Section of Alps in northern Italy.
(1856–1940), demanded discipline and orthodoxy from practiced in Norway, began proselytizing for a downhill
his followers, drilling thousands during the years in a mil- race in 1913, claiming that it would be “the finest and
itary manner while teaching them a technique that almost conclusive test of skiing.” The key word is—again
lowed for a descent on a steep slope even though he —test. For Lunn the descent from the peak was as chal-
insisted on the use of only one pole. lenging as the climb up: The degree of slope, differing
On mountain ranges across Germany, in the Black snow conditions, changing weather, and natural ob-
Forest, Harz, and Riesengebirge, people who had read jects all tested the skier. Once in the trees, the skier had
Nansen often inspired their friends to try skiing, and ac- to negotiate the glades and run the curving paths and
tive clubs were formed. The same occurred in Austria. slippery logging roads while descending to the inn on
Such was the proliferation of skiing clubs that the Nor- the valley floor. In order to test a person’s ability to ski
wegians became concerned that the rest of Europe was down from the high peaks, races down mountains were
corrupting what they considered to be their national invented. Some races required elongated turns, others
sport. They organized the first international ski con- with sharper turns demanded more control of the skis.
gress in 1910 to ensure that they controlled skiing. This The downhill—often called the “down mountain race”
congress was the forerunner of the Federation Interna- or “straight race” (because the mark of an accomplished
tional de Ski (FIS), which was founded in 1924 and skier is a straight track)—was to simulate the speedy de-
was, in spite of its French name, dominated by Scandi- scent from peak or pass to tree line. The slalom tested
navians until after World War II. the ability to take curves; it simulated tree running.
Early downhill races were uncontrolled descents. In
Test of Skill 1910, while leading the unmarked course for the
Arnold Lunn, realizing that most Europeans were on Roberts of Kandahar Cup (often seen as the first major
skis only for short holiday periods and that the Alps re- downhill competition), the eventual winner met spec-
quired a different sort of skiing than the skiing that was tating Arnold Lunn halfway down the course. They
stopped for a chat and a drink. Then came 4.8 kilo- Norwegians Spread the Sport
meters across a glacier, followed by 1.2 kilometers on Norwegian immigrants spread skiing in Canada and
windswept crust. The last 0.3 kilometer was “a test of the United States; they joined the gold-fevered rush in
tricky wood running.” This sort of amateur race has vir- Australia and New Zealand; they were in South Amer-
tually no relationship to today’s downhills, where ica building railroads; and everywhere they went, when
speeds can reach 112 kilometers an hour. the snow came they made themselves skis and showed
The word slalom is derived from the Norwegian the natives how to enjoy themselves in winter. In these
slalaam, but the modern race owes little to Norwegian places a foundation of skiing was laid for the wave of
influence. Norwegians had a variety of Laam (tracks): Arlbergers who followed during the 1930s, some em-
Kneikelaam (run with bumps), Ufselaam (run off a igrating in search of work, others fleeing from fascist
cliff), Hoplaam (run with a jump or jumps), Svinglaam persecution. During this period non-Europeans, par-
(run with turns), and a dare-devil run mixing all obsta- ticularly people from the United States, journeyed to
cles, the Uvyrdslaam or ville lamir (wild run). The Europe to learn the Arlberg technique from the master
slalaam was a descent around natural obstacles. Al- himself. These wealthy people returned to their own
though included in a race meeting in Norway in 1879, countries and re-created the skiing style and technique
it had not proved popular. back home. Some brought Arlberg experts back with
To define the course in early races, Lunn placed lit- them; thus, Schneider’s technique swept the Alpine ski-
tle branches, then flags, and, later, gates in the snow. ing world during the 1930s. Otto Lang, one of Schnei-
He went on to publish debates, rules, and their der’s leading instructors, found himself teaching in
changes during the years. Rules were first published Spain and the United States; Ernst Skadarasy went to
for the 1922–1923 season, and further style regula- Australia and New Zealand. For the spring of 1930
tions—such as ten-second penalties for sitting down at Schneider traveled to Japan, where he taught hundreds
one flag before going on to the next—remained in via an interpreter.
force until the mid-1920s, by which time downhill The Norwegians, longtime masters of cross-country
and slalom were becoming events on the racing cal- (Nordic) skiing, had difficulty accepting the new Alpine
endar. In 1930 they were finally accepted—with much skiing. Not only was the graceful Telemark (relating to a
Norwegian reservation—for inclusion in international region of Norway) turn eclipsed by the Arlberg crouch,
competitions. but also the whole philosophy was undermined by
By then their popularity could be attributed to the Alpine “hotel sport.” One U.S. instruction book written
thrill of speed. All of a sudden, it seemed, people had in 1935 listed eight foreign words “necessary for under-
found a way to travel as fast as other animals and with standing a ski lesson.” Seven were German. A Japanese
as much grace. But people had to be taught how to do tourist booklet in English extolling Hokaido skiing listed
it. That was the great life work of the Austrian Hannes the available Hutte (huts) and took particular pride in
Schneider (1890–1955), whose Arlberg technique— the Okura Schantze (jump). Although people had com-
a low crouch and a lift and swing into the turn— plained about the canonization of Schneider during the
enabled skiers with much practice to swirl down the 1920s, his popularity soared with the release of Dr.
mountain sides in an exhilarating schuss (a descent di- Arnold Fanck’s (1889–1974) ski films: Wunder des
rectly down a slope at high speed) equaled only by the Schneeschuhes (The Wonders of Skiing) and Der weisse
beauty of the motion. Lunn and Schneider combined Rausch (White Ecstasy) made in 1931 with Leni Riefen-
to set up the Arlberg-Kandahar race in 1928, and it stahl (1902–2003) dazzled the ski world with the po-
soon became the premier Alpine racing event in the etry of motion. Schneider himself attributed his success
world. on a worldwide scale to these films.
SKIING, ALPINE 1401
The best and fastest way to learn a sport is to watch

and imitate a champion. ■ JEAN-CLAUDE KILLY
After World War I Alpine skiing became even more During the years four major controversies have
popular. Wartime experiments with over-the-snow ve- arisen. The first arose during the early twentieth century
hicles, cable lift construction, and the use of strong and when arguments between people who supported Math-
light metals and alloys were all adapted by the ski in- ias Zdarsky and those who supported Norwegian styles
dustry. Wooden skis gave way to more durable and almost produced a diplomatic incident. The second was
faster metal skis, now designed specifically for downhill the introduction of skis to aid in mountaineering in
or slalom. Skiing also became easier with stiffer boots, winter. Old-guard mountaineers tended to see skiing as
release bindings, and lighter poles. Today’s Alpine par- some sort of acrobatic nonsense: all right, perhaps, on
abolic ski, narrowing in the middle and widening at tip the sloping forelands but certainly not something that
and tail, is the ski of choice. Speed has increased for should sully the purity of high mountain peaks. Making
both racer and recreational skier. As early as 1935 a the rift worse, as more skiers enjoyed the rush down
giant slalom (a longer and steeper course) was tried in from the mountain, they called for the Alpine clubs to
Italy: It became the third of the Alpine competitions build huts. Diehard mountaineers saw their subscrip-
sanctioned by the FIS in 1972. The faster super giant tions going for the wrong purpose. The third and fourth
slalom, known as the “super G,” is run over a still longer controversies were connected: They had to do with
course. It became part of the world racing circuit in what constitutes professionalism, and much of that con-
1987. In giant slalom the control gates are spaced far- troversy took place over the position of the ski instruc-
ther apart than in a slalom. Both giant slalom and super tor. Of course, prize money and, after World War II,
G combine elements of downhill and slalom. endorsement of products also entered into the contro-
versy. Under-the-counter payments to top skiers became
Snowboarding to the Rescue common. At the 1972 Olympics in Nagano, Japan,
The current estimate of skiers worldwide is 25 million, long-time International Olympic Committee President
but many people ski only three or four times a season. Avery Brundage could have disqualified forty partici-
Since the early 1970s the growth in the number of skiers pants; the great Austrian Alpine skier Karl Schranz was
has been negligible, and only the advent of snowboard- sent home, providing a scapegoat.
ing has kept much of what used to be called the “ski in-
dustry” afloat. Skiing has given way to “snow sports,” Nature of the Sport
which might include tubing, even riding bicycles down On a recreational level Alpine skiing has no rules except
the slopes. Particularly in Europe people witnessing those enforced by the ski area, such as what constitutes
larger ski events can still number into the thousands, dangerous skiing and what the penalty might be. Com-
whereas in the United States, for example, ski areas host- petitions, on the other hand, are rule-bound by national
ing World Cup events sometimes have had to advertise bodies and by the FIS for international meets. Specifi-
cheap tickets just to get people to attend. Around the cations are provided for equipment, clothing, length of
winner’s podium might be fewer than fifty admirers. courses, number of gates in the slalom, and so on.
Even though dual racing—in which one competitor Women’s races are slightly shorter and less steep than
races against another, rather than a decision being based the men’s courses.
on time—was invented for the professional circuit, the Facilities have kept pace with advancing technology.
numbers of spectators did not rise appreciably. Before World War II, in the United States the rope tow
The Olympic Games are different because they go on was ubiquitous. After the war J-bars, T-bars, other up-ski
for such a long time, are exactly organized, and have a devices, chairlifts, trams, and mountain railroads
following just because they are “Olympic.” The television climbed what were once pristine snow fields to the
audience for the winter Olympics runs into the millions. peaks above. For example, skiers can make their way up
A skier on a slope.
Source: istockphoto/dra _ schwartz.
the Val Gardena, in Italy’s

south Tirol, by taking eighty-
four lifts.
U.S. ski areas now vie with
European Alpine resorts in
popularity. The British often
come to ski the slopes in the
northeastern United States,
and the trail signs at Snow-
bird, Utah, are written in
Japanese. Western Canada is
well known for its helicopter
skiing, and Australia and New
Zealand now promote their winter joys during the Ruud, but he did poorly in the slalom, so the gold
Northern Hemisphere’s summer, as South America medal went to the German Franz Pfnur and the bronze
once did as well. to Guzzi Lantschner, who had switched allegiance from
However, the ease of global travel also has had a neg- Austria to Germany. In the women’s downhill race the
ative effect on Alpine skiing. Although a skier of means surprise competitor was the young Norwegian Laila
can ski on three continents in one season, he or she may Schou Nilsen, whose slalom was good enough to bring
be disappointed to find that ski resorts everywhere are her a bronze medal. The winner was the one woman
much the same—the lifts are all made by the same few who had proved her superiority before the Olympics:
manufacturers, the ski equipment made by the same Christl Cranz of Germany. She had fallen in the down-
companies, and the clothing, food, drink, and even ski hill and actually placed sixth, but her slalom was so
techniques are the same around the world. A rented good, beating the competition by more than seven sec-
condominium in Albertville, France, or Zell am See, onds, that she won the gold medal.
Austria, is indistinguishable from a condo in Stowe, U.S. skier Gretchen Fraser’s unexpected slalom win at
Utah, or Sapporo, Japan. Only the accent of the skiers St. Moritz, Switzerland, in the first post-World War II
(who frequently speak English) varies. Alpine ski devel- games put the Europeans on notice that U.S. women
opment has urbanized and standardized the ski envi- were up and coming. At Oslo, Norway, in 1952 Andrea
ronment around the globe, outdoors and in. Mead Lawrence showed gold form in both the slalom
and in the giant slalom the first time this race was on
Competition at the Top the Olympic program.
Alpine events became part of the winter Olympic The Olympics at Cortina, Italy, belonged to a triple
Games only in 1936. The winter games have increased gold medalist, Austrian Toni Sailer. He was superior to
in size, spectator attendance, number of events, and ge- the runners-up by more than two seconds in the down-
ographical distribution. Eight of the first ten games hill, an extraordinary four seconds in the slalom, and
were held in Europe. The United States and France have more than six seconds in the giant slalom—something
hosted the games three times, Japan twice. that Jean-Claude Killy of France repeated—albeit by
Downhill and slalom were the only Alpine events in small margins—on his home piste (downhill ski trail) of
1936, and gold, silver, and bronze medals were Grenoble in 1968. At Innsbruck, Austria, in 1976 Rosi
awarded for a combination of the two. The winner of Mittermaier of Germany won the downhill and slalom
the men’s downhill was the Norwegian jumper Birger and missed first place in the giant slalom by .12 second.
SKIING, ALPINE 1403
Skiing combines outdoor fun with knocking

down trees with your face. ■ DAVE BARRY
Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, in 1984 produced surprise win- Stenmark (b. 1956), France’s Jean-Claude Killy (b.
ners in U.S. skiers Bill Johnson and Debbie Armstrong, 1943), Austria’s Toni Sailer (b. 1935), and Italy’s Al-
who won the men’s downhill and women’s giant berto Tomba (b. 1966) dominated Alpine competition
slalom. The Alpine ski powers of Europe—Austria, and attracted large followings. No non-European has
France, Germany, and Switzerland—in the years from achieved this sort of hero status.
1936 to 1984 won 72 percent of all medals given for The World Cup was first suggested by Serge Lange
the Alpine disciplines. By comparison, the United States and organized by L’Equipe, a major French sporting
won 13 percent. Spain and Japan have one medal each. journal, but is now managed by the FIS with input
Overall the Austrians have proved the most successful from the national associations. This annual competition
medal winners with seventy-seven. The Swiss come next rates skiers in downhill, giant slalom, and slalom with
with fifty and the French with thirty-eight. Today’s top a point system so that at the end of the season the best
athletes are comparable; .8 second separated the first all-round skier is clear. In 1966–1967 seventeen races
eight racers in one downhill. At the Salt Lake City, were held; now the number is up to thirty as resorts and
Utah, men’s downhill in 2002, .22 second separated national federations see economic advantage in hosting
first place from second place, and .06 second separated a World Cup event. During the years the point system
second place from third place. Such a difference is dif- has been changed, with the result that the winning
ficult to detect, and the audience has to wait for the of- records of, say, Ingemar Stenmark and Jean-Claude Killy
ficial time to know for whom to cheer. The Olympic can never be compared.
program now includes running moguls (bumps in a ski
run), aerials, and snowboarding, providing instant grat- Governing Body
ification that can easily be exploited by television. The Federation Internationale de Ski (www.fis-ski) via
its many committees governs all facets of international
Downhill Hero ski competitions. The International Olympic Committee
When Alpine skiing first took hold, the major figure on (www.olympic.org) has jurisdiction over the actual or-
the slope was the instructor: Hannes Schneider was lit- ganization of the program for skiing, but the technical-
erally skimaster to the world. However, after World War ities are left to the FIS. Every skiing nation has its
II, partially because so many instructors were needed, national organizations, and local clubs belong to re-
and partially because so many people became adept at gional associations. Where club activities are strong,
the sport, the racer became more of the hero. The first such as in Europe, the better skiers move from the club
to turn his winning to major advantage was the Nor- to regional championships and, if successful, to the na-
wegian Stein Eriksen (b. 1927), whose spectacular tional teams. In the United States university teams often
downhill run at the Oslo Olympics added to his golden- produce the strongest skiers, and top skiers migrate to
boy image. He parlayed his victories into an economic the national teams.
gold mine and moved to the United States, where—in E. John B. Allen
the manner of CEOs of large companies—he moved
See also St. Moritz
from Michigan’s Boyne Mountain to Sugarbush in Ver-
mont, then to Aspen Highlands, Colorado, and then to
Park City, Utah. Further Reading
Eriksen’s 1952 Olympic victory run has not been Allen, E. J. B. (1993). From skisport to skiing: One hundred years of an Amer-
the only spectacular run, of course. Austrians remember ican sport, 1840–1940. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
Arnaud, P., & Terret, T. (1993). Le reve blanc, olympisme et sport d’hiver
their Franz Klammer’s (b. 1953) dare-devil downhill at en France: Chamonix 1924 Grenoble 1968. Bordeaux, France: Uni-
Igls, Austria, in 1976. Skiers such as Sweden’s Ingemar versitaires de Bordeaux.
Fanck, A., & Schneider, H. (1925). Wunder des Scneeschuhs. Hamburg, only individuals but also clubs and even nations—
Germany: Enoch. formed the foundation of cross-country skiing world-
Lloyd, J. M. (1986). Skiing into history 1924–1984. Toorak, Australia:
Ski Club of Victoria. wide. The more optimistic proponents of idraet believed
Lunn, A. (1927). A history of skiing. London: Oxford University Press. that cross-country skiing could regenerate a nation, an
Palmedo R. (Ed.). (1937). Skiing: The international sport. New York:
Derrydale. especially important notion to Norwegians, who had
Polednik, H. (1969). Weltwunder Skisport. Wels, Germany: Welsermuhl. won their independence from Sweden in 1905. Until
Ulmrich, E. (Ed.). (1992). 100 Jahre Skitechnik—40 Jahre Interski-
Alpine (relating to competitive ski events consisting of
Kongresse. Planegg, Germany: Deutscher Skiverband.
Vaage, J. (1979). Skienes Verden. Oslo, Norway: Hjemmenes. slalom and downhill racing) skiing became popular
Vida, F. (1976). Storia dello Sci Italia, 1896–1975. Milan: Milano during the 1930s, Norwegian styles and attitudes re-
Sole.
mained dominant.
“Rich Man’s Passion”

The Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen (1861–1930)
Skiing, Cross-Country crossed southern Greenland on skis in 1888. When his
book about his expedition, Paa Ski over Gronland
P eople have been skiing to get from point A to point

B for more than five thousand years. Written
records from ancient Scandinavia and China tell of in-
(Across Greenland on Skis) was translated into German,
it sparked an interest in skiing among wealthy outdoors-
men of Europe. By 1900 cross-country skiing was “a rich
formal skiing competition and the use of skis in warfare. man’s passion” throughout Europe, and skiing clubs were
Icelandic eddas (thirteenth-century collections of mytho- formed. Visiting Norwegians became club mentors and
logical, heroic, and aphoristic poetry) and Norse sagas set up competitions with ski jumping as the centerpiece.
also tell of early informal competition. However, not Organizations were founded on the local, regional,
until the late eighteenth century were the first organized and national levels to organize competitions and estab-
competitions held under the auspices of the Norwe- lish rules as clubs were formed worldwide. Norwegians,
gian military, probably in 1767. Monetary prizes were to retain control of “their” sport, called for an interna-
awarded for shooting while skiing, for making the tional ski congress in 1910 and held the secretaryship
fastest downhill run, and for skiing in full equipment. until the Federation Internationale de Ski (FIS), the
When the Norwegian ski troops disbanded in 1826, world governing body of ski competition, was founded
local civilian clubs took up the sport and organized in 1924.The FIS makes rules for competitions, approves
competitions. The competition near Kristiania (which courses for international competition, selects the sites for
became the Holmenkollen ski competition at Oslo) was the biennial FIS world championships, determines eli-
first staged in 1879. By then emigrating Norwegians gibility, sanctions events eligible for FIS points, and ap-
had taken their skiing style with them throughout the proves the courses for Olympic competition.
world. In Australia and the Americas they introduced lo-
cals to the use of skis for travel and enjoyment. Gold Recreational Skiing
fever also infected immigrants who knew how to ski, Until the 1920s and 1930s, when the Alpine skiing
and in the deep mountain snows of Kiandra (Australia) craze put a premium on speed when skiing down a hill,
and California (United States), skis became common in cross-country was the only form of skiing.The first major
mining camps. Skiing mail carriers there were often recreational use of skis was for winter trips into the
hailed as heroes. mountains, and more adventurous people attempted
Thus, the Norwegian way of skiing and the concept even higher climbs on skis. That tradition continues
of idraet—the belief that outdoor sports improve not today as experienced cross-country skiers traverse the
SKIING, CROSS-COUNTRY 1405
high mountains of the world from the Caucasus (Russia) longer attempted it. In Scandinavia many men contin-
to the Karakorams (Pakistan) and from the Wasatch ued jumping for recreation; in North America only the
range (United States) to the Atlas range (Algeria). The experts continued, and jumping became the great win-
most committed cross-country skiers test their skill ter outdoor spectator sport.
against the mountains of Patagonia, the rugged terrain Telemark is a style of ski turn that peasant skiers
of Greenland, the Haute Route of Switzerland, and even from Telemark, Norway, first used. During the late nine-
the North and South Poles. teenth century skiers used it to turn and stop in cross-
However, the majority of cross-country skiers today country skiing and in jumping. Now the telemark turn
are less interested in a survival adventure than a 1900- is often used in Alpine skiing as well. Special boots, skis,
style ski outing: skiing through forests and across mead- and even competitions are designed for the “tele skier.”
ows. In 1900, though, such an outing would have been
a club outing. Today a ski party is more likely to be Competitive Skiing
made up of families or informal, small groups. Skiers Cross-country racing, first organized on national levels
today also enjoy amenities unavailable in 1900: in the United States and Europe before World War I, ob-
machine-prepared loipen (trails) in the Alps, lighted served Norwegian rules. The standard Norwegian races
pathways in Nordmarka near Oslo, and marked loops were 15 to 50 kilometers long, and the popular 50-kilo-
in North America. These amenities attest to the popu- meter race was called the “winter marathon.” However,
larity of a winter sport that costs substantially less than the true hero was not the winner of these races. The true
a day’s Alpine lift skiing. hero was the man whose combined points for cross-
Since World War II recreational cross-country skiing country skiing and ski jumping showed him to be the
and skiing equipment have been aggressively marketed best all-round skier. After World War II specialization be-
in the United States, possibly because the country’s fit- came increasingly common as men and, from 1952 on,
ness craze began as Bill Koch (b. 1955) won an Olym- women trained for specific distances. Cross-country rac-
pic silver medal for the 30-kilometer race at Innsbruck, ing by the 1960s had become such a specialized sport
Austria, in 1976. Recreational skis were not developed
specifically for cross-country skiing until a different sort
of ski had been developed for Alpine skiing. Skis made
of wood have yielded to skis made of synthetic materi-
als that require no waxing. Click-in bindings that re-
quire special boots have replaced the three-pin binding
designed to hold the front part of the boot firm while
leaving the ankle and heel free. Poles made of steel and
bamboo are now found only in museums, replaced by
high-tech poles with small disks, alloy shafts, and
pointed davits. Fashions, too, have changed with these
developments.
Jumping was the high point of any ski competition
around the turn of the century. In Scandinavia and par-
ticularly in North America local communities prided
themselves on their jumping. In Europe jumping de-
clined in popularity as skiing became a social activity,
and although jumping was still admired, most skiers no Three styles of old bindings.
Skiing, Cross-Country
Cross Country Racing, 1907
The extract below from the National Ski Association On a level surface, the Finns are the masters of the
Report (7 February 1907) describes the first extensive ski, while in a hilly and brushy country, the Norwe-
cross-country ski run in the United States: gians cannot be beaten. The course of this run (the
National Championship) was laid over a territory
It was a pretty sight to behold the uniformed mem-
consisting of about four miles of hills and brush,
bers of Nor Ski Club, Chicago, starting from the
three miles on the level and two miles on snow cov-
headquarters with red, white and blue streamers to
ered ice, thus giving the participating Finlanders a
be posted along the nine mile course. A good natured
chance to gain on the level what their long skis nat-
and healthy looking lot of men, who would do honor
urally would lose through the brush, and the world
to any regiment of infantry in Uncle Sam’s army. The
famous Asarja Autio certainly knew how to avail him-
men were distributed along the course to watch at
self of these level stretches as he practically flew over
difficult passes, and report on any participant, who
the snow as soon as the open availed itself, and he
should in any way disobey the laws governing the
sustained his reputation by covering the distances
contest. It is a very strict rule in Norway not to allow
two minutes ahead of the sturdy Norwegian runners,
any participant in a cross country run to remove his
Elling Diesen and Gustav Bye, in the good time of 47
skis during the contest, and this rule was adhered to
minutes and 30 seconds. The participants were in
in every detail. The skis could not be removed in
good condition, when they finished their hard run,
jumping a fence or in clearing any other obstacle
and were well taken care of at headquarters. Warm
that might seem rather hard to overcome. The prac-
milk was served as refreshments. It is of great im-
tical use of the ski is learned in runs of this nature,
portance, that the men posted along the course have
and it takes but a short time to get accustomed to
a supply of bits of oranges or lemons to give the
handling the skis to advantage over obstacles of every
skiers as refreshments as they pass.
description.
that recreational and club skiers no longer even consid- Hungary, Switzerland, Russia, Japan, and the United
ered entering competitions. However, in China and States) equipped a few military units as ski units. Inter-
other countries where skiing did not become so special- national military ski competitions were held. The Alpini
ized, cross-country racing continued as a club activity. (Italy) and the Chasseurs Alpins (France) were particu-
So-called citizen races (races open to all) are a recent lar rivals. Patrols of four to six men in battle gear com-
development that benefits the better amateur cross- peted for the best time traveling between two points.
country skier. These races are best known from the thir- During the war troops on skis saw some duty on the
teen marathons held around the world. The Norwegian major fronts in the Dolomites,Vosges, and Carpathians.
Birkebeiner and the Swedish Vasaloppet, commemorat- After the war the Federation Internationale de Ski
ing military and national events of the thirteenth and and the International Olympic Committee (IOC) con-
sixteenth centuries, hold pride of place among the ven- sidered adopting the biathlon. In 1909 proponents had
ues: Europe, North America, Japan, and Australia. called for its inclusion in the Olympic Games, but it re-
The biathlon—a cross-country race that includes tar- mained only a demonstration event until it became part
get shooting—is an offshoot of cross-country skiing. It of the Olympic program at Squaw Valley (United States)
is derived from the military ski patrol race. Before World in 1960.
War I Western and Westernized military leaders (in Nor- Women participated only peripherally in cross-
way, Finland, Sweden, Germany, Italy, France, Austria- country skiing competition before World War II. Doubts
SKIING, CROSS-COUNTRY 1407
Nordic skiing on the

King Ludwig II course
in Oberammergau,
Bavaria, Germany.
Source: istockphoto/sack.
Gabriella Paruzzi of Italy; and

women’s 4 ✕ 5-kilometer relay,
Viola Bauer, Manuela Henkel,
Evi Sachenbacher, and Clau-
dia Kuenzel of Germany.
Style Controversies
Arguments between propo-
nents of the classical tech-
nique and proponents of the
skating step are about twenty
years old. The skating step—
about the ability of women’s bodies to withstand such one ski in a track and the other used like a skate to push
competition prevented women from receiving serious off—was introduced at the Holmenkollen 50-kilometer
consideration, and ski jumping by women was even race in 1971, and the Engadine, Switzerland, marathon
more out of the question. However, the two world wars in 1975 was won by a skier using the skating step. The
opened opportunities for women. In 1952 competitive step proved faster over flatter terrain, but it also cut up
cross-country skiing for women became part of the the prepared track, was derived from another sport,
Olympic program at Oslo with a 10-kilometer event. At and seemed to emphasize winning by use of a modern
Lillehammer, Norway, in 1994 women’s events of 5, technique over honoring the classical technique. By the
15, and 30 kilometers, a 4 ✕ 5-kilometer relay, 7.5- and late 1970s Finnish skaters used the skating step so ef-
15-kilometer biathlons, and a 4 ✕ 7.5-kilometer relay fectively that it was called the “Finnstep” or “Siitonen-
were held.The 5-kilometer and 30-kilometer events were schritt” after Finland’s Pauli Siitonen. Today the classical
skied in classical technique; the 15-kilometer event was technique and skating step are separate cross-country
skied in the free technique, better described as the “skat- disciplines.
ing step.” During the past century ski jumping styles, too, have
At the 2002 Winter Olympics at Salt Lake City, Utah, changed. At one time a squat position competed with
cross-country skiing gold medal winners were: men’s the more upright position that is popular today. Skiers
sprint, Tor Arne Hetland of Norway; men’s 10-kilome- have become increasingly interested in aerodynamic
ter free pursuit, Johann Muehlegg of Spain; men’s 15- styles since the mid-1920s. Ski jumping competitions
kilometer classical, Andrus Veerpalu of Spain; men’s are won or lost on the basis of two criteria: the distance
30-kilometer free mass start, Johann Muehlegg of Spain; traveled and the style of the jump based on positions at
men’s 50-kilometer classical, Mikhail Ivanov of the takeoff, flight, and landing. Rules for awarding points
Russian Federation; men’s 4 ✕ 10-kilometer relay, have changed. At one time points were awarded for the
Thomas Alsgaard, Kristen Skjeldal, Frode Estil, and An- crouch and the leap, which ideally aesthetically
ders Aukland of Norway; women’s sprint, Julija Tchep- stretched and poised the body in the air with arms for-
alova of the Russian Federation; women’s 5-kilometer ward, back, or at the side to allow flight guidance and
free pursuit, Olga Danilova of the Russian Federation; balance on landing. The lift during the flight was
women’s 10-kilometer classical, Bente Skari of Norway; achieved by parallel skis pointing straight out almost
women’s 15-kilometer free mass start, Stefania Bel- like the wing of a plane. However, during the late 1980s
mondo of Italy; women’s 30-kilometer classical, Jan Boklov of Sweden spread his skis in an outward “V”
Do not let what you cannot do interfere

with what you can do. ■ JOHN WOODEN
on taking off, and a hundred-year-old tradition was bro- tive skiers used ski acrobatics for training and discov-
ken. Initially perceived as unaesthetic and accordingly ered their entertaining effect.
discounted by judges, the “V” style was given official Competitive freestyle skiing started in the United
sanction before the 1992 Olympics and has replaced States in 1966. Beginning in the 1970s, other countries
the classical ski jumping style. In 1962 jumps were reg- staged national championships and the sport was di-
ulated at heights of 90 and 70 meters, and ski flying, in vided into the three disciplines with competitions for
which skiers attain distances of more than 183 meters, men and women. In 1973, the International Free Skiers
was sanctioned by the FIS in 1972. Association (IFSA) was formed to protect athlete inter-
ests, develop judging and scoring rules, and help stan-
E. John B. Allen
dardize events. In 1980, the Fédération Internationale
de Ski (FIS) established the Freestyle World Cup, and
Further Reading the first World Championships took place in 1986 in
Allen, E. J. B. (1993). From skisport to skiing: One hundred years of an Tignes, France. Competitions were held in all three dis-
American sport, 1840–1940. Amherst: University of Massachusetts ciplines, including a combined competition in mogul
Press.
Berg, K. (1993). Ski i Norge. Oslo, Norway: Aventura.
and aerial skiing. Two years later, freestyle skiing was in-
Bomann-Larsen, T. (1993). Den evige sne: en skihistorie om Norge. cluded as a demonstration sport at the 1988 Calgary
Oslo, Norway: Cappelens. Olympic Winter Games. However, only mogul and aer-
Lloyd, J. M. (1986). Skiing into history 1924–1984. Toorak, Australia:
Ski Club of Victoria. ial skiing gained Olympic status: mogul competitions
Lovett, R., & Peterson, P. (1999). The essential cross-country skier. were accepted for the 1992 Olympic Winter Games in
Camden, ME: International Marine/Ragged Mountain Press.
Nansen, F. (1890). Paa Ski over Gronland; en Skildring af den Norske
Albertville (France), and aerials for the Lillehammer
Gronlands-Ekspedition 1888–89. Oslo, Norway: Aschehoug. (Norway) Winter Games in 1994.
Nygren, H., Raevuori, A., & Maki-Kuuti, T. (1983). Pitka latu: vuosisata With the development of new gliding and skiing
suomalaista hiihtourheilua. Porvoo, Finland: Soderstrom.
Palmedo, R. (Ed.). (1937). Skiing: The international sport. New York: equipment, and the building of special snow parks for
Derrydale. snowboarders that included various jumps and half-
pipes, aerial skiing has become more common among
recreational skiers, especially younger ones. Recreational
skiers commonly try the “hot dogging” technique of the
Skiing, Freestyle bump experts when skiing moguls. The least common,
and popular, among recreational skiers is acro skiing
F reestyle skiing goes back to the 1930s and is a form

of Alpine skiing that is divided into three disciplines:
mainly because special equipment and athletic skills are
needed, whereas bumps and jumps can be done with
normal skis and poles.
■ Mogul
Many ski schools around the world have also taken
■ Aerial
advantage of this raising interest by offering clinics and
■ Acro (short for acrobatic)
classes in the three freestyle disciplines. Because of this
Each requires different athletic skills, terrain, and popularity, many ski federations include freestyle ele-
equipment. ments in their ski instructor training programs.
For the entertainment business, freestyle skiing at-
Three Disciplines tracts spectators at snow festivals and ski school events.
The roots of freestyle skiing cannot be exactly deter- The film industry discovered the attractiveness of the
mined; however, most sources mention Norway as the sport as early as the 1930s when the first ski films were
cradle of freestyle skiing. There, in the 1930s, competi- produced:
SKIING, FREESTYLE 1409
Skier doing a jump in Colorado.

Source: istockphoto.com/DCEngland.
■ Der wesse Rausch [The White Frenzy] (1931), a Ger- Skiers compensate for the moguls with their knees while
man silent film by Arnold Fanck, starring Hannes their upper bodies stay motionless. The skis should not
Schneider and Leni Riefenstahl, included many ac- leave the snow surface. Competitions take place on steep
robatic and aerial skiing sequences that drew viewers runs of 28 to 35 degrees for about 250 meters. The
into the movie theatres. moguls are often artificially constructed, with two jump
■ Willy Bogner’s movie Fire and Ice (1986), with a su- areas for aerial maneuvers in the course. Performed
perficial storyline, focused on all three freestyle dis- jumps must include two or three techniques but inverted
ciplines and has become an icon for many skiers. maneuvers are prohibited. Usually two skiers compete in
■ The American producer Warren Miller also frequently a parallel run against each other in a round-robin event.
shows glimpses of mogul and aerial moves in his ex- Style, time, and the performance of the two jumps are im-
treme skiing adventure movies. portant for winning the competition. The winner is de-
termined by the score, which is awarded by seven judges.
What Is Freestyle Skiing? The total score is split into 25 percent for speed, 25 per-
The following sections will give a brief insight into the cent for the two aerial jumps, and 50 percent for the over-
three unrelated freestyle skiing techniques. all technique and control during the performance. The
skiers often wear special colored kneepads to draw the
MOGUL SKIING judges’ attention to their performance. The average ski
Mogul skiing is also known as “hot dogging.” The athlete length is 185 centimeters for men and 175 centimeters
skis through bumps, or moguls, keeping to the fall line. for women.
AERIAL SKIING these FIS events, the Olympic Games are the highest
Aerial skiing is a form of ski jumping in which tricks elite level competition for freestyle skiers
are performed in the air. Aerial skiers use jumping The first Olympic mogul competitions were held
areas, or kickers, of various sizes. Top competitors per- 1992 in Albertville, France. The gold medalists were
form triple back somersaults with as many as four Edgar Grospiron of France in the men’s competition,
twists. These jumps are very similar to trampoline, and Donna Weinbracht of the United States in the
which is used for training, moves. To perform these women’s competition. Two years later at the Lilleham-
spectacular jumps, the skis should not be too long, mer Games, aerial events were officially included. An-
usually only 160 centimeters long. dreas Schönbächler of Switzerland won the men’s
The competitors jump over a tabletop where they hit competition and Lina Cheryazova of Uzbekistan won
the “Big Air,” meaning they are several meters high in the women’s.
the air, which helps them perform. Half- and quarter-
pipes are incorporated in aerial skiing. Here, the jump- Governing Body
ing and flipping occurs with less air. In most countries, the national ski federation governs
There are also combined mogul and aerial competitions. freestyle skiing. International competitions are con-
ducted by the FIS (www.fis-ski.com).
ACRO SKIING
Annette R. Hofmann
Acro skiing is more commonly known as “ski ballet” be-
cause of its similarity to dancing. Acro is performed on
groomed runs that are about 250 meters long and not Further Reading
steep. According to the FIS, acro competitions include Allison, T. (2001). Skiing, freestyle. In K. Christensen, A. Guttmann, &
jumps, spins, flips, rotations, and inverted movements. G. Pfister (Eds.), International encyclopedia of women and sports
(Vol. 3, pp. 1037–1042). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group.
Moreover, linking maneuvers blend all these elements Casper, P. (1996). Retrieved from www.sportbox.de/kompendium/
into “a well-balanced program, performed in harmony ktii1275.htm
with music of the skiers’ choice,” as stated by the FIS. FIS: 6100 Acro. Retrieved from www.kinchans.com/junkie/rule/6100.
html
The performance is judged equally on technique and Loland, S. (1999). Skiing, freestyle. In D. Levinson & K. Christensen
artistic impression. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of world sport: From ancient times to the pres-
ent (pp. 360–361). New York: Oxford University Press.
This sport shares many similarities with figure skat-
ing on ice, and many acro participants originally com-
peted in figure skating or gymnastics
For these disciplines, the skis are about the length
of 80 percent of the performer’s body; thus, they are
easier to manage. Longer poles support jumping and
Skiing, Water
lifting elements. Acro skiing has not yet become an
Olympic event. P opular around the world, water skiing combines el-
ements of several sports, including boating and
snow skiing. Some 50 million people participate in
Competition at the Top water skiing internationally, most of whom are recre-
On the international level, the FIS is responsible for or- ational skiers. The remainder are serious water skiers
ganizing the Freestyle FIS World Cup every winter and who compete in organized events.
the Freestyle World Ski Championships held every other In the sport, a water skier is pulled along the surface
winter since 1986 for all three disciplines, as well as of the water by a motorboat. In the basic style of the
combined mogul and aerial competitions. Other than sport, the water skier wears a ski on each foot and
SKIING, WATER 1411
holds a tow rope with both arms. As the boat moves power and speed to reliably pull people along the
forward, it pulls the skier at a speed that enables him or water’s surface. As motorboats began to proliferate in
her to stand up on the skis and glide along the surface the decades after 1900, people in various locations
of the water. Variations include the use of only one ski, began to develop separately activities that evolved into
barefoot skiing, and jumping off ramps, among others. the sport of water skiing, including towing sleds and
Water skiing appeals to people on many levels. It of- other flat objects that people either sat on or stood up
fers the opportunity to experience being on the water in in. These activities were popular on the French Riviera
a more direct sense than is possible in a boat, combined and other bodies of water in Europe; Count Maximil-
with the excitement of skiing along its surface at high lian Pulaski is believed to have devised an early pair of
speeds. The basic skills of water skiing can be learned water skis in Europe in the early 1920s. In the United
quickly, and people with a moderate degree of physical States, Ralph Samuelson invented and demonstrated a
proficiency can enjoy the sport on its simpler levels. pair of water skis in 1922 on Lake Pepin, Minnesota. At
Water skiing at more advanced levels is a very chal- approximately the same time, near New York City, Fred
lenging sport that requires a great deal of physical skill Waller invented and marketed a style of water ski and
and courage. Those who pursue the sport more seri- also invented the bridle at the end of the tow rope that
ously enjoy the opportunity to develop their skills, test water skiers hold.
their courage, and compete against other water skiers. By the 1930s efforts were being initiated to organize
Water skiing is also a popular spectator sport in com- and promote the sport more widely. In the United
petition as well as in noncompetitive entertainment States an enthusiast named Dan Haines formed the
shows. The skiers can accomplish physical feats that are American Water Ski Association (AWSA) in 1939, and
quite impressive to watch, including intricate maneuvers the organization held its first national championship at
on skis, high-speed runs, impressive leaps and flips in the Jones Beach near New York City that year. Many of the
air, and other demonstrations of prowess and courage. pioneers of the sport came together under the umbrella
The name can be spelled as two separate words of AWSA, and standardized rules and a structure of
(water skiing), as one word (waterskiing), or with a hy- local clubs and competitions were established. Similar
phen (water-skiing). The primary water skiing organi- initiatives took place in other nations. In the late 1940s
zation in the United States, the American Water Ski the World Water Ski Union (WWSU) was formed to co-
Association, spells it as two separate words. ordinate the sport, sanction events and records, and
formulate rules internationally. Tournaments and cham-
Origins and Development pionship events were established throughout the world
Water skiing is a twentieth-century sport, with origins in on regional, national, and international levels.
the ancient principle of using the power of one moving
object to tow another. Throughout history people have EMERGENCE AS A SPECTATOR SPORT
used animals to pull wagons on land or sleds on snow Water skiing also captured the public’s attention as a
and ice. On the water, people used one vessel to tow a spectator sport. Entertainment-oriented water shows
raft or attached boat containing cargo. In addition to became popular attractions that helped to boost the
harnessing this concept to accomplish tasks, people sport’s visibility. These shows featured spectacular
have used it for recreational activities such as sledding. stunts, beautiful women performing choreographed
Although it is believed that people attempted earlier dance routines, and other crowd-pleasing activities on
forms of water skiing using sailboats, the sport origi- water skis. One of the first of these water-sports shows
nated in its modern form only after 1900, with the de- was held in 1928 at the Atlantic City Steel Pier in
velopment of the motorboat, which provided sufficient New Jersey sponsored by entrepreneur Frank Sterling.
A boy water skiing at sunset.

Source: istockphoto.com/Ju-Lee.
In Florida, Dick Pope featured a ski-jumping demon-

stration that same year. Pope and his family became
leading promoters of water-skiing shows, especially
after establishing a major ski show at Cypress Gardens,
an aquatic theme park in Winter Haven, Florida. Simi-
lar attractions were established in many other locations.
World War II inhibited recreational activities like
water skiing that used fuel needed for the war effort.
After the war, however, water skiing experienced steady
and continued growth. It remained primarily an amateur
sport, with trophies awarded more often than prize
money. Many expert water skiers made a living by teach-
ing, participating in shows, or holding other jobs con-
nected to the sport. Professional competitive water skiing
tours and events were eventually established, but the
amateur emphasis remained. The distinction between
amateur and professional aspects of the sport has been
an ongoing debate.
Water skiing continued to grow and become more di-
verse in the decades after 1970. In part this reflected the
overall popularity of the sport of powerboating. Enthu-
siasts continued to accomplish new speed and distance and lifted straight onto the water’s surface. The skier
records and to perform ever-more-spectacular stunts. rises to a standing position and is pulled along. Varia-
New variations of water skiing were also devised. These tions include the dock start, in which the skier begins by
included activities that combined water skiing with el- sitting on a dock and is pulled into the water as the boat
ements of other sports such as hang gliding and surfing. starts forward.
Both males and females participate in water skiing on The minimum sustained speed for water skiing be-
a recreational and competitive level; tournaments and gins at around 24 kilometers per hour (15 miles per
series often include categories for males, females, and hour). As water skiers become more proficient and con-
mixed-gender events. fident, they can be towed at increasing speeds. In 1983,
Christopher Michael Massey, an Australian, established
Practice a water-ski speed record of more than 230 kilometers
In the basic form of water skiing, the skier uses two skis (144 miles) per hour.
and holds a horizontal bar connected to the end of the Once beginning skiers are able to maintain balance
tow rope, which is attached to the motorboat. The tow while riding straight behind the boat, they can progress
rope is typically 23 meters (75 feet) long, although the to turning independently of the boat and making other
ropes vary in length depending on the particular activ- movements. Water skiers control their runs in various
ity. There are several basic ways to start a run. In a ways, including how they bend their legs; lean forward,
basic beach start, the skier crouches in the water with backward, and from side to side; hold and tug the tow
arms forward and knees close to the chest, with the rope; and shift their weight and position in other ways.
lower legs placed so the ski tips are raised out of the One basic move is crossing the wake, which is accom-
water. As the boat moves forward, the skis are pulled plished by attaining the momentum to swing beyond
SKIING, WATER 1413
the waves that fan out behind both sides of the boat. In dangerous moves. Flotation vests are encouraged for all
a more exaggerated form, this is known as wake jump- skiers, and helmets and other protective gear are often
ing. Water skiers may advance to using only one ski and used in addition. Water-skiing clubs and events have
to more difficult and specialized tricks, jumps, and other strict guidelines for events to promote safety. Coordi-
challenging activities. nation between the driver and skier is crucial, and hand
signals or verbal cues are often used to communicate.
Ski Design In many instances, a third person, or “spotter,” also
The design of basic skis emphasizes stability and ease rides in the boat to watch the skier and make sure the
of handling. They are often between 1.5 and 1.8 meters driver is aware of his or her status.
(60 and 70 inches) long and come in pairs, with a Most often, water skiing has one person being towed
binding that holds the foot securely but releases quickly by an individual boat. However, a boat may tow two
to protect skiers if they fall or lose control. There are or more people simultaneously. In water shows, for ex-
many other variations and types of water skis for spe- ample, a team of performers may form a line with a sin-
cific purposes. Advanced slalom skiers use single skis gle boat towing them. In 1986, the cruising vessel Reef
with two sets of bindings, one for each foot. Skis de- Cat towed 100 water skiers simultaneously for one
signed for stunts and other purposes may be shorter or nautical mile in Queensland, Australia.
more rounded. Other types of skis include the knee-
board, which is ridden in a kneeling position, and Competitions
boards that are ridden without bindings (similar to a Individual competitions and overall rankings of com-
surfboard). petitive water skiers are based on age and gender,
in addition to categories for specific events. Com-
Powerboat Concerns petitions are often organized by local clubs and are
Many types of powerboats are used to tow water skiers. sanctioned and based on guidelines from national
On a purely recreational level, a variety of general- organizations and the International Water Ski Feder-
purpose motorboats are suitable. However, certain ation (the new name, as of 1993, for the WWSU).
characteristics are important. Boats should have an ap- Traditionally, competitive water-skiing tournaments
propriate size and body design and an engine that has feature three main competitions: slalom, tricks, and
enough power to tow a person but that does not cre- jumping.
ate an excessive wake or overwhelm the skier in other In the slalom event, skiers maneuver back and forth
ways. Certain powerboats are designed specifically for on a course marked with buoys (usually six), while the
water skiing and are used by dedicated amateurs and boat follows a straight line down the middle. During
in organized competitions and professional shows. The the event the boat speed is increased and the tow rope
type of boat used is especially critical in competitions shortened, which makes runs successively difficult. The
to ensure that the performances of individual skiers are ability of the skier to get as close as possible to all of
based on their own abilities and are not the result of the buoys during the run without missing one or
differences among towboats. The AWSA, for example, falling is scored.
has very stringent criteria for boats that can be used in In trick skiing, the competitors ski on a straight
sanctioned events to ensure consistency, performance, course and perform as many stunts as they can within
and safety. their designated time (usually two 20-second passes). A
Safety is an important concern, especially in the more panel of judges scores their performance based on the
advanced aspects of the sport, in which skiers travel at difficulty of their routines and their skill in executing
high speeds and perform flips and other potentially them. Trick skiing can include a wide variety of moves,
such as twirling in the water, removing skis while in mo- cluding parasailing, paragliding, and kite skiing.
tion, and flipping out of the water. Although safety and insurance-liability concerns inhib-
In jumping, skiers go up an inclined ramp in the ited its acceptance in sanctioned water-skiing competi-
water, which launches them into the air. In addition to tions in the 1980s, parasailing became popular among
maintaining good form and control, skiers attempt to recreational water skiers. In the 1990s, a variation of
extend the length of the jump as far as possible before this emerged in which water skiers attach tow lines to
landing on the water. The standard ramp is approxi- kites, which pull the skier along on the water.
mately 1.8 meters (6 feet) high out of the water at its
highest point for men’s adult competition and 1.5 me- Other Watercraft
ters (5 feet) for others. During the history of jumping, In the 1980s and 1990s, a hybrid of powerboating and
the distance records have gotten progressively longer. In water skiing became popular that involved motorized
1947, a distance-jumping record was set at 15 meters craft known as personal watercraft, Jet Skis, and other
(49 feet). By the 1990s, skiers were achieving jumps of names. These watercraft are very small and are driven in
60 meters (200 feet) and longer. a manner somewhat similar to water skiing, but they are
In 2004, competition reached a new level when the self-propelled. Jet Skis are fast and maneuverable. In
International Water Ski Federation began sponsoring a some instances, when riders have acted irresponsibly, Jet
Water Ski World Cup event in 2004, with stops in Rus- Skis have prompted concern and criticism about noise
sia, England, China, and Qatar over a five-month period. and similar disruptions to other boats and the envi-
ronments where they are used.
SPECIALIZED COMPETITIONS AND STUNTS
The sport also encompasses more specialized competi- Governing Body
tions. Freestyle jumping emerged in competition after The International Water Ski Federation (www.iwsf.com)
the 1950s. In freestyle, jumpers add midair flips and is the primary governing organization, with affiliate
other variations to the basic jump. Barefoot skiing was clubs in nations around the world.
introduced publicly as a stunt at Cypress Gardens in John Townes
1947 and has since developed into a separate branch of
the sport, with competitions and other events. In 1989,
Scott M. Pellaton achieved a barefoot skiing speed Further Reading
record of almost 219 kilometers (136 miles) per hour. AWSA 50th Anniversary Edition. (1989). Water Skier. Winter Haven,
FL: American Water Ski Association.
In 1978, Billy Nichols established a barefoot duration Favret, B., & Benzel, D. (1997). Complete guide to water skiing. Cham-
record by skiing for 2 hours, 42 minutes, and 39 sec- paign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Overton, Kristi. (1995, May). Kristi’s top tips.ˆ Motor Boating & Sail-
onds. In 1989, Steve Fontaine skied backward for just ing Magazine, 12.
over 1 hour and 27 minutes. Barefoot skiing and jump- A profile of water skiing in the United States. (1994). Winter Haven, FL:
ing were combined into an event known as barefoot American Water Ski Association.
Youngs, Jim. (1994, November). Ultimate ski boat test. Popular Me-
jumping, and competitors have made jumps of over 26 chanics, 48.
meters (86 feet).
In the 1950s water-skiing shows began to feature a
stunt in which a water skier was connected to a large
kite, which created air currents that carried him aloft as
the boat gained speed. This facet of the sport gained Skydiving
popularity in the 1970s. A cousin of hang gliding and
parachuting, it has been referred to by several names, in- See Parachuting
SLED DOG RACING 1415
Individual commitment to a group effort—that is

what makes a team work, a company work, a
society work, a civilization work. ■ VINCE LOMBARDI
meters. The Hudson Bay Derby was instituted in 1916,

Sled Dog Racing followed seven years later by the Banff Alberta Dog
Derby. In 1936 the Laconia Sled Dog Club of New
I n sled dog racing a driver, known as a “musher,” con-

trols a harnessed dog team that races to achieve
speed or distance. Frequently the challenge is a combi-
Hampshire organized the first World Championship
Sled Dog Derby. In 1966 the International Sled Dog
Racing Association was formed and led to the devel-
nation of speed and distance that involves crossing hun- opment of a racing circuit.
dreds of kilometers of ice and snow trails during a Sled dog teams also played a role in exploration, in
period of days. particular in the exploration of the Antarctic. The
progress of the Norwegian Roald Amundsen (1872–
Development 1928) and the Englishman Captain Robert Falcon Scott
European sled dog racing originated in Scandinavia, (1868–1912) toward the South Pole in late 1911 was
where competitions can be traced back to the eigh- seen by their respective nations and the world’s press as
teenth century. In North America the development of a race to be the first to reach the South Pole. Amundsen
sled dog racing was more recent, with the first races won, reaching the South Pole on 14 December 1911.
being held during the late nineteenth century. Early Scott and his party died on the return journey, victims
competition may have begun as rival groups of gold of starvation and the intense cold. Scott relied on ponies
prospectors or fur trappers challenged one another to and primitive engines early during his trek, but at the
see who had the fastest sled and the best team of rac- end he and his exhausted team manhandled their own
ing dogs. equipment. By contrast, Amundsen planned his trek
Although the sport has appeal in polar and subpolar around the use of dogs and sleds. In his party he had
regions, it has always had limited international appeal. four companions and four light sleds, each pulled by
The first organized race was the 1908 All-Alaskan thirteen dogs.
Sweepstake, a round-trip race between the townships of In North America, although Eskimos used dog sleds
Nome and Candle. The distance crossed was 656 kilo- for hunting, travel, and recreation during the pre-
colonial period, regulated sled
dog races did not appear until
the late nineteenth century.
The U.S. writer Jack London
(1876–1916) was a major fig-
ure in introducing these dogs,
and indirectly their sleds, to
the mainstream of U.S. life. By
the age of twenty London had
held a variety of jobs: sailor,
tramp, Klondike adventurer.
Sled dogs
waiting in the snow.
Source: istockphoto/isatis.
His appreciation of the dramatic Alaskan gold rush “Mush!”

area popularized the perception of the “man in the wild” The Iditarod, inaugurated in 1973, is the most famous
constantly battling the elements and surviving in a dog sled race. It begins in Anchorage, Alaska, and
tough world. With his novels The Call of the Wild and crosses the Alaska Range, turns west along the Yukon
White Fang London described a wild dog (probably a River, and continues up the Bering Sea coast to Nome.
composite of Siberian huskies or malamutes) and ex- The race takes approximately eleven days. One of the
plored notions of a dog being tamed but never escap- most exciting Iditarod races was run in 1978. After
ing its savage origins. more than two weeks of racing Dick Macky won by less
However, the event that catapulted sled dog racing than a dog’s length over Rick Swenson—one of the
onto the front pages of newspapers around the world smallest gaps ever between winner and loser.
was a 1925 diphtheria outbreak in Nome, Alaska. Hun- In 1985 Libby Riddles was the first woman to win
dreds of people were at risk and could not be reached the Iditarod.
by road or air because of ground conditions and severe Winner of the 2004 Iditarod was Mitch Seavey of
weather. The only way to get serum to them was by Sterling, Alaska, with a time of 9 days, 12 hours, 20 min-
dogsled. This outbreak received worldwide media cov- utes, and 22 seconds.
erage and stimulated sled dog racing in Canada and Winners of the 2004 World Championship Sled Dog
northern New England. Derby in Laconia, New Hampshire, were: one-dog jun-
In 1928 the New York Times reported on events at ior class, Breana Martin with a time of 31 minutes;
the Saint-Moritz Olympics in Switzerland. Sandwiched Dick Moulton three-dog junior class, Eddie Gast, with
between columns on skating and ice hockey was a re- a total time of 41 minutes, 9 seconds; Lyn Newell me-
port of a different contest, describing a three-day, 198- morial six-dog classic, Hank Plaisted, with a total time
kilometer sled dog race in which Emile St. Goddard’s of 1 hour, 26 minutes, 25 seconds; and open class,
of Manitoba, Canada, defeated Leonard Seppala of Real Turmel with a total time of 2 hours, 44 minutes,
Nome, Alaska. The race consisted of three sections, 21 seconds.
one held each day. At the start of the final day, the lead Sled dog teams are traditionally composed of Siber-
of St. Goddard’s over Seppala was only forty seconds. ian or Alaskan huskies. The number of dogs used
As the race ended the lead of St. Goddard’s had in- varies, but seven or nine in a team is common. In the
creased to 3 minutes, 10 seconds. In light of the re- Iditarod as many as sixteen may be used. Although rac-
peated successes by women mushers in Alaska’s ing sleds are lightweight, they must be strongly con-
Iditarod race during the 1980s and 1990s, the news- structed and able to carry equipment, provisions, or a
paper report of the race is interesting. Its tenor is in sick or fatigued dog.
keeping with the social climate of the time: a gentle- Sled dog race courses are marked by red and green.
manly concern for the competitive woman, liberally Red flags indicate a turn. Green flags indicate a straight-
sprinkled with admonitions about the overwhelming away. Dog teams are inspected approximately ten min-
nature of such physical challenges: utes before the start of a race to make certain that the
dogs are neither sick nor injured and are “up to scratch”
Mrs. Edward P. Ricker Jr. of Poland Spring, Maine, did for the demands of the race. Many sled dog races count
not start the last day. She is the only woman who ever only periods of racing time and not rest intervals, so the
had courage or skill to enter this race against the best mushers—and, more importantly, the dog teams—are
men drivers of the continent. Two of her dogs tired last provisioned and rested. The International Sled Dog
night and she dropped out to save them. (New York Times, Racing Association (www.isdra.org), which governs the
23 February 1928) sport, has acknowledged the metabolism of a racing
SLEDDING—SKELETON 1417
husky: “A sled dog at rest in the summer needs about speed. By 1890 all racers of the Grand National raced
800 calories per day. In the middle of a cold winter’s head first, and skeleton distinguished itself from luge, in
long distance race the same dog may need up to 10,000 which athletes races downhill feet first. The head-first
calories per day.” style also spread to the International Race of Davos. In
Scott A. G. M. Crawford Switzerland skeleton soon had more competitors than
had luge, which remained quite diffused. In November
1887 the Saint Moritz Tobogganing Club was formed,
Further Reading and this body governed the competitions of both sports.
Brown, G. (Ed.). (1979). New York Times encyclopedia of sports— Eventually women were allowed to compete in the
Winter sports. Danbury, CT: Grolier.
Cuddon, J. A. (1979). International dictionary of sports and games. Grand National, and other races began to allow women
New York: Schocken Books. and children as well. Ursula Weble, three-time winner of
Diagram Group. (1982). Sports comparisons. New York: St. Martin’s
Press.
the Grand National in the traditional style, adopted
Hickok, R. (1992). The encyclopedia of North American sports history. the head-first style and added other six victories for a
New York: Facts on File. total of nine—a record.
Sled Dog Racing. (2004). Retrieved December 15, 2004, from http://
www.isdra.org The word skeleton refers to the fact that, in compar-
Smith, N. L. (1979). Almanac of sports and games. New York: Facts on File. ison with a luge sled, a skeleton sled was reduced to
Woolum, J. (1992). Outstanding women athletes. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx
Press.
minimal elements. Four pillars connected the sled’s seat
to the sled’s running blades. In 1901 John Bott of the
United States introduced the sliding seat, which allowed
better management of the sled.
In 1905 regional championships were begun in Aus-
Sledding—Skeleton tria and Germany, but luge and bobsleigh remained
more popular in those countries. In 1910 at Cresta the
S keleton is a winter sport in which an athlete lies face

down and head first on a sled and races down a
snow track.
Ashbourne Cup race, over a course of 887 meters, was
begun. Women competed with men. Later the race was
renamed the “Curzon Cup.”
Such forms of sledding (tobogganing) spread in In 1913 in Dresden, Germany, an international body
North America, Russia, and middle Europe during the was founded to control all tobogganing sports. In 1914
nineteenth century. In Switzerland natives and foreign
residents—most of them citizens of England and the
United States—raced toboggans on artificial and natu-
ral snow tracks. In 1884 some British residents of the
Swiss city of Saint Moritz, led by Major W. H. Bulpetts,
built an artificial track with curves and banks at Cresta
at the outskirts of the city. There, on 18 February 1885,
the first Grand National race took place with twenty
contestants. Racers from the Swiss city of Davos won.
Head Start
In 1887 a Scot named McCornish raced head first in the
Grand National. He did not win, but other racers began
to imitate his head-first style because it allowed greater A gentleman on a sled at St. Mortiz.
Sledding—Skeleton
A Tribute to Hesta
This amusing poem pays tribute to “Hesta,” a folk In 2002 skeleton—open to men and women—was
heroine who is said to have tobogganed down the readmitted to the Olympics at Salt Lake City. The U.S.
Cresta Valley in 1882, three years before official team won gold twice as John Shea won the men’s, and
construction of the run: Tristan Gale won the women’s.
Now Hesta rode the Cresta During the last half-century, unlike luge, the style of
Midst the snows of ’82 skeleton has not changed significantly. Fiberglass is the
Tho’ her mother had impressed her material used most often for the sled. Clothing has
It was not the thing to do. evolved from pullovers, trousers, and mountaineering
She said “It’s nice, shoes to more sporting styles.
I like the ice, Gherardo Bonini
It thrills me thru’ and thru’.”
In defiance of her mummy
She slid upon her tummy.
Further Reading
Bass, H. (1971). International encyclopaedia of winter sport. London:
Pelham Books.
Bonini, G. (2001). Europa, Mitteleuropa, Vaste Land. Florence, Italy:
Rilegatoria Cecchi.
Hake, O. (1909). Tobogganing. In J. M. Heathcote & C. G. Tebbutt
in Davos the first European championship was held. A (Eds.), Skating (pp. 395–414). London: Longmans Green.
man named “Bernhoff,” a German resident of the Russ-
ian town of Riga, was the winner. The Federation Inter-
nationale de Bobsleigh et Tobogganing (www.bobsleigh.
com), with headquarters in Milan, Italy, is now the in-
ternational governing body. It was founded in 1923. Snowboarding
Cresta Run Tobogganing
During the period between the two world wars, under
the aegis of the Federation Internationale de Bobsleigh
T he picture of alpine slopes has greatly changed over
the last decades. One of the most obvious changes
is the appearance of persons gliding down the snow on
et Tobogganing, bobsleigh racing entered the Olympic boards: the snowboarders.
program; skeleton racing appeared in the 1928 Male and female snowboarders can be found either
Olympics at Saint Moritz, where Jennison Heaton of the on regular slopes, off the slopes in ungroomed and
United States won. The Grand National and the Curzon powder areas, and in boarder parks with various jumps
Cup remained the two international races. and half pipes in which the boarders focus on airborne
In 1926 a woman competed for the last time in tricks and maneuvers. According to their preferred ter-
Cresta Run. In 1929 women were excluded from the ritory, the snowboarders are categorized as alpine or
race because organizers feared that the face-down style carving riders, freeriders, or freestylers, each equipped
might injure the breasts of women racers. with specially designed boards, bindings, and boots.
Skeleton came back to the Olympics in 1948 when Presently there are more than five million snow-
the games returned to Saint Moritz. The winner was the boarders worldwide. Predominantly children and ado-
Italian Nino Bibbia, a hero of the two big races at En- lescents are learning this relatively new winter sport.
gadin, Switzerland, where he won fifteen victories from For many snowboarders, snowboarding is more than
1948 to 1969. Jack Heaton was runner-up. In 1954 the a sport; it stands for a special philosophy and lifestyle,
International Olympic Committee decided to accept going back to the initial influence of surfing and skate-
luge and to exclude skeleton. boarding, and reflecting an easygoing youth culture
SNOWBOARDING 1419
A snowboarder pulling
a sweet grab off a jump.
Source: istockphoto/Mfpar35.
snurfer by taking advantage

of their experience in the
making of surfboards. Sims
started—just like Burton—to
build boards consisting of
laminated wooden layers. Al-
though none of these con-
structions had steel edges,
they made it possible to glide
down mountains. However,
neither Milovich’s “Winter-
sticks” nor Sims’s boards
were very prosperous in the
long run.
that strives to neglect all kinds of conformity and Besides problems involving materials, this new sport
searches for individuality and freedom. These snow- had to face another difficulty: many ski areas did not
boarders can be considered a subculture, distinguishing allow snowboarding on their mountains. In the United
themselves from alpine skiers not only by their sporting States this was mostly due to security reasons, whereas
equipment, but also by fashion, hairstyle, body piercing in Europe the skiers were very reluctant to approve of
and tattooing, as well as language, music, and off-slope this new winter sport. Meanwhile, the material dilemma
appearance and behavior. was solved: snowboards began to be produced with
steel edges; additionally, special bindings and special
History boots made it easier to control the boards.
Snowboarding has its roots in the United States. One As a result, by the end of the 1980s many ski areas
of the early pioneers who greatly influenced the in- throughout the world had opened their slopes to snow-
troduction of this winter sport was the American Sher- boarding. This was also an economic chance for
man Poppen from Michigan. In the mid-1960s he tourism and the ski-equipment-producing industry; es-
developed a toy board consisting of two attached skis pecially the latter had reached a growth plateau at the
on which one had to stand sideways. He named his time. The sale of boards in the winter of 1994–1995
construction “snurfer,” a word mixture of the words was 471,000 and rose in the following year to over
“surfing” and “snow.” This board of about 1.20 meters 1,200,000. In the 1990s, the strongest market was in
in length had neither real steel edges nor bindings North America, followed by Europe and, finally, Asia.
and was steered by a rope tied to its nose. Accordingly,
it was difficult to handle on hard slopes. However, it Competitions and Federations
was successful. At the end of the 1977, Jake Burton The acceptance of snowboarding as a sport can also be
Carpenter modified the snurfer. He attached rubber seen in the rise of the first competitions in the 1980s.
straps to the board to facilitate standing, and founded During that decade, too, a number of snowboard fed-
his own company, Burton, for the production of snow- erations in various European countries and North
boards, which has been successful until today. At America were founded. The first governing body for
about the same time the experienced surfers Dimitrije competitive and grassroots snowboarding was the
Milovich and Tom Sims, the latter world champion in United States Snowboard Association (USASA), which
skateboarding at the time, also started to improve the goes back to 1988. On an international level the
Snowboarding on sand dunes.
International Snowboard Federation (ISF), which de- Tour, in the long run the FIS survived as the sport’s of-
veloped out of the International Snowboard Associa- ficial governing body. It had more expertise in organiz-
tion (ISA) initiated in 1989, was organized in 1991. ing events and attracting sponsors and TV contracts. As
The ISF started to organize a World Pro Tour in 1987. a result, the IFS, which claimed to be more than a sport
The Federation Internationale du Ski (FIS) introduced federation, but also stood for a special lifestyle and phi-
snowboarding as an FIS discipline in 1994. They hold losophy, had to fold in 2002.
the FIS Snowboard World Cup series and the FIS Snow-
Annette R. Hofmann
board World Championships, making snowboarding el-
igible for the Olympic Winter Games. At the Winter
Olympics in 1998 in Nagano, Japan, both men and
women participated as snowboarding competitions in Further Reading
giant slalom and half pipe were held for the first time. Hebbel-Seeger, A. (1997). Snow-boarding: Ausrustung, technik,
Presently there are six snowboard events on the program fahrpraxis. Wurzburg & Niedernhausen, Germany: Falken.
Humphrey, D. (1999). Snowboarding. In D. Levinson & K. Chris-
of the Olympic Winter Games: half pipe, parallel giant tensen (Eds.), Encyclopedia of world sport (pp. 365–366). New York
slalom, and snowboard cross, each held separately for & Oxford: Oxford University Press.
men and women. Tension between the FIS and the ISF Lowenthal, K. (2001). Snowboarding. In K. Christensen, A. Guttmann,
& G. Pfister (Eds.), International encyclopedia of women and sports
arose pertaining to the responsibility for this “new” (Vol. 3, pp. 1057–1059). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group.
sport, especially with regard to the Olympic Games. Trosien, G., & Stetter, D. (1998). Globale ausbreitung des snow-
boardings und entwicklungen in Deutschland. In G. Trosien (Ed.),
Although the World Cup under the FIS’s authority Globalisiserung und sport: Business, entertainment, trend (pp. 89–
was financially less attractive than the IFS’s World Pro 102). Aachen, Germany: Meyer & Meyer.
SNOWSHOE RACING 1421
when the first “North American Snowshoe Classic” was

Snowshoe Racing run. The newest centers of snowshoe racing are in Wis-
consin, Minnesota, Colorado, and the neighboring
S nowshoe racing is of recent origin, although snow-

shoes themselves are ancient. Informal racing is
probably as old as the snowshoe itself, but serious rac-
mountain states. The races are increasingly more or-
ganized and competitive, but they still have recreational
qualities.
ing only emerged in North America in the 1970s, after
major improvements in snowshoes were introduced. What Is Snowshoe Racing?
Snowshoe races are held either on groomed trails, as
New World Beginnings for most Nordic ski events, or on unbroken snow.
Snowshoes have been used for the past 6,000 years, pri- When the “modern” phase of snowshoe racing first
marily by Amerindian peoples. Informal races have began, many races were run on groomed tracks. Some
probably taken place for centuries, but for most of its believed, however, that snowshoe racing might end up
historical career, the snowshoe had a primarily utilitar- losing all its distinctiveness and become merely a sort
ian life, enabling people to work and travel in snowy of handicapped running activity. Races through un-
conditions. The trappers, hunters, and explorers of broken snow were also problematic. When such races
North America all used snowshoes. were staged, a typical strategy was simply to “hang
As a form of recreation, snowshoeing in Canada back” while the leaders broke a more manageable path
came into its own with “snowshoe clubs.” These clubs, through the snow and then sprint at the end. In an at-
some of them two hundred years old, were popular tempt to do away with this “laggard’s advantage,”
among both French- and English-speaking populations, some recent races have featured a sequence of
but more so among French Canadians. The clubs were “primes,” rather like in cycling races, to improve the
originally tied to communities, churches, guilds, and ambitions of the pack.
military units. A small number of the Quebec clubs are The chief innovation has involved changes in the
still active. design of the snowshoe itself. The traditional snow-
In 1907, the Canadian Snowshoer’s Union was shoe was primarily a snow flotation device and, as
founded as a loose confederation of clubs. The union, such, not suited for high speed. Traditional snow-
though, never made a serious effort to transform snowshoes were large and heavy, crafted of wood, leather,
shoeing from a recreation into a more competitive and vegetable fibers. Beginning in the middle 1960s,
sport. Some snowshoe clubs, primarily among people when aluminum and other alloy frames were intro-
of French ancestry, were formed in the United States duced, weight has been reduced greatly, and the size
and were found throughout New England and in New of the shoe has become smaller. The snowshoe went
York. These, like the Canadian clubs, were mainly recre- through a process of drastic redesign, which reduced
ational, organizing only informal races. size and weight and allowed for the use of a real rac-
The long tradition of “social snowshoeing” continues ing stride. The newer snowshoes allow considerable
in Quebec and New England. However, racing in the flotation, yet they are small enough to accommodate
east has taken on a more com- a stride that is more like that of a modern runner than
petitive edge since 1988, that of a heavily laden trapper. The new shoes have
An old style of snowshoe,

better for traveling than for racing.
Snowshoe Racing
Snowshoe Racing in Montreal in 1858
On Tuesday Afternoon, the annual races of the Mon- complished in thirty-one minutes twenty-two sec-
treal Snoe-Shoe Club took place at Ouimet’s race onds. The winner of this race seemed to feel himself
course, near Mile End. The day was rather cold, yet a very important personage, for he immediately
notwithstanding this, at least a thousand persons donned a fantastic head-dress, and strutted about his
were present, to witness the feats of speed in this discomfited compeers with a very bombastic air. The
manly and exhilarating exercise. The grand stand was prize for this race was forty dollars.
filled with ladies, and on the Steward’s stand we no- The next was a hurdle race over four three feet
ticed Sir William Eyre, Commander of the Forces, hurdles; the prize being ten dollars. Preparations for
with his staff. The first race was a distance of four this race were made by six whites and three Indians;
miles, and nine Indians from Caughnawaga, entered it was a most exciting struggle—the first hurdle was
it. The start was good, and for a considerable distance leapt almost simultaneously by all the competitors,
the same position was maintained. The first mile was but between the first hurdle and the second, distances
accomplished in six minutes twenty seconds; the sec- were changed, Mr. Brown keeping first, followed
ond in eight minutes twenty-two seconds; and the closely by Mr. Murray, who fell while clearing the
third in nine minutes thirty seconds; the forth was ex- third hurdle, an Indian who was following having
citing, the contest being very close. The Indian who trodden on his snow-shoe. He was up in an instant,
came in victor during the three previous miles and for however, But Mr. Brown, first—Mr. Murray, second,
a long distance on the fourth, was the third; but and an Indian third.
when within half a mile of the stand, he made a dash A race of a half a mile by boys under 14 years of
and took the lead, which he kept and came in some age, for a prize of $5, was easily won by Master Ed-
ten yards ahead of the second Indian, and fifteen ward Whitehead.
ahead of the third. The last mile occupied by seven Source: New York Clipper. (1858, March 13), p. 372.
minutes and ten seconds, and the four miles were ac-
completely replaced wooden snowshoes in the mod- Competition at the Top

ern races. Two prominent modern-style races are the John Bear-
The deck of the racing shoe has also changed. It is no grease in Duluth, Minnesota—a marathon of 25 kilo-
longer webbed but solid, and generally made from rub- meters run in conjunction with a dogsled race of the
berized or other treated nylon. The deck is no longer at- same name—and the Birkebeiner in Northern Wiscon-
tached to the frame with rawhide lacing, but riveted or sin, associated with a prestigious cross-country ski event.
clipped to it. This preserves some of the flotation qual- There is also an annual event now being run on one of
ities of snowshoes but reduces overall size. Most mod- the original sections of the famous Alaskan Iditarod.The
ern shoes also feature a cleat at the toe or ball of the U.S. Snowshoe Association has been holding an annual
foot for traction, and some are cleated at the heel as National Snowshoe Championship (in a different loca-
well. The overall result is a much lighter and smaller tion each year) since 2001. Snowshoe racing is not an
shoe, with improved climbing ability, that still allows a Olympic sport, but proponents hope it will become one.
certain amount of controlled sliding on down slopes.
Binding, with the new shoes, seems to be still be evolv- Governing Body
ing. Many of the best racers simply lace regular running The International Amateur Snowshoe Racing Federa-
shoes to the snowshoe. tion sets the rules for snowshoe racing: The United
SOARING 1423
Build up your weaknesses until they

become your strong points. ■ KNUTE ROCKNE
States Snowshoeing Association (www.showshoeracing. During the 1890s Otto Lilienthal of Germany is said
com) is a key organization in the sport, and there are to have made more than two thousand glider flights. In
groups promoting the sport in a number of countries, in- 1891 he was the first man to fly more than 100 meters.
cluding Canada, Finland, France, and Japan. About that time Orville and Wilbur Wright in the
United States and Percy Pilcher of England were work-
Alan Trevithick and
ing on similar glider developments. Near San Diego,
Robin O’Sullivan
California, John Montgomery also conducted experi-
ments during that period and is said to have even flown
Further Reading before Lilienthal. Montgomery is credited with making
Bauer, E. A. (1975). Cross-country skiing and snowshoeing. New York: a nine-minute unpowered flight that broke a record set
Winchester Press. by the Wright brothers. Montgomery, Lilienthal, and
Osgood, W., & Hurley, L. (1975). The snowshoe book (2nd ed). Brattle-
boro, VT: Stephan Greene Press.
Pilcher all died in glider accidents.
Octave Chanute, at sixty years of age in 1896, took
the first of a reported two thousand flights without an
accident. During the autumn of 1902 alone, the Wright
brothers made more than one thousand glider flights,
Soaring many involving turns and distances of more than 183
meters, before their first powered flight in 1903.
S oaring is similar to gliding. Both sports are practiced

by people who either fly for the sheer enjoyment of
powerless flight (gliding) or compete as individuals or
World War I stalled glider development as the world
went to war. After the war ended, however, the Treaty of
Versailles prohibition on powered flight in Germany
members of teams in glider competition (soaring). prompted great progress in the development of gliding.
Many people do both. Three thousand German schoolboys enrolled in glider in-
struction during 1928 alone. Germans dominated world
To Air Is Human gliding throughout the 1920s and early 1930s. Wolf-
The theory of soaring dates to the first time people gang Klemperer was the first to fly more than 1,000 me-
saw birds flying without flapping their wings. Baby- ters in 1920, and Robert Kronfeld set the world distance
lonian cave etchings and Greek mythology tell of peo- record of 100 kilometers in the late 1920s.
ple’s dream to fly. The fifteenth-century Italian painter, In 1934 Richard DuPont of the United States set the
sculptor, architect, and engineer Leonardo da Vinci world distance record of 248 kilometers. By the late
reflected on various kinds of flying apparatus, includ- 1930s the record was 557 kilometers. Development
ing parachutes. continued but was slowed during World War II when
Balloons were the first devices that provided people military applications of gliding forced sport gliding into
with the means to fly. Then, in 1848, Sir George Cay- the background.
ley, a British scientist, built the first successful heavier- Since then gliding as a sport has flourished, and several
than-air device: a glider that was said to have carried a countries have large soaring communities. More than 150
ten-year-old boy several yards after being launching pilots have flown flights farther than 1,000 kilometers.
from a hill. Although research continued during the in-
terim, from the 1890s onward people in Germany, Eng- How Does a Glider Glide?
land, and the United States increasingly researched and Understanding soaring requires understanding how a
developed gliders and flying techniques. glider—an airplane without an engine—flies through
the atmosphere. Air flows over the wings of a glider in better than other pilots are the champions and record
much the same way as it flows over the wings of a pow- holders.
ered airplane, which is propelled through the air by the
force of its engine. However, a glider has no engine. Classes of Gliders
Gliding flight can be achieved only by descending the World competition generally recognizes three classes of
glider, speeding it up, and causing air to flow around its gliders: 15-meter, open, and standard. A fourth class—
wings and tail surfaces. Therefore, a glider (or sailplane, the world class—has been approved, but it has yet to
as it is often called) is always descending, usually at a compete on any widespread basis.
rate of between 45 and 90 meters per minute in still air.
The acceleration of air over the wings of the glider 15-METER CLASS
produces a lifting force that counterbalances the weight Fifteen-meter class gliders have a maximum wingspan of
of the glider and slows its rate of descent. If not for the 15 meters and a maximum weight of 525 kilograms.
force of lift, gliders would fly straight down. They in- These gliders have control devices called “flaps” that en-
stead follow predictable glide ratios. A glide ratio is a able them to fly a more controlled approach for landing
measure of how far a glider will travel forward (hori- and that enhance performance in other ways. The maxi-
zontal distance) for each unit of altitude it loses (verti- mum glide ratio of most 15-meter class gliders is 45 to 1.
cal distance). A 40 to 1 glide ratio, for example, means
that a glider could travel (in still air, with no updrafts or OPEN CLASS
downdrafts) 40 kilometers over the ground for each The only specification for open class gliders is that their
kilometer of altitude above the ground. Modern gliders maximum weight cannot exceed 750 kilograms. Open
have glide ratios of 20 to 1 to 60 to 1, or 20 to 60 me- class gliders typically have wingspans of about 25 me-
ters forward for every 1 meter downward. Older gliders ters and a maximum glide ratio of 60 to 1.
generally have steeper glide slopes.
Glider pilots fly at specific speeds to obtain the per- STANDARD CLASS
formance expected of their gliders. Flying at “best glide Standard class gliders are similar to 15-meter class glid-
speed” allows a glider to go the greatest distance pos- ers except that their performance is more restricted. In
sible. Flying at “minimum sink speed,” usually slower particular, flaps are not permitted, and standard class
than the best glide speed, allows a glider to stay in the gliders have a maximum glide ratio of 42 to 1.
air for the longest possible time—but not glide the far-
thest distance. WORLD CLASS
Although gliders are capable of rolls, loops, and World gliding authorities recently approved the world
other aerobatic maneuvers that enable them to climb class. Enthusiasts hope this class will result in a simple,
for short periods, rather than to continually descend, a cheap, easy-to-fly glider that can be economically pro-
glider, in gliding flight, is always descending. duced in many countries.
Airplanes and automobiles must stop periodically to
refuel. What makes soaring a sport is the challenge of Methods of Launching
finding and using ascending air currents to keep the Gliders cannot propel themselves through the air with
glider aloft—to cause it to climb faster than it descends sufficient force to attain flying speed, which is normally
(which it always is)—so that distance, height, or flight du- 48–64 kilometers per hour. Some outside initial force
rations that are not possible in still air can be achieved. must be applied to get the glider moving fast enough
In a sense updrafts are the fuel of gliders. Pilots who excel that adequate airflow passes around the wings to over-
at finding and using the invisible ascending air currents come the force of gravity and cause the glider to fly.
SOARING 1425
Through the years people have used several methods upward. That practice is recognized as very dangerous
to provide this speed, including dropping heavy weights and little used in modern glider flying. The safe rule is
on the ends of ropes to pull the glider into the air; to avoid thunderstorms.
pushing the glider down a hill until airflow over the
wings is sufficient to produce flight; pulling the glider MOUNTAIN WAVE FLYING
with elastic-like ropes and “slingshotting” it to flying For mountain wave flying, gliders find strong lift pro-
speed; hooking it behind an airplane that takes off and duced downwind of mountains as the mountains are
pulls the glider to an altitude from which gliding flight struck by strong winds at near-perpendicular angles.
can begin; pulling it into the air on long cables reeled These winds can propel a glider thousands of meters
in by engine-driven winches; and pulling it into the air above the altitudes where it first encountered the moun-
on ropes behind automobiles. tain wave lift. Many world records have been set, par-
The Wright brothers launched their early gliders by ticularly in the United States, where mountain wave
using the slopes of sand dunes near the Atlantic Ocean. phenomena lend themselves to strong updrafts and great
Other people used “shoulder launches” in which assis- altitude gains. Soaring in a mountain wave usually re-
tants held the glider aloft and ran with it into the wind quires special equipment such as heated clothing, sup-
until it flew. Today a glider usually is towed aloft by a plementary oxygen, and other high-altitude precautions.
rope attached to a powered airplane. This technique is Expert mountain wave soarers say nothing compares
called “aerotow.” Glider pilots using this form of launch with the views of a High Sierra or Rocky Mountain
must be able to fly safely and smoothly behind the tow- wave flight or the views of the European Alps.
plane as it ascends until the glider release altitude is
reached. THERMALING
Thermals—rising columns of warmer-than-normal air
Types of Gliding —occur where the sun heats surface geographical fea-
After a glider reaches sufficient altitude and airspeed, tures to temperatures hotter than the surrounding ter-
the pilot pulls a release handle in the cockpit, the tow- rain. Such updrafts may rise hundreds of feet per minute
ing rope is released, and the glider is in free flight. If suf- faster than surrounding air. Gliders soaring in thermals
ficient lift to sustain flight is not found rather quickly, are lifted, often thousands of feet. An instrument in a
the glider will usually be forced to land within a matter glider that shows the speed of rising air indicates entry
of minutes. into a thermal. The challenge of soaring in a thermal is
The goal is to soar rather than to glide. Several meth- to keep the glider in the narrow column of air by flying
ods of remaining aloft are used. All rely on pilot skill it in precise circles to maintain the greatest upward
and knowledge in finding air currents rising at a greater speed. The ability to find thermals, often extending
rate than the glider’s “built in” rate of descent—between thousands of feet up from the surface, allows pilots to
45 and 90 meters per minute. These methods are moun- move from one thermal to another, increasing altitude
tain wave flying, thermaling, land and sea breeze flying, with each thermal, thus enabling great altitudes, dis-
and ridge flying. An additional source of lift can be ob- tances, and durations.
tained by flying under or near developing cumulus
clouds that owe their formation and sustenance to the L AND AND SEA BREEZE FLYING
updrafts found directly underneath them. During the Land and sea breezes are caused by wind changes near
early days of soaring, when people did not understand the shoreline that create differential temperatures of the
much about hazardous weather, pilots also used areas land and sea at different times of the day. In land and
near (or inside) thunderstorms to propel themselves sea breeze flying, glider pilots, like birds that gracefully
glide there, take advantage of these alternating breezes levels of competition. Pilots who compete at the inter-
to soar into the headwinds they produce. national level do so as representatives of their National
Aero Club under the umbrella and sanction of the FAI.
RIDGE FLYING The first world championship of soaring was held in
In ridge flying pilots find updrafts that are produced 1937 at Wasserkuppe, Germany. No championships
when wind strikes the side of a vertical terrain feature were held during World War II or shortly thereafter.
such as a hill, mountain, or ridge line at an angle of Now, during every odd calendar year, the FAI sanctions
about 90 degrees, producing updrafts on the side of the a world gliding championship for each of the three
feature from which the wind is blowing. Gliders in such classes (open, 15-meter, and standard).The world cham-
updrafts have flown in ridge “lift” without descending pionship is usually held during a three-week period,
for hundreds of miles at great speeds. Flights of more with the first week devoted to practice and the last two
than 1,000 kilometers are not unusual in the strong weeks to competition.
ridge lift behind fast-moving weather fronts. At the twenty-sixth World Gliding Championship in
Bayreuth, Germany, in 1999 Giorgio Galetto of Italy
Birds of a Feather won the 15-meter class; Holger Karow of Germany
The popularity of air sports generally, and soaring won the open class; and Jean-Marc Caillard of France
specifically, has increased significantly during the last won the standard class. The Nation’s Cup Trophy went
several decades. Structure and uniformity in manage- to the eight pilots of the German team.
ment were needed to develop the sport and devise ac- Phases of soaring competition are called “tasks.” Each
cepted rules of competition among pilots and nations. day at the world championship, for example, pilots fly
As a result, most nations in which any organized air around a specifically assigned course comprised of
sport is conducted have formed National Aero Clubs to clearly defined turn points on the ground. These turn
represent them to the world governing body for air points are prominent road intersections, the ends of
sports, the Federation Aeronautique Internationale airfield runways, or other distinctly identifiable geo-
(FAI), headquartered in Paris. Each air sport is repre- graphical landmarks over which pilots must fly.
sented within the FAI by a group from member na- During world championships before 1995 pilots were
tions that participate in that sport. These groups make required to photograph turn points to prove they had
rules for their respective sports and administer their ac- flown the prescribed course. However, beginning in
tivities internationally. The representative group for 1995, pilots carried a “data-logger” that electronically
soaring is the International Gliding Commission (IGC). records time, position, and altitude using signals received
The IGC makes rules by which world soaring com- from satellites of the Global Positioning System (GPS).
petitions are conducted, approves claims for glider When pilots are ready to begin the day’s task, they fly
world records, awards badges to recognize skill and ac- over the landmark that defines the starting point. Then
complishment by pilots, and otherwise administers in- they fly each turn point, in order, until returning to the
ternational conduct of soaring as a sport. finish point. After the flight GPS data are downloaded
into a computer for display, analysis, and scoring. The
World Competition pilot with the fastest speed around the course is the
Each country, through its National Aero Club, local daily winner. Other pilots are awarded points based
glider clubs, and commercial soaring enterprises, con- on the ratio of their speeds to that of the winner’s.
ducts local, regional, and national competitions to re- Points are accumulated during the competition to de-
ward skill and to select persons to represent it in various termine the champion in each class.
SOCCER 1427
Some people think football is a matter of life and

death. I don’t like that attitude. I can assure them it
is much more serious than that. ■ BILL SHANKLY
Levels of Accomplishment Stewart, K. (1994). The glider pilot’s manual. Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife
Publishing.
The FAI awards badges to recognize milestones in soar-
Weiss, J. B. (n.d.). Gliding and soaring flight. London: Sampson Low,
ing: The Silver, Gold, and Diamond badges signify ac- Marston.
complishment for height attained, distance flown, and Welch, A., & Welch, L. (1965). The story of gliding. London: John Murray.
Wills, P. (1974). Free as a bird. New York: Barnes & Noble.
duration achieved. The Silver badge is the first level of
international soaring recognition, intended to foster
self-reliance in a new pilot. The requirements for this
badge are completion of a flight of at least 50 kilome-
ters over a straight course, an altitude gain of at least Soccer
1,000 meters, and a flight duration of at least five
hours. The Gold badge requires a distance flight of at
least 300 kilometers, an altitude gain of at least 3,000
meters, and a flight duration of at least five hours. The
S occer—known as “football” in most of the world—
is the world’s most popular sport. It involves two
teams of eleven members trying to kick a ball into a
Diamond badge is awarded for completion of three goal, although it is often played in less organized ways.
separate tasks: a flight, flown in designated turn point The modern sport was developed in England during the
sequence, of at least 300 kilometers over an out-and- nineteenth century, evolving from older ball games that
return course; a flight of at least 500 kilometers; and an were played across the globe, with perhaps the oldest
altitude gain of more than 5,000 meters. forms existing in China.
Walter D. Miller
Origins
See also Hang Gliding Modern soccer evolved from games played in England’s
elite “public” education system. Here ball games, usually
known as football, were used to discipline boys and to
Further Reading build their character both as individual leaders and as
Allen, R. C. S. (1962). Theory of flight for glider pilots. New York:
Barnes & Noble.
socially useful team players. Underpinning the values
Dank, M. (1977). The glider gang. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott. that football was thought to cultivate were ideas of
Dixon, P. (1970). Soaring. New York: Ballantine Books. masculinity and Christian conviction. The notion of
Federal Aviation Administration. (1985). Commercial glider pilot prac-
tical test standards. Washington, DC: Office of Flight Operations. “muscular Christianity” deemed that men should be
Federal Aviation Administration. (1987). Flight instructor practical test chivalrous and champions of the weak but also physi-
standards for gliders. Washington, DC: Office of Flight Standards.
Federal Aviation Administration. (1987). Private glider pilot practical
cally strong and robust. The belief that such qualities
test standards. Washington, DC: Office of Flight Standards. would create the right sort of men to lead the British em-
Knauff, T. L. (1990). Transition to gliders. Reykjavik, Iceland: pire led to a cult of athleticism within English public
Prentsmidja Arna Valdemarssonar hf.
Knauff, T. L. (1994). Glider basics from first flight to solo. Reykjavik, Ice- schools. Football thus came to be a prominent feature of
land: Prentsmidja Arna Valdemarssonar hf. life for these schoolboys, as evoked in Thomas Hughes’s
Kronfeld, R. (n.d.). Kronfeld on gliding and soaring. London: John Hamilton.
Lowden, J. (1992). Silent wings at war. Washington, DC: Smithsonian
1857 novel Tom Brown’s Schooldays.
Institution Press. Schools developed their own rules for football, which
National Aeronautic Association. (1995). World and United States avi- made interschool matches and games in the universities
ation and space records. Arlington, VA: Author.
Piggott, D. (1977). Understanding gliding. New York: Barnes & Noble. problematic. Thus, people attempted to draw up com-
Serjeant, R., & Watson, A. (Eds.). (1965). The gliding book. London: mon rules; this attempt culminated in the formation of
Nicholas Kaye.
Soaring Society of America. (1991). SSA membership handbook. Hobbs,
the Football Association (FA) at a meeting at a London
NM: Author. inn in 1863. The FA drew up a set of rules that was to
“The Association Game”

in rural England.
become the basis of modern

soccer. However, disagree-
ments emerged at the meeting
over the legitimacy of hacking
(kicking an opponent in the
shins) and the extent to which
handling the ball should be al-
lowed. These disagreements
meant that the FA’s new rules
did not find universal accept-
ance in all schools, and pro-
ponents of handling the ball
and hacking, which were
deemed more manly, formed the Rugby Football Union in the world. It involved teams being randomly paired
in 1871. Football was thus divided into soccer (alter- in rounds, with each winner progressing to the next
natively known as “association football”) and rugby round. This progression continued until just two teams
football. The term soccer evolved as public-school boys were left to meet in the “cup final.” The FA Cup added
corrupted the word association into slang. some purpose and excitement to the emerging sport of
As boys left school, they wanted to continue playing soccer. At a time of growing urbanization, it drew on
and thus formed clubs with their friends, either at college and fed rivalries between towns and was instrumental
or in the wider world. Because these young men went in turning soccer into something that people watched
into positions of influence in industry, teaching, the mil- rather than just played. Cup competitions were also an
itary, the church, and professions such as the law or opportunity for gambling and attracted upbeat news-
colonial service, they had not only the resources to form paper coverage. Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, as well as
such clubs but also the social influence to get other peo- most of the English counties, soon followed the exam-
ple, including workers, involved. Many former public ple of the FA Cup and established their own competi-
and grammar school students continued to be driven by tions, thus further cementing the sport’s popularity
the values of the cult of athleticism that they had learned across Britain. Underpinned by the popularity of cup
at school. They thus saw moral benefits to teaching the soccer, soccer emerged during the 1880s and 1890s as
masses to play. In this way soccer quickly spread both something resembling the modern sport, although the
geographically and socially. In the English provinces rules were subject to constant refinement. In the indus-
many of the early promoters of organized soccer were trial north of England the growing crowds began to be
from the lower middle classes and even the skilled work- charged for the privilege of watching and were hosted
force. Soccer probably was taken up by the lower classes in purpose-built grounds. The first men to be paid to
with such speed because of surviving traditions of ball play were industrial workers who were offered jobs in
games. Thus, the organized version of soccer that return for playing for a club that sought to raise its rep-
emerged from the public schools was not a completely utation in the burgeoning sport. Other players were of-
alien cultural phenomenon to the lower classes. fered specific fees for matches. The response to such
Integral to the sport’s development during the late practices, particularly among the middle classes of the
nineteenth century was the development of cup com- south of England, was not always favorable. Many peo-
petitions. The first such competition was the FA Cup, ple felt that playing for money undermined the sporting
founded in 1871 and still the oldest soccer competition and manly characteristics of soccer. Such tensions were
SOCCER 1429
fed as the FA Cup showed that the northern profes- beyond British shores. There the role of British trade
sionalized teams were more effective and successful. and the British Empire was key. Britain was the globe’s
Arguments over professionalism were thus tinged with most powerful economic and political force during the
class and regional prejudices and were essentially about nineteenth century. British men thus traveled the world
the meaning and future of the sport. After northern and took their favorite sports with them, setting up
teams threatened to break away and form their own as- clubs and teaching others to play. Similarly, many peo-
sociation, the southern-dominated FA reluctantly legal- ple from elsewhere in Europe came to learn or work in
ized professionalism in 1885 in order to retain control Britain, discovered soccer, and took the sport home
of the sport. with them. This popularity was not rooted just in the
With clubs now committed to paying players and simplicity and excitement of soccer; it also owed some-
charging spectators, they sought new ways to raise thing to the fashionability and prestige that British cul-
their income. In 1888 the Football League was ture enjoyed overseas. As soccer established itself in
founded with twelve teams from the Midlands and urbanized western and northern Europe at the end of
northern England who played each other on a home the nineteenth century, its new continental proponents
and away basis. This arrangement ensured regular com- began to play a role in its diffusion. The famous team
petitive soccer beyond the world of cup competitions FC Barcelona, for example, was set up in 1899 by a
and did much to raise the profile and popularity of soc- mixture of Swiss, German, and British young men who
cer. Like the FA Cup, the Football League was also to had learned soccer at college.
become a model for national soccer competitions in The spread of soccer across the rest of Europe was,
every country of the world. of course, uneven, even within individual nations. In
By the end of the 1890s the leading Football League France, a country that pioneered the international ad-
clubs could attract crowds of more than twenty thou- ministration of the sport, not until after World War I did
sand. Like the professional teams they watched and soccer establish itself fully in the south of the country.
cheered, working-class men dominated these crowds, al- In Germany and France soccer was often viewed as for-
though small numbers of middle-class men and women eign and inferior to gymnastics. Some people saw the
supporters attended, too. Soccer thus came to be re- spread of soccer as a threat to established national, re-
garded as a “people’s game,” but the reality was more gional, and local traditions of play. In Bavaria soccer
complex. The cost of attending matches put soccer be- was actually banned until 1913. However, during the
yond the reach of much of the unskilled and semiskilled interwar years soccer became firmly established as the
workforce. The clubs and competitions were governed leading spectator sport across most of industrial Eu-
and administered by the middle classes, who kept a rope. The use of soccer as a means of entertaining
tight control over the contractual freedom and pay of troops during World War I was one important cause of
their players. Thus, although soccer gave many working soccer’s success. The development of international
men much pleasure, the sport remained within the con- matches was another. The first international match took
fines of wider material and political conditions. place between England and Scotland in 1872, but be-
tween the two world wars such matches became quite
Beyond Britain common on the continent and were used as a source of
The foundations of modern soccer were firmly estab- national pride and prestige, most obviously in the fas-
lished in Britain by the end of the nineteenth century. cist dictatorships of Italy and Germany. As soccer’s pop-
While its popularity and gradual acceptance as part of ularity was cemented during the 1920s in continental
national culture continued in Britain during the first half Europe, the sport also became professionalized there.
of the twentieth century, the sport also began to spread Again, this professionalization was neither universal
Anyone can cook aloo gobi, but who can

bend a ball like Beckham? ■ PARMINDER
NAGRA AS JESS IN “BEND IT LIKE BECKHAM”
nor even. West German soccer did not become profes- television allowed a spectator to both see more of the
sional on a full-time basis until 1963. action and not suffer the discomfort of being in a sta-
South America was the first continent beyond Europe dium that often was cold, dated, and uncomfortable. A
where soccer took a grip. Again, the influence of the realization of this fact made soccer’s authorities often
British was key. British emigres, brought to Argentina, distrustful of television’s interest in broadcasting
Brazil, and Uruguay by trade opportunities and links, matches. They feared that attendances would fall as
set up teams, sometimes inviting the local population to people stayed home to watch rather than pay to attend
play with them, sometimes seeing their efforts imitated a match. Such fears underestimated the appeal of the at-
by local elites. Other clubs owed their origins to mem- mosphere and communal experience of a live match.
bers of the South American social elite who were edu- The potential that television held for boosting rather
cated in Europe. Traces of the British influence are still than undermining the general popularity of soccer be-
visible today, with some leading clubs, such as River came apparent with the success of broadcasts of the
Plate and Boca Juniors, having English names. Not until World Cup and, to a lesser extent, European club com-
1903 were the sport’s rules translated into Spanish and petitions. Technical developments during the 1960s and
the Argentine Football Association began holding meet- 1970s allowed such matches to be watched live across
ings in Spanish. As the sport shifted from its British ori- the globe, turning the global sport into a shared global
gins, it became less socially exclusive, spreading to the experience.
urban masses and becoming an integral part of their Television also extended the potential for the com-
popular culture. In 1916 a South American soccer as- mercial exploitation of soccer. Since the advent of pro-
sociation (CONMEBOL) was formed and the first fessionalism, soccer had been run on business lines in
South American championship, now known as the capitalist countries, but rarely was profit a key motive
“Copa America,” competed for. for club owners. Instead, most financial surpluses
Soccer also spread to other continents, but it did not tended to be used to improve the team or its ground.
attain the huge popularity that it achieved in Europe With television the potential for sponsorship and ad-
and South America. A short-lived professional league vertising increased significantly. Most obviously, dur-
was formed in the United States in 1894, but its popu- ing the 1980s sponsors’ names began to appear on
larity was patchy and largely rooted in urban European team shirts, and competitions were renamed after spon-
immigrant communities. The sport’s diffusion in colo- sors. The large audiences that televised soccer attracted
nial Asia and Africa was hindered by local political and appealed to advertisers, pushing up the fees that broad-
ethnic tensions, whereas in Australasia and North casters were willing to pay for the rights to matches.
America soccer was overshadowed by already devel- During the 1990s these broadcasting fees spiraled as
oped local versions of football. the decline of hooliganism improved soccer’s image
and as its owners and administrators developed more
Television Era commercial mind-sets. Instead of using this increased
In the post-1945 world the mass media drove soccer to income to secure their financial futures, clubs splurged
new heights of popularity across the globe. Newspaper the income on players’ wages, turning the sport’s stars
and magazine coverage continued to foster an interest into multimillionaires. Across the globe, apart from the
in the sport, while radio coverage allowed those fans un- most popular clubs such as Real Madrid or Manchester
able to attend matches to share in its excitement. Tele- United, soccer’s financial base remains unstable. Ac-
vision took this immediacy even further, particularly companying such developments has been an increas-
from the mid-1960s when technical developments in ingly fluid and globalized labor market for players.
close-ups and replays meant that watching a match on Leading clubs across the developed world hire the best
SOCCER 1431
players they can attract, regardless of their origin, turn- ganism of previous decades, although it continues to
ing their teams into multilingual symbols of globaliza- take place on a reduced scale away from soccer grounds
tion. Such cosmopolitan teams have furthered the trend and at some international tournaments.
that television began, as fans often support teams from For many men soccer has been a key part of their
places with which they have no personal connection. masculinity, something they were socialized into at
Although the fame and fortunes of players have risen, young age, a sport that allowed them to gain the respect
the social structure of supporters has remained more of their peers and display their emotions and a sense of
static. Soccer remains a sport of the masses across the communal identity in an uninhibited fashion.Yet, for all
globe, although it has also always drawn significant sup- its association with maleness, soccer is also played and
port from the middle class. In Europe during the 1990s watched by women. The earliest women’s matches were
clubs sought to pay for players’ wages and the modern- played in England during the 1890s, but women play-
ization of their stadiums by increasing ticket prices.This ers struggled against the characterization of soccer as
practice priced live soccer beyond the means of some of something inherently manly. The disruption of social
its supporters, but the reach of the mass media meant norms during World War I led to a temporary upsurge
that the sport’s emotional pull remains strong for such in women’s soccer in parts of western Europe, but not
fans. Indeed, with increased television coverage, the age until the wider movement for the social liberation of
and gender boundaries of soccer fans perhaps ex- women during the 1960s and 1970s did women’s soc-
panded. An estimated 1.3 billion people watched the cer gradually, and often grudgingly, begin to win ac-
1998 World Cup final on television. The level of com- ceptance from soccer’s male authorities and supporters.
mitment to soccer amongst members of this vast audi- Although a women’s World Cup began in 1991 and
ence obviously varied significantly. However, for many was included in the Olympics from 1996, across most
people across the globe, soccer remains an integral part of the world women’s soccer continues to struggle to es-
of life, a sport that, via the loyalty felt toward individual cape the shadow of the men’s sport.
clubs, adds structure and meaning to life. North America is the one part of the globe where soc-
Such loyalty has not always been for the good. cer has not dominated spectator sports. In North Amer-
Racism, crowd disorder, and violence have been a prob- ica soccer has struggled against the popularity of
lem throughout soccer’s history. Before the 1960s soc- baseball, U.S. football, and basketball, all of which
cer hooliganism was associated with continental claim to be more authentically American. However, the
Europe, but then people began to view it as the “English fortunes of soccer in the United States seemed to in-
disease.” Hooliganism’s form varied across different crease during the late 1970s. Some clubs in the North
cultures and periods, but it usually was characterized by American Soccer League (NASL), most notably the New
fighting between opposing fans. Although occasionally York Cosmos, brought in great foreign talents such as
resulting in deaths, hooliganism was more typically Pelé and Franz Beckenbauer and attracted crowds com-
based on show and scuffles than serious violence. In parable with those of the largest European clubs. How-
1980s Europe many hooligan groups developed fash- ever, the NASL failed to become financially sustainable
ionable dress codes and became clearly identifiable sub- and closed in 1985. The desire of the Fédération Inter-
cultures of their own. Sociologists have debated soccer nationale de Football Association (FIFA), soccer’s world
hooliganism’s causes, with explanations varying from governing body, to break into the North American mar-
economically and politically oppressed young men vent- ket led it to hold the 1994 World Cup in the United
ing their frustrations to people simply enjoying fighting. States—a decision treated with some skepticism around
In Europe the growth of all-seater stadiums and close- the rest of the globe. The tournament was a success and
circuit television has led to a decline in the overt hooli- led to the reintroduction of a national professional
league in the United States but it did not lead to a was based around each player dribbling the ball to-
major breakthrough in soccer’s overall popularity there. ward the goal and then shooting or seeking to regain
However, soccer’s North American profile (together possession if tackled. As soccer took off with the
with women’s soccer in general) was boosted in 1999 British working class, it evolved into a more fluid pass-
when the United States hosted and won the Women’s ing game with the emphasis on team play. This led to
World Cup, with 40 million people watching the final a clear demarcation of different roles for players
in the United States alone. Today soccer remains over- within teams and the gradual establishment of essen-
shadowed in U.S. culture by other sports, but its popu- tially attacking and defending roles. During the inter-
larity as a participatory sport continues to grow steadily, war years defensive positions began to take on more
especially among girls and middle-class children. importance in tactics, despite a change in the offside
rules in 1925 intended to create a more attacking
Nature of the Sport game that would be more attractive to paying specta-
Soccer can be reduced to two teams trying to place the tors. Stopping goals increasingly became easier than
ball into a recognizable goal and outfield players being scoring them, putting creative players—those who
prohibited from touching the ball or wrestling or hack- were routinely able to pass the ball to a teammate in
ing each other. The field of play, numbers of players, a goal-scoring position or dribble past defenders with
and duration of a match can all be changed without de- a mixture of skill and speed—at a premium. Yet, not
stroying the sport’s essence. Furthermore, the basic until the 1960s did teams begin to assign more play-
skills of kicking and controlling the ball are not difficult ers to primarily defensive duties than to attacking
to master. This simplicity and adaptability have under- ones. Defensive play and the tight marking of oppo-
pinned the sport’s popularity and diffusion, allowing it nents became particularly common in Italian soccer. A
to be played everywhere from the beach to the street. brief and entertaining departure from the emphasis on
Even in its organized form, soccer has only seventeen not conceding goals came from the Dutch national
rules. These rules have been subject to ongoing refine- teams of the 1970s. Playing a system christened “total
ment, and their simplicity belies the intricacy of the football,” all players were supposed to be able to both
skills, tactics, and ebb and flow of the sport. The adult- attack and defend, thus breaking down the rigidity of
organized form requires eleven players on a team, with positional play. Today the 4-4-2 system (four defend-
one player nominated as goalkeeper and able to handle ers, four midfielders, and two attackers) dominates
the ball in the defined penalty area. It is played on a the professional sport across the globe.
marked grass pitch (playing field) that is a maximum of The nature of soccer fandom, like the sport itself, is
110 meters long and 69–91 meters wide, with goals based around oppositions: To support a team is also to
7.3 meters wide and 2.5 meters high and constructed have a rival. This dyadic role explains why soccer is
of metal posts with nets. Matches last for ninety min- such a powerful source of both individual and collec-
utes, with the winner being the team who scores the tive identities. Across the globe some of the strongest
most goals, although ties are permissible in league com- team rivalries are infused by wider ethnic, economic,
petitions. The settling of tied matches in tournaments religious, or political tensions. Fandom can take on
and cup competitions has been a controversial issue. religion-like qualities for many supporters, most of
Replays, extra time, and penalty shootouts all are used. whom have an unrivaled passion for a single team. A
Yet, ties remain a normal part of soccer and separate it team’s ground holds a deep emotional significance,
from many other sports. players are worshipped (both as individuals and as
Of course, the tactics of soccer have evolved during team members), and rituals surround the match-day ex-
its history. During its public school infancy soccer perience. The rituals of match day vary across cultures,
SOCCER 1433
Milan’s famous football

stadium, Stadio Giuseppe
Meazza, more commonly
known as the San Siro.
Source: istockphoto/AlamarPhotography.
confederation, although none

matches the prestige or popu-
larity of the World Cup. In
Asia, and particularly Africa,
these competitions are rooted
in the spirit of the postcolonial
era, as soccer began to flourish
and to be used by newly inde-
pendent countries as a symbol
of national pride and of a
but demonstrative show is central, with fans wearing wider sense of unity among such countries. In 2002 the
team colors and singing or chanting to declare their World Cup was jointly hosted by South Korea and Japan
support. —the first time it had been held outside Europe and the
Americas. The 2010 World Cup will be held in South
Competition at the Top Africa—the first time either it or the Olympics have
Soccer’s most important competition is the World been held on that continent.
Cup, staged every four years and comparable to— Soccer was introduced to the Olympics in 1900.
maybe superior to—the Olympics in prestige. The first Olympic soccer enjoyed some prestige during the
World Cup tournament was held in Uruguay in 1930 1920s but was quickly superseded by the World Cup
and was won by the host country, competing against and suffered from the problem that the best players
just twelve other countries. The World Cup’s popular- were increasingly professionals. Even after the Olympics
ity grew quickly, and a qualifying competition was were professionalized, FIFA has remained largely un-
used for the next tournament in Italy in 1934. The ex- supportive of the Olympic game, fearing a rival for its
tensive global television coverage that the tournament World Cup. Since 1992 Olympics soccer has taken the
received from 1970 onward made it worthy of its title. form of an under-twenty-three competition.
By 1982 the final tournament was expanded to In club soccer the European Cup, now known as the
twenty-four teams, and, although still dominated by “Champions League,” is the most prestigious event. It
Europe, the allocation of places became somewhat was begun in 1955 as a competition for winners of the
more representative of the global spread of the sport’s various European leagues. European club games, played
popularity. The final tournament was expanded to on midweek evenings and made possible by the growth
thirty-two teams in France in 1998, when its sixty-four of air travel and the development of floodlights, created
matches were watched by 2.7 million in the stadiums a meaningful European soccer community. The lure of
and a total of 37 billion people on television. For par- television money led to the competition expanding dur-
ticipating nations the competition often creates a tem- ing the early 1990s, changing from a knockout compe-
porary but strong sense of unity that cuts across class tition to a mini-league format in its early rounds. The
and regional divisions as people join to support their most successful European countries (where the televi-
nation’s team. sion market was also the greatest) were awarded extra
Brazil has been the outstanding nation in the tourna- places, and England, Italy, and Spain now provide four
ment’s history, winning the cup five times. International teams each to the competition. The monetary rewards
competitions are also held by every continental soccer of qualifying for the Champions League have become
The commonest jockey-boy in this company of mannikins can usually earn

more than the average scholar or professional man, and the whole set
receive a good deal more of adulation than has been bestowed on any
soldier, sailor, explorer, or scientific man of our generation. ■ J. RUNCIMAN
so great that for most clubs it now takes precedence has more members than the United Nations—a clear
over domestic trophies. indication of the popularity of soccer.
Like the history of all sports, soccer’s history is filled
Martin Johnes
with stars who have excited crowds. The most famous
player in history is Pelé (b. 1940). Raised in Brazilian See also Maracana Stadium; Wembley Stadium; Wom-
slums, he embodied that country’s obsession with artis- en’s World Cup; World Cup
tic soccer but he was also subjected to attempts by
Brazil’s dictatorship to exploit his status to promote its
own standing. Other stars who have influenced how Further Reading
people thought and played the sport include Stanley Darby, P. (2002). Africa, football and FIFA: Politics, colonialism and re-
sistance. London: Frank Cass.
Matthews (1915–2000, England), Franz Beckenbauer Giulianotti, R. (1999). Football: A sociology of the global game. Cam-
(b. 1945, Germany), and Johan Cruyff (b. 1947, bridge, UK: Polity Press.
Glanville, B. (1997). History of the World Cup. London: Faber & Faber.
Netherlands). Hong, F., & Mangan, J. A. (Eds.) (2003). Soccer, women, sexual liber-
ation: Kicking off a new era. London: Frank Cass.
Governing Body Lanfranchi, P., Eisenberg, C., Mason, T., & Wahl, A. (2004). 100 years
of football: The FIFA centennial book. London: Weidenfeld Nicolson.
Soccer is governed by FIFA, formed in 1904 by a group Mason, T. (1995). Passion of the people? Football in South America. Lon-
of European nations. Its initial membership of 7 had don: Verso.
Murray, B. (1998). The world’s game: A history of soccer. Chicago: Uni-
reached 73 by 1950 and 204 by 2004. FIFA is respon- versity of Illinois Press.
sible for organizing the World Cup, but responsibility for Russell, D. (1998). Football and the English: A social history of associ-
the rules of soccer lies with the International Football ation football, 1863–1995. Preston, UK: Carnegie.
Sandvoss, C. (2003). A game of two halves: Football fandom, television
Association Board, consisting of four voting represen- and globalisation. London: Routledge.
tatives from FIFA and one each from the soccer associ-
ations of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, a legacy
of the early respect for Britain’s pioneering role. FIFA’s
governance has not been uncontroversial. In particular,
it has faced tensions over the relative power and influ-
ence of the different continental associations.The Union
Social Class and Sport
des Associations Européennes de Football has remained
particularly influential, mostly because of the greater tel-
evision money available in Europe. At the 2006 World
S ports are activities often based on the physical ca-
pacity and strategy of participants involved and are
intended to allow for competition among others that
Cup fourteen of the thirty-two places will be awarded showcases talent and effort. Sport is an aspect of virtu-
to European teams. In contrast, Africa—which, like ally all contemporary societies and is often viewed as an
Europe, entered fifty-two teams into the qualifying com- institution in modern countries. From a sociological
petition—will receive only five places. viewpoint, sport as an institution in society serves as a
Soccer is organized into continental confederations: system that often reflects broader issues by mirroring
the Asian Football Confederation (formed 1954), Con- both the best and worst of human characteristics.
fédération Africaine de Football (formed 1957), Con- Sporting competitions balance social inequalities be-
federation of North, Central American and Caribbean cause social injustices are rarely, if ever, displayed on the
Association Football (formed 1961), Confederación Su- fields of play. Sport is also thought by many to even tran-
damericana de Fútbol (formed 1916), Oceania Football scend societal boundary issues. However, while the pris-
Confederation (formed 1966), and Union des Associa- tine nature of competition exists on the field, extraneous
tions Européennes de Football (formed 1954). FIFA factors affecting sport are nonetheless omnipresent.
SOCIAL CLASS AND SPORT 1435
One sociological factor intersecting with sport is the posed to team sports and are consistent with general
stratification of social class. preferences and tastes of upper-class groups. These
A social class refers to a category of people based sports emphasize “highbrow” activities that are consid-
upon a common economic and social position. Social ered to distinguish the elite class from the rest of soci-
class intersects with various aspects of sport including ety. Examples of sports preferred by the upper middle
sport participation and social mobility through sport, class include golf, tennis, and skiing. These sports em-
which will further be discussed. phasize aesthetics and individualism and deemphasize
Two important aspects should be noted concerning team play and physical toughness.
the intersection of social class and sport. First, there are Research has also revealed that members of the work-
sports that are popular and supposedly transcend class ing class are less likely overall to participate in sports
structure. Sports such as football and baseball are two than higher classes. When they do participate in sports,
examples of spectator sports that minimize class dis- members of the working class are more active in team
tinctions. These sports are enjoyed across social classes sports, often sponsored by local businesses, employ-
and participation restrictions are often minimal. How- ers, churches, and recreation departments. In addition,
ever, spectators of these sports are separated by social members of lower social groups are more likely to par-
class in terms of economics through quality of seats and ticipate in sports that emphasize utilizing the body as an
number of attended games. instrument, in terms of strength and physical tough-
Second, social class is difficult to define in terms of ness. Examples of sports favored by the working class
categorizing groups of people. Most people in the include basketball, auto racing, and boxing. These types
United States, for example, would classify themselves as of sports have previously been labeled as “prole” sports,
middle class or belonging to a subtier of the middle after the term “proletariat.”
class (upper, middle, lower). Therefore, this article will There are various reasons for these differences in
discuss more extreme levels of social class as a means amount and choice of sport participation reflected in
of articulating specific differences. the different social classes. Two main concepts in social
research literature that are important to examine are so-
Sport Participation cial exclusion and social capital. These concepts are not
Pierre Bourdieu, a social theorist who devoted his independent of one another but rather often intersect.
study to sport and leisure issues, observed that “sport, This article examines factors that affect sport participa-
like any other practice, is an object of struggles be- tion within the realm of social class.
tween the fractions of the dominant class and also
between social classes” (Bourdieu 1986, cited in Jarvie Economics
& Maquire 1994, 193). In essence, sport is an arena Social exclusion refers to “encompassing not only low
of society where struggles exist between social groups material means but the inability to participate effectively
and it often perpetuates the status quo of class in social, political, and cultural life” (Walker & Walker
structure. 1997, 8). Social exclusion or restriction in sport is caused
Research on sport participation has revealed a rela- by intervening constraints that reduce a social class’s par-
tionship between social class and participation in sport. ticipation in some sporting activities. Intervening con-
For instance, members of upper and upper middle straints refer to obvious barriers to participation such as
classes are more likely to participate in sports than facility dues, transportation, and equipment expenses.
members of working classes. However, participants of These intervening constraints are reflected through dif-
the upper middle classes are limited to specific activities. ferences in economic means. Higher economic means af-
These activities are usually individually based as op- ford some groups the luxury of bypassing these barriers
Social Class
Althea Gibson—A Lady and a Tiger
Those days, I probably would have been more at still living pretty wild. I was supposed to be looking
home training in Stillman’s Gym than at the Cos- for a job but. . . . the hardest work I did, aside from
mopolitan Club. I really wasn’t the tennis type. But practicing tennis, was to report to the Welfare ladies
the polite manners of the game, that seemed so silly once a week, tell them how I was getting along, and
to me at first, gradually began to appeal to me. So did pick up my allowance. . . . I guess it would have been
the pretty white clothes. I had trouble as a competi- too much to expect me to change completely right
tor because I kept wanting to fight the other player away. Actually, I realize now that every day I played
every time I started to lose a match . . . . After a while tennis and got more interested in the game, I was
I began to understand that you could walk out on the changing a little bit. I just wasn’t aware of it . . . One
court like a lady, all dressed up in immaculate white, of the days I remember best at the Cosmopolitan
be polite to everybody, and still play like a tiger and Club was the day Alice Marble played an exhibition
beat the liver and lights out of the ball. I remember match there. I can still remember saying to myself,
thinking to myself that it was kind of like a matador boy, would I like to be able to play tennis like that!
going into the bull ring, beautifully dressed, bowing She was the only woman tennis player I’d ever seen
in all directions, following the fancy rules to the let- that I felt exactly that way about. Until I saw her, I’d
ter, and all the time having nothing in mind except always had eyes only for the good men players. But
sticking that sword into the bull’s guts and killing her effectiveness of strike, and the power that she had,
him as dead as hell. I probably picked up that notion impressed me terrifically. Basically, or course, it was
from some movie I saw . . . . the aggressiveness behind her game that I liked.
The Cosmopolitan members were the highest class Watching her smack that effortless serve, and then
of Harlem people and they had rigid ideas about follow it into the net and put the ball away with an
what was socially acceptable behavior. They were un- overhead as good as any man’s, I saw possibilities in
doubtedly more strict than white people of similar po- the game of tennis that I had never seen before. . . . I
sition, for the obvious reason that they felt they had had no way of knowing then that when the time came
to be doubly careful in order to overcome the preju- for me to be up for an invitation to play at Forest
diced attitude that all Negroes lived eight to a room Hills, my biggest supporter aside from a handful of
in dirty houses and drank gin all day and settled all my own people would be this same Alice Marble. . . .
their arguments with knives. I’m ashamed to say I was Gibson, A. & Fitzgerald, E. E. (1958). I always wanted to be somebody. New York: Harper
& Row Publishers.
and grant freedom to participate in any given sport. How- $630 per sport. Imposing these fees reduces the in-
ever, lower-income groups must confront and overcome volvement in sport of students from the working class.
these intervening constraints in order to participate. Thus, the possibility arises that teams could be mostly
An example of intervening constraints that affect comprised of children from affluent families. These fees
sport participation can be witnessed in public school provide an example of an economic (intervening) con-
athletic programs. An increasingly widespread strategy straint that reduces lower-income people’s opportunities
adopted by public schools is the “pay for play” ap- to participate in sport and in many cases excludes work-
proach. This philosophy requires all participants to pay ing classes altogether.
specific athletic fees for each sport, which have sharply Social marginalization of the working classes in sport
increased in previous years. According to records of also occurs through economic constraints imposed
two public schools in Ohio, fees range from $425 to upon them by higher-income groups. Higher-income
groups perpetuate the status quo of class distinction in According to social learning theory, people acquire
certain sports. Upper-middle-class sports including golf, these preferences of sport through reference groups
tennis, rowing, and swimming are essentially “adopted” within their respective social classes. Reference groups
and promoted as select sports by the upper middle (e.g., family, peers, coaches, teachers, etc.) serve as so-
class. This restriction of sports by upper classes occurs cializing agents, which establish a social class’s group
because economic (intervening) conditions essentially norms and values. It is suggested that lifestyle differ-
bar participation from lower-income groups. Affluent ences among social classes affect the preferences and
groups often participate in these aforementioned sports tastes of certain sports over others. Sports that are sup-
through expensive private clubs in fashionable neigh- ported and encouraged by one’s immediate reference
borhoods and the cost of participating in these sports group are also reflective of the preferences and tastes of
through this avenue is high. Consequently, youth in- the overall social class.
volved in these sports encounter equipment fees, travel An example of the influence of social capital on sport
expenses, and coaching costs.Youth from lower-income consumption involves “prole” sports. Working classes
classes are often relegated to insufficient public facilities, are more likely to be involved with “prole” sports and
lack of quality instruction, and poor equipment. Hence, are reflective of social class on the basis of access to so-
the quality experience of youth in different social classes cial capital. Working class values and lifestyle choices
within the same sport helps perpetuate the status quo emphasize sports that contain physical toughness,
of participation in these types of sports. speed, and physical pose. These characteristics suggest
that the preferences and tastes of working classes high-
Social Capital light and reward sports with excitement, aggression,
Social capital within the context of sport represents and violent performances. The use of the body in sport
preferences, skills, and knowledge collectively possessed also exemplifies working classes’ access to social capi-
by a specific social class. Social capital is mostly derived tal. Working classes support prole sports that often view
from one’s education, upbringing, and lifestyle and the body as a means to experience excitement. In this
these factors affect sport participation. The concept of sense, the body is viewed as a tool to accentuate work-
social capital in many ways is a more powerful factor of ing class values of aggression and physical prowess in
participation in sport across social classes. While eco- sport. Prime examples of sports that emphasize these
nomic means allow members from the upper classes to characteristics include basketball and boxing. These
indulge in various sporting activities, the concept of so- physical sports emphasize the social capital of the work-
cial capital confines sport participation within respec- ing class consistent with rewarding excitement and
tive social classes. These limits of sport participation not aggression.
only occur from a top-down perspective, but also occur Upper middle classes avoid prole sports because the
across social classes. preferences and tastes associated with these sports are
Antecedent constraints are a social class’s access to not consistent with upper-middle-class values. High-
“economic, social, cultural, and symbolic forms of cap- income groups favor sports that stress aesthetic per-
ital” (Bourdieu 1986, cited in Collins & Buller 2003, formances and devalue sports of toughness and hard
423). Antecedent constraints differ from intervening labor. Upper-middle-class values also assert that sports
constraints because most are obscure social differences are viewed as an end in themselves, enjoyed for the
that lead to specific sporting opportunities. Plainly sake of enjoyment, and are consistent with activities
stated, numerous antecedent constraints, in the form of that highlight high culture. The social capital of upper
lifestyle and upbringing, restrict access to other class middle classes is consistent with displaying one’s status
values, thus denying involvement in certain sports. and wealth. These acts of showcasing wealth on sport
consumption involve the avoidance of certain sports of streetball stems from the way one wins as opposed
associated with working classes. Thus, this avoidance of to whether one wins. Style and originality are of utmost
certain sports is an example of the upper-class snobbery importance and are considered a barrier to entry if one
exhibited toward “lower” sports classes. does not have the physical “moves” required to partici-
Social class participation in certain sports enforces pate. Creativity and expressiveness on the court, in the
the existing structure of society. In terms of access to so- form of language, is also an important aspect of the
cial capital, this perpetuation of preferences and values sport. The language of streetball is synonymous with
of sport occurs through interactions with people simi- having a verbal repartee that enables players to articu-
lar to themselves. This direct link of social support and late putdowns and demonstrate toughness. These traits
networking is one signifier of maintaining the social are reflective of lower-income classes because of the ap-
class’s ideals. This reinforcement of social capital occurs preciation of aggressive and physical play.
within working-class and upper-middle-class sports. The location of streetball is also a factor toward the
The existing structure of sport in society is also rein- exclusion of other social classes’ involvement. Inner-
forced through direct descendants. Within any social city parks and playgrounds—havens for streetball—are
class, children are direct beneficiaries of the available often located in unsafe neighborhoods. Nonetheless,
reference groups of their parents. Children from lower- these courts provide a sense of community derived
income classes may gain entrance into sports that do through people’s involvement. The court is seen as a
not require extensive parental involvement, whereas place where respect is important and is earned through
children from upper-middle-class families have access to continuous play. Outsiders or people from other areas
certain sports as a direct result of their parents’ in- must play “hard” in order to be accepted. A court such
volvement. Thus, children’s involvement with certain as Rucker Park in New York City is an example of a
sports may be predisposed by the available access and court where legends of the street game were made and
involvement of their parents. professionals still visit to showcase their talent.
It is interesting to examine how sports participation
can in fact symbolically determine one’s social class. Golf
America’s large middle class has various tiers and sport Upper-class involvement within golf is perpetuated by
as an institution may serve as a distinguisher of social both economic means and access to social capital. Rich
class. In essence, participation in sports associated with white males often construct the rules of exclusionary
specific economic and social capital access can be an in- policies within the golfing community. These policies
dicator of a specific social class. The consumption of are designed to maintain the “grass ceiling” against peo-
sports associated with a particular social class may re- ple on the basis of race, gender, and socioeconomic
define the boundaries of what is essentially defined as status. These practices are commonplace in many golf
social class. clubs, which are able to do so under the moniker of
“private.” This section will highlight the issue of social
Basketball class, although there is an intersection of exclusion
While traditional basketball often transcends societal among these groups.
boundaries, a form that is represented by lower-income From an economic standpoint, typical costs of par-
classes is “streetball.” Streetball restricts participation ticipating in golf include clubs, bags, balls, and shoes.
from other social classes mostly through access to social Even practicing golf costs money with the inclusion of
capital. Streetball is essentially basketball, but main- range balls. These participatory costs of golf are se-
tains working-class preferences and values through the verely opposed to other sports that require minimal
style, physicality, and location of the sport. The nature space and supply costs. The median cost for a round of
Social Class
The Well-Dressed Hunter
The following list of the clothing and equipment needed Eight handkerchiefs: not white, but some dull colour
for a two-month-long expedition in a temperate climate which will not attract attention from afar, if inad-
illustrates the relative luxury that an upper-class hunter vertently pulled out in sight of game.
deemed “essential” in 1895. One pair of short waterproof boots (gum boots)
Two tweed suits One waterproof cape, such as is made by Cording; an
One buckskin shirt armless contrivance, very light and portable, used
I think by cyclists
Two tweed caps
Three pairs of blankets, one waterproof sheet, one air-
Four flannel shirts
cushion
Four pairs of flannel drawers
One belt of webbing for cartridges
Six pairs of woolen socks or stockings
One pair of loose buckskin gloves, one pair of
Moccasins: the number of these depends entirely woolen mitts
upon the nature of the shooting. After ibex, I have
One boating sweater
worn out a pair in a morning, but for ordinary
Source: Phillips-Wooley, C. (1895). Big game shooting (p. 389). London: Longmans,
work a pair of good thick moccasins should last Green, and Co.
four or five days
golf in the United States is around $40, while a round as a luxury often incongruent with the lifestyle of work-
of golf at a premier public course can cost upwards to ing classes.
$110. By comparison, the first-year cost of membership
at a private course (including initiation, ownership, and Social Mobility
yearly dues) can exceed $30,000. In addition, advanc- Social mobility can occur in conjunction with sport
ing to higher levels in golf requires sufficient economic and is defined as changes in social class through im-
means for facilities, private instruction, and quality proved economic situations, education, and vocational
equipment. The high economic requirements of golf en- advances. In view of this, does sport as an institution in
able only those without economic restrictions to society serve as a vehicle for upward social mobility? In
participate. this context, sport is examined as an institution for so-
Beyond economic means, upper middle classes also cial mobility, and not viewed as a developmental, so-
have access to the social capital surrounding golf, and cial, or character-building agent often common with
these preferences, tastes, and practices are used to le- sport participation.
gitimize their position and restrict outside participa-
tion. These practices of the structure of golf include Professional Sports
specific rules and etiquette, which are deemed essential Obvious financial rewards are present for athletes who
to playing the game. In order to participate, one must “make it” to the professional level of the National Bas-
therefore assimilate a role of supporting the existing ketball Association, National Football League, National
structure. These specific practices of desirable behavior Hockey League, or Major League Baseball. However,
maintain influence over who participates. Lower-income the odds of becoming a professional in any of these
groups often lack the network support needed to gain sports is approximately 20,000 to 1. In addition, pro-
entry into golf’s culture. Without this direct link to a so- fessional athletic careers are often short-lived, averaging
cial support system, participating in golf is still viewed between four and seven years.This is significant because
The English country gentleman galloping

after a fox—the unspeakable in full
pursuit of the uneatable. ■ OSCAR WILDE
after retirement from playing a professional sport, many letes. The demand and time required by one’s sport
years still remain in a person’s work life. Thus, while the are not conducive to progressing toward one’s de-
dream exists for a professional career, the odds of up- gree. Also, lower-income student-athletes may have to
ward social mobility through this avenue are slim. work separate jobs in the off-season, which adds to
Interestingly, belief in the possibility of becoming a current demands. Another barrier to college gradua-
professional athlete mostly exists in the youth of the tion is the academic preparation required to com-
working class. Research supports that almost two-thirds plete college. Student-athletes who are less prepared
of male urban youth assume this belief in the possibility academically are more likely to take classes that suf-
of becoming a professional athlete. On the other hand, fice academic requirements, but do not matriculate
upper-income parents do not support such beliefs and are toward graduation. These barriers to graduating do
one-fourth as likely as lower-income parents to feel their not support sport as an institution for upward social
child will become a professional athlete. These beliefs by mobility.
parents and youth of working classes translate into fo-
cusing on achieving opportunities through sport, by de- The Future
veloping the necessary skills needed for certain sports. On There are relationships between sport as an institution
the other hand, upper-middle-class families concentrate and social class. However, most people do not con-
on developing life and educational skills, which translates structively examine the role of social class and sport
into better chances of upward social mobility. participation. Nonetheless, these differences of social
class and sport are caused by access to both economic
Education means and social capital. While we can easily view the
College can serve as a link to upward social mobility. way economic constraints can severely limit choices of
College graduates are more likely to earn more finan- sport participation, it is difficult to observe how access
cially than non-college graduates and have more net- to social capital, in the form of preferences, values,
working opportunities. Sports can provide a means for and tastes, directs participation in certain sports. So-
attending college by lower-income groups through ath- cial capital influences which sports are played by cer-
letic scholarships. Unfortunately, the majority of tain classes because these sports often reflect the
student-athletes are left without financial assistance values and preferences of a particular class in society.
through participation in sport. Only 15–20 percent of Streetball provides an example of how the lower-
student-athletes achieve a full scholarship, and another income class’s preferences of aggression, excitement,
20 percent achieve a partial remittance. These statistics and pose are reflected in the enjoyment of the sport,
are worse for females, who comprise only 35 percent of whereas golf is an example of upper-middle-class pref-
student-athletes. Thus while these scholarships are erences of an aesthetic sport that also helps display
achieved through sport, they are limited in number. one’s status in society.
The attainment of a college degree for student-athletes Participation in sport may also serve as a distin-
is an important factor for social mobility. Graduation guisher of the type of social class that one associates
rates for Division I student-athletes have increased in re- with. Since the United States has a large middle class,
cent years to a national average of 60 percent. However, sports may be a factor in deciphering social
graduation rates remain low (42 percent for male bas- stratification.
ketball) for revenue-producing sports. Striving for upward social mobility is often a common
Barriers to graduation for student-athletes also goal in the United States. Sport is also seen by many as
exist that are often not present for non-student ath- an avenue of improving economic and social conditions.
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM 1441
High salaries of professional athletes can serve as a way

of reaching financial and social success, although odds
are against such a venture and careers are often short-
Social Constructivism
lived. Earning a college diploma is another means of
achieving upward social mobility through sport. Yet
educational skills are still required to achieve this goal
S ocial constructivism—a research paradigm (frame-
work) and set of assumptions basic to much of the
social sciences and the humanities for at least the last
and student-athletes often face tougher roads due to forty years—in general argues that humans and human
their various commitments. culture are made, not born, that is, that human institu-
Rob Bell tions such as language and the political and ideological
assumptions that inform these institutions shape every-
thing around people.
Further Reading To a social constructivist, “nature” does not exist.
Bourdieu, P. (1978). Sport and social class. Social Science Information,
17, 819–840. Only culture exists in that human ideas about “nature”
Bourdieu, P. (Ed.). (1986). Distinction: A social critique of the judgment and what is “natural” are themselves the product of ide-
of taste (R. Nice, Trans.). London: Routledge.
Coakley, J. (2004). Sports in society: Issues and controversies (8th ed.).
ological cultural assumptions. Often seen as the dia-
New York: McGraw-Hill. metric opposite of biological determinism, which argues
Coakley, J., & Donnelly, P. (1999). Inside sports. London & New York: that human behaviors and institutions are predeter-
Routledge.
Collins, M. (2002). Sport and social exclusion. London: Routledge. mined by genetics, social constructivism set the stage for
Collins, M., & Buller, J. (2003). Social exclusion from high-performance poststructuralist theory of all kinds, allowing for an in-
sport. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 27(4), 420–442.
Eitzen, D. (1996). Classism in sport: The powerless bear the burden.
vestigation into every conceivable subject, including
Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 20(1), 95–105. sports. Because sports are so closely linked with the
Eitzen, D. (1999). Fair and foul: Beyond myths and paradoxes of sport. body, and the body is so often linked with “nature” and
Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Eitzen, D., & Sage, G. (1989). Sociology of North American sport (4th genetics, for many years sports research did not exam-
ed.). Dubuque, IA: Brown. ine the political and ideological assumptions that nec-
Gratton, C., & Henry, I. (2001). Sport in the city: The role of sport in
economic and social regeneration. London: Routledge.
essarily inform research paradigms, seeing those
Jarvie, G., & Maquire, J. (1994). Sport and leisure in social thought. paradigms as an “objective,” neutral, and transparent
London: Routledge. tool for knowledge production. Particularly with the
Luschen, G., & Sage, G. (1981). Handbook of social science of sport.
Champaign, IL: Stipes. rise of feminist theory since the 1970s and the attention
Majors, R., & Billson, J. (1992). Cool pose: The dilemmas of black man- devoted to race and postcolonial studies since the late
hood in America. New York: Macmillan.
Nylund, D. (2003). Taking a slice at sexism. Journal of Sport and Social
1980s, social constructivist paradigms provide a nec-
Issues, 27(2), 195–202. essarily self-reflexive, critical inquiry into the institu-
Pay to play in high school sports. (2004, July 30). USA Today, p. 14C. tions of sports and research methodologies used to
Sage, G. (1997). Physical education, sociology, and sociology of sport:
Points of intersection. Sociology of Sport Journal, 14, 317–339. study sports.
Shropshire, K. (1996). In black and white: Race and sports in America. For the social constructivist reality is not predeter-
New York: New York University Press.
Sleap, M. (1998). Social issues in sport. New York: St. Martins.
mined, a fixed form that is universal and never changes.
Spreitzer, E., & Snyder, E. (1990). Sports within the black subculture: Rather, for the social constructivist human agents con-
A matter of social class or a distinctive subculture? Journal of Sport struct and reproduce reality through their daily prac-
and Social Issues, 14(1), 48–58.
Walker, A., & Walker, C. (1997). Britain divided: The growth of social tices, the way they think about things, the ways they live
exclusion in the 1980s and 1990s. London: Child Poverty Action their lives. One can say, then, that reality is in this sense
Group.
Wilson, T. (2002). The paradox of social class and sports involvement.
based on a social ontology (a branch of metaphysics
International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 37, 5–16. concerned with the nature and relations of being)
Football brings out the sociologist that lurks in some

otherwise respectable citizens. They say football is a
metaphor for America’s sinfulness. ■ GEORGE F. WILL
wherein human agents do not exist independently from race, class, gender, religion, and other variables inform
their social environment or context. This idea is in con- the standpoint or position from which people view the
trast to the idea of rational choice individualism, in world, a position that determines what people focus on
which the individual makes choices independently of as well as what people don’t see. The social groups of
the context in which he or she is embedded. In the which people are members and the identities to which
structure/agency or nature/nurture debates, social con- people subscribe shape what and how people know, as
structivism insists that social structures and agents are well as how people communicate what they know. In
mutually constitutive. While the social environment de- this view societal inequalities such as those based on
fines people, simultaneously human agency creates, re- race, gender, and so forth produce a particular stand-
produces, and changes that environment through point or perspective in the marginalized group that can
people’s daily practices. Social constructivism marks a provide a more rather than less objective view than the
midway point between individualism and structuralism perspective from the lives of the more powerful because
by claiming that the two are mutually constitutive. An those people in power have a vested interest in the
athlete may choose to participate in the dominant cor- preservation of the status quo, and knowledge produced
porate model of sports, for instance, using her celebrity by those people will always be in service of that interest.
and achievements to gain endorsements, but she may Feminist standpoint theorists were influenced by the
also be critical of that model and work to change it. idea of German political philosopher Karl Marx and
Social constructivism became mainstreamed as a so- the German socialist Friedrich Engels that those people
ciological paradigm with Peter L. Berger and Thomas not in power can be society’s “ideal knowers.”
Luckmann’s 1966 book The Social Construction of Re- Social constructivism is a central tenet of poststruc-
ality. The book argued that the purpose of this para- turalism and has therefore been influential in the field
digm is to discover the ways social reality and social of cultural studies, which breaks down traditional dis-
phenomena are constructed, naturalized, and institu- ciplinary barriers to combine sociology, literary theory,
tionalized so that social phenomena appear to have film/video studies, and anthropology to examine cul-
some fundamental biological basis but don’t. There- tural institutions. Scholars working in cultural studies
fore, constructivist researchers focused on a description often emphasize how the structures of a given institu-
and analysis of institutions rather than on the individ- tion are informed by ideologies related to race, class,
ual. In this view reality itself becomes a social con- gender, and other variables. As such, it concerns itself
struction, an ongoing multidimensional process that is with the meaning and practices of everyday life in ad-
always historical and subject to change. Particular dition to forms of “high culture” such as literature or
human subjectivities inform those “facts” that people painting (cultural studies—through a social construc-
take to be objective. tivist lens—break down the distinctions between “high”
Social constructivism describes subjective, rather than and “low” culture). Cultural studies attempt to explain
objective, reality and argues that the idea of objectivity why people do particular things (such as participate in
is itself a construction often used to discredit other forms sports) in a given culture and under what sets of as-
of research because for the social constructivist, objec- sumptions they do so.
tivity is not possible because each researcher comes at Social constructivism as it has been applied through
his or her subjects from a particular, situated standpoint. poststructuralism has therefore opened the door to a
cultural analysis of sports and the particular meanings
Standpoint Theory Evolves people give sports. It has made sports a legitimate sub-
Standpoint theory evolved from this paradigm. For ject of analysis in departments where they previously
standpoint theorists such as Sandra Harding, the human weren’t (such as English or history) and has vastly
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM 1443
expanded the range of approaches to sports studies. tween genders. Gender criticism asserts that sexuality,
Key to these forms of inquiry is a focus on language/ which had previously been represented as a “natural,”
knowledge and power, which often in sports studies is private matter, is, in fact, constructed in, through, and
influenced by the work of the French philosopher by culture according to the political aims of the domi-
Michel Foucault, who asked the following questions nant culture. Gender criticism sees both gender and
about knowledge production and how people come to sexuality as existing on a continuum (some women are
“know” what they know: What counts as “knowledge”? more “masculine” than some men, and some men are
Who decides? Who is authorized to speak? Many more “feminine” than some women).
sports researchers working from a constructivist set of Gender criticism sees gender as a performance that
assumptions have found Foucault’s work useful for con- people put on, as roles that they play rather than as
ceptualizing how knowledge about athletes and various something fixed, set, given, or natural. Gender critics
aspects of the institutions related to sports is produced. would question the stereotype that women, for in-
stance, are any more “naturally” nurturing than men or
Gender, Race, and less competitive than men. In the jargon of the field, this
Postcolonial Studies of Sports idea is called “gender performativity”—gender is per-
Feminist pioneers such as Helen Lenskji, Carole formed, not given. If, for instance, a girl chooses to par-
Oglesby, M. Ann Hall, Susan Birrell, Nancy Theberge, ticipate in gymnastics because gymnastics is seen as a
Mary Boutilier, Cindy SanGiovanni, and Lois Bryson more acceptable sport for girls than is rugby, she is per-
began to look at gender as a socially constructed cate- forming gender.
gory that, rather than being a variable of the standard,
can be conceptualized as a set of relationships that is Everyone Has a Gender
constructed and maintained through human agency Like the emphasis on the fact that everyone, not just
and cultural practices. Whereas perspectives based in bi- whites, has an ethnicity in postcolonial theory, gender
ological determinism might argue that a fixed, given, bi- studies would say that everyone has a gender. Therefore,
ologically based reason exists for the social construction discussions about gender should focus not only on
of women athletes, say, as weaker, a constructivist per- women and “femininity” but also on men and “mas-
spective would point to all the ideological assumptions culinity.” Particularly in sports studies in the pioneering
that go into this perspective. In this view gender is for- work of, among others, Don Sabo and Michael Mess-
mulated as a cultural construction, not just “nature” or ner, masculinity has been formulated as a complex con-
biology. This is not to say that constructivists claim that struct producing and reproducing a constellation of
biology does not exist or that genetics, hormones, en- behaviors and goals, many of them destructive.
docrine systems, and basic physiological processes have Recently researchers have conducted a great deal of
no effect on human behavior. Rather, the idea is that bi- work from a constructivist perspective that focuses on
ology is mediated, shaped, and given meaning by lan- culturally constructed assumptions about gender, race,
guage and culture (a “constructionist” view). Whereas ethnicity, religion, and other identity variables as these
some earlier feminist views tended to fall into “essen- interact with each other to affect how particular athletes
tialism”—the view that women are essentially different are represented, who occupies leadership positions, and
from men—gender studies are more common in the how sports function as a cultural institution. These re-
academy today. searchers ask how dominant cultural assumptions
For gender critics gender difference is a symbol of op- about race, class, gender, and sexuality intersect to pro-
pression, a set of culturally constructed stereotypes that duce social relations and to what extent people accept
works to maintain and justify power imbalances be- and/or resist these. For these researchers people’s beliefs
A team is where a boy can prove his

courage on his own. A gang is where a
coward goes to hide. ■ MICKEY MANTLE
about race or sexuality are not given “facts” or “truths” R. Pitter (Eds.), Sporting dystopias: The making and meanings of
but rather cultural constructions that support in- urban sport cultures (pp. 221–247). Albany: State University of
New York Press.
equitable power relations between groups. In Mas- Cole, C. L., Giardina, M., & Andrews, D. L. (2004). Michel Foucault:
culinities, for instance, R. W. Connell argues that race Studies of power and sport. In Richard Gullianatti (Ed.), Sport and
modern social theorists (pp. 207–223). London: Macmillan.
relations are central to the formation of dominant and Connell, R. (1995). Masculinities. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univer-
subordinate masculinities, and sports are for him a sity of California Press.
highly visible site where this formation happens. Al- Griffin, P. (1998). Strong women, deep closets: Lesbians and homopho-
bia in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
though the U.S. basketball star Michael Jordan was con- Hall, M. A. (1996). Feminism and sporting bodies: Essays in theory and
tinually represented as having “no color,” David practice. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Kane, M. J. (1995). Resistance/transformation of the oppositional bi-
Andrews reads U.S. racial politics as determining, for in- nary: Exposing sport as a continuum. Journal of Sport and Social Is-
stance, the representation of Jordan as a “natural” ath- sues, 19(1), 191–218.
lete, which reinforces historical racist linkages between Maguire, J. (1999). Global sport: Identities, societies, civilizations. Ox-
ford, UK: Polity Press.
blackness, masculinity, and the body. Pat Griffin and Sabo, D., & Messner, M. (1990). Sport, men, and the gender order.
others have shown how negative social constructions of Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Shogan, D. (1999). The making of high-performance athletes: Discipline,
the woman athlete as lesbian and masculine have served diversity, ethics. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press.
to discourage homosexual and heterosexual women
from sports participation and how sexuality remains a
site for repression in the sports world. Postcolonial crit-
ics focused on women’s world sports, and scholars of
globalization investigate how all the different axes of
identity determine sports paradigms worldwide. Analy-
Social Identity
ses of the global sports process examine the gendered,
racialized, and ethnicity- and class-based nature of these
processes and try to arrive at multidimensional models
S ince their humble beginnings as folk games, most
sports have developed into formats that are almost
unrecognizable in comparison with their ancestral
to accommodate these complexities. forms. However, a theme that we can identify through-
Increasingly focused on the global stage, social con- out the evolution of sport is its role in the expression of
structivism informs a wide range of theoretical ap- social identity.
proaches to sports that analyzes relationships of From the intense regional rivalries that characterized
hegemony (influence) and representation and that looks medieval ball games to the national, religious, ethnic,
at the intersecting variables of identity as these affect the class, and political antagonisms that are present in mod-
construction of knowledge and social relations in sports ern sports, we can highlight the continued role of sport
as an increasingly powerful institution. in processes of identity construction and maintenance.
Although we should acknowledge that for some people
Leslie Heywood
—both participants and spectators—sport is sought
purely for its intrinsic value, for many other people sport
Further Reading plays a far more significant role in their lives. For exam-
Andrews, D. (2001). Michael Jordan, Inc.: Corporate sport, media culture, ple, as the sociologist Joao Nuno Coelho states with re-
and late modern America. Albany: State University of New York Press. gard to soccer, “it is fascinating, even though sometimes
Andrews, D. (2001). Sport stars: The cultural politics of sporting
celebrity. New York: Routledge. frightening, how a [soccer] team gains vast and complex
Andrews, D. (2005). Sport, culture and advertising: Identities, com- social signification and symbolism which overtake the
modities and the politics of representation. New York: Routledge.
Cole, C. L. (2003). The new politics of urban consumption: Hoop
simple outcome of a sporting competition” (1998,
Dreams, Clockers, and sneakers. In R. Wilcox, D. L. Andrews, & 159). Furthermore, the social anthropologist Jeremy
SOCIAL IDENTITY 1445
MacClancy says “sports . . . are vehicles of identity, pro- people cannot see themselves without seeing themselves
viding people with a sense of difference and a way of as others see them. Simply asserting an identity is in-
classifying themselves and others, whether latitudinally sufficient; significant others must recognize—or vali-
or hierarchically” (1996, 2). As this statement highlights, date—it within any interaction.
sport-based social identities operate in a variety of ways, By the end of the twentieth century sociologists in-
differing in content, function, and complexity. Funda- creasingly recognized that social identities are multiple
mentally, possessing a particular social identity not only and that people possess many identities. As Stuart Hall,
facilitates a feeling of shared identity with fellow mem- cultural theorist, argues, “if we feel we have a unified
bers, but also acts as a means of differentiating oneself identity . . . it is only because we construct a comforting
from other groups. In other words, identification with a story or ‘narrative of the self’ about ourselves . . . the
particular sport-based social identity indicates what or fully unified, completed, secure and coherent identity is
who one is and, equally importantly, what or who one a fantasy. Instead, as the systems of meaning and cul-
is not. tural representation multiply, we are confronted by a be-
wildering, fleeting multiplicity of possible identities,
Social Identity Theory: any one of which we could identify with—at least tem-
A Summary porarily” (1992, 277). The anthropologist Cris Shore,
The most substantial contributions to the study of iden- for example, proposes that we can view the compo-
tity have grown out of social identity theory, which was nents of a person’s identity as concentric rings, with
pioneered by the social psychologists Henri Tajfel and each ring defining a separate identity. As a person un-
John Turner during the 1970s. Tajfel defines social iden- dertakes various roles in life, different aspects of his or
tity as “the individual’s knowledge that he/she belongs her identity will become more prominent depending on
to certain social groups together with some emotional the situation and his or her position in relation to oth-
and value significance to him/her of the group mem- ers. For example, a person from Northern Ireland might
bership” (1972, 31). The theory posits that a specific define herself in different contexts as Protestant, Union-
self-inclusive social category—for example, a sports ist, or Loyalist, and “each apparently minor shift from
team—furnishes a category-congruent self-definition one label to another in fact conveys messages of con-
that forms part of the self-concept. A person perceives siderable magnitude and political complexity” (Shore
this category as a social identity that not only describes 1993, 37). Social identities thus fluctuate depending on
but also prescribes his or her attributes as part of that the context and are relative to the position of the ob-
group. The theory is based around two fundamental server. Indeed, as Hall reminds us, identities are never
processes: categorization and self-enhancement. The complete but rather are necessarily always in process—
former process elucidates group boundaries by manu- they are often fragmented and, at times, can appear
facturing group normative and stereotypical actions and seemingly contradictory.
perceptions and allocates people to the contextually
relevant group. The latter process ensures that in-group Sports Teams as
stereotypes and norms favor, in the main, that group. “Imagined Communities”
Thus, ultimately, as the social anthropologist Richard Participation in sport can represent an important com-
Jenkins states, “social identity is our understanding of ponent of a person’s social identity. An oft-cited exam-
who we are and of who other people are, and, recipro- ple is the high school football player whose sporting
cally, other people’s understanding of themselves and expertise is reflected in high social status within the
others (which includes us)” (1996, 5). In this regard, as school and local community. However, the concept of a
the social behaviorist George Herbert Mead suggests, sport-based social identity is arguably more applicable to
More than a club:

FC Barcelona, a symbol
of Catalan nationalism.
Source: Daniel Burdsey.
the collective identities shared

by particular groups than to
those of individuals.
This fact is reflected in the
academic study of sport,
where an increasingly sizeable
body of sociological inquiry
has sought to establish how
support for various sports
teams acts as a significant
source of social identity
through the creation of a
shared fan consciousness. We
should not be surprised that soccer, as the most popu- globally as vehicles through which individuals and
lar and played team sport in the world, is probably the groups can strengthen their attachment to, and identi-
primary sport in which certain teams are perceived to fication with, a particular community.
represent specific social identities. In the vast majority A key contribution to the study of social identity has
of soccer-playing countries the national team makes a been professor of government Benedict Anderson’s work
considerable contribution to the construction and main- on nationalism. He refers to nations as “imagined com-
tenance of national identity. Nevertheless, in other munities,” a concept that can also be applied to sup-
countries the relationship between soccer and national porter groups of sports teams. As John Sugden and Alan
identity is more contested. For example, in Spain strong Tomlinson, sport sociologists, highlight, “sport in many
regional identifications and interteam conflict among cases informs and refuels the popular memory of com-
supporters mean that the national team is a relatively in- munities, and offers a collective source of identification
effective vehicle for the expression of nationalist senti- and community expression for those who follow teams
ments. Instead, soccer acts as a vehicle for social and individuals” (1994, 3). In this sense the term com-
identity in the historic nationalities, where Barcelona munity implies that the members of a group possess
represents Catalans and Athletic Bilbao symbolizes common features that significantly distinguish them
Basque identity. In Germany the successes of teams from members of other groups. Membership of a com-
such as Schalke 04 and Borussia Dortmund have played munity may be determined by a variety of criteria: Peo-
a crucial role in constructing a positive regional identity ple may be required to possess particular ethnic, social,
for inhabitants of the industrial Ruhr Valley area, religious, political, or national characteristics. Fans of
whereas in the city of Hamburg supporters of FC St. sports teams can be similarly conceived of as comprising
Pauli celebrate their perceived collective intellectual, distinct communities that revolve around identification
antiestablishment identity. In Scotland and Northern with a particular team. Central to Anderson’s argument
Ireland the supporters of many sports teams reflect in- is the notion that although a person may share elements
veterate religious divisions and are strongly associated of his or her identity with many other members of a par-
with either Catholicism or Protestantism. In Africa, the ticular social grouping, he or she likely will have had di-
Middle East, and Australia large numbers of sports rect personal contact with only a small percentage of
teams are associated with ethnic groups, whether they them. This fact is why the community is perceived as in-
be indigenous or migrant. The preceding examples herently imagined. In most cases one could not con-
demonstrate the manner in which sports teams operate ceive of supporters of a particular professional team
SOCIAL IDENTITY 1447
being aware of the existence of all others who share this colonies to western Europe and North America. Since
element of their social identity, yet for the majority this this period sport has played a major role in the con-
fact is irrelevant. For them the knowledge that they form struction and articulation of postcolonial social identi-
part of the vast interdependency networks that constitute ties for former colonial populations and members of
membership of a social group is sufficient to procure their respective diasporas (scatterings).
feelings of pride and involvement, despite the absence This development is particularly the case with cricket
of close personal relationships with other people in and former British colonies. Because of the relatively
this group. small number of nations that participate in first-class
world test cricket, former British territories regularly
Sport, Postcolonialism, and play against and, with increasing frequency, defeat Eng-
Social Identity land. Despite, or perhaps because of, the fact that
Sport also plays a significant role in the expression of cricket was a key instrument in British imperialism and
social identity in relation to postcolonial populations. colonialism, for the duration of a match or series former
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the col- colonial peoples are afforded the opportunity to com-
onization of Africa and the Indian subcontinent was un- pete on equal terms with England and to literally “beat
equivocally connected to dominant European theories the masters at their own game.” Consequently, in inter-
of racial and cultural difference. Colonialism enabled national cricket the inherent ideological capabilities of
the European powers to contrast themselves with those sport are accentuated, and the game continues to op-
populations that they perceived to be backward and in- erate as an arena where significant political and post-
ferior. One of the central tenets of this ideology was colonial symbolism can be achieved. This situation is
physicality, and whereas the British categorized them- apparent with both those people who remain in the for-
selves as a “healthy race”—that is, possessing strength, mer colonies and those who have migrated to England.
vigor, and bravery—the British categorized the Indian By the end of the twentieth century people widely ac-
population, for example, as bereft of such qualities. The knowledged that, in international cricket, a substantial
importance attached to the “games ethic”—that is, the number of British Caribbeans and south Asians support
role of sport and physical education—in colonialism their country of ancestry, particularly when they are
led to the development of a mutually reinforcing cycle playing against England. Such patterns of fandom en-
that maintained that the less civilized “races” lacked the able people to celebrate tradition and feelings of conti-
characteristics needed to compete in sporting endeavors nuity with the nation from which they or their forebears
and that the sporting (non)performances of Indians migrated, together with an opportunity to distance
were symptomatic of deficiencies in their all-round char- themselves from those elements of British life with
acter. As the medical anthropologist Joseph Alter points which they are uncomfortable. For example, as the an-
out, sporting images are not just allegories of wider thropologist Pnina Werbner points out, “it is in the field
racial ideologies because the sporting body “may be of sport, through support of the [Pakistan] national
seen, not simply as a signifier of meaning, but as a sub- team, that young British Pakistanis express their love of
ject actor in a larger drama of culture and power” both cricket and the home country, along with their
(1994, 24). Sport was thus a barometer by which the sense of alienation and disaffection from British society”
differing social statuses and identities of colonizer and (1996, 101).
colonized were measured. We find similar trends in other sports, such as soccer,
After the middle of the twentieth century many where postcolonial populations have used the game to
colonies began to achieve independence, and large make symbolic gestures toward their former colonizers.
numbers of people began to migrate from former For example, in 2001, nearly forty years after Algeria
The medals don’t mean anything and the glory doesn’t last. It’s all about
your happiness. The rewards are going to come, but my happiness is just
loving the sport and having fun performing. ■ JACKIE JOYNER KERSEE
had gained its independence from France, a soccer nize that being a Manchester United fan may be as im-
match between the two countries in Paris was aban- portant an aspect of social identity for a citizen of Kuala
doned after second- and third-generation north African Lumpur as it is for a season ticket holder in Manches-
migrants invaded the pitch (playing field) to protest ter itself. Furthermore, a cursory glance at the clothing
their alienation from contemporary French society. Fur- of African migrants in European cities, such as Lisbon
thermore, during the 1998 and 2002 soccer World Cup or Barcelona, reveals not only elements of traditional
events, large numbers of supporters in Cameroon de- African dress but also important sporting markers, such
veloped an “anyone but France” mentality during as Chicago Bulls basketball vests or Auxerre soccer jer-
matches involving their former colonizers. seys. These cultural attributes represent both an in-
creasing access to modern consumer marketplaces and
The Future the significance of globally recognizable sport symbols
We should not assume that particular sport-related social in expressions of social identity. In such instances the
identities are, or will be, necessarily bound to the locations referent still possesses its specific local roots, but the
where they developed. Certainly during the majority of the identities involved become based around a wider “imag-
twentieth century social identities based on an affiliation ined community.” The huge popularity of sport also
to specific sports teams tended to be the preserve of those means that, in the early twenty-first century, social iden-
people living in the immediate location where the teams tities are being created that are purely contiguous to the
were based. Then, as a result of mass global migrations, actual sporting experience. For example, the United
by the end of the century allegiances to Glasgow Celtic or States is witnessing the dawn of the “soccer mom” who
AC Milan, for example, formed part of the social identi- derives status from, and structures parts of her identity
ties of second- and third-generation migrants in the Scot- around, the participation of her children in soccer.
tish and Italian diasporas. We should recognize that for different people asso-
However, the twenty-first century has brought new ciation with a particular sports team is likely to repre-
forms of sport-based social identities. The construction sent different levels of significance in terms of the
of these identities is a consequence not only of popu- composition of their overall social identity. Whereas
lation migration, but also of the global interchange of one person may perceive that his or her most prominent
ideologies, technologies, economies, and media. Rapid characteristic is “New York Yankees fan,” another person
advances in global media have contributed to what may rank this characteristic lower, in terms of perceived
many globalization theorists label a “time-space com- importance, than his or her role as a “citizen of New
pression,” that is, literally a decrease in the time re- York.” Nevertheless, regardless of the degree to which it
quired for people to link distinct locations. Through does so, support of a sports team clearly acts as a vehi-
cable and satellite television and the Internet people cle through which the other elements of a person’s so-
have access to “live” sporting events wherever and when- cial identity can be affirmed and articulated.
ever they take place. Consequently—although this no-
Daniel Burdsey
tion may be contested by those people who are more
“traditional” in their fandom—one can be a fan of a par- See also Athletes as Celebrities; Athletes as Heroes;
ticular team without ever seeing it play or even visiting Masculinity
the city or country where the team is based. For exam-
ple, as a result of the team’s promotional tours, satellite
TV, and marketing of merchandise in the Far East, the Further Reading
Alter, J. (1994). The wrestler’s body: Identity and ideology in north
profile of the Manchester United team is as large in India. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Malaysia as it is in England. Therefore, we must recog- Anderson, B. (1991). Imagined communities. London: Verso.
SOFTBALL 1449
Armstrong, G., & Giulianotti, R. (Eds.). (1999). Football cultures and thought he was suggesting a game outdoors. But Han-
identities. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan.
cock was serious about an indoor game and, using avail-
Bale, J., & Cronin, M. (Eds.). (2003). Sport and postcolonialism. Ox-
ford, UK: Berg. able materials, he tied together the laces of the boxing
Coelho, J. N. (1998). On the border: Some notes on football and na- glove to make a ball. He marked off a diamond inside
tional identity on Portugal. In A. Brown (Ed.), Fanatics! Power,
identity and fandom in football (p. 159). London: Routledge. the boat club and divided the alumni into two teams.
Dyck, N. (Ed.). (2000). Games, sports and cultures. Oxford, UK: Berg. The game ended 17–8, but the final score was in-
Dyck, N., & Archetti, E. (Eds.). (2003). Sport, dance and embodied iden-
significant. What was important was that Hancock and
tities. Oxford, UK: Berg.
Ellemers, N., Spears, R., & Doosje, B. (Eds.). (1999). Social identity: his friends had played the first game of softball, which
Context, commitment, content. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. has become one of the most popular team sports in the
Hall, S. (1992). The question of cultural identity. In S. Hall, D. Held,
& T. McGrew (Eds.), Modernity and its futures (p. 277). Cambridge, United States.
UK: Polity Press. Hancock’s game eventually became popular in
Hargreaves, J. (2000). Heroines of sport: The politics of difference and
Chicago, with Farragut teams playing games against
identity. London: Routledge.
Jenkins, R. (1996). Social identity. London: Routledge. teams from other gyms. In the spring, Hancock took his
MacClancy, J. (Ed.). (1996). Sport, identity and ethnicity. Oxford, UK: Berg. game outdoors where it was played on fields smaller than
Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self and society from the standpoint of a so-
cial behaviorist. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. baseball diamonds. His game was called indoor-outdoor,
Shore, C. (1993). Ethnicity as revolutionary strategy: Communist iden- and Hancock was the recognized expert on the game.
tity construction in Italy. In S. Macdonald (Ed.), Inside European
Over time, Hancock changed 19 special rules from
identities—ethnography in western Europe. Oxford, UK: Berg.
Sugden, J., & Tomlinson, A. (Eds.). (1994). Hosts and champions: Soc- his original set of indoor-outdoor baseball rules for
cer cultures, national identities and the USA World Cup. Aldershot, his indoor game, which the Mid Winter Indoor Base-
UK: Arena.
Tajfel, H. (1972). Experiments in a vacuum. In J. Israel & H. Tajfel ball League of Chicago adopted in 1889. Hancock’s
(Eds.), The context of social psychology: A critical assessment (p. 31). game become popular throughout the Midwest, espe-
London: Academic Press.
cially in Minneapolis, Minnesota, where Lewis Rober,
Werbner, P. (1996). Our blood is green: Cricket, identity and social em-
powerment among British Pakistanis. In J. MacClancy (Ed.), Sport, a Minneapolis Fire Department lieutenant needed a
identity and ethnicity (p. 101). Oxford, UK: Berg. game to occupy the idle time of his firemen. Using the
Worchel, S. (Ed.). (1998). Social identity: International perspectives.
London: Sage. vacant lot near the firehouse, Rober placed bases
10.6 meters (35 feet) apart and used a scaled-down
medicine ball for a ball. The players hit the ball with a
bat 5 meters (2 inches) in diameter. Other fire compa-
Softball nies began to play Rober’s game, and by 1895, he
had transferred to another fire company where he or-
E ach year, Thanksgiving marks an anniversary of one

of the most popular team sports in the United States
—softball. On that day in 1887, alumni of Yale and
ganized a team called the Kittens.
In the summer of 1900, the captain of Truck Com-
pany No.1, George Kehoe, named Rober’s version of
Harvard waited inside the Farragut Boat Club in softball, “Kitten League Ball,” which was shortened to
Chicago, Illinois, for the outcome of the Harvard–Yale “Kitten Ball.” Rober’s game remained Kitten Ball until
football game. When the alumni heard that Yale had de- the Minneapolis Park Board changed it to Diamond
feated Harvard, one of the Yale rooters, so excited by the Ball in 1925—one of at least a half a dozen names the
good news, took an old boxing glove and tossed it to- sport had before 1926.
ward one of the Harvard alumni, who tried to hit the
boxing glove back with a stick—thus giving George Amateur Softball Association
Hancock, a reporter for the Chicago Board of Trade, the Leo Fischer and Michael J. Pauley established the Am-
idea for an indoor game of baseball. Hancock’s friends ateur Softball Association (ASA) in 1933, following a
SOFTBALL 1451
Power is not revealed by striking hard or often,

but by striking true. ■ HONORE DE BALZAC
Through its network of commissioners, many of into the Pan American Games (San Juan, Puerto Rico,
whom were employed by parks and recreation depart- 1979) and the Olympics (Atlanta, 1996). The Inter-
ments, ASA expanded its program to include different national Olympic Committee (IOC) approved the rec-
classifications (Class A, Class B, Class C, and Class D) ommendations of the IOC Program Commission and
and divisions for national championship play. its Executive Board during its general session in Birm-
ingham, England, on 13 June 1991, to add softball to
CHAMPIONSHIPS the Olympic program. Softball (women’s fast pitch)
Originally, the ASA had four national championships. was highly successful in the 1996 and 2000 (Sydney)
By 2004, ASA had thirty-four divisions of champi- Olympics, with attendance of 135,564 people in
onship play and seventy-eight classifications, amounting 1996 and 197,139 in 2000. In 2004, women’s soft-
to more than eighty national championships. In 1974, ball was again on the Olympic program with eight
the ASA added a youth program as the popularity of countries competing in Athens, Greece, with the heav-
girls’ softball increased in U.S. high schools and col- ily favored USA women’s team winning a third gold
leges. Between 1963 and 1991, the number of ASA medal. The softball competition drew attendance of
youth teams increased more than 750 percent and the 54,616 in 32 games or an average of 1,706 people
number of adult teams increased 250 percent. per game. Since women’s softball made its Olympic
With more female sports opportunities, and the pop- debut in 1996, 387,319 people have attended the
ularity of the U.S. Olympic team, the number of female competition. There is, however, no men’s softball in
fast-pitch players increased 62 percent from 1990– the Olympic Games.
1991 to 2001–2002, according to the SGMA’s U.S. Pitcher Jennie Finch, former University of Arizona
Trends Team Sports Report. National Collegiate Ath- standout and a member of the U.S. Olympic team,
letic Association (NCAA) fast-pitch softball grew 59 per- brought the sport tremendous publicity in 2004, com-
cent during the same period, making softball the fourth bining her glamorous looks with her unquestioned abil-
most popular team sport. More than 357,912 girls play ity. She made People magazine’s “50 Most Beautiful
fast pitch at 14,007 U.S. high schools (2002–2003), People” list in 2004, which marked softball’s third—
making it the fourth most popular female high school and most important—appearance in the Olympics.
sport. Slow pitch is also offered in U.S. high schools, Softball will remain on the Olympic program
with 15,057 girls playing at 791 schools. through 2008, with a decision expected in July 2005 at
the IOC meeting in Singapore to determine if softball
PAN AMERICAN AND OLYMPIC GAMES will be on the Olympic program for 2012. To keep the
The ASA, which is recognized by the United States softball games in the Olympics moving, the ISF will use
Olympic Committee as the national governing body a 20-second clock that will provide a countdown visi-
(NGB) of softball in the United States, selects and ble to the pitcher, umpires, and the fans. If the pitcher
trains the athletes who will represent the United States doesn’t release the ball within 20 seconds, the umpire
in the Pan American Games and Olympics and other will call a ball on the batter.
international softball events through the International According to the SGMA’s Team Sport Report, soft-
Softball Federation (ISF), the governing body of softball ranked thirtieth out of the top fifty sports activities
ball internationally. Softball is played throughout the in 2004 with 17.9 million participants, including
world in 124 counties with the ISF located in Plant 14.4 million in slow pitch and 3.5 million in fast pitch.
City, Florida, since 2000. ISF President Don E. Porter, Softball participation was as high as 22.1 million in
former ASA executive director (1963–1998), was the 1989 and ranked seventeenth with 18.1 million par-
driving force behind softball officially being accepted ticipants in 1994.
What Is Softball? 13.1l meters (43 feet) in 2002. This distance is also
Softball is a well-established bat-and-ball game played used throughout U.S. colleges and ISF events, including
by two teams of nine or ten players each on a diamond- the Olympic Games.
shaped field. Games generally are seven innings in
length or until a winner is determined. All you need is SLOW PITCH
the desire and the equipment to play softball. Like base- Slow pitch, which was part of the Chicago world’s fair
ball, the objective of the sport is simple: The team that tournament conducted by Pauley and Fischer, started to
scores the most runs in the number of innings wins the become popular after it was added to the ASA’s national
game. An inning lasts until the team on defense records championship program in 1953. In 1935, Lakewood,
three outs against the team that is batting or is on of- Ohio, formed a slow pitch league with four teams com-
fense. Each team alternates each inning between of- posed of city employees. Once slow pitch was added to
fense and defense, with the visiting team batting first the ASA program, ASA team registrations soared and dif-
and the home team batting last. A turn at bat or on de- ferent classifications and divisions of play were added.
fense completes the inning, with nine players in the Coed slow pitch was added in 1982 and represents
starting lineup for fast pitch and ten in the starting about 10 percent of the ASA’s membership of more
lineup for slow pitch. A putout is recorded by the de- than 230,000 teams. Classifications now exist for peo-
fensive team’s pitcher striking out one or all of the play- ple from 45- and-over to 75-and-over. Each discipline is
ers on offense, an infielder fielding the ball and played on a diamond with different distances between
throwing the ball to first base or another base to retire the bases and from the pitcher’s mound depending on
the offensive player before he or she reaches the base, whether adult fast or slow pitch or youth fast pitch or
an infielder or outfielder catching a pop fly or line drive slow pitch is being played.
before the ball touches the ground, and a player being Slow pitch continued to gain in popularity and man-
tagged out by the defense before reaching first base, sec- ufacturers were quick to take advantage of the large
ond base, third base, or home plate. market share; more than 80 percent of all softball
Softball’s identity is diverse because of the two dif- played was slow pitch at one time. But, because of ad-
ferent disciplines: fast pitch and slow pitch. Fast pitch vances in equipment, ASA, as well as other softball or-
also has a variation called modified pitch, which was ganizations, changed distances between bases, and
added to the ASA program in 1975. Very popular in from the pitching mound for men’s slow pitch, to strike
Chicago and other Midwest cities is 16-inch softball, a balance between offense and defense. By 2002, the
which is played with a softball 16 inches (40.6 cen- men’s pitching distance was changed to 53 feet (16.15
timeters) in circumference; the distance between bases meters) and the distance between bases was increased
was changed from 55 feet to 60 feet (18.3 meters) in to 80 feet (24.34 meters) in 2004. The ASA Super Di-
2002 after softball was added to the national champi- vision, which was started in 1981, was eliminated in
onship program in 1964. 2004 because of a lack of parity of the teams playing in
From the 1930s through the 1970s, fast pitch was that division. With the Super Division gone, the ASA fo-
the most popular discipline of softball played. In time, cused its efforts on improving its Major Division of
however, men’s fast pitch became games of double-digit slow pitch in 2004 through a series of qualifiers na-
strikeout totals. To give fast pitch a balance between of- tionwide and prize money of $25,000.
fense and defense, the JRCOS changed the men’s pitch-
ing distance from the mound to home plate from 11.5 EXPANDING ORGANIZATIONS
meters to 14 meters (46 feet) in 1950. The women’s Although the United States Olympic Committee recog-
pitching distance was changed from 12.2 meters to nizes ASA as the national governing body for softball,
SOFTBALL 1453
Youth softball pitcher with a

batter waiting for the pitch.
Source: istockphoto/groveb.
■ Men’s and women’s fast pitch

■ Junior boys’ and junior women’s fast pitch
■ Men’s, women’s, and coed slow pitch
■ Men’s and women’s modified pitch
In 1965, the ISF held its first Women’s World Cham-

pionship in Australia; the host country defeated the
United States for the gold medal. The first Men’s World
Championship was held in 1966 in Mexico City. The
U.S. men won outright or shared (in 1976) five of the
first seven championships. New Zealand is currently
the dominant country in men’s fast pitch internation-
ally, having won three consecutive world champi-
onships (1996, 2000, and 2004), the first time that this
has been accomplished. New Zealand also shared the
1976 World title with the United States and Canada
and won another world title in 1984.
In Women’s World Championship competition, the
United States is the undisputed leader with seven gold
medals, including five in a row (1986, 1990, 1994,
1998, and 2002). The U.S. women’s team also has
dominated in the Pan American Games, winning the
gold medal all but once (1983) in seven Games. The
U.S. men, however, have never won a gold medal in Pan
American softball, instead taking seven silver medals be-
more than a dozen other organizations have been formed
hind gold medalist Canada.
during the past thirty years to register adult and youth
Besides these competitions, softball is on the pro-
teams and umpires and to conduct tournaments. Some of
gram of more than a dozen multisport games, including
these organizations are either regional or national in
the following:
scope and concentrate on either slow pitch or fast pitch
or both disciplines of the sport. Even traditional baseball ■ All-Africa Games (women)
organizations (Babe Ruth, Pony, Little League) have ■ Arafura Games (men and women)
turned their attention to softball, especially girls’ soft- ■ Asian Games (women)
ball, during the past twenty-five years to register teams ■ Bolivarian Games (men and women)
and umpires as well as to conduct tournaments for dif- ■ Central American Games (men and women)
ferent age groups. Ironically, there are more softball or- ■ Central American and Caribbean Games (men and
ganizations than ever, but the overall market share of women)
softball is smaller than it was a decade ago. ■ Maccabiah Games (men and women)
■ Micronesian Games (men and women)
Competition at the Top ■ Mindanao Games (women)
Besides the national championships conducted by the ■ South American Games (women)
ASA each year, the ISF conducts world championships ■ Southeast Asian Games (men and women)
for ■ South Pacific Games (men and women)
■ Special Olympics (men and women) the top 30,000 tournament players is sixty-four years
■ World Firefighters Games (men and women) old. These people have an average disposal income of
■ World Masters Games (men and women) $35,000 and play an average of seven tournaments
each summer.
PROFESSIONAL LEVEL Whether or not softball remains on the Olympic pro-
Although softball is an amateur sport, attempts have gram beyond 2008 will certainly affect the continued
been made to take the sport to the professional level, es- growth of girls’ fast pitch in U.S. high schools, colleges,
pecially for female fast pitch. In 2004, the National Pro and universities. One professional league might even-
Fastpitch League was started with teams in six cities fea- tually succeed, but with two leagues expected to oper-
turing top collegiate stars and past Olympians, includ- ate in 2005, one or both could fail.
ing two-time U.S. gold medalist Michele Smith. The Softball is a lifetime sport that people can play on a
International Pro Softball Association operated between highly competitive level or for recreation and fun based
1976 and 1979, then took a year off in 1980 and never on their abilities and, depending on where they live, al-
returned. Another attempt at professional women’s soft- most year around. Because of this, softball “is the sport
ball was made from 1997 to 1998 with the league sus- for everyone.” People make lifelong friends. Softball
pending play until the National Pro Fastpitch League players spend an estimated $4.3 billion annually to
(NPF) launched the NPF All-Star Tour in 2003, which compete, and people from all socioeconomic and eth-
was hosted by twelve major league baseball clubs that nic groups play softball.
summer and gave people the chance to see women’s Softball is the “ultimate class equalizer,” said ASA
fast pitch in action through NPF exhibition games, clin- Commissioner Dan Saylor, “You can be a nobody and
ics, and in-game promotions. a star in softball or be a Ph.D. and go 0-for-4. No mat-
In 2004, the league’s teams included the Akron Rac- ter how good or bad you are, there’s a league for you.”
ers, NY/NJ Juggernaut, the New England Riptide, Texas
Thunder, the Arizona Heat, and the California Sun- Governing Bodies
birds. The league is an official development partner of Governing organizations include the Amateur Softball As-
major league baseball for women’s fast pitch softball sociation (www.ASAsoftball.com) and the International
and signed a contract with ESPN to televise eleven Softball Federation (www.internationalsoftball.com).
games nationally in the 2005 season.
Bill Plummer III
In 2005, another pro league is scheduled to begin,
headed by Dr. Dot Richardson, two-time U.S. Olympic
gold medalist, and Lisa Fernandez, a member of the Further Reading
2004 U.S. Olympic team. Bealle, M. A. (1957). The softball story. Washington, DC: Columbia
Publishing.
Bealle, M. A. (1962). The new 1962 compact edition of softball history.
The Future Washington, DC: Columbia Publishing.
Softball will likely remain as one of the most popular Claflin, E. (1978) The irresistible American softball book. New York:
Dolphin Books.
summer sports. Future participation is expected to in- Dickson, P. (1994). The Worth book of softball. New York: Facts On File.
crease in girls, masters’, and seniors’ competition as the Indoor baseball. (1939, November 27). Time.
Fischer, L. H. (1939 June).Softball steps up. Reader’s Digest.
U.S. society gets older and people have the time and
Fischer, L. H. (1940). How to play winning softball. New York: Prentice-
money to play softball. According to Senior Softball- Hall.
USA in Sacramento, California, an estimated two mil- Johnson, C. P., Wright, M. (1984). The women’s softball book. New
York: Leisure Press.
lion people (men over 50 and women over 45) play Lee, M. (1983). A history of physical education and sports in the U.S.A.
senior softball in the United States. The average age of New York: Wiley.
SOUTH AFRICA 1455
South Africa Olympics Results

2004 Summer Olympics: 1 Gold, 3 Silver, 2 Bronze
McCallum, K. (1979, May 28). “He can rise, drop and pop it at overthrow apartheid, and sports’ continuing grip on
104 mph.” Sports Illustrated.
the nation’s psyche has provided impetus for their use
Meyer, G C. (1982). Softball for girls and women. New York: Scribner’s.
Meyer, R. G. (1984). The complete book of softball: The Loonies guide to in nation building in recent years. Writing in 2004
playing and enjoying the game. New York: Leisure Press. about developing nonracial sports in his country, Pres-
Michener, J. A. (1976). Sport in America. New York: Random House.
Noren, A. T. (1940). Softball. New York: A. S. Barnes. ident Thabo Mbeki pointed out the importance of “en-
Oetgen, A. (1986, June 1). Softball ranks as American religion for suring that the addiction to competitive sport serves to
some. Knight-Ridder Newspapers.
unite our people in a spirit of national reconciliation,
Perry, G. R. (1979). Slow pitch softball. South Brunswick, NJ: A. S.
Barnes. rather than racial division and conflict.”
Sobel, B. (1980). Fastpitch softball. Mountain View, CA: World Publications.
Softballers. (1939, September 26). Time.
Sullivan, G. (1965). The complete guide to softball. New York: Fleet. Sports before Apartheid
Thomas, L., & Shane, T. (1940). Softball: So what? New York: Freder- Africans migrated south into present-day South Africa
ick A. Stokes. two thousand years ago, and the Dutch began to settle
Walsh, L. (1979). Coaching winning softball. Chicago: Contemporary
Books. around Cape Town in 1652, but the British heralded
the introduction of “modern sports” to the region. With
their ethos (distinguishing character, sentiment, moral
nature, or guiding beliefs) of fair play, self-discipline,
and collective identity, the organized sports that
South Africa emerged in Britain during the nineteenth century were
brought to South Africa by immigrants who had an-
S outh Africa is a large nation of varied geological re-

gions and climates at the southern tip of Africa. In
mid-2004 the population was estimated at 46.6 million
nexed and settled in the country since the beginning of
the century. Sports and British cultural values, espe-
cially those of the boys’ public schools, were thereafter
people, 79 percent of whom classified themselves as inseparably linked and produced a colonial sporting
African, 9.6 percent as white, 8.9 percent as colored system from which today’s sports have evolved.
(mixed), and 2.5 percent as Indian or Asian. South The British model of sports was exclusive and alien-
Africa’s history has been riddled with ethnic conflict, inated the majority of Africans as well as the Boer settlers
stitutional and political racism, and unequal gender re- (white farmers of mostly Dutch descent). Nineteenth-
lations of power. However, after the demise of the century Boers were men of the veld (a grassland, espe-
political system of apartheid (established in 1948 and cially of southern Africa, usually with scattered shrubs
characterized by white supremacy and the oppression of or trees), their sporting activities confined largely to
black people) and the establishment of a democrati- riding and shooting, whereas English-descended South
cally elected government in 1994, the new country was Africans tended to organize themselves in clubs, a habit
characterized as the “nonracial, nonsexist Rainbow Re- given impetus by the soldiers who came to fight Queen
public of South Africa.” Victoria’s wars in South Africa. Some clubs were single-
Sports have held a significant place in South Africa’s sport clubs for cricket, rugby, soccer, tennis, or cycling,
stormy history, shaped by its people’s diversities and by and so forth. Other clubs, such as the Wanderers in Jo-
social and political struggles. During colonial times hannesburg and the Collegians in Pietermaritzburg,
sports were racialized and gendered: The powerful were multipurpose, with vastly superior facilities.
white male minority wielded the greatest power over the Until rugby and soccer arrived during the early
development of sports and had access to the best re- 1860s, hunting, horse racing (introduced in 1797), and
sources. The fact that South African sports have been cricket (introduced in 1808) remained the three princi-
the “national religion” enabled sports to be used to help pal sports, played essentially by British immigrants and
South Africa
Evolution of Sports
in South Africa
the military. Other sports followed rapidly, their arrival
Date Sports Clubs National Federations coinciding with the discovery of diamonds at Kimber-
1802 Horse racing
ley (1867), the discovery of gold at Rand (1886), and
1843 Cricket (Port Elizabeth) imperial expansion.
1876 Rugby (Cape) Colonial sports lent themselves to the racial segre-
1879 Football gation that characterized South African society. Most
(Pietermaritzburg) sports were exclusively white, but the civilizing mission
1880 Athletics (Port Elizabeth) of sports to build the empire was influential in the
1881 Cycling (Port Elizabeth) schools, colleges, and clubs for educated nonwhites
1882 Tennis (Natal) and in missionary schools for poor black children.
1882 Bowls (lawn bowling) Horse racing Games such as cricket and especially soccer were
(Port Elizabeth)
adopted within South Africa’s black communities; in
1882 Professional boxing Rugby
comparison, the traditional skills of hunting, archery,
1882 Croquet
spear throwing, wrestling, and dance were losing their
1889 Gymnastics
(Johannesburg) appeal. From the start colonial sports were heavily gen-
1890 Mountaineering dered, emphasizing aggressive and chauvinist images of
1892 Football sporting manliness.
1892 Cycling Although the Boers eventually adopted British forms
1894 Athletics of sports—and in the case of rugby attached their own
1903 Tennis identity and meaning to it—they had practiced various
1904 Bowls folk sports prior to the nineteenth century. Many of
1909 Golf these were nostalgically revived during the latter years
1923 Hockey of apartheid. Jukskei (a throwing game using the
1928 Rifle shooting wooden pin from an ox yoke) was still being played in
1931 Motor racing more than seven hundred clubs during the late 1970s,
1937 Roller skating with the South African Jukskei Board boasting more
1939 Badminton than twenty thousand members. Vingertrek (a form of
1940 Jukskei hand wrestling), now played by children, once was
1947 Squash played by burly adults at the religious festival of Nacht-
1948 Small-bore rifle mal. The horse also played a crucial role in Boer social
shooting
and working life, featuring in many recreational activi-
1949 Archery
ties. Increasingly, though, through rapid urbanization
1949 Fencing
1949 Softball
and exposure in schools—the two most powerful forces
1951 Gymkhana in the propagation of “British” sports in South Africa—
1953 Clay pigeon young Boers also chose to take up team sports such as
shooting cricket and rugby.
1954 Equestrianism Before World War II people played a smattering of
1962 Judo racially mixed sports, but most sports were segregated.
1962 Trampoline However, no sports infrastructure existed for the ma-
1964 Body building jority of the population, which was black, and because
1965 Surfing of grinding poverty few blacks had money for educa-
1968 Karate tion, recreation, or sports. In rural areas no facilities and
SOUTH AFRICA 1457
Lehaha he Baroana rock

painting of Bushmen
with bows and quivers
in Lesotho, 1977.
Source: Roland Renson, Sport Museum
Flanders.
cilities existed, and African

areas were devoid of anything
but the most basic facilities.
Bureaucratic responsibility
for sports was also assigned on
a racial basis. During the early
days of apartheid white sports
federations were founded, in-
creasingly patronized by the
government, reflecting white
opportunities existed. During the 1930s and 1940s the South Africa’s prosperity and obsession with sports. Until
neglect of sports provision for nonwhites coexisted with 1979 African sports were administered by the Bantu Af-
racial practices that denied mixed-race social interaction fairs Department (thereafter the Department of Sport
and set the scene for the systematic political institu- and Recreation assumed partial responsibility); colored
tionalization of apartheid sports. sports were administered by the Colored Affairs Depart-
ment; and Indian sports were administered by local au-
Sports during Apartheid thorities and the Department of Indian Affairs.
Henrik Verwoerd, prime minister of South Africa in A surprisingly active sports movement in nonwhite
1948 when the Afrikaner Nationalist Party took power, communities existed throughout the apartheid period,
is known as the “architect of apartheid” with its manda- and sports became a focus for cultural resistance and
tory division of the nation into four racial categories: antiapartheid politics. During the 1950s nonracial na-
African (pejoratively labeled “native”), colored, Asian or tional federations were founded for sports, including
Indian, and white. The nonracial term black was used by soccer, cricket, weight lifting, table tennis, and athletics.
antiapartheid activists to describe all those groups char- The South African Sports Association (SASA) was es-
acterized by the government as “nonwhite.” Apartheid tablished in 1959. The establishment in 1963 of the
was a violent form of racist repression enforced by the South African Non-Racial Olympic Committee (SAN-
white minority so that the rights and opportunities of ROC) and in the early 1970s of the South African
African, colored, and Indian people were reduced in all Non-Racial Sports Organization (SASPO) and the
areas of life and culture, including sports. Although no South African Council on Sport (SACOS) were signif-
official prohibition of mixed-race sports existed, little icant developments in the eventual desegregation of
need existed to impose apartheid on the already estab- sports. SAN-ROC, which relocated to England, was
lished model of segregated sports. Nevertheless, the the leading organization in the international campaign
government passed laws that, among other taboos, pre- against apartheid sports. Sam Ramsamy, in exile in
vented nonwhites from traveling freely and using white London, became its president. Using the unifying slo-
facilities. Although class differences existed, and poor gan, “No normal sport in an abnormal society,” these
whites had limited opportunities, the resourcing of organizations worked alongside the African National
middle-class white-male sports was superlative, and Congress (ANC) political party and with the support of
middle-class white women had access to excellent facil- international antiapartheid initiatives to oppose
ities as well. In Indian and colored areas far fewer fa- apartheid sports. The major method of opposition was
to encourage and support a total boycott of South tightened. Thus, in 1985, when the white South African
African sports. Cricket Union (SACU) arranged a rebel Australian tour,
Also in the 1970s Prime Minister Vorster unveiled a it was strongly opposed by the nonracial South African
“multinational” sports policy to persuade the interna- Cricket Board (SACB) and all the opponents of
tional community to reverse the boycott decision. How- apartheid in countries throughout the cricketing world.
ever, multinational sports clearly did nothing to Nevertheless, in January 1990 another cricket rebel tour
dismantle the separate and unequal development captained by Mike Gatting (former England captain)
intrinsic to political apartheid. In 1977 the common- took place. This last-ever rebel tour attracted aggressive
wealth heads of government made public their con- demonstrations and was cut short, reflecting the grow-
demnation of apartheid sports by signing the Gleneagles ing confidence that the antiapartheid fight was being
Agreement, and in the 1980s a militant organization, won and coinciding with another watershed in South
the National Sports Congress (NSC), was established. Africa’s history.
With the exception of rebel tours, South Africa was now President F. W. de Klerk announced in Parliament a
totally isolated from international sports, including the reform program of deracialization, and the ANC leader,
Olympic Games. Nelson Mandela, was freed from prison. The interna-
Although the International Olympic Committee tional sports boycott was lifted, and negotiations be-
(IOC) claimed to have a nonracial policy, it did nothing tween the white sports bodies and the nonracial sports
to oppose all-white South African participation in the bodies took place to establish single national sports or-
Olympic Games from 1908 until 1960. However, ganizations—a prerequisite for the reentry of South
united pressure from the new independent African Africa into international competition. In 1992 the IOC
nations—with the backing of the Soviet Union and invited South Africa to take part in the Olympic Games
other Communist bloc countries, the Supreme Council in Barcelona, Spain.
for Sports in Africa (SCSA), SAN-ROC, and other anti-
apartheid organizations—resulted in South Africa being Sports after Apartheid
banned from the 1964 and 1968 Olympic Games and, In 1994 apartheid officially ended, South Africa
in 1970, to the complete expulsion of South Africa achieved majority rule, the ANC was voted into power,
from the Olympic movement. South Africa was banned a multiracial democracy was established under the Gov-
from the Commonwealth Games at the same time. One ernment of National Unity, and Nelson Mandela was its
of the aims of the African Games, the first of which took president. In 2004 the ANC was returned to power for
place in 1965, was to unite the countries of the conti- the third time with President Mbeki winning his second
nent against apartheid in South Africa. Another key term. The new constitution has been described as one
event took place in 1976 when seventeen African coun- of the most radical in the world, providing scope for
tries boycotted the Olympic Games in Montreal, ending discrimination and inequalities between races,
Canada (because the IOC had refused to ban New classes, and genders. The Reconstruction and Devel-
Zealand after its national all-black rugby team had opment Program (RDP) of the new government set out
played against South Africa). immediately to work toward this end. The government
Responding to such international pressure, by the recognized the potential of sports to break down barri-
mid-1980s some public sports facilities became deseg- ers between races, to foster national reconciliation
regated. However, white racism, black poverty, and throughout the country, and to work for international
gross inequalities of sports resourcing remained. For recognition.
these reasons, and in parallel with an economic crisis The antiapartheid National Sports Council (NSC)
and uprisings in the black townships, the sports boycott was the main facilitator of new democratic sports
SOUTH AFRICA 1459
South Africa
Ball Dances of the Bushmen of South Africa
The 1905 enthnographic account below by George was elastic, and would quickly rebound when thrown
Stow describes two kinds of ball games as “ball dances.” upon a hard surface. In this performance a flat stone
was placed in the center upon the ground, the players
Some of their dances required considerable skill, such
or dancers standing around. One of them commenced
as that which may be called the ball dance. In this a
by throwing the ball on the stone, when it rebounded;
number of women from five to ten would form a
the next to him caught it, and immediately it was
line and face an equal number in another row, leav-
thrown again by him upon the stone in the same
ing a space of thirty or forty feet between them. A
manner as by the leader, when it was caught by the
woman at the end of one of these lines would com-
next in succession, and so on, one after the other
mence by throwing a round ball, about the size of an
passing rapidly round the ring, until the leader or one
orange, and made of a root, under her right leg, and
of the others would throw it with such force as to send
across to the woman opposite to her, who in turn
it flying high and straight up into the air, when dur-
would catch the ball and throw it back in a similar
ing its ascent they commenced a series of antics,
manner to the second woman in the first row; she
throwing themselves into all kinds of positions, imi-
would return it again in the same way to the second
tating wild dogs, and like them making a noise “che!
in the second, and thus it continued until all had
che! che!” but in the meantime watching the ball,
taken their turn. Then the women would shift their
which was caught by one of them, when he took the
positions, crossing over to opposite sides, and again
place of leader, and the game was again renewed.
continue in the same manner as before; and so on
The play was sometimes varied by two players
until the game was over, when they would rest for a
being matched against each other, each throwing and
short time and begin again.
catching the ball alternately, until one of them missed
Another ball dance was played merely by the men.
it, when it was immediately caught by one of those in
A ball was made expressly for this game out of the
the outer ring, who at once took the place of the one
thickest portion of a hippopotamus’ hide, cut from the
who had made the slip, and thus the play continued.
back of the neck; this was hammered when it was per-
Source: Stow, G. (1905). The native races of South Africa (pp. 8–9). London: Swan Son-
fectly fresh until it was quite round; when finished it nenschein and Co.
structures, and the first minister of sports, Steve Ngconde Balfour was appointed the minister of sports
Tshwete, was appointed. The provision of sports fa- and recreation.
cilities and opportunities in severely deprived areas Today the overall responsibility for sports and recre-
was a priority of the RDP, and girls were regarded as ation policy, provision, and delivery resides with Sport
an especially needy group. In 1997 Women and Sport and Recreation South Africa (SRSA) and the SASC.
South Africa (WASSA) initiatives were established in The key objectives are to increase participation, raise the
each of the nine provinces. The importance placed on profile of sports, increase the probability of South
sports as a symbol of national unity was exemplified African success in major competitions, and place sports
during the 1995 rugby World Cup final when Nelson and recreation at the forefront of efforts to address na-
Mandela wore the springbok (a southern African tional issues of unemployment, poverty, economic de-
gazelle) kit, instantly transforming it from a symbol of velopment, and health.
white (Afrikaner) superiority to one of national unity. In addition, the SRSA coordinates and monitors
The NSC was dissolved in 2001 and replaced by the creation and upgrading of sports and recreation
the South African Sports Commission (SASC), and infrastructures through the Building for Sport and
South Africa
Zola Budd on
“Running Barefoot”
lottery and corporate sponsors. The contribution of
South African distance runner Zola Budd achieved sports and recreation to the gross domestic product
a certain notoriety in the 1980s for more than her (GDP) in 2000 was around 2 percent, providing em-
record-breaking runs. Many in the international ployment for 34,325 full-time and 6,140 part-time
athletic community were outraged when she ac- workers and 8,000 volunteers. South Africa also bene-
quired British citizenship, a way to get into the fits from the national Sports Tourism Project, which es-
Olympics when South African athletes were timated that the economic impact of the 2003 cricket
banned due to the apartheid policies of their gov- World Cup attracted twenty thousand foreign specta-
ernment. Budd was also noted for running bare- tors and generated thirty-five hundred jobs. Experts pre-
foot, which she describes in the extract below. dict that when the 2010 soccer World Cup comes to
South Africa in 2010, 2.72 million tickets will be sold.
Coming from a farming background, I saw noth-
ing out of the ordinary in running barefoot, al- Competition at the Top
though it seemed to startle the rest of the Another goal of the South Africa sports initiative is to
athletics world. I have always enjoyed going promote the country to the rest of the world by hosting
barefoot and when I was growing up I seldom big events and to achieve success in elite competitions
wore shoes, even when I went into town. The ex- such as World Cups and the Olympic Games. Linked to
ceptions were when I went to school, or church the growing significance of commercialization, interna-
or on special occasions, and it was natural when tional sports receive support from both public and pri-
I started running that I should do it barefoot. vate sectors.
I received my first pair of running spikes when A ministerial task team was appointed in 2000 to
I was thirteen and used them in a big inter-school study high-performance sports, followed by the estab-
athletics meeting. I found them uncomfortable lishment of talent identification programs and the secur-
and after that I decided to continue running bare- ing of corporate sponsorship. Immediately after the 2000
foot because I found it more comfortable. Olympics in Sydney, Australia, the National Olympic
Budd, Z. & Eley, H. (1989). Autobiography of Zola Budd (pp. 49). London: Par- Committee of South Africa (NOCSA) inaugurated Op-
tridge Press.
eration Excellence, an initiative whereby elite athletes, in
particular potential Olympic finalists and medalists, went
to specialized training camps and were given financial as-
Recreation Project (BSRP). The new theme of sports sistance, medical care, and in some cases employment to
and recreation in South Africa, namely, “getting the improve their chances at the 2004 Olympics in Athens,
nation to play,” places the major responsibility on Greece. In November 2002 Olympic House was offi-
stakeholders (including all spheres of government and cially opened in Johannesburg and described by Sam
all sports-specific and recreation-specific organiza- Ramsamy, president of NOCSA, as “the doorway to the
tions, including sports federations such as Disability hopes and dreams of all South Africans. . . . It is here
Sport South Africa) to raise the levels of participation where we will continue to hold a place for all races, age
in sports and recreation, currently estimated at 7–20 groups, income levels and genders” (Ramsamy and Grif-
percent in historically disadvantaged groups, includ- fiths 2004).
ing black South Africans, women, youth, people in The emphasis on the internationalization of South
rural communities, and people with disabilities. African sports is reflected in the country’s participation
Sports and recreation are central features of the rein the Barcelona, Atlanta, Sydney, and Athens Olympics;
generation program funded by proceeds of the national the promotion of the 1995 rugby World Cup; hosting of
SOUTH EAST ASIAN GAMES 1461
the 2003 cricket World Cup; Cape Town’s bid to host Booth, D. (1998). The race game. Sport and politics in South Africa.
the 2004 Olympics; and plans to host the 2010 football London: Frank Cass.
Grundlingh, A., Odendaal. A., & Spies, B. (1995). Beyond the tryline.
World Cup finals. Athens: Ohio University Press.
However, some people oppose public spending on Hain, P. (1971). Don’t play with apartheid. London: Allen and Unwin.
Hargreaves, J. A. (2000). Race, politics and gender: Women’s struggles
elite athletes and showcase sports events and are an- for sport in South Africa. In J. A. Hargreaves (Ed.), Heroines of
gered that elite sports in South Africa show signs of ma- sport: The politics of difference and identity (pp. 14–45). London:
nipulation and corruption typical of elite sports in Routledge.
Nauright, J. (1997). Sport, cultures and identities in South Africa. Lon-
countries in the West. In spite of the focus on unifica- don: Leicester University Press.
tion and equity, stark inequalities remain, and race, Ramsamy, S., & Griffiths, E. (2004). Reflections on a life in sport. Cape
Town, South Africa: Greenhouse.
class, and gender discrimination is still evident. Radical Roberts, C. (1993). Against the grain: Women in sport in South Africa.
critics continue to argue that sports cannot be devel- Cape Town, South Africa: Township Publishing.
oped democratically until more money has been spent
on the general social fabric of South African society.
The Future South East Asian Games

With the approval of the cabinet, South African sports in
the future will be governed by a two-tier system, com-
prising a fully fledged government department and a
nongovernmental sports confederation.These two struc-
T he South East Asian Games idea began with in-
formal meetings in May of 1958 during the Asian
Games in Tokyo. Led by a proposal from Thailand,
tures will take full responsibility for all levels of sports, sports officials from Burma, Laos, Malaysia, and Thai-
including mass participation and high performance.The land met to discuss creating a competition that would
new system is expected to be implemented by April strengthen ties between nations of the South East Asian
2005. The goal will continue to be “unity out of diver- Peninsula and give athletes an opportunity to prepare
sity.” Representing members of the nonracial sports for Asian Games and Olympic competitions. Origi-
movement during the apartheid regime who worked to nally known as the South East Asian Peninsular
sustain the sports boycott and the isolation of South Games, the first games were held in Bangkok, Thai-
Africa, Cheryl Roberts (who was a member of the South land, in 1959 with Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia,
African team at the 1992 Barcelona Olympics) cele- Thailand, and Vietnam participating. The games have
brated ten years of South Africa’s return to world sports been held on a biennial basis, with the exception of
when she wrote, “The sacrifices made were not in vain 1963, since that time.
for today we are a non-racial, democratic South Africa The original intent was to rotate the games alpha-
and participate in world sport as a legitimate country.” betically by nation, thus removing any doubt over
Roberts went on to speak for many when she stated how which nation was to be the next host. This would also
eagerly South Africa waited hosting the 2010 Soccer eliminate complex bidding processes and allow nations
World Cup Finals and someday the Olympic Games. to plan well in advance, as they knew when it would be
their turn to host the games. This plan quickly fell apart
Dean Allen and
at the third games when Cambodia was involved in a
Jennifer Hargreaves
dispute over eligibility with the International Associa-
tion of Athletics Federations (IAAF) over Cambodia’s
Further Reading participation in the GANEFO (Games of the New
Archer, R., & Bouillon, A. (1982). The South African game: Sport and
Emerging Forces) Games and Cambodia was not able
racism. London: Zed Press. to host the games.
South East
Asian Games
Locations of the Cambodia had just hosted the Asian GANEFO Games
South East Asian Games 25 November to 6 December 1966, with fifteen nations
present.
Bangkok, Thailand 1959 The SEAP Federation met in May of 1967 and
Rangoon, Burma 1961 reawarded the 1967 games to Bangkok, to be held in
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1965 December of that same year. Fortunately Bangkok had
Bangkok, Thailand 1967 held the Asian Games just twelve months before in De-
Rangoon, Burma 1969 cember 1966 and had a short list of tasks to finish to
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1971 be ready for the games.
Singapore 1973
Bangkok, Thailand 1975 Organizers Change the Name
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1977 The name South East Asian Peninsular Games was used
Jakarta, Indonesia 1979 up until 1975, when the SEAP Games Federation ac-
Manila, Philippines 1981 cepted Indonesia and the Philippines as members and
Singapore 1983 the name was changed to South East Asian Games.
Bangkok, Thailand 1985 Lord Killanin, then president of the International
Jakarta, Indonesia 1987 Olympic Committee, showed his support for the South
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1989 East Asian Games movement when he was present at
Manila, Philippines 1991 the 1977 games in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Singapore 1993 The huge 100,000-seat Gelora Senayan stadium, orig-
Chiang Mai, Thailand 1995 inally built for the 1962 Asian Games, was host to the
Jakarta, Indonesia 1997 1979 South East Asian Games held in Jakarta, Indonesia.
Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei 1999 The 1989 games in Kuala Lumpur saw the return of
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 2001 teams from Vietnam and Laos, who had last been at the
Hanoi/Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam 2003 games in 1973.
Chiang Mai, Thailand, in 1995 was the first non-
capital city to host the games. The games were part of
the seven-hundredth-anniversary celebration of the city.
Laos was scheduled to host the next games in 1965 The 1997 games in Jakarta were contentious. Dis-
but was not prepared and had to decline. Malaysia agreements over judging in gymnastics, boxing, and
moved up in the rotation and Kuala Lumpur hosted the taekwondo and hostility to visiting athletes by specta-
games. Singapore was accepted into the federation in tors disrupted the friendly spirit of the games. During
1965 and all seven South East Asian Peninsular (SEAP) soccer games fans smashed and burned the wooden
Federation members participated in the 1965 games. seats inside the stadium and overturned cars outside.
Alphabetic rotation was to be abandoned in 1967 The Asian Football Confederation threatened to cancel
when Cambodia was once again asked to host the the football final if organizers could not control the
games. Cambodia pulled out in February of 1967, with- crowds. The final was held, but was interrupted by vio-
drawing completely from the SEAP Games Federation, lence and fans starting fires in the stands and throwing
telling the other nations that they had other games to stones onto the field. The game was stopped for forty-
prepare for and did not have time to get ready for the five minutes at halftime in an attempt to calm the
fourth SEAP Games. This was met with skepticism and crowds. After the games fans destroyed property and
frustration by the other members, who pointed out that overturned cars in the streets.
SPAIN 1463
Spain Olympics Results

2002 Winter Olympics: 2 Gold
The 1999 games were held in the tiny oil-rich kingdom Sixth SEAP Games report. (1971). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Organiz-
of Brunei in Bandar Seri Begawan. Organizers expected ing Committee of the sixth SEAP Games.
Success in Singapore: The XVII South East Asian Games. (1993).
little trouble with crowd control due to the strict Islamic Olympic Review, 314, 582.
laws enforced in Brunei and the Sultan of Brunei also de-
clared that his subjects could watch the games for free.
The 2001 games were held in Kuala Lumpur, Penang,
and Johor in Malaysia, making both Thailand and
Malaysia five-time hosts of the South East Asian Games.
In 2003 at the games in Vietnam, East Timor partic-
Spain
ipated for the first time, bringing to eleven the number
of participating nations. Several Vietnamese citizens
were arrested at the games for passing out religious
S ituated in southwestern Europe, Spain is surrounded
by the Mediterranean Sea, the Cantabrian Sea, and
the Atlantic Ocean. It has a population of 40.3 million
materials, because they were not part of an organization people. It is a nation of contrasts with a rainy north and
that was sanctioned by the government. Several other a sunny south and cultural variations that are reflected
countries complained when Vietnam added sports to in differences in economic systems and political organ-
the schedule that were considered minor and not well ization. Spain is divided into nineteen autonomous re-
known outside Vietnam, such as capteh or shuttlecock gions, including the Balearic Islands, the Canaries and
kicking, the circle event in sepak takraw, and underwa- three small possessions off the Moroccan coast. Each
ter fin swimming. The accusation was that Vietnam was unit has an autonomous government and its own sports
simply trying to win the most medals with obscure structure. Madrid, the capital, is located in the country’s
sports, and Vietnam did in fact pick up an overwhelm- geographical center. Soccer is the “king of sport” as it at-
ing majority of the medals in those events. The follow- tracts an enormous percentage of the population to its
ing year the South East Asian Games Federation passed teams.
new rules so that future hosts would not have as much
freedom with the sports, and said that nations had to History
focus on sports practiced at the Asian and Olympic Spain has a long tradition of indigenous sports. A ball
Games. game whose origins go back to the Middle Ages was
played by hitting a ball with the hand, a stick, or a bat.
The Future The game is noted in the Songs of Alfonso X the Wise
The 2005 games are scheduled to be held in the Philip- One, in the thirteenth century and is considered to be
pines, the 2007 games in Thailand, and the 2009 games a precursor of modern ball games. Bowling is a sport
in Laos. popular across the north. Water sports like the train-
Daniel Bell eras, trainerillas of the Cantabrian cornice, the falucho
of Valencia and lagut in Catalonia, are of popular ori-
gin, since it was fishermen who initiated these compe-
Further Reading titions by competing to return to port with their catch.
Bell, D. (2003). South East Asian Games. In Encyclopedia of Interna- Horse sports, probably of Arab origin, developed in
tional Games. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. the south and featured two teams on horseback who
Official report. (1967). Bangkok, Thailand: Organizing Committee for
the Fourth SEAP Games. hurled bohordos (spears of wood) at one another and
Official report of the tenth SEA Games, Jakarta 1979. (1979). Jakarta, protected themselves with shields. Bullfighting, either
Indonesia: Organizing Committee of the Tenth SEA Games.
Pigao, V. (1982). The 11th Southeast Asian Games. Olympic Review, on horse or on foot, survive today, although the latter is
172–173, 141. far more important. Bullfighting is seen as an art form
A sampler containing
four illustrations of
Iberian Horsemanship
(doma vaquera): a bull
fighter on horseback
(rejoneador), the cos-
tume show where a girl
in a flamenco dress is
carried on the horse, an
Andalusian lance rider,
and a horse standing on
its hind legs (perform-
ing a levada).
Source: istockphoto/Gaucho.
and is called the “National Fes-

tival,” although it is not im-
mune to impassioned debates
between adherents and critics.
The aristocracy practiced
horseback riding, shooting,
and fencing, sports associated
with the military.
Modern sports were intro-
duced by the 1870s by the
many British residents in cities
such as Huelva and Bilbao.
They formed sports club to
support such activities as tennis and soccer. It took until own sports council while a central agency, the Upper
the first three decades of the twentieth century for these Counsel of Sports, is in charge of coordination.
sports to spread from the British and a few Spanish aris-
tocrats to the middle class. In 1902 the first National Participants and
Championship of Soccer was contested. The event was Spectators
covered by the press, which helped make it more pop- Soccer is the premier sport. A national league encour-
ular across Spain. ages regional rivalries with the strongest teams being
In 1936 the Spanish Civil War began, and a dicta- Barcelona and Real Madrid. The contests between these
torship was established by Francisco Franco (1892– two teams accentuate regional rivalries. The basketball
1875) that remained in power until his death in 1975. league runs in the same way, but without the same high
Under Franco’s rule sport was politicized and placed level of fan intensity as soccer. Out of these sports
under centralized control. The role of sport was to bring emerge sports celebrities. Many are wealthy, foreign
national pride to Spain. Soccer was supported by the soccer players who draw adoring fans because of the
state and became the major sport, with one team, Real Spanish team they play for.
Madrid, associated with the state. After Franco’s death The other sport event that draws much attention is
democracy was established, and the control of sport the Olympics, especially popular since the games were
shifted to the regions. Each autonomous region has its held in Barcelona in 1992.
SPECIAL OLYMPICS 1465
To succeed . . . You need to find something to

hold on to, something to motivate you,
something to inspire you. ■ TONY DORSETT
Women and Sports then basketball, and much less popular are tennis, cy-
In the early twentieth century beliefs about the body cling, jogging and fitness exercise.
and health changed, creating a climate more open to
women’s participation in sports. But, during the first The Future
years of the century, participation by women remained Soccer is likely to remain a sport and a spectacle. Sports
limited. Lilí Alvarez was the first Spanish athlete to par- participation is expected to increase in the cities among
ticipate in European and world competitions. During men and women, although it is declining in the schools
the Franco period, female participation was limited, as as less time is being given to physical education. There
a woman was allowed to be only a mother and wife. remains an interest in staying in shape and in pursuing
Democracy brought change, but today only 19 percent in a greater variety of sports. Nevertheless, the overall
of women mention sport as preferred leisure, although growth of organized sport may well be hampered by re-
many mention a desire to participate. maining prejudices—passed on from the not very dis-
tant past—that favor intellectual supremacy.
Youth Sports T. Gonzalez Aja
Physical education is compulsory in the schools. Nev-
ertheless, only 50 percent show an interest in partici-
pating.Youth championships at the national level exist, Further Reading
and youth compete in international championships Bahamonde, A. (2002). El Real Madrid en la historia de España,
through the International Confederacy of School Sport Madrid: Taurus.
García Bonafé, M. (1986). Notas para una historia del deporte en Es-
(ISF), of which Spain is member. paña, en Revista de Occidente, 62–63, pp. 35–49.
García Ferrando, M. (1991). Los Españoles y el deporte. Madrid: Min-
Organizations isterio de Educación y Ciencia.
González Aja, T (2000). De antiguo al nuevo régimen: Apuntes para
The Upper Counsel of Sports (www.csd.mec.es) is an una historia del deporte en el Madrid de los Borbones, en Icd, n. 25,
agency of the Department of Education and Culture, and pp. 7–31.
González Aja, T. (2002). Sport y autoritarismos. Madrid: Alianza.
the central organization for administering sport at all González Aja, T. (2003). La introducción del deporte en España.
levels—associations, universities, and schools, Olympic Madrid: Edilupa.
Games, world championships, etc. The Association of Polo del Barrio, J. (1986). El fútbol español hasta la guerra civil, en
Revista de Occidente, 62–63, pp. 84–101, Madrid.
Olympic Sports (ADO) was created to support Olympic Riordan, J. And Krüger, A., (2003). Europena cultures in sport. Exam-
athletes. ining the nations and regions, Intellect, Bristol.
Shaw, D. (1987). Fútbol y Franquismo, Alianza, Madrid
Sports in Society
Sport as a leisure activity has become more popular
over the last three decades. Involvement in sports is
most common among young men, single and students,
who reside in cities of less than 500,000 inhabitants.
Special Olympics
Some 27 percent of men consider sport their preferred
leisure activity. Housewives and retired women, espe-
cially in the rural center of the nation show the least in-
S pecial Olympics is an international nonprofit or-
ganization serving 1.4 million children (over eight
years old) and adults with intellectual disabilities. It is
terest in sports. the largest sports training and competition program in
Swimming is the most popular participatory sport, the world for this population. It provides year-round
followed by soccer (the most popular spectator sport) sports training and athletic competition in twenty-six
The Russia Special Olympics floor hockey delegation celebrates at the

2001 Special Olympics World Winter Games held in Anchorage, Alaska.
Source: Special Olympics.
different sports and other opportunities for athletes of all History

abilities in more than 200 programs in over 150 coun- Eunice Kennedy Shriver believed that persons with in-
tries. These programs are divided into seven regions: tellectual disabilities were far more capable than others
Africa, Asia Pacific, East Asia, Europe/Eurasia, Latin believed. Mrs. Shriver invited thirty-five boys and girls to
America, Middle East/North Africa, and North America. her home in Maryland to participate in sports and phys-
Athletes compete at the local, state, regional, national, ical activities at Camp Shriver in 1962. Camp Shriver
and international levels. Special Olympics athletes com- grew into an annual event sponsored by the Joseph P.
pete in Alpine skiing, aquatics, athletics, badminton, Kennedy Foundation, for which Mrs. Shriver served as
basketball, bocce, bowling, cross-country skiing, cycling, executive vice president. It expanded into more than
equestrian, figure skating, floor hockey, football (soc- 300 camps throughout the United States and served
cer), golf, gymnastics, powerlifting, roller skating, sailing, thousands of children with intellectual disabilities.
snowboarding, snowshoeing, softball, speed skating, From its humble beginnings as a day camp, the first
table tennis, team handball, tennis and volleyball. Spe- Special Olympics Games, planned and underwritten
cial Olympics is governed by a board of directors and by the Kennedy Foundation, together with the Chicago
led by Timothy Shriver, chairman and chief executive of- Park District, was held in Chicago, Illinois in the sum-
ficer, and 500,000 volunteers. Athletes serve on boards mer of 1968. Over 1,000 athletes from twenty-six states
of directors of all Special Olympics programs, including and Canada competed in athletics, floor hockey, and
the International Board. Special Olympics headquarters aquatics during this historic events. At those Games,
is located in Washington, D.C. Shriver announced a new program—Special Olympics
SPECIAL OLYMPICS 1467
Special Olympics
Special Olympics
Winter Games
Special Olympics celebrated its thirty-fifth anniver-
Year Location sary in 2003, holding its World Summer Games in
Dublin, Ireland. It was the largest sporting event of the
1977 Steamboat Springs, CO
year, with 7,000 athletes from 150 countries competing
1981 Smuggler’s Notch and Stowe, VT in eighteen competitive and three demonstration sports.
1985 Park City, UT Athletes with severe disabilities or limitations who were
not yet able to compete in official Special Olympics
1989 Reno, NV and Lake Tahoe, CA
sports participated in the Motor Activities Training Pro-
1993 Salzburg and Schladming, Austria gram (MATP) at the World Games in Dublin. These in-
1997 Toronto and Collingwood, Canada dividuals participated in the bean bag lift, ball kick,
2001 Anchorage, AK wide beam and bench, ball lift (small), ball lift (large),
ball push, and log roll. Training and participation are
2005 Nagano, Japan
the focus of MATP. These participants can transition
into the introductory level of competitive sports as they
reach the appropriate skill levels.
—to offer people with intellectual disabilities every- The 2001 Special Olympics World Winter Games in
where “the chance to play, the chance to compete, and Anchorage, Alaska, proved to be the largest sporting
the chance to grow.” The first International Winter Spe- event ever held in the history of the state. Over 1,800
cial Olympics Games were held in 1977 at Steamboat athletes representing seventy countries competed in
Springs, Colorado with more than 500 athletes com- seven Olympic-type sports: Alpine skiing, cross-country
peting in skiing and skating events. skiing, snowboarding, figure skating, speed skating,
Special Olympics World Games are held every four snowshoeing, and floor hockey.
years, with Summer and Winter World Games alter- Special Olympics Sports Rules were created based on
nating every two years in countries around the world. the rules of the International Sports Federations (ISF)
Nineteen different Olympic-type sports are offered in and National Governing Bodies (NGB). Special Olym-
the World Summer Games: aquatics, athletics, bad- pics uses ISF and NGB rules except when in conflict
minton, basketball, bocce, bowling, cycling, equestrian, with Special Olympics rules, then the Special Olympics
football (soccer), golf, gymnastics, handball, power- Rules are applied. A level playing field is ensured
lifting, roller skating, sailing, softball, table tennis, ten- among competitors by placing athletes in divisions
nis, and volleyball. In the World Winter Games, Special based on their age, gender, and ability. Every Special
Olympics athletes compete in Alpine skiing, cross- Olympics athlete, regardless of ability, is recognized for
country skiing, snowboarding, figure skating, speed his or her performance.
skating, snowshoeing, and floor hockey. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) for-
Special Olympics mission is “to provide year-round mally recognized Special Olympics in February 1988
sports training and athletic competition in a variety of and authorized the use of the prestigious word
Olympic-type sports for children and adults with intel- Olympics in its name. Special Olympics is the only or-
lectual disabilities by giving them continuing opportu- ganization approved by the IOC to use the word Olym-
nities to develop physical fitness, demonstrate courage, pics worldwide.
experience joy and participate in the sharing of gifts, Eligibility requirements to participate in Special
skills and friendship with their families, other Special Olympics are as follows: Athletes must be eight years
Olympic athletes and the community” (Special Olym- old or older and have one of the following conditions:
pics website: www.specialolympics.org). intellectual disability, cognitive delay as determined by
Special Olympics
Special Olympics
Summer Games
2003 he assumed the additional responsibility of chair-
Year Location man. Sargent Shriver, who was elected president of Spe-
cial Olympics in 1984 and appointed chairman in
1968 Chicago, IL
1990, stepped down as chairman in 2003 and was ap-
1970 Chicago, IL pointed chairman emeritus in recognition of his long
1972 Los Angeles, CA service and dedication to the movement, which he con-
tinues to serve as an ambassador of optimism and
1975 Mt. Pleasant, MI
goodwill. Mrs. Shriver remains a member of the Special
1979 Brockport, NY Olympics Board of Directors and continues to lend her
1983 Baton Rouge, LA well-earned reputation as a visionary leader in improv-
1987 South Bend, IN ing the lives of people with intellectual disabilities to
furthering the mission and expansion of the movement.
1991 Minneapolis, MN
Special Olympics Initiatives, such as the Athletic
1995 New Haven, CT Leadership Programs, Family Leadership and Support,
1999 Raleigh, NC Healthy Athletes® and Special Olympics Get Into It™,
enhance the mission of Special Olympics. The Special
2003 Dublin, Ireland
Olympics “Flame of Hope” is never extinguished, as
2007 Shanghai, People’s Republic of China Special Olympics athletes compete in 20,000 competi-
tions around the world annually. The 2005 World Win-
ter Games in Nagano, Japan, will be the first Special
standardized measures (i.e. intelligence quotient), or a Olympics World Games held in Asia. The first-ever Spe-
development disability as identified by an agency or cial Olympics U.S. National Games are slated for July
professional. All athletes must register to participate in 2006 at Iowa State University in Ames, Iowa. The 2007
Special Olympics. There is no cost for participation. All Special Olympics World Summer Games will mark the
persons with intellectual disabilities, regardless of the first time the World Summer Games will be held in
degree of disability, are eligible to participate. Asia and only the second time the event will be held
outside of the United States.
Significance
Historically, society believed that individuals with in- The Future
tellectual disabilities were incapable of developing and In June 2004 a bipartisan group of senators and con-
functioning in any area of life. People avoided them gressmen announced the introduction of the Special
out of ignorance and fear. Mrs. Shriver, who believed Olympics Sport Empowerment Act of 2004, a first-
this population was capable of far more, including par- ever bill of its kind that will authorize $15 million for
ticipation in sports and physical education, rejected this 2005 and “such sums” over the next four years to fund
stigma and exclusion by society. Mrs. Shriver and her the Special Olympics movement. From its beginning
husband, Sargent Shriver, developed the Special Olym- with thirty-five athletes at Camp Shriver in Rockville,
pics into the largest amateur athletic organization in the Maryland, to 1.4 million athletes in 150 countries
world for people with intellectual disabilities. Under around the world, Special Olympics continues to break
the Shrivers’ leadership, the organization grew from down barriers by increasing public awareness, con-
serving 1,000 to 1.4 million athletes since its inception ducting research, increasing and expanding competitive
in 1968. In 1996 their son, Timothy Shriver, was and recreational opportunities, building family sup-
named president and CEO of Special Olympics; in port, and promoting the phenomenal gifts of people
SPECTATOR CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR 1469
The ultimate victory in competition is derived from the inner

satisfaction of knowing that you have done your best and that you
have gotten the most out of what you had to give. ■ HOWARD COSELL
with intellectual disabilities. The Special Olympics ath- actual sport consumption behaviors, managers and
lete oath is one we all should pledge: “Let me win. But marketers of sport organizations, media professionals,
if I cannot win, let me be brave in the attempt.” and business managers of sport merchandise organiza-
tions are very interested in why people consume sport
Becky Clark
and the associated products.
See also Adapted Physical Education The aspects that influence people to consume sport
products and services can be divided into four cate-
gories: demographic aspects, psychographic aspects,
Further Reading environmental aspects, and past behavior. If we think of
Clark, Rebecca A. (2001). Special Olympics. In K. Christensen, sport products and services as the total pie, demo-
A. Guttmann, & G. Pfister, (Eds.), International encyclopedia of
women and sports (Vol. 3, pp. 1093–1094). Farmington Hills, MI: graphic variables would take up about 5–10 percent of
Gale Group. the total pie, psychographic aspects about 40–45 per-
DePauw, K., & Gavron, S. (1995). Disability and sport. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics.
cent , environmental aspects about 15–20 percent, and
Janes, M. (1998). Special Olympics and women. In C. Oglesby, past behavior about 15–20 percent. There remains a
D. Greenberg, R. Hall, K. Hill, F. Johnston, & S. Ridley, (Eds.), En- small part of the pie that is unknown.
cyclopedia of women and sport in America (pp. 257–259). Phoenix,
AZ: Oryx Press.
Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. Foundation. Retrieved December 20, 2004, Demographic Aspects
from http://www.jpkf.org
Shriver, M., & Spiedal, S (Illustrator). (2001). What’s wrong with Numerous demographic variables have been studied.
Timmy? New York: Little, Brown Children’s Books. These include age, race, family size, gender, household
Special Olympics International fact sheet. (1998).Washington, DC: SOI income, level of education, and participation in sport.
Special Olympics International organization brief. Retrieved December
20, 2004, from http://www.specialolympics.org Although differences have been found on some of these
Spirit Magazine. Retrieved December 20, 2004, from http:// variables associated with sport consumption, typically
ww.specialolympics.org
the differences are not meaningful. For example, al-
though females have been shown to purchase more
team merchandise than males, the difference in the
amount spent on the clothing by women over men is
Spectator small when compared with the overall amount spent on
team clothing in general. Furthermore, in this case even
Consumption Behavior though women purchase more merchandise, it is more
often for their children, husbands, or boyfriends rather
S port consumption behavior includes such actions as

purchasing, attending, spectating, or wearing prod-
ucts or using services associated with spectator sport.
than for themselves. Similarly, although there are racial
differences in sport consumption by sport, overall there
is not a large difference in the total consumption of
Consumption also includes reading about sports or sport products by race. There have been conflicting re-
teams in newspapers or magazines, watching sports sults as to differences in household income and sport
events on television, buying clothing representing a spe- consumption. Although those with higher income lev-
cific team or sport, going to a game, or searching web- els have the ability to purchase high-priced tickets for
sites for sport statistics for a fantasy league. In 2001, the some sports, such as professional basketball or profes-
U.S. Census Bureau estimated that individuals in the sional football, when evaluating those who come to
United States spent $10.1 billion attending spectator the games across all sports, there are few differences rel-
sports events and spent another $24.8 billion on ath- ative to number of games attended or watched on tele-
letic and sport apparel. Although there is a plethora of vision between those with high incomes and those with
low incomes. These are just a few examples of the lack team beat the USSR in the 1980 Winter Olympic
of meaningful differences in demographic variables. Games). The motive of entertainment may be an um-
This lack of differences is evident in the small percent- brella motive that includes many of the other motives.
age of the total that demographic aspects contribute to Some people are motivated by the potential to escape
explaining sport spectator consumption. from the daily grind of work or home and just get a
chance to relax by watching or listening to a game.
Psychographic Aspects Some research has shown that the motive of taking the
Psychographic aspects are made up of cognitive aspects family to a game is important to some people. In some
(motives, points of attachment, and expectancies), af- instances the physical attractiveness of the participants
fective aspects (mood and satisfaction), and conative as- may be a motive for spectating (e.g., beach volleyball or
pects (intentions to consume sport products or services). swimming and diving). As a motive the quality of the
physical skills of the athletes is somewhat similar to aes-
COGNITIVE ASPECTS thetics. Many people can appreciate the skill it takes to
Individuals are motivated to consume sport because of chip a golf ball out of a sand trap or hit a curve ball in
the reinforcing pleasures therein. Most of these pleas- baseball. The opportunity to interact socially is also a
urable behaviors fulfill social or psychological needs. prime motive for people attending sporting events. Tail-
gating in football and socializing in in-arena restau-
Motives rants (especially in professional basketball) are good
A number of motives that theoretically explain con- examples of this, although many people just like inter-
sumption behavior have been identified by previous re- acting with others while sitting next to them in the
searchers: acquisition of knowledge, aesthetics, catharsis/ stands. Another motive is the opportunity to support a
aggression, drama/excitement, entertainment, escape (re- certain segment of the population in their participation
laxing), family, physical attractiveness of participants, in sport (e.g., the Special Olympics or the professional
quality of physical skill of the participant, social interac- women’s soccer league). Finally, probably one of the
tion, supporting opportunities in sports, and vicarious most important motives for sport consumption is vi-
achievement. Many of these motives are interrelated, but carious achievement. Many people feel that the con-
we will explain each separately. nection with a successful team allows them to achieve
Many people read about, watch, or attend sport vicariously. Although some of these motives do impact
events because by doing so they learn about the sport sport consumption behavior directly, research has
or gain information about the team. This information shown that motives in combination with various points
may be used to interact socially, bet on a team in the fu- of attachment are better predictors than motives alone.
ture, or play in fantasy leagues. Some people may watch
sport for the aesthetic qualities inherent in the game or Points of Attachment
event; for example, a beautiful pass in basketball, a Sports teams can provide people with a sense of be-
triple jump in ice skating, or a spectacular dismount in longing to a specific community and thus people may
gymnastics. On the other hand, some research has sug- identify with or become attached to the team. However,
gested that individuals may also watch sports because the team may be only one of several possible points of
of the violence (e.g., boxing, hockey, or football). An- attachment. Individuals may be oriented to other parts
other motive is the drama or excitement that may be of the whole sport consumption experience, not neces-
present when a game comes down to the final seconds sarily just a team. Some people may be fans of a specific
and either team could win or when the upset of a fa- coach regardless of what team he or she coaches. Oth-
vored team is taking place (e.g., when the U.S. hockey ers may be fans of a specific player even if that player is
traded or switches teams. For example, when Michael won, the fan would experience more enjoyment than if
Jordan went from the Chicago Bulls to the Washington expecting the team to win. Thus, the motives, points of
Wizards, many people bought tickets to the Wizards attachment, and the confirmation/disconfirmation of
games because of Michael Jordan. On the other hand, expectations are cognitive aspects that influence sport
sometimes people will watch games or events even consumption either directly or indirectly. However,
though they don’t necessarily like either team or any of there are also affective aspects that are part of the psy-
the athletes, but instead because they just like the sport. chographic content.
However, sometimes the level of sport makes a differ-
ence as to whether an individual will watch it. Some AFFECTIVE ASPECTS
people are only fans of college basketball and will not Much of the research on sport consumption behavior
watch professional basketball, while others are just the has shown that fans have an affective reaction to the ad-
opposite. Finally, sometimes people may not even nec- vertising or promotion of a product and also to the
essarily like the sport that much, but because the team consumption of a product or service. Positive mood
represents the community, home, country, or the alma items such as pleased, happy, energetic, satisfied, and
mater, they will watch the event because of one or more confident, or negative mood items such as discouraged,
of those points of attachment. Specifically, team identi- frustrated, upset, angry, irritated, sad, and hostile have
fication/attachment has been found to be a very strong typically represented the affective reaction. Research
indicator of sport spectator consumption behavior. has shown that people who are in a positive mood will
more likely purchase a product than those who are in a
Expectancies negative mood, especially if they have never purchased
When going into events, fans and spectators often have the specific product before. Furthermore, and perhaps
expectations about the outcome of the event, individual more obviously, consumers who are happy with their
performances, the competitiveness of the teams, their previous consumption experiences typically will repur-
own level of enjoyment of the event, and so on. These chase the same product or service.
expectations are either confirmed or disconfirmed by Sometimes researchers have not made a distinction
the event experience, and they can be either positive or between satisfaction and the affective response to con-
negative. Thus, there is a continuum with negative dis- sumption. Although they are significantly correlated,
confirmation on one end, followed by negative confir- satisfaction is distinct from the affective response be-
mation, then positive confirmation, and anchored on cause satisfaction typically has a cognitive component.
the other end by positive disconfirmation. For example, For example, satisfaction typically has a point of refer-
if an individual expects the team to win and it does not, ence, whereas mood is usually a more general indicator
then the expectation is disconfirmed in a negative way. of affect. That is, I was satisfied with my venue experi-
If the individual expects the team to lose and it does, ence because the beer was cold and the popcorn was
then the expectation is confirmed, but the outcome is hot, my site lines were good, and the rest room lines
still negative. On the other hand, if the individual ex- were short. An affective response, on the other hand,
pects the team to win and it does, the confirmation is would be as follows: someone is asked directly after the
positive. Finally, if the individual expects the team to game how he or she felt and replies, “I feel good.” Al-
lose, but instead the team wins, the expectation is dis- though there could be a point of reference (i.e., I feel
confirmed, but in a positive way. Typically, the reaction good about the game), mood states are defined as not
of the individual is more acute when the expectation is having cognitive evaluations, whereas satisfaction is
disconfirmed, whether negatively or positively. For ex- usually a combination of both. In both cases, though,
ample, if a fan expected the team to lose and the team when individuals feel good and when they are satisfied,
The Illustrated Sport Calendar for January 1924 by J. C. Clarke.

they typically intend to repurchase the product or serv- ically CORF in defeat, though. Highly team-identified
ice that made them happy and satisfied. people often resist the temptation to CORF. The level of
fan identification typically influences an individual’s re-
CONATIVE ASPECTS actions to event outcomes; that is, individuals high in
Conation is the intent to do something. In terms of team identification are much more likely to engage in
sport consumption behavior, it is the intent to purchase BIRGing behavior after a victory and less likely to
a sport product or service in the future. The combina- CORF after a defeat when compared with fans low in
tion of the cognitive aspects of motives, points of at- team identification. It may be that highly identified fans
tachment, expectancy confirmation, and the affective cannot bring themselves to CORF.
aspects of mood and satisfaction influence the individ- For those individuals who cannot CORF and cannot
ual’s intentions to repurchase. However, even though an BIRG because there is no successful other, they may
individual may indicate that he or she will repurchase, have to engage in other coping mechanisms such as out-
it does not necessarily always happen. Sometimes a group derogation and/or aggression (i.e., blasting).
better indicator of sport consumption behavior is the Thus, individuals, in trying to maintain their own lev-
actual past behavior of the individual. els of self-esteem in the eyes of others when faced with
a potentially negative association, would often dero-
Past Behavior gate or blast the negatively associated group.
Previous consumption behavior has been shown to be a
good predictor of future consumption behavior; that is, Environmental Aspects
those who bought season tickets last year will typically Environmental aspects have been segmented into three
buy season tickets this year at a much higher rate than areas: game attractiveness (e.g., athlete skills, team
those who didn’t buy season’s tickets for the previous sea- records, league standing, record-breaking performance,
son. However, there are other past behaviors that are closeness of competition, team history in a community,
also good predictors of whether people will repurchase schedule, convenience, and stadium quality), marketing
merchandise or tickets or will consume media again. promotions (e.g., publicity, special events, entertainment
People react to event outcomes in different ways. programs, and giveaways), and economic considerations
Oftentimes individuals are motivated to create and (e.g., ticket price, substitute forms of entertainment, in-
maintain a positive self-concept through the strategic come, and competition of other sport events (Zhang,
attachment or detachment to certain teams with which Lam, and Connaughton 2003, 33). The team’s record
they identify. As we noted earlier, individuals may typically has an impact on both ticket sales and on mer-
watch sports to fulfill achievement needs and hope to chandise sales, although there are enough exceptions
bask in the reflected glory (BIRG) of successful others. that this is not a given. For example, the Chicago Cubs
Being “a part of the team” when the team is successful have had many seasons in which they have not won a lot
allows them to glean status and self-esteem through of games, and they have not been to the World Series
their identification and association. The tendency to since 1945, yet they typically have one of the best at-
BIRG is an attempt to secure esteem from those who tendance records in Major League Baseball. On the
can perceive the connection. other hand, the Atlanta Braves won thirteen straight di-
People will also distance themselves away from un- vision titles through 2004 and have had difficulty selling
successful others in order to maintain self-esteem. That out home playoff games.
is, if a team loses or does not play as well as expected, There has been conflicting research about the effects of
many spectators will cut off reflected failure (CORF). promotions and advertising on increasing attendance. Al-
Not all spectators BIRG only after victory or automat- though marketers and managers of professional franchises
tend to believe that advertising is useful when the team tion is a strong predictor of sport spectator consumer
is not winning, most spectators and fans have indicated behavior, understanding the social psychological mech-
that advertising has little if any impact on their ticket anisms that foster sentiments of collective identifica-
purchasing or attendance behavior. Research has also tion and feelings of attachment appear to be more
been contradictory about the impact of price on sports crucial to marketing success than either demographic or
products and services. Typically, if prices are too high, environmental aspects.
then various market segments are priced out of the mar- Galen T. Trail and
ket. However, as the Cincinnati Reds found out in the Dean F. Anderson
1990s, if ticket prices are too low, people won’t buy
them either. The Reds priced the outfield bleacher seats
at $1.00 and very few people bought them because Further Reading
they felt that anything that cheap must not be any good. Baade, R. A., & Tiehen, L. J. (1990). An analysis of Major League
Aspects of the venue also can influence attendance Baseball attendance, 1969–1987. Journal of Sport and Social Issues,
14, 14–32.
slightly. When a new stadium is built, there is often a Branscombe, N. R., & Wann, D. L. (1991). The positive social and self-
novelty factor. People will go to a game just to see the concept consequences of sports team identification. Journal of Sport
and Social Issues, 15, 115–127.
new stadium, even if they have little interest in the game Cialdini, R. B., Borden, R. J., Thorne, A., Walker, M. R., Freeman, S., &
or sport itself. This factor tends to last a year or two at Sloan, L. R. (1976). Basking in reflected glory: Three (football) field
most, and then attendance returns to previous levels. studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 406–415.
Fink, J. S., Trail, G. T., & Anderson, D. F. (2002a). Environmental fac-
Probably the largest venue effect is a negative one. tors associated with spectator attendance and sport consumption be-
When spectators are dissatisfied with the venue or lev- havior: Gender and team differences. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 11,
8–19.
els of service at the venue, they tend to decrease their at- Fink, J. S., Trail, G. T., & Anderson, D. F. (2002b, Summer). An exam-
tendance. The opposite is typically not true. If the ination of team identification: Which motives are most salient to its
spectators are satisfied with venue aspects, it doesn’t existence? International Sports Journal. 6, 195–207.
Funk, D. C., Mahony, D. F., & Ridinger, L. L. (2002). Characterizing
mean that they will attend more games, just the same consumer motivation as individual difference factors: Augmenting
number they originally intended on going to. However, the sport interest inventory (SII) to explain level of sport. Sport
Marketing Quarterly, 11, 33–43.
all of these environmental aspects have, as a whole, Hansen, H., & Gauthier, R. (1989). Factors affecting attendance at pro-
had little impact on sport spectator consumer behavior fessional sport events. Journal of Sport Management, 3, 15–32.
compared with psychographic aspects. Madrigal, R. (1995). Cognitive and affective determinants of fan satis-
faction with sporting event attendance. Journal of Leisure Research,
27, 205–227.
Implications for the Future Mahony, D. F., Howard, D. R., & Madrigal, R. (2000, Winter). BIRG-
ing and CORFing behaviors by sport spectators: High self-monitors
Many working in the sport entertainment area in the versus low self-monitors. International Sports Journal, 4, 87–106.
late 1990s believed that the rapid expansion in sport Pan, D. W., Gabert, T. E., McGaugh, E. C., & Branvold, S. E. (1997).
spectator consumption would continue well into the Factors and differential demographic effects on purchases of season
tickets for intercollegiate basketball games. Journal of Sport Behav-
new century. Unfortunately, economic factors in the ior, 20, 447–463.
early twenty-first century do not clearly point in this di- Sloan, L. R. (1989). The motives of sports fans. In J. H. Goldstein (Ed.),
Sports, games, and play: Social and psychological viewpoints
rection. Attendance figures for several professional (pp. 175–240). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
sports leagues have plateaued or even shown a decrease Snyder, C. R., Lassegard, M., & Ford, C. E. (1986). Distancing after group
between 2000 and 2004. The purchase of licensed success and failure: Basking in reflected glory and cutting off reflected
failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 382–388.
sports merchandise has followed a similar trend. Con- Trail, G. T., Anderson, D. F., & Fink, J. (2000). A theoretical model of
sequently, as competition for the consumer increases, sport spectator consumption behavior. International Journal of Sport
Management, 1, 154–180.
the need for a clearer understanding of sport spectator Trail, G. T., Anderson, D. F., & Fink, J. S. (2002). Examination of gen-
consumer behavior is great. Because team identifica- der differences in importance and satisfaction with venue factors at
SPECTATORS 1475
Tennis and golf are best played,

not watched. ■ ROGER KAHN
intercollegiate basketball games: Effects on future spectator atten- field and distorting the purpose of sports. With the ad-
dance. International Sports Journal, 6, 51–64. vent of mass communication mediums such as radio
Trail, G. T., Fink, J. S., & Anderson, D. F. (2003). Sport spectator con-
sumption behavior. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 12, 8–17. and television during the twentieth century, the base
Trail, G. T., Robinson, M. J., Gillentine, A., & Dick, R. (2003). Motives population that could experience sporting events in real
and points of attachment: Fans versus spectators in intercollegiate
athletics. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 12, 217–227.
time expanded exponentially.
Wann, D. L., & Branscombe, N. R. (1990). Die-hard and fair-weather
fans: Effects of identification on BIRGing and CORFing tendencies.
Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 14, 103–117.
Ancient Fans
Wann, D. L., Royalty, J., & Roberts, A. (2000). The self-presentation of Fans have existed as long as sports. Sports require spe-
sport fans: Investigating the importance of team identification and cialized skill, so not all people can participate. The un-
self-esteem. Journal of Sport Behavior, 23, 198–206.
Wenner, L. A., & Gantz, W. (1989). The audience experience with skilled have had to be content to watch. The ancient
sports on television, sports, and society. In A. Wenner (Ed.), Media Olympic Games of Greece provided spectacle as well as
(pp. 241–268). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. a way of determining the best athletes and honoring the
Zhang, J. J., Lam, E. T. C., & Connaughton, D. P. (2003). General mar-
ket demand variables associated with professional sport consump- gods. The ultimate venue for sports fans in the ancient
tion. International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship, 5, world was undoubtedly the Roman Colosseum, where
33–55.
Zhang, J. J., Pease, D. G., Smith, D. W., Lee, J. T., Lam, E. T., & Jam-
sixty thousand spectators could watch gladiators battle
bor, E. A. (1997, Summer). Factors affecting the decision making of to the death. Medieval jousting tournaments provided
spectators to attend minor league hockey games. International mass entertainment as well as military training and dis-
Sports Journal, 1, 39–53.
play. Large crowds also watched blood sports such as
bear baiting or bullfighting, and these sports continued
to be popular into the modern age. The crowds always
went wild for those sports, but relatively few people ac-
Spectators tually witnessed them.
Stadiums
A nd the crowd goes wild!” This oft-repeated phrase
represents the reality of twenty-first-century spec-
tator sports, which are routinely watched by millions of
During the late nineteenth century entrepreneurs built
larger venues for spectator sports as leisure time and in-
people across a nation or across the world. It also rep- comes grew for the middle classes, and by the 1920s
resents a wide range of spectator behavior, ranging seating capacity at some exceeded that of the Colos-
from rooting for the home team to rioting in the streets. seum. These secular cathedrals to sports allowed thou-
The words rooter, booster, adoring multitude, football sands to watch their favorite teams at one time. Civic
hooligan, soccer mom, hockey dad, and the viewers at pride became invested in a city’s ability to provide ven-
home conjure images of fans watching sports with ues for their citizens, and construction of these facilities
various levels of intensity. Some of these words have outstripped that of other entertainment venues such as
positive connotations and some negative, but they all opera houses or theaters as the middle class absorbed
describe a similar experience that touches the lives of a working-class sports into their dominant culture.
large segment of the world’s population. As the popularity of sports spread, fans in cities dis-
During the past millennium the number of people tant from the action could follow the fortunes of their
who watch sporting events has grown from a few in- favorites in newspapers and in periodicals such as the
person spectators to enormous television and live au- Police Gazette in the United States and the Sporting
diences, and as the audiences have grown, the pressure Life in Great Britain.Young boys were regaled with sto-
of fan (short for fanatic) expectations has modified ries such as Tom Brown’s School Days in Britain or the
sports and society, often eclipsing the action on the popular Frank Merriwell series in the United States,
which blended sports with morality tales to nurture The pool of fans grew to include those fans who never
manly virtue in readers. The wealthy abandoned popu- actually attended a school but who formed an emo-
lar sports, withdrawing behind the walls of golf, yacht, tional attachment to a school through the media. This
and tennis clubs, and held events with fewer, but pre- attachment was especially powerful when the school
sumably, more refined fans. embodied a particular cultural trait or existed in a re-
gion with little competition from other sporting acti-
Radio vities. The Fighting Irish of Notre Dame University
When radio began to broadcast major sporting events reached across geographic borders to win fans among
such as the World Series and championship prize fights, U.S. Catholics. The team’s popularity among even non-
the number of sports fans exploded. Prior to radio, fans Catholics also helped ease its full assimilation into the
clustered about businesses with telephone or telegraph mainstream of U.S. culture. The University of Nebraska
connections where scores or updates were posted as an in- Cornhuskers provided a unifying symbol for an entire
ducement to shoppers or as a public service. By the 1920s state whose residents had little in else in common.
major sporting events such as boxing title matches, college The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)
bowl games, and the World Series could be enjoyed by approached television gingerly, fearing that it would
fans a continent away from the action. The expansion of decrease gate receipts, but professional football em-
team loyalties meant that a fan of the Chicago Cubs might braced the new medium of television and in the
find a kindred soul in Florida or California, and the new process won a central place in the hearts of U.S. fans.
medium also helped widen the appeal of sports within The popularity of the National Football League and
U.S. culture. other broadcast sports in the United States began to
Radio, people have argued, was the media that best draw enormous sums of money to the sporting world
suited baseball. The slow pace of the game allowed a through television revenue, and television and sports
sportscaster such as Graham MacNamee, who was at formed a symbiotic relationship that created an up-
the microphone for the first broadcast of a World Series ward spiral of popularity among fans.
game in 1923, or Ronald Reagan, whose first job in the
entertainment industry was as a baseball announcer, to PROLIFERATION OF CHOICES
fill the time between pitches with biographical and sta- Television expanded the popularity of sports within
tistical information on the players or to discuss the finer U.S. culture, and programs such as the American Broad-
points of baseball strategy. The lack of a visual image al- casting Company’s Wide World of Sports introduced
lowed creative radio personalities to embellish routine new sports that appealed to people who traditionally ig-
plays, which made the games more exciting for fans, nored sports. Members of the two-television family
who were compelled to imagine visual images to sup- could now separate by viewing choices, with the males
plement the narrative coming over the radio waves. watching football while females watched figure skat-
ing. During the late 1980s the proliferation of cable tel-
Television evision channels further diversified fan opportunities,
After World War II television eroded radio’s dominance with channels or pay-per-view packages devoted to
in sports broadcasting. In the United States sporting major sports, as fans of poker, billiards, bass fishing,
preferences shifted toward football, which was better and a dizzying array of other sports enjoyed their own
suited to television as a spectacle. College football, for- niche programs. The cable sports channel ESPN offered
merly the province of the educated classes, reached out fans the chance to catch up on news from their favorite
to new fans as first radio and then television began to sports twenty-four hours a day, and ESPN Classic al-
broadcast the games to an often-nationwide audience. lowed young and old enthusiasts to watch the best
SPECTATORS 1477
A crowd cheering athletes

gathered on the field at
the Pan American Games.
were young. The former ath-

letes can remember, often with
advantage, the exploits of their
youth and recapture some
small part of the joy they felt
while competing. Such fan
groups are often quite exclu-
sive, being open only to the
initiated, and members share
the common language of the
sport, which is typically in-
comprehensible to those who
did not play.
For some, spectator sports
games and matches from past years. For those fans who are social events and an excuse to hold gatherings of
would rather argue than watch, or argue after watching, friends. The sports party has become a hallowed ritual
radio regained popularity by offering sports talk shows for millions who gather with their friends to discuss the
on which fans could comment on their favorite teams or team’s chances before, during, and after the game while
sports, and television followed suit with celebrity argu- consuming elaborate feasts, which are no less impres-
ment and/or interview programs. sive because of the simplicity of the fare. These parties
Outside the United States football (soccer) reigns may occur in a residence, at a tailgate party in the park-
supreme, and the quadrennial World Cup matches are ing lot outside the stadium or field, or in a business con-
watched by a large percentage of the world’s population. structed for such celebrations: the sports bar. Sports
Each nation has other folk sports, such as cricket in the enthusiasts across the world charter buses, planes, or
United Kingdom, that have gained a wider following trains to carry them to contests. These groupings usually
within and without its borders through television. are less exclusive and attract a wide cross-section of
Rugby, horseracing, and other sports are also popular fans, from the ex-athlete to the casual fan.
among fans worldwide and have likewise benefited from Young fans can dream of one day taking their place
television’s constant courtship of people eighteen to on the field, and many visualize themselves making the
forty-nine years old, who spend the most money and moves of their heroes while playing in the backyard or
therefore are coveted by advertisers. on the street. A time-honored tradition is the crowd of
young fans who surrounds athletes for autographs, al-
FAN MOTIVATION though the value of memorabilia in the latter decades of
Today even fans in remote areas can follow their fa- the twentieth century gave rise to a more mercenary
vorite sports. However, why would they would want to? class of athlete and fan. When a fan party includes the
Fans watch sports, whether on television or in person, initiated, it often serves as a rite of passage for young en-
because it fulfills a need. thusiasts as they learn the folkways involved in spend-
Some fans watch a sport because they played the ing a lifetime enamored with a sport.
sport in their youth, and watching it allows them to re- Following a team or sport also provides a venue for
live past thrills and agonies. Young fans can sit at the consumption, and the sports-memorabilia and licensed-
feet of their elders and absorb the lore of the sport product markets bring in millions annually. During
from men and women who played the sport when they the 1990s economic boom, baseball cards and other
memorabilia prices set record highs and spawned their

own subculture. Every professional team, college team,
and many high school teams offer a wide array of
product choices from current uniforms to classic repli-
cas and the hats, clocks, and other bric-a-brac to com-
plement them.
Finally, many fans use sports to escape from the
drudgeries of everyday life. Following a team or a sport
provides the opportunity to connect to something larger
than the individual and to transcend everyday cares.
When a player such as the U.S. basketball star Michael
Jordan or the British soccer star David Beckham does
the impossible, the escapist fan can forget for the mo-
ment his or her own powerlessness and the futility of a
humdrum existence.
International Consequences
Sports offer a thrilling way for teams or individuals to
compete for dominance, but the result rarely carries
permanent consequences for real life. Many people This poster points out the benefits
would dispute the latter point, and often civic, regional, to the fan of the enclosed Astrodome.
or even national pride becomes intertwined in the ac- Source: Brian S. Butler.
tion, which adds to the vicarious thrill gained from
rooting for the home team. During the Cold War the
quadrennial Olympic Games became a venue for com- pitting the United States against Colombia, a Colom-
petition that often served as an alternative to more se- bian defenseman inadvertently kicked the ball into his
rious conflict. Tremendous controversies surrounded own goal, which counted as a score for the United States
how Olympic team points should be awarded or and led to his team’s defeat. A week later, the player was
whether men’s and women’s results should be kept sep- dead, gunned down in the street by an irate fan. Some
arate. The lofty goals of the Olympic movement de- British soccer fans are notorious for their violence, and
scended to the level of a playground argument in the these soccer hooligans, along with similar fans from
competition for allegiance among nonaligned nations other nations, often eclipse the headlines earned by the
in the global struggle, and fans from the opposing sides teams they root for. When a team wins or loses a cham-
gleefully joined in the fray, questioning the amateur pionship or sometimes a regular season game, police
standing, the drug use, or even the biological sex of the often face a night of rioting. Parents watching their chil-
athletes from the other side. dren’s games have often become irate and even violent
when the breaks go against their children. In Chicago a
Fan Behavior man watching his son’s hockey game became so en-
By participating in sports as spectators, fans gain a feel- raged by the decisions made by the team’s coach that he
ing of belonging to something larger than themselves, beat the coach to death.
and often times this feeling leads to extreme or bizarre Even when fan behavior is not violent, it is often still
behavior. During the 1996 World Cup finals, in a game bizarre, especially when television is present. Even
SPECTATORS 1479
Spectators
A Women-Only Crowd, 1896
In the 1896 extract below, from a newspaper ar- Brazilian soccer games often resemble giant parties,
ticle about a game played between female athletes with drums being pounded throughout, the fans
from Stanford and Berkeley, it’s clear that women singing, and flags waving. Beach balls are bounced
hold their own as spectators—and players: around stadiums by fans who, when not so engaged,
In this connection it should be set on record that often take time out to do the wave, a synchronized
there appeared to be no predominant type of movement of fans standing up in sequence so that it re-
woman among the spectators. There were old sembles an ocean wave. At basketball games fans be-
women, and young women, and short-haired hind the backboard often have balloons or towels that
women, and long-haired women, and pretty are waved in an attempt to distract opposing players
women, and plain women, and new women and when they shoot foul shots. In the television age the
—well, there may have been middle-aged women. fan has often become an integral part of the action,
But the really remarkable thing about them was rather than a passive spectator, and the notion that
the immense volume of noise they managed to their actions matter has spurred fans to ever-greater
create. It did one good to hear their cheers, and exertions.
“bravos,” and excited comments on the play. And Sometimes fans suffer for their few seconds of fame.
as for the players themselves, they were simply vo- During a football game between the Baltimore Colts
ciferous. Their animal spirits would have been an and the Miami Dolphins in 1971, an exuberant fan
object lesson to half the young men in San Fran- ran onto the field and passed close to the Colts de-
cisco.Why, when the Stanford girls retired to their fensive huddle. Mike Curtis, the middle linebacker for
dressing-room after winning the game, nothing the Colts, proved his reputation for hitting by viciously
would content them but to turn handsprings on knocking the fan to the ground. The man later lost his
the floor—and fine, workmanlike handsprings job and had to spend considerable time in the hospi-
they were. tal because of the injuries he received. In a soccer
game in Belgium in 1985, fans attacking the oppo-
Source: Players Won by a Goal. (1896, April 5). San Francisco Examiner.
sition crowd were held up at a barrier fence. When
those behind continued to push, the fence collapsed,
and thirty-nine were killed and hundreds injured. Dur-
casual National Football League viewers have seen fans ing the 2003 National League Championship Series
in northern cities standing bare-chested in subzero between the Florida Marlins and the Chicago Cubs in
weather, and during the 1970s one fan with a multi- Chicago’s Wrigley Field, a young fan named “Bart-
colored Afro wig seemed to attend every televised man,” hoping to take a souvenir home from the game,
game. The early years of Monday Night Football were tipped a foul ball out of the Cub leftfielder’s glove, giv-
marked by a carnival atmosphere in the stands as ing the Marlins another chance, which they exploited
women, often exotic dancers in search of publicity, to win the game and the series. Bartman received
performed suggestively for the cameras. One fan has tremendous attention from the media, and when his
made a career of impersonating players or referees to name became public, he received hate mail and death
gain access to the field at important sporting matches. threats from other fans who were livid that the young
Games in various sports have been interrupted by man had helped extend the Cubs’ absence from the
streakers running naked across the field while officials World Series.
give chase, and Morgana the Kissing Bandit, a well- Such actions, and the emotions caused by them,
endowed woman, made a career of turning up at sport- have become part of the spectacle of modern sports, in-
ing events to interrupt the action by kissing players. separable from the behavior of the true enthusiast.
Sports provide a way for fans who are so inclined to act Further Reading
out their personal dramas. This behavior is not a mod- Andelman, B. (2000). Why men watch football. Lafayette, LA: Acadian
House Publishing.
ern phenomenon, however, and from the beginning of Boyle, R. H. (1963). Sport: Mirror of American life. Boston: Little,
sports as a spectacle, fan behavior has often bordered Brown.
on the psychotic. At the ancient Roman gladiatorial Chudacoff, H. (1999). The age of the bachelor: Creating an American
subculture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
matches, when given the chance, fans screamed for the Dunning, E., Murphy, P., Waddington, I., & Astrinakis, A. (Eds.).
life or death of the unlucky loser of a match. Bullfight (2002). Fighting fans: Football hooliganism as a world phenome-
non. Dublin, UK: University College Dublin Press.
fans have attempted or succeeded in crippling the an- Lovinger, J., & Thompson, H. S. (2002). The gospel according to ESPN:
imal adversary of their favorites, and horseracing fans Saints, saviors, and sinners. New York: Hyperion.
have likewise interfered with the performance of horses Michener, J. (1976). Sports in America. New York: Random House.
Oriard, M. (2001). King football: Sport and spectacle in the golden age
or jockeys. These actions most often occur in the con- of radio and newsreels, movies and magazines, the weekly & the
text of gambling on sports, another area of participa- daily press. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Putney, C. (2001). Muscular Christianity: Manhood and sports in Protes-
tion enjoyed by fans. Early baseball games were often tant America, 1880–1920. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
marred by the sound of gunfire as fans (known then as Press.
“cranks”) in the stadium attempted to distract players Rader, B. (1983). American sports: From the age of folk games to the age
of televised sports. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
on the field, and in one case a war broke out between Rader, B. (1984). In its own image: How television has transformed
El Salvador and Honduras after a soccer game. sports. New York: Free Press.
Rader, B. (1994). Baseball: A history of America’s game. Urbana: Uni-
versity of Illinois Press.
The Future Riordan, J., & Kruger, A. (Eds.). (1999). The international politics of
Whether merely enjoying the action or reveling in the sport in the 20th century. London: Spon Press.
Royko, M. (1983). Sez who? Sez me! Chicago: Warner Books.
spectacle, fans transformed the act of watching games Sperber, M. (1998). Onward to victory: The scandals that shaped college
and in some cases threatened the meaning of sports. In sports. New York: Henry Holt and Company.
Tygiel, J. (2000). Past time: Baseball as history. Oxford, UK: Oxford
the early twenty-first century the Internet has opened University Press.
whole new vistas for fan participation. Fantasy sports are Wann, D. (2001). Sports fans: The psychology and social aspects of spec-
a multimillion-dollar business in the United States, and tators. New York: Routledge.
some people argue that fantasy sports hold the potential

to alter the bond between fan and team that has been a
mark of the sports fan in the past because lineups are as-
sembled from players of various teams, weakening the
traditional ties. Television’s need for new programming
Speedball
has also made sports of pastimes and will continue to in-
fluence the evolution of what it means to be a fan.
Whatever the result, the fan occupies a central place
S peedball was a popular recreational and intramural
game for girls and women in the United States until
the 1960s. This recreational team sport combines kick-
within the world of competitive sports at all levels and in ing elements of soccer and football with passing ele-
nearly all areas of the planet. With television few people ments of basketball.
cannot be a fan of some sport, and the growth of the fan
base, along with the idea that the spectator is part of the History
action, has altered both sports and culture. Speedball originated in 1921 when E. D. Mitchell,
the director of intramural sports at the University of
Russ Crawford
Michigan, decided to fill the need for a fall sport that
See also Fan Loyalty; Franchise Relocation; Mascots; was not as dangerous as football and that would in-
Violence terest students of average athletic ability. Basketball in
SPEEDBALL 1481
the winter and baseball in the spring were games suit- During the game, played with seven to eleven play-
able for average players, but the fall lacked a game in ers, touchdowns are scored by catching forward passes
which everyone could safely participate. in the end zone. Players can’t run with the ball. A player
Speedball was an ideal intramural game because it is not permitted to touch a ground ball with his or her
was safe and inexpensive, did not take a great deal of hands. A fly ball, defined as one that has risen into the
training or skill, was excellent exercise for the entire air directly from the foot of a player, may be caught with
body, and was interesting because of the different ways the hands, provided the catch is made before the ball
to score points. The facilities were also simple because strikes the ground again. In advancing the ball, the
a soccer (association football), hockey, or football field player may use one overhead dribble—that is, he or she
could be used if goalposts were added. may throw the ball in the air ahead and run forward
Speedball was successful from its inception. It had and catch it before it strikes the ground.
widespread use in the intramural departments of col- The rules vary for high school versus college and in-
leges and universities throughout the country but prima- tramural versus varsity competitions. Since the begin-
rily in the Midwest. It was a popular physical education ning, there have also been different rules for men’s and
activity in secondary schools and even found its way into women’s games. Regardless of specific rules, however,
industrial recreation programs sponsored by city recre- the game is played in four periods of eight or ten min-
ation departments in the 1930s. However, speedball lost utes each, with the object being to score points by kick-
favor with men’s recreational programs by the end of the ing the ball into the goal or though the goalposts,
1930s and was no longer included in the intramural col- catching it in the end zone, or kicking out of the end
lege men’s programs by the 1950s. Speedball also died zone. The standard field for men is 110 meters (360
in men’s high school programs by the end of World feet) long by 49 meters (160 feet) wide; for women the
War II. More schools started to play flag football or soc- field length is cut to 91 meters (300 feet). Players on
cer, and speedball became a forgotten sport. each team are aligned across the field as forwards,
Meanwhile, by the 1930s, the game had proved itself backs, guards, and a goalkeeper. Free substitution of as
to be particularly suitable for girls and had a larger fol- many as five players is allowed. A soccer ball is usually
lowing among women players than among men. By used, although a basketball is sometimes used on
the 1950s, it had become a very popular sport for girls smaller fields. Play involves moving the ball toward the
and women in colleges and high schools throughout other team’s end zone and scoring points by kicking
the Midwest. California used speedball in many of its and hand passing. Running with the ball is not per-
high school programs. In the East, however, private mitted. Contact between the players is not allowed, al-
high schools and colleges played field hockey in the fall though players may guard each other and try to kick the
and moved directly to soccer later. Speedball remained ball away from the offensive player.
an important game for girls and women only until the There is a key distinction between ground balls and
1960s, when soccer took over. aerial or fly balls:
Nature of the Sport ■ A ground ball is one that has touched the ground
The game combines soccer, basketball, and football and is stationary, rolling, or bouncing. It may be
skills, using the catching and passing skills of basketball played by kicking, heading, or playing off the body.
along with the kicking and punting tactics of soccer and A ground ball may be made an aerial ball by passing
football. The new skill needed is kicking a grounded to oneself. This play is unique to speedball, and swift,
ball up into the air. The player can kick the ball either to smooth conversion of a ground ball to an aerial ball
him- or herself or to another player. is a skill that distinguishes the best speedball players.
■ An aerial ball is one that is in the air, and it may be ing objectives. Examples include hospitality, image en-
played by catching it and by then drop kicking, punt- hancement, exposure to potential consumers, product
ing, or dribbling it in the air. sampling, increased sales, and market share. The most
successful sport-sponsorship relationships are the re-
The three types of kicks allowed are punting (kicking
sult of a blending between the corporate partners’ mar-
the ball while it is in the air), drop kicking (kicking the
keting objectives and the attributes offered by affiliation
ball after one bounce), and place kicking (kicking the
or association with the sport property. The least suc-
ball while it is stationary). Scoring differs slightly for
cessful relationships result when a gap exists between
men and women.
the objectives the corporate sponsor had when agreeing
Today, speedball as a sport for women has largely
to engage in a sport sponsorship and the benefits re-
disappeared, replaced by soccer, basketball, softball,
sulting from the partnership. Similarly, a lack of affinity
and hockey.
or image fit between the message of the corporate spon-
Joan Hult and sor and the sport property sponsored often leads to
Robin O’Sullivan sponsor defection. A strong image link can relaunch or
establish a brand via the sport association. For example,
Mountain Dew created an image as a beverage that ap-
peals to young, hip, extreme, or action-sport enthusiasts
Sponsorship through its strong affiliation with ESPN’s X Games. As
a result, Mountain Dew also experienced a commen-
S ponsorship has become commonplace in sports.

Most definitions incorporate the concept of an ex-
change of value between the sponsor and the sport
surate increase in global market share.
Trends in Sports Sponsorship

property. Commonly, sponsors are referred to as “part- In 1976, the Montreal Olympic games created enor-
ners.” In each case, the nature of the relationship is one mous debt for Canadian taxpayers. The 1984 Los An-
in which a company with assets valuable to the sport geles Olympic Organizing Committee (LAOOC)
property contracts to provide monetary support, equip- understood the potential that reaching a global audi-
ment, technology, or a host of services in exchange for ence would have to companies who operated beyond
a commercial advantage. By marketing through sport, the borders of a single country. The LAOOC plan called
many nonsport-related companies have realized a sig- for only thirty-two sponsors that would each pay be-
nificant return on investment (ROI). This contrasts with tween $4 million and $13 million in cash, goods, and
the early days of sponsorship, in which the gesture of fi- services to be affiliated with this one-of-a-kind global
nancial support by a company for a sports event was sporting event. The LAOOC produced a net profit of
most often philanthropic. In 1984, however, the $222 million, which had never happened in the history
Olympic games hosted by Los Angeles created the tem- of the Olympic games. Before the success of the 1984
plate for corporate sponsorship as it is known today. games spurred corporate interest, the Olympics were
feared to be heading to extinction. Instead, companies
Rationale for Sponsorship that became involved with the LAOOC—such as Coca
Sport today could not exist without sponsorship. For Cola, IBM, Visa, and Xerox—expanded into new mar-
professional sports, being competitive requires high kets, improved revenue, and maximized their transna-
salaries, premium facilities, media coverage, and cor- tional reach via the Olympic sponsorship platform. The
porate sponsorship to offset the expenses. In return, Olympic Partners (TOP), worldwide sponsors that con-
sponsors expect to accomplish any number of market- tracted with the International Olympic Committee
SPONSORSHIP 1483
Politics is a blood sport. ■ ANEURIN BEVAN
(IOC), numbered only eleven for the 2000 Sydney clude women’s sports and Olympic sports only as af-
Olympic games, but this highest level of Olympic spon- terthoughts. Traditional thinking has placed football
sorship required a minimum $50 million commitment and men’s basketball as the revenue-generating sports.
for the rights to be an official Olympic partner. The Increasingly, however, women’s college sports have
TOP sponsorship fee will increase to $70 million for generated strong followings and audiences. The Col-
rights to the Beijing Olympic Games in 2008. Yet, with lege Sport Network has helped create value for these
an emerging market of 1.3 billion people, companies traditionally nonrevenue-generating sports. With tele-
are expected to sign up without hesitation. In fact, most vision coverage for sports such as soccer, volleyball,
TOP companies have been involved with the Olympic and softball, a completely new area for potential cor-
games for years, even decades. porate sponsorship has been created.
One women’s sport property was initially launched
because of the financial support provided by a com- Marketing Through
pany that saw the potential value in sponsorship. The Sport Sponsorship
Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) began as a result Meeting a company’s marketing objectives remains the
of disgruntled women athletes who believed their per- primary reason sponsors are attracted to sport spon-
formances on the tennis court were worthy of tour- sorship. Organizations selling a sports product are in
nament prize money similar to that offered the men’s the business of trying to attract a large audience of fans
tournaments. Virginia Slims, a cigarette brand cre- who typically represent a diverse consumer base. At-
ated for women, became the WTA title sponsor in the tracting more fans through major events has been an
1970s, and a new sport property was formed. Early important goal of professional and collegiate sport
on, tobacco and alcohol sponsorship of sports was teams. As a result, companies have become involved in
common because of advertising restrictions limiting sport and event marketing because they expect their
their direct use of television or radio broadcasts. By message to reach their desired audience through the
sponsoring sports events, these companies gained sport fan base.
tremendous exposure without violating the advertis- Traditionally, children were introduced to sports by
ing bans. their parents. Marketers have acknowledged that chil-
In the United States, intercollegiate athletics have be- dren who watch and take part in sports often grow up
come big business. National Collegiate Athletic Asso- to become sport spectators. For this reason, Major
ciation (NCAA) Division I colleges generate an average League Baseball (MLB) has focused significant attention
of $1.4 million in total revenue from corporate spon- on building ballparks with family-friendly areas and en-
sorships. The average value of a typical corporate spon- gaging opportunities for kids. MLB recognizes that its
sorship deal for a Division I athletic program is future fan base comprises many of the children parents
currently $26,613, with the average value for highest- bring to games. Parents play a key role in children’s in-
level sponsors at $198,437 compared with the average terest in sports. As a result, companies have become
of $4,755 for the lowest-level sponsorships. Division more interested in addressing mothers through mar-
I schools also collaborate with an average of sixty com- keting efforts. Women have been acknowledged as key
panies. In 2004, the top ten schools secured $3 million decision makers in numerous household purchases.
in corporate sponsorships, the average value of the Women are also known to be more loyal consumers
sponsorships among these schools was $90,500, and than men are. These phenomena explain the use of
value of the largest sponsorship was more than sport-specific advertisements in women’s magazines.
$350,000 annually for each school. Nevertheless, typ- By communicating with women, companies hope to in-
ical sponsorship contracts in collegiate sports often influence a family outing to a major sporting event. Once
families are at events, the sponsorship mechanisms can nies that sell grocery products and children’s clothing,
be employed on kids as well as adults. as well as car companies looking to promote their mini-
vans, have used sponsorship of women’s basketball to
Target Marketing Through reach the women who make such major decisions as
Sport Sponsorship what car to buy. In contrast, companies that want to sell
Since the early 1980s, the number of knowledgeable products exclusively for men have been more interested
female sport fans has increased significantly, partly in sports such as football, car racing, and hockey, whose
because of improved opportunities for women in com- audiences are almost 60 percent male. The NBA was re-
petitive sports. Today, roughly 45 percent of the Na- ported to be the favorite sport among children ages
tional Basketball Association’s (NBA) and National seven to eleven, but teens preferred the NFL. Increas-
Football League’s (NFL) audiences are women. MLB ingly, marketers have targeted kids, often trying to by-
has had a similar gender representation for decades. pass parental decision making. This can be challenging,
The National Hockey League (NHL) and National As- given that sponsorship by beer companies has become
sociation for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR) have pervasive in sport. The demographic most often sought
fewer female fans (41 percent), yet this represents a through sport sponsorship is that of the eighteen- to
significant increase for NASCAR from 36 percent in thirty-five-year-old male. Affluent, white males control
1995. The WNBA (women’s version of the NBA) sport and are most often the target demographic.
maintains an audience of roughly 60 percent female. Nonetheless, recent attention has been placed on the
These numbers suggest that corporate sponsors of Hispanic market with many professional sport teams in
various sport properties can reach women, if they find the United States employing staffs designated for this
the right communication strategy. Increasingly, reach- purpose. In MLB, Hispanic fans by percentage have
ing women has become important to marketers. equaled African-American fans at roughly 10 percent,
Women today are responsible for 80 percent of all whereas in both major league soccer and the NHL,
consumer goods purchases in
the United States.
Still, one of the difficulties
corporations face in trying to
communicate with a target
audience is that no audience
is homogeneous. Age, educa-
tion, and income are just three
characteristics by which fans
vary. Typically, advertising and
promotions have treated
women as part of the family
demographic. Thus, compa-
Advetisements above
“The Green Monster”
in Fenway Park, 2004.
SPONSORSHIP 1485
Hispanic fans actually outnumber African-American plus an additional $160 million to $200 million during
fans. As sport marketing grows in sophistication, an eight-year period to secure GE a place as one of the
corporate sponsors are looking for avenues to relate to eleven existing members of TOP. With this deal, NBC
diverse market segments often found in sport. has secured the Olympic broadcast rights continuously
for more than a decade, 2000 to 2012.
Corporate Sponsorship The NFL’s Super Bowl also commands a high price,
and Media second only to the Olympic games. There, however, the
The Olympic games are the platform of choice when it advertising rate has gained the corporate attention. With
comes to reaching a global audience. Media rights for the an American audience that reportedly tunes in as much
Olympic games have escalated at an astronomical rate: to see the advertising as to watch the football game, the
Super Bowl has become an event for thirty-second mes-
■ In 1960, CBS televised the winter Olympics from
sage competition:
Squaw Valley, California. The fee was $50,000,
approximately equal to $310,000 today. CBS also ■ In the Super Bowl’s inaugural year, a thirty-second
purchased the 1960 Rome summer games rights advertisement cost $42,500; this 1967 rate equates
for $390,000, approximately $2.4 million in to $230,700 in today’s terms.
today’s economy. ■ In 2003, the average paid for a thirty-second adver-
■ In 1984, ABC paid $225 million ($398 million in tisement was $2.2 million.
today’s money) for television rights to the summer
In 1967, the television rating was 17.8 or a 34 per-
Olympic games in Los Angeles.
cent share. By 2003, the rating was 40.7 or a 61 per-
Media companies that purchase the rights to broad- cent share. Figures such as these dictate the value
cast the Olympic games believe that the inventory of ad- and equivalent price. Many companies believe they
vertising time will offset the expense and that the simply cannot afford to miss the opportunity to com-
network will ultimately achieve a profit. In corporate municate with this dense an audience. The story of
sponsorship, companies commonly spend twice the Master Lock illustrates the value of the Super Bowl
amount paid for rights fees and often more than five for advertisements. In the mid 1990s when a thirty-
times the amount paid for rights fees in promoting their second commercial cost roughly $1 million, Master
sponsorship of the sporting event or property. Given Lock reportedly spent its entire advertising budget
this understanding, the details of the latest Olympic on this one opportunity. Nonetheless, that one thirty-
television-rights deal are noteworthy. second commercial remains memorable to consumers
General Electric (GE) maintains ownership of several as long as ten years later.
television networks, including NBC, MSNBC, and The World Series baseball broadcasts have gone from
CNBC. In 2003, GE captured the U.S. rights to the being shown in 20 countries in the late 1980s to more
Olympic games with an unprecedented $2.2 billion than 200 countries since the mid 1990s. In 2002, 224
bid that included broadcast rights and a new global countries received the World Series television broad-
sponsorship category. Companies such as Disney cast. For corporate sponsors of MLB, this adds tremen-
(ABC/ESPN), News Corp. (Fox), and Viacom (CBS) dous value. In Great Britain, the top televised sport
had all bid for the contract. However, the winning bid broadcasts in 2001 were all soccer World Cup quali-
made by GE/NBC agreed to pay the IOC $820 million fiers. Only the broadcast of Britain’s top tennis athlete,
for the rights to the 2010 Olympic winter games and Tim Henman, in the semi-final of Wimbledon rated
$1.18 billion for the rights to the 2012 summer games, competitively.
Unique Attributes of Howard, D., & Crompton, J. (2004). Financing sport. Morgantown,
Sport Sponsorship WV: Fitness Information Technology.
Lough, N. (2000). Corporate sponsorship of sport. In H. Appenzeller &
Sport marketing has two primary aspects: G. Lewis (Eds.), Successful Sport Management (199–207). Durham,
NC: Carolina Academic Press.
1. The marketing of sports Mullin, B., Hardy, S., & Sutton, W. (2000). Sport marketing. Cham-
2. Marketing through sports paign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Sports Business Journal (2004, June 7–13), p. 34.
Sponsorship most often involves nonsport products or Leisure products industry survey. (1999). U.S. industry & trade outlook.
New York: U.S. Department of Commerce/International Trade Ad-
services that use images of sports to market to consumers. ministration and McGraw-Hill.
The primary industries involved in sport sponsorship in-
clude the automobile, credit card, beer, airline, soda,
telecommunications, and fast food industries, but new
industry categories are continuously emerging. The most
lucrative sponsorship deals for teams today involve
naming-rights deals for stadiums and arenas. Facilities
Sport and
that once were named after influential figures or historic
community affiliations now bear the names of companies
National Identity
who were willing to pay a multimillion-dollar fee. Deals
such as this often create controversy and can lead to re-
sentment among fans. Nonetheless, the sponsorship pen-
U nderstanding sport’s cultural significance in soci-
ety requires considering how sports are tied to
ideas about national identity.
dulum has continued to swing in the same direction for In the media, the link is most apparent during large
many years. As endorsement commitments by companies sporting events such as the Olympic Games, where a
such as Nike increase with the latest athletic achievements, country’s sporting successes (or failures) are visibly tied
and as the appetite for sports continues to grow, there ap- with nationalistic sentiment. Likewise, rugby in Wales,
pear to be no limits to using sport as a desirable market- New Zealand, and South Africa, cricket in the West
ing vehicle. Sponsorship allows companies to create a Indies, soccer in Brazil and Italy, and baseball in the
template of benefits that integrate communication strate- United States are just a few examples of sports that are
gies like no other medium. Still, the most attractive aspect frequently constructed as constituting the character of a
of sponsorship to companies is often the price.When the nation. Moreover, it is difficult, if not impossible, to
cost of advertising time during major sporting events is imagine major professional or international sporting
compared with the array of benefits built into a sponsor- events without the presence of national anthems, na-
ship package, the decision is rarely a difficult one. Add in tional flags, and medal standings. Indeed, sport, and
the opportunity to enhance a brand image, link with a in particular televised sport, is often described as a
beloved entity such as an athlete or sport, and potentially “uniquely effective medium for inculcating national feel-
reach a global audience, and you can see why sponsorship ings” (Jarvie 1993, 74) because it provides a symbolic
of sport will be around for many years to come. site for historical or current struggles and conflicts
(Gruneau & Whitson 1993).
Nancy L. Lough
Sport’s role in nation building is important to con-
sider, but the reverse relationship is equally significant.
Further Reading Indeed, our collective understandings of national iden-
By the numbers 2003: The authoritative annual research guide and fact tity contribute to shaping sporting practices and, by ex-
book. Sports Business Journal, 5(36).
By the numbers 2004: The authoritative annual research guide and fact
tension, broader institutions. Thus, the imperative of
book. Sports Business Journal, 6(36). fostering a national identity is often used as the justifi-
SPORT AND NATIONAL IDENTITY 1487
A baseball cap with flag during the national

anthem at the 2001 World Series held in
the wake of the 9/11 terrorist attacks.
Source: istockphoto/ buckarooh.
Generally speaking, national identity is expressed out of

both similarity and difference with respect to such di-
mensions. For example, although Canadians define
themselves according to their wintry climate and bilin-
gual histories, they also distinguish themselves more
simply as “non-Americans.” National identity is in effect
a social construction constituted by historical processes
and symbolic practices including the creation (and trans-
mission) of myths, stories, images, and rituals to produce
shared meanings and understandings of nationhood.
Such narratives of the nation are told and retold to rep-
resent and differentiate a collective and unified “us” from
a generic and often stereotypical “them” (De Cillia,
Reisigl, & Wodak 1999). Anderson believes the nation
is a distinctly cultural artifact and socially constructed
representation that needs to be “imagined because the
members of even the smallest nation will never know
most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear
of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their
communion” (1991, 6).
Undoubtedly, sport plays a significant role in the
social construction of distinct national identities and
invented national traditions around the world (Hobs-
bawm and Ranger, 1983). International sporting com-
petitions have been particularly useful for promoting
cation for redesigning sporting relations, physical edu- national unity and international standing because they
cation in schools, and public policy. For example, had are competitive and have the potential to effectively and
it not been for Australia’s poor performance at the popularly mobilize “us” versus “them.” Moreover, col-
1976 Olympic Games (and the public perception of a lective national sporting identities or national sporting
tarnished national image), the Australian Institute of mythologies typically have deep popular roots that have
Sport might never have been established. Similarly, been molded in relation to historically significant mo-
sport gained ascendancy in Canada’s federal policies be- ments of national sporting prowess. For example, the
cause of its promise to promote national unity and a United States’ 1980 Olympic win over the Soviets in ice
pan-Canadian identity amid an increasing divide be- hockey has been mythologized as a “miracle on ice”
tween English-speaking and French-speaking territories. and a defining moment in U.S. sporting imagination
and, by extension, a triumph of American values and
What Is National Identity? capitalist democracy. Meanwhile, in New Zealand, the
The concept of national identity is notably difficult to de- nation’s iconic rugby team, the All Blacks, has histori-
fine and its precise character has been widely interpreted cally idealized the relatively small and isolated nation as
in relation to a number of issues including geography, a classless, egalitarian, and racially harmonious society.
ethnicity, religion, language, and shared experience. In other words, because of the visibility and popularity
of sport it is frequently promoted as embodying the nat- Issues Related to Sports and
uralized and taken-for-granted values of the nation. National Identity
An extensive body of research compares and contrasts
Why Study Sport and cases in sovereign countries and in other nations that,
National Identity? although not recognized by the United Nations, gain a
The connections between sport and national identity sense of nationhood through sport events such as the
deserve careful examination because of the sociocultu- soccer and rugby World Cups (e.g., Scotland). A second
ral and ideological tensions they reveal. Indeed, a na- level of enquiry focuses on the cultural significance of
tion’s identity is never universally apparent, shared, or sport in shaping national identities and how the media
accepted but, rather, continuously is given meaning contribute to naturalizing particular interpretations of
through cultural practices like sport. Sport can tell us the “nation.” Given the breadth of these perspectives
who we are, where we came from, and what we col- (and their considerable theoretical and empirical
lectively stand for. But the link between sport and na- depth), we synthesize two broad, recurring themes un-
tional identity is ultimately contentious because it also derpinning the analysis of national identity and sport.
suggests who we ought to be and what we should stand
for. As Coakley writes, “It is important to ask critical ONE NATIONAL IDENTITY?
questions about the long-term consequences of this One of them most common themes from these schol-
emotional unity and about whose interests are being arly works concerns the political implications sur-
served by the images, traditions, and memories around rounding the expression of a singular national identity.
which identities are expressed” (2001, 390). As a re- Within any country, there are multiple identities, drawn
sult, any consideration of national identity and sport along lines of race, language, or religion, so the idea
involves addressing how these identities are constructed that sport can legitimately represent (or promote) a uni-
(e.g., through the media) and who has the power to in- versal set of attributes is invariably problematic. Two
fluence their conceptualizations and understandings closely related critiques emanate from this point.
(e.g., corporate elites, the state). The first is that sport contributes to an overly narrow
Likewise, to examine sport’s role in constructing or version of national identity that tends to privilege par-
maintaining a nation’s identity reveals the contested ticular values over others. Specifically, these criticisms
nature of sport itself. For example, some have argued are aimed at the connections often made between a
that the primacy given to creating national identity country’s “national sport” and the character of its citi-
tends to favor elite sports over recreational forms zens. Some have argued, for instance, that promoting
because of elite sports’ affinity with notions of a com- the idea of a national sport often implies virtuous at-
petitive society. Thus, if nation building is an impor- tributes such as manliness or respect for authority,
tant goal, it follows that this is more apt to occur thereby rendering alternate expressions (such as indi-
through sporting forms that support “we/they” identi- viduality) untenable. The idea that ice hockey is inher-
fications along national lines. Such arguments are ul- ently “Canadian” or that rugby mirrors New Zealand
timately important to us because they are often culture represents a romanticized frame of reference
presented as common-sense interpretations of how that tends to ignore competing representations of what
sport, and by extension society, is (or should be) struc- it is to be a citizen of these countries. Indeed, Bairner
tured. In other words, examining sport and national points out, “the concept of ‘the national sport’ is a slip-
identity helps reveal the inevitable tensions and divi- pery one,” as it may either “confirm the exclusive char-
sions of our collective identities as well as the politi- acter of the nation or, more commonly, reflect a contest
cal nature of sport itself. between ethnic and civic representations of the nation”
Sport and National Identity

Extract from Little Women (1868)
The excerpt below from Chapter 12 of the classic novel by “I’m through! Now, Miss Jo, I’ll settle you, and get
Louisa May Alcott describes a heated croquet match with in first,” cried the young gentleman, swinging his
teams composed of both Americans and English visitors. mallet for another blow.
“You pushed it; I saw you; it’s my turn now,” said
It was not far to Longmeadow, but the tent was
Jo sharply.
pitched and the wickets down by the time they ar-
“Upon my word, I didn’t move it; it rolled a bit,
rived. A pleasant green field, with three wide-
perhaps, but that is allowed; so stand off, please,
spreading oaks in the middle and a smooth strip of
and let me have a go at the stake.”
turf for croquet.
“We don’t cheat in America, but you can, if you
“Welcome to Camp Laurence!” said the young
choose,” said Jo angrily.
host, as they landed with exclamations of delight.
“Yankees are a deal the most tricky, everybody
“Brooke is commander in chief, I am commissary
knows. There you go!” returned Fred, croqueting her
general, the other fellows are staff officers, and you,
ball far away.
ladies, are company. The tent is for your especial ben-
Jo opened her lips to say something rude, but
efit and that oak is your drawing room, this is the
checked herself in time, colored up to her forehead
messroom and third is the camp kitchen. Now, let’s
and stood a minute, hammering down a wicket with
have a game before it gets hot, and then we’ll see
all her might, while Fred hit the stake and declared
about dinner.”
himself out with much exultation. She went off to get
Frank, Beth, Amy, and Grace sat down to watch
her ball, and was a long time finding it among the
the game played by the other eight. Mr. Brooke chose
bushes, but she came back, looking cool and quiet,
Meg, Kate, and Fred; Laurie took Sallie, Jo, and Ned.
and waited her turn patiently. It took several strokes
The English played well, but the Americans played
to regain the place she had lost, and when she got
better, and contested every inch of the ground as
there, the other side had nearly won, for Kate’s ball
strongly as if the spirit of ‘76 inspired them. Jo and
was the last but one and lay near the stake.
Fred had several skirmishes and once narrowly es-
“By George, it’s all up with us! Good-by Kate,
caped high words. Jo was through the last wicket
Miss Jo owes me one, so you are finished,” cried Fred
and had missed the stroke, which failure ruffled her
excitedly, as they all drew near the finish.
a good deal. Fred was close behind her and his turn
“Yankees have a trick of being generous to their en-
came before hers, he gave a stroke, his ball hit the
emies,” said Joe, with a look that made the lad red-
wicket, and stopped an inch on the wrong side. No
den, “especially when they beat them,” she added, as,
one was very near, and running up to examine, he
leaving Kate’s ball untouched, she won the game by
gave it a sly nudge with his toe, which put it just an
a clever stroke.
inch on the right side.
(2001, 167). Furthermore, given that such national them and exclusionary. As Rowe, McKay, and Miller
sports have traditionally been the preserve of men, note, “The individual achievements of women athletes
scholars argue that these reproduce powerful messages (such as Chris Evert and Billie Jean King) may be of
about “appropriate” conceptions of masculinity and great significance, but at the level of team sports, where
femininity. Although women are clearly involved in na- the source of pride is collectivized, women are denied
tional sports and compete internationally, discourses of the status of bearers of national qualities that the media
national sporting identities are often unfavorable to and the apparatus of the state conventionally accord to
Presentation of the flag

and the national anthem
before a baseball game.
men” (1998, 126). In this

view, therefore, the definition
of national identity through
sport is never a neutral or be-
nign statement of fact; rather,
it has very real implications
because it identifies particular
characteristics or values and
typifies them.
The second broad critique
relative to national identity
and sport regards the claim that sport helps unite citi- gitimate dominant notions of a meritocratic or egali-
zens and that it can effectively transcend other identi- tarian society. Ultimately, the idea of national unity
ties. Although most agree that on some level, sport has (through a common identity) is contradictory because
the potential to build a sense of national unity, the national sporting identities can obscure internal (and
main point of contention is how this claim is ultimately very real) cultural and social divisions and the eco-
taken for granted. In response, critics point to an in- nomic inequalities present in democratic societies.
herent contradiction: that national identity represents
similarity (through expressions such as “we” or “us”), but SPORTS, NATIONAL IDENTITY, AND
it paradoxically tends to be defined through “difference” GLOBALIZATION
by using stereotypes and myths to distinguish it from A second level of analysis revolves around the visible
the “other.” In sporting lore, heroes are infused into a challenges to national identity and the nation-state trig-
nation’s identity as much by their personal achieve- gered by particular political, economic, and cultural so-
ments as by whom they conquered and how. In referring cial processes of globalization and an intensified sense
to the particularities of a United Kingdom identity, of interconnectivity. Although scholars widely use the
where Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland contribute concept of globalization as a lens through which to an-
to blurred distinctions, Whannel points out, “the pro- alyze sport and national identity, they reach consider-
duction [of natural belongingness] is not a neat unify- ably different conclusions. The effects of globalization
ing performance, but rather a process in which and the apparent declining importance of the nation-
moments of apparent national unity have to be set state feature prominently in recent analyses of national
against the divisions and tensions that may operate be- identity and sport.
tween national and local identities” (1998, 26). Beyond Some have argued, for example, that globalization
these divisions, conceptions of “otherness” also include has increasingly rendered the nation-state obsolete, par-
those who might question the ideological foundations ticularly because of the heightened power of transna-
on which expressions of national identity are con- tional corporations. Indeed, though nationalism clearly
structed. Indeed, the capacity for sporting stories, mem- exists in conjunction with international sports, the
ories, and myths to unite is tempered by the very way boundaries and differences between national identities
in which they sometimes gloss over inequities and le- and corporate interests are becoming increasingly
Aggressive fighting for the right is the greatest

sport in the world. ■ THEODORE ROOSEVELT
blurred. For example, transnational corporations are ages, narratives, and social bodies upon which a selec-
increasingly sponsoring national sporting teams and tive social memory can be constructed” (2001, 59).
appropriating national sporting identities in their global Britain’s national identity, for example, is often argued
promotional campaigns: Nike sponsors the Brazilian to be “languishing” amid “dreams of an imperial past” be-
soccer team, whereas Adidas sponsors the New Zealand cause of processes of migration and competing nation-
All Blacks rugby team. In this sense, national identity is alist claims from its “Celtic Fringe” (Tuck 2003).
being increasingly aligned with the interests of global Meanwhile, in New Zealand, any loss by the All Blacks
corporations and consumption, such that sponsors is regarded as a national crisis and greeted with intense
often herald victories by “national” teams as conquests anger, mourning, and nostalgic recollections of the
over rival transnational corporations. Such issues raise rugged sporting legacy of the nation’s rugby team. In
important questions about who “owns” and “controls” Canada, key sporting figures such as “The Great One”
national identity. (Wayne Gretzky) have become standard bearers of
The notion of athletes as global migrant workers is an- “Canadianness” (Jackson 2001).
other contemporary global political issue that indicates
the permeation of national boundaries. In conjunction Sport and Popular Culture
with the new international division of labor, the diversity As an important part of popular culture, sport powerfully
and frequency of sporting labor migration patterns of links “national symbols and myths of national character
athletes has increased substantially. Although high- with the ordinary lives of people and with widely shared
profile athletes such as Michael Jordan, Tiger Woods, popular experiences” (Gruneau and Whitson 1993, 251).
and Martina Hingis are marketed to audiences around In this light, sport can advance feelings of national unity
the world and have transnational celebrity appeal, bor- while paradoxically dismissing societal divisions along
derless athletes routinely move between states, regions, lines of class, race, language, religion, and gender. Con-
and continents, raising important questions about the sequently, the meanings of, and claims to expressions of
relevancy of national identity and national borders in the sporting national identities are very much implicated in
global sports arena. The degree to which their “host” sustaining power and privilege within specific nations. In-
countries embrace athletes varies substantially and can deed, examining sport and national identity helps reveal
be closely tied to their sporting successes. In Canada, for the inevitable tensions and divisions of our collective
example, European and Russian hockey players are still identities as well as the contested nature of sport itself.
frequent targets of xenophobic and disparaging stereo-
Michael Sam and
types by some cultural commentators who argue that
Jay Scherer
skilled foreign players are incompatible with “Canadian
values” of rugged toughness. See also Sport Politics
In their totality, the impacts of globalization have
often triggered identity crises within particular nations.
This is particularly evident, for example, when a coun- Further Reading
Anderson, B. R. O. G. (1991). Imagined communities: Reflections on the
try loses in its “national game” in major international origin and spread of nationalism (Rev. and extended ed.). London,
competitions, which effectively sets the stage for periods New York: Verso.
of national self-examination. In such instances, fans and Bairner, A. (2001). Sport, nationalism, and globalization: European
and North American perspectives. Albany: State University of New
citizens alike commonly retreat to the mists of nostalgic York Press.
recollections of past sporting and national “victories.” In- Blain, N., Boyle, R., & O’Donnell, H. (1993). Sport and national iden-
tity in the European media. Leicester, UK: Leicester University Press.
deed, as Jackson and Ponic note, sporting crises serve “as Coakley, J. (2001). Sport in society: Issues & controversies (7th ed.).
a key site for the confirmation of a particular set of im- Boston: McGraw-Hill.
I gave it my body and mind, but I

have kept my soul. ■ PHIL JACKSON
De Cillia, R., Reisigl, M., & Wodak, R. (1999). The discursive construc- supporters unite in chants and cheers, expressing their
tion of national identities. Discourse and Society, 10(2), 149–173.
group enthusiasm. Using Durkheim’s definition, sport
Gruneau, R. S., & Whitson, D. (1993). Hockey night in Canada: Sport,
identities and cultural politics. Toronto, Canada: Garamond Press. is, indeed, a religion. Sporting events unite athletes and
Hobsbawm, E. J., & Ranger, T. O. (1983). The invention of tradition. spectators in a unique community in which sacred rit-
Cambridge [Cambridgeshire], New York: Cambridge University
Press. uals and morals are reinforced. During sporting events
Jackson, S. J. (2001). Gretzky nation: Canada, crisis and Americaniza- congregational members are encouraged to express
tion. In D. L. Andrews & S. J. Jackson (Eds.), Sport stars: The cultural
emotions through chants and songs. Clifford Geertz
politics of sporting celebrity (pp. 164–186). London, New York:
Routledge. states that religion’s role is to shape the social order, to
Jackson, S. J., & Ponic, P. (2001). Pride and prejudice: Reflecting on sport guide and shape behaviors (1973, 119). Again using
heroes, national identity, and crisis in Canada. In S. G.Wieting (Ed.),
Sport and memory in North America (pp. 43–62). Portland, OR: football, athletes and fans learn favorable social behav-
Frank Cass. ior through rules and regulations. The structure of foot-
Jarvie, G. (1993). Sport, nationalism and cultural identity. In L. Allison
ball demands dedication, with players executing their
(Ed.), The changing politics of sport (pp. 58–83). New York: Man-
chester University Press. individual roles within the collective. A football team’s
Roche, M., Interdisciplinary Centre for Comparative Research in the So- success depends on individuals working together to
cial Sciences, & Chelsea School (University of Brighton) Research
Centre. (Eds.). (1998). Sport, popular culture and identity. Aachen, achieve a common goal. If each member acted inde-
Germany: Meyer & Meyer. pendently chaos would arise. Sport congregations apply
Rowe, D., McKay, J., & Miller, T. (1998). Come together: Sport, na-
the social behavior of teamwork to everyday situations.
tionalism, and the media image. In L. A. Wenner (Ed.), Mediasport
(pp. 119–133). London, New York: Routledge. The concept of sport as a religion is not new. In fact,
Smith, A., & Porter, D. (2004). Sport and national identity in the post- the Olympics were originally portrayed as a religious
war world. London, New York: Routledge.
Tuck, J. (2003). The men in white: Reflections on rugby union, the event, a sacred festival of games and sport. Flags,
media and Englishness. International Review for the Sociology of drums, dances, songs/chants, and feasts all accompa-
Sport, 38(2), 177–199.
nied ancient religious/sport rituals. During these reli-
Whannel, G. (1998). Individual stars and collective identities in media
sport. In M. Roche (Ed.), Sport, popular culture and identity (pp. 23– gious events, “the drummers beat their drums like those
36). Aachen, Germany: Meyer & Meyer. possessed and this it was believed signified the presence
of the spirits who were the determinants in the results
of the contest” (Obare 2003, 1). These same ancient rit-
uals are present in modern sporting events, especially
Sport as Religion football tailgating. At weekend football services, col-
lege bands are entrusted to ignite the congregation and
I s it possible to regard sport as a religion? Based on

similar yet different definitions of religion, the answer
is yes. The institution of sport is more than humans in-
raise spirits through the beating of drums and blowing
of horns. Charles Prebish (1993) likens the ritual of tail-
gating to that of eighteenth-century evangelical tent re-
teracting in a playful manner; rather it is a civic religion, vivals, in which followers temporarily congregated and
a social institution. According to French sociologist formed “pop-up” communities. Every college football
Emile Durkheim “religion is the tie that binds a collec- weekend fans congregate in mobile homes and recre-
tivity together—it transforms the objects and activities ational vehicles and form these quasi minicommunities.
of everyday life into the sacred. Planned gatherings par- The congregation reminisces over past glories and looks
adoxically generate spontaneous expressions of group forward to future triumphs. Each new generation learns
enthusiasm, even hysteria that bind the individual with traditions of breaking bread as well as kinship/fellow-
the assembly” (cited in Mazur & McCarthy 2001, 124). ship from the previous generation.
Applying this theory to football, fan participation be- Researcher Ruphine Obare (2003, 1) defines reli-
comes a religious experience as denominations or team gion as “human beings relation to that which they re-
SPORT AS RELIGION 1493
gard as holy, sacred, spiritual, divine . . . worship is prob- Milton Yinger (1963) suggests that these quasi reli-
ably the most basic element of religion.” Obare regards gions are formed to compensate for traditional churches’
sport as a natural religion because it reflects rituals, inability to achieve unity among groups with different
symbols, and a desire for perfection. Concurring with values.
Obare, Coakley believes “sports are natural religions. All Peter Berger suggests that a socially constructed
things human are proper to them—in sports, we meet world (a religion) “directs, sanctions, controls, and pun-
our humanity. Assuming one begins with limited hopes, ishes individual conduct” (1967, 11). Rules and regu-
there is more to admire in sports—and in our human- lations within sports resemble this very same theology/
ity, and in our nation than to despise” (2001, 314). ideology. Sport teaches a “respect for limits and laws
and rules—and the lust to develop the art of doing
Sport as Alternative things perfectly” (Prebish 1993, 163). In other words,
Civil Religion sport builds a fundamentally strong character base that
There are two main reasons the religion of sport is sig- is applicable to everyday life. The search for perfection
nificant to American culture. The first is simply offering becomes a self-transcendental journey. Berger refers to
an alternative civil religion, while the second consists of this journey as a religious phenomenon, one that is so-
palpable implications within American society. Bellah cially self-transcendent. In addition, Berger believes that
classifies civil religion as a set of beliefs, symbols, and rit- religion “is a humanly constructed universe of meaning,
uals: “certain common elements of religious orientation and this construction is undertaken by linguistic means”
that the great majority of Americans share. These . . . (1967, 175). The nature of sport generates and con-
provide a religious dimension for the whole fabric of structs communities in which a unique language (or
American life, including the political sphere” (Bellah et sports lingo) is used to both define and explain its so-
al. 1987, 3). Despite making distinction between civil re- ciety as well as the outside world. Expressions origi-
ligion and denominational religions, Bellah’s civil reli- nating within sports such as “hitting below the belt,”
gion is closely linked to Protestantism throughout the “taking one for the team,” “spoilsport,” and “team
nineteenth century. Some researchers argue that certain player” translate to everyday life and help define certain
aspects of sport actually reflect the Protestant ethic of actions and behaviors. Common use of football termi-
building strong moral worth through sacrifice and pain, nologies such as “offside,” “fumble,” or “time out”
one of the basic foundations of sport religion. demonstrates the practical application of this religious
To Geertz, religion (even a civil religion) provides theory. Members interweave these expressions and
meaning to an objective reality, which produces genera- apply them to everyday life. Football creates a unique
tional worldview or culture. Religious beliefs and prac- terminology that combines sign language with oral
tices, Geertz said, “represent a way of life ideally adapted communication. Sport impacts our understanding of
to the actual state of affairs” (1966, 3). This theory is ap- fair play and integrity, thus helping to shape the social
plicable to sport. For example, business ideology as por- order. Through rules and regulations, sport reinforces a
trayed through rhetoric involving individuals working reliance on a higher authority and a type of submission
together as a “team” to achieve a “common goal” exem- to a controlled social order. Again, using football as an
plifies this theory. example, the referee has ultimate say in determining fair
Although Bellah’s civil religion refers to America’s de- play or settling disputes, thus reiterating this civil reli-
votion to itself, his ideology can be applied to America’s gion’s goal of instilling proper respect for authority.
love of sports. The functions of this civil religion include Sport resembles religion in the sense that both are or-
instilling proper respect for authority, stressing moral ganized institutions with disciplines and liturgies, stress-
values, and the hard-work ethic. ing moral values of heart and soul. Sport as a social
Sport as Religion
Worshiping at the
“Church of Sports”
such as chanting and festive tailgating classify sport as
If there is a universal popular religion in America, religion. According to Geertz, religious motives stimu-
it is to be found within the institution of sports. late moods, which trigger certain behaviors. Sacred
. . . Many Americans worship at the church of symbols then ignite moods ranging from “exultation to
sports. Services are held for each personal belief, melancholy, from self-confidence to self-pity” (1973,
whether it be football, racing, golf, or driving. 97). Depending on loyalty or devotion to a particular
team or sport, symbols like the Stanley Cup, the Lom-
Prebish, C. S. (1993). Religion and sport: The meeting of sacred and profane (p.
57). Westport, CT: Greenwood. bardi Trophy, or a World Series ring can either exhila-
rate or depress individuals. In addition, the playing of
sporting anthems rekindles deep emotional ties, further
uniting the individual with the sport community. This
institution, like religion, uses codes to guide moral con- rekindling of emotions is especially true in regard to col-
duct, which ultimately results in a deeper respect for au- legiate football anthems.Whether it’s the sound of “The
thority. The religion of sport transcends the individual, Victory March” or the “Texas Fight” song, either the
thus molding and impacting personalities. Individuals Notre Dame Stadium or Darrell K. Royal Stadium ig-
or members identify themselves with certain character- nites in unified exuberance with fans rejoicing while
istics or traits belonging to their beloved sport/team. partaking in the festivities.
This identification is especially true when devotion be- One consciously chooses a set of beliefs and atti-
gins as a child. “By being born into the clan or raised a tudes that affect one’s behavior, or one’s spirituality.
fan of a particular team, the individual is constituted by Eric Mazur and Kate McCarthy (2001) believe that a
identification with the totemic symbol of the group” spiritual person seeks these beliefs, values, and practices
(Mazur & McCarthy 2001, 127). For example, Chicago to enhance their life and provide a sense of responsi-
Cub fans have endured years of disappointment result- bility and orientation. According to researchers James
ing in a sense of hopefulness, a belief that this could be Frey and D. Stanley Eitzen (1991) religion has several
the year, which sets them apart from other team sup- roles including emphasizing asceticism, repetition, and
porters (with the exception of Boston Red Sox fans be- developing character. Institutional sports, especially
fore October 2004). In other words, one could argue American football, American baseball, and hockey pos-
that Cub fans are bred to endure pain and disappoint- sess these very qualities. Through self-denial and self-
ment, making them more forgiving and more optimistic. discipline, athletes learn to endure pain and to place the
Teaching endurance from generation to generation com- team above all. Common male expressions like “buck
plies with Geertz’s traditional aspect of what constitutes up” or “no pain, no gain” demonstrate the infiltration of
a religion. this sport ideology into everyday life. Athletes seeking
perfection through repetition set an example of good
Religion and Sport character for the rest of the congregation (or fans). Ac-
Reflect Society cording to Putney, and Frey and Eitzen, these same pos-
Religion functions as a reflection of society, defining itive values of self-discipline, sportsmanship, a hard
rules and explaining norms. Geertz argued that any- work ethic, and goal attainment through competition
where norms or models of society and/or models for help qualify sport as religion.
behaving in society exist there is religion. If Geertz is As found in traditional religions, sport relies on sym-
right and religious motives are “liabilities to perform bols, language, and rituals to both maintain order and
particular classes of act or have particular classes of help explain events of everyday life. According to Coak-
feelings” (1973, 97), then emotional sporting rituals ley, “the rituals of sport engage more people in a shared
The ruins of ancient

Olympia in 2003, a site
associated with both
sport and religion.
cially and emotionally, and

further serve to prepare an
individual for the rest of life.
Sport teaches acceptance of
authority and initiates youth
in routines. In this manner,
sport becomes a transmitter,
translating societal goals or
meanings from one genera-
tion to the next. Sport be-
comes a “symbolic liaison”
that Berger refers to as an
“ancient lineage [that is]
grounded in the very antiq-
uity of kinship institutions”
experience than any other institution or cultural activ- (1967, 132). Sport, like religion, binds communities to-
ity today” (2001, 1). As early as the late 1800s Ameri- gether. Sport educates society in responsibility and self-
cans relied on sporting rituals to help promote moral control through its “demands for fairness and chivalry
values. In 1887, based on sports rituals, Luther Gulick which must be respected even in the face of the
transformed the YMCA’s goal of saving souls to build- strongest aggression” (Guttmann 1978, 130).
ing character. As a YMCA philosopher and director of According to Edwards and Coakley, sport shares nu-
physical training, Gulick believed that sport taught merous essential features of religion including formal
moral values of body, mind, and spirit, and through statement of beliefs, testimonies that bring fullness and
sport, people could tone and perfect their human char- satisfaction to life, saints (or idolized people), ruling pa-
acter. Today’s Fellowship of Christian Athletes’ mission triarchs (coaches), hierarchal/high council (NCAA or
of using athletics to “impact the world for Jesus Christ” referees), reliance on scribes (records and journalists),
through values of integrity, service, teamwork, and ex- seekers of the kingdom (fans), shrines and/or cathedrals,
cellence is based on this same principle. Routines and and symbols of the faith (trophies/souvenirs). Like tra-
disciplines found in sport strengthen personal character. ditional religions, sport provides structure and an
A stronger moral foundation/character better prepares opportunity for religious expression. This religious ex-
an individual to combat everyday trials. When combat- pression provides a chance to step outside of one’s daily
ing an aggressive opponent, football conditions defen- routine and become part of the collective, especially
sive players to dig in, to remain tough and hold the line. through chants. Durkheim refers to this impetuous pas-
In everyday situations, this conditioning translates to sionate release as “corrobbori” (as cited in Mazur & Mc-
determination and perseverance both in the work force Carthy 2001, 125). Sport is catharsis in that it “allows
and within personal relationships. the release of emotions in a range of behavior including
Through sport, children learn basic skills such as pre-game levity, frenzied cheering during the game, and
cooperation, self-esteem, altruism, loyalty, self-control, post-game carousing” (Guttmann 1978, 134).
and obedience. Researchers Margaret Gatz, Michael In this community, “post modern religious expres-
Messner, and Sandra Rokeach argue that values and sion is once removed, vicariously experienced by those
skills learned through sport help children develop so- who observe the ‘religious’ ritual. Spectating, therefore,
Baseball is like church. Many attend,

few understand. ■ LEO DUROCHER
replaces participating” (Mazur & McCarthy 2001, 129). Sport creates a second type of family or community,
Fans, however, individually symbolize their faith a support system, in which meaning and morals are
through pennants, emblems, flags, hats, and whatever shared and learned. Researcher Michael Novak believes
best characterizes the glory of their team (Prebish 1993, football is such a community. “The liturgy of a football
67). During the sporting event (or service) members re- game is, indeed, a communal and statewide worship
state their belief by submitting to the hierarchal codes service, with a unitary cosmic scheme” (1988, 235).
and rules. The sport congregation participates with both Mazur and McCarthy liken the passions of football to re-
rookies (novices) and veterans (ordained clergy) as “pil- ligious ritual. “Football doesn’t have just a incidental
grims travel hundred of miles to witness a game [and in- kinship of faith. On the contrary, football is fundamen-
voke] traditional hallowed chants. Instead of salvation tally connected to religion” (Mazur & McCarthy 2001,
and redemption, the goal is now collective victory” 124). As in football, the community of baseball poses re-
(Rudin 1972, 384). Sports pages become sacred scrolls, ligious qualities, which include the American principles
read in daily devotions along with viewing ESPN. of merit and fair play. “The national game promotes re-
Applying researcher Catherine Abanese’s four com- spect for proper authority, self-confidence, fairminded-
ponents of religion adds validity to the claim that sport ness, quick judgment and self-control” (Guttmann 1978,
is, indeed, a religion (as cited in Prebish 1993). Abanese’s 96). In addition, sport possesses a messianic-millenarian
first component, creed, is defined as the shared view- ideology. Berger defines messianic-millenarian theodicy
points of a group. To some extent athletes, coaches, and by “relativizing the suffering or injustice of the present in
supporters/fans define sport through their belief or view- terms of their being overcome in a glorious future”
point of its existence and/or meaning. Abanese bases (1967, 69). In this sense, players and fans look for re-
her second component, code, on rules and regulations, demption in the upcoming season. Again, Chicago Cub
which guide or govern this belief. Strictly enforced guide- fans’ infamous expression “Wait till next year” exempli-
lines and rules define sport. Whether you are an athlete fies this type of “hopeful” redemption ideology. Sport re-
or a spectator, either ignoring or blatantly disrespecting ligion maintains a type of optimistic ideology in which
rules will result in your expulsion or denial from partici- hope springs eternal. The ending of each sport season
pating in the game (or service). For example, hockey pe- wipes the slate clean and provides a chance to start anew,
nalizes breaking the rule of high sticking with time in the rekindling hope for a better season, a better tomorrow.
penalty box, denying the “sinner” the glory of joining in
the service.Third, Abanese gauges religion by cultus—or What Does It Mean?
its ceremonies/rituals and tradition. Whether it is the So, what does this all mean? This form of civil religion
singing of the national anthem, the traditional seventh- has far-reaching implications. According to Barna Re-
inning rendition of “Take Me Out to the Ballgame” at search, 66 percent of Americans polled contend that tra-
Wrigley Field, or the official tossing of a coin at the be- ditional religion is losing its influence in society.
ginning of a football game, ceremonies and traditions are Supporting this theory, research also indicates a decrease
mainstays in modern sport. Last, Abanese defines religion in traditional church attendance. In fact, researchers Kirk
through community. Again, sport fits this criterion Hadaway, Penny Long Marler, and Mark Chaves believe
through its creation of unique communities that exist the “church attendance rate is one-half what everyone
solely through sports and sporting events.Through hope thinks it is” (1993, 750). And according to a study by the
and anticipation in their quest for victory/perfection, fans University of Michigan, the percentage rate of Americans
and athletes become emotionally united. According to who attend a weekly church service is forty-four. In some
Prebish (1993, 65), sport is a festive communion creat- instances, devotion to sport has replaced or overpowered
ing solidarity between players and fans. devotion to traditional religion. For example, the Dallas
Sport as Religion
Racing and the Supernatural
This description of a racing ritual of the Dogon people bolized the two thunderbolts launched by the
of Maili points to the often close association between Nummo against the guilty smith, and they never
sports and religion. caught up with the torch-bearer till, at the end of the
third course, he regained the sanctuary. He had by
In the Ogols, a race was arranged between the Anakyê
then made the complete circuit three times bran-
sanctuary and a point on the border of Lower Ogol.
dishing his torch all the while.
The route thus ran through the field between the two
‘These three courses,’ said Ogotemmêli, ‘recall the
villages in the hollow where the baobabs were.
flight of the smith and his search for a way into the
The man with the torch started from the sanctuary,
celestial granary, where he could hide the embers.’
and ran down the slope through the stubble-fields,
For in this ritual the circular Anakyê sanctuary rep-
shaking his brand and scattering a shower of sparks
resented the celestial granary.
and embers. For the smith in heaven dropped some
The pursuit ended when a smith scanned the rock
of his fire as he ran, picked it up with his crook, and
and beat upon it with the iron of his anvil. And the
continued to run, losing it and picking it up again.
live fire, pursued by the two dead fires, gave life
On reaching the border of Lower Ogol the runner
again to the hearths of this world as well as to the
turned and ran back to the sanctuary, from which he
blackened logs which protect the crops and the fruit
at once started out again. This performance was re-
of the trees.
peated three times, and all the time the two masks
Source: Griaule, M. (1965). Conversations with Ogotemmêli (pp. 196). London: Pub-
pursued the fugitive brandishing a knife. They sym- lished for the International African Institute by the Oxford University Press.
Cowboy legendary coach Tom Landry confessed late in ties, like sports or drinking, on Sunday. Economics played
his career, “football had been my religion for decades” a key role in overturning blue laws regarding professional
(Mattingly 1996). Whether this devotion is made con- sports. For instance, in 1933, after much heated debate,
sciously or unconsciously depends on the individual. Bel- Philadelphia overturned its blue law regarding profes-
lah argues that people “are coming to depend less on sional baseball to help promote the local economy. Social
established social sources of denominationalism and rather than economic desires guide today’s Sunday sched-
more on binding ties between the moral outlook and way uling of youth sporting events.
of life to which persons actually hold” (Bellah et al. 1987, As mentioned earlier, sport’s influence among society
326). As early as 1961, researcher Bernard Lazerwitz in- includes several aspects of traditional religion. To offset
vestigated the impact of societal forces on variations in growing social desires to partake in sporting events,
church attendance. Recent community trends of holding churches have altered the timing of religious events.
children’s sporting events such as soccer on Sunday leads Numerous traditional denominations have altered Sun-
one to believe that sport is having an impact on church day services to accommodate sport congregations’ need
attendance. Unlike strict past guidelines, which discour- to witness the kickoff. In addition to impacting reli-
aged the scheduling of youth sporting events on Sundays, gious schedules, sport has infiltrated religious architec-
modern trends appear to place sporting events above ture. For instance, a stained-glass window at the
traditional religious events. Just a short time ago, profes- Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York is devoted
sional players like Sandy Koufax honored blue laws by re- to sports. According to the then-reigning bishop, “A
fusing to pitch on the Sabbath, an ideology that today’s well played game is as pleasing to God as a beautiful
societal standard would consider ridiculous. Blue laws service of worship” (Farrelly 1997). Another main area
are state or local ordinances that prohibit certain activi- of sport permeation is religious sermons. Perhaps the
best example of this is Father Edward Rupp’s prayer be- Further Reading
fore an all-star hockey game: Bellah, R. N., Madsen, R., Sullivan, W. M., Swidler, A., & Tipton, S. M.
(Eds.). (1987). Habits of the heart: Individualism and commitment in
Heavenly Father, Divine Goalie, we come before You this American life. New York: Harper & Row.
Benne, R. (2002). Religion in sport. Journal of Lutheran Ethics. Re-
evening to seek Your blessing. We are, thanks to You, All- trieved January 28, 2005, from http://www.elca.org/jle/articles/
Stars. We pray tonight for Your guidance. Keep us free contemporary _ issues/article.benne _ robert _ 02.html.
from actions that would put us in the Sin Bin of Hell. In- Berger, P. L. (1967). The sacred canopy: Elements of a sociological the-
ory of religion. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
spire us to avoid the pitfalls of our profession. Help us to Burstyn, V. (1999). The rites of men: Manhood, politics, and the culture
stay within the blue line of Your commandments and the of sport. Toronto, ON, & Buffalo, NY: University of Toronto Press.
Coakley, J. (2001). Sport in society: Issues and controversies (7th ed.).
red line of Your grace. Protect us from being injured by New York: McGraw-Hill.
the puck of pride. May we be ever delivered from the high Edwards, H. (1973). Sociology of Sports. Homewood, IL: Dorsey.
stick of dishonesty. May the wings of your angels play at Farrelly, C. (1997). The Cathedral Church of St. John the Divine. Re-
trieved January 28, 2005, from http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/
the right and left of our teammates. May You always be medny/stjohn1.html.
the Divine Center of our team, and when our summons Fellowship of Christian Athletes. (1954). Statement of Faith. Retrieved
January 28, 2005, from http://www.fca.org/aboutfca
comes for eternal retirement to the heavenly grandstand, Frey, J., & Eitzen, D. S. (1991). Sports and society. Annual Review of
may we find you ready to give us the everlasting bonus of Sociology, 17, 503–522.
a permanent seat in your coliseum. Finally, grant us the Gatz, M., Messner, M. A., & Ball-Rokeach, S. J. (2002). Paradoxes of
youth and sport. Albany: State University of New York.
courage to skate without tripping, to run without icing, Geertz, C. (1966). Religion as a cultural system. In M. Banton (Ed.),
and to score the goal that really counts—the one that Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion (pp. 1–46).
London: Tavistock.
makes us a winner, a champion, an All-Star in the hectic Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures. New York: Basic.
Hockey Game of Life. Amen!! (Sammons 2002, 2) Guttmann, A. (1978). From ritual to record. New York: Columbia Uni-
versity Press.
Hadaway, C. K., Marler, P. L., & Chaves, M. (1993). What the polls
The Future don’t show: A closer look at U.S. church attendance. American So-
ciological Review, 78(6), 741–752.
Sport is not a religion in the traditional theological Hoffman, S. J. (1996). Sport and Religion. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
sense, but rather civilly. As stated earlier, sport is a so- Lazerwitz, B. (1961). Some factors associated with variations in church
attendance. Social Forces, 39(4), 301–309.
cial institution that not only educates, but also pro- Mattingly, T. (1996). The religion of American sports. Gospelcom.net.
vides structure and moral support for its members. This Retrieved January 28, 2005, from http://tmatt.gospelcom.net/
column/1996/01/24/.
research indicates, therefore, that sport does, indeed,
Mazur, E. M., & McCarthy, K. (Eds.). (2001). God in the details: Amer-
possess qualities and characteristics that coincide with ican religion in popular culture. New York: Routledge.
religious ideology. Whether one is participating as an Novak, M. (1988). The joy of sports: End zones, bases, baskets, balls,
and the consecration of the American spirit. Lanham, MD: Hamilton.
athlete or as a fan/spectator, sport has the ability to Obare, R. S. (2003). Can sports exist without religion? Sheffield Uni-
transcend an individual to a supernatural level of exis- versity, UK. Retrieved January 28, 2005, from http://www.shef.
ac.uk/socst/Shop/obare.pdf
tence. As Charles Prebish notes (1993, 210): “What it
Prebish, C. S. (1993). Religion and sport: The meeting of sacred and pro-
all boils down to is this: if sports can bring its advocates fane. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
to an experience of the ultimate, and this experience is Putney, C. (2001). Muscular Christianity: Manhood and sports in Protes-
tant America, 1880–1920. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
expressed through a formal series of public and private Reilly, R. (2004). Let us pray/play. Sports Illustrated, 100(17), 172.
rituals requiring a symbolic language and space deemed Rudin, J. (1972). America’s new religion. The Christian Century, p. 384.
sacred by its worshipers then it is both proper and nec- Sammons, D. (2002). Sports as religion. Retrieved from www.mduuc.
org/PDFs/2002 _ sermons/sports _ as _ religion.pdf
essary to call sport itself a religion.” Thomas, M. C., & Flippen, C. C. (1972). American civil religion: An
empirical study. Social Forces, 51(2), 218–225.
Mary Lou Sheffer University of Michigan. (1997). Study of worldwide rates of religiosity,
church attendance. Retrieved January 28, 2005, from http://www.
See also Prayer; Religion; Rituals umich.edu/news/?Releases/1997/Dec97/chr121097a
SPORT AS SPECTACLE 1499
Sport in the sense of a mass-spectacle, with death to add to the underlying excitement,
comes into existence when a population has been drilled and regimented and depressed
to such an extent that it needs at least a vicarious participation in difficult feats of
strength or skill or heroism in order to sustain its waning life-sense. ■ LEWIS MUMFORD
Warrington, B. (2001). The fight for Sunday baseball in Philadelphia. and chariot races. The attendance records for Roman
Philadelphia Athletics Historical Society. Retrieved January 28, 2005,
sporting events remained unchallenged until the period
from http://philadelphiaathletics.org/history/sundaybaseball.html.
Wimberley, R. C., Clelland, D. A., Hood,T. C., & Lipsey, C. M. (1976).The of the industrial revolution. As families moved into the
civil religious dimension: Is it there? Social Forces, 54(4), 890–900. cities, leisure time increased, and this, combined with
Yinger, M. J. (1963). Sociology looks at religion. New York: Macmillan.
concomitant developments in transportation and com-
munication technology, allowed spectators to bond as
a community and develop regional rivalries while reg-
ularly visiting distant stadiums and keeping track of
Sport as Spectacle “their” teams.
Impact of Technology on
T he world of sport in the age of mass media has
been transformed from amateur recreational par-
ticipation to spectator-centered business. The com-
Spectator Sport
In the mid-1800s, the steamboat and railway networks,
mercial incentives for sport to cooperate with soon followed by the electric streetcar, opened up the
television, film, radio, newspaper, and magazine to city to suburban areas, carrying sport crowds (and play-
consistently expand the “spectacle” aspects of the event ers) to horse races, baseball games, football matches,
are ever increasing. Much more is at stake than mate- and intercollegiate rowing events. When Thomas A.
rial gain, however; the players and fans depend on Edison developed the incandescent bulb in 1879, he in-
sport as spectacle for esteem, honor, dignity, identity, augurated a new era in the social nightlife of the me-
and status. tropolis. Within a few years sport arenas with electric
Today’s sporting spectacle presents an encompassing lighting were hosting night games. The advent and ex-
drama: actors, ritual, plot, production, masculinity, pansion of use of the telegraph, newspapers, and radio
rage, pride, chance, and social message are all brilliantly during this same period fostered, for the first time, sport
choreographed in the sport spectacular. For the com- reporting and spectator following of distant, even in-
mitted fan (derived, indeed, from the word “fanatic”) ternational sport. As technology advanced, pictures of
winning produces overwhelming exhilaration, defeat, sporting events were added to newspaper articles; the
deep depression.Yet even in defeat there is always hope still camera, a precursor to the video camera and tele-
for the next game or season. Fans and players become vised sport, was first to provide visual information to
inseparable actors in the same drama. millions of remote fans.
With the broad democratization of television and
Early Spectator televised sports in the 1960s, thousands of enthusiasts
Entertainment never had to leave their homes to take in a sporting
Evidence for organized sporting events can be traced to event. The Internet, of course, has further complicated
Egyptian culture as far back as 5200 BCE; however, ev- and fragmented the sport spectator experience. Begin-
idence for sport spectatorship is extant only from the ning with the 2001 Major League Baseball (MLB)
first century BCE. The Grecian Olympic Games were World Series, audiences could express their approval or
the first to offer dimensions of spectator entertainment disapproval of team managers’ decisions during the
as well as opportunities for civic and religious cere- game via the Internet. Today every MLB game can be
monies. Grecian appreciation of athletic grace was downloaded upon its completion, so fans are able to
soon to be usurped by the spread of the Roman Em- relive new and classic ballgames at any time. Sport
pire and the accompanying appetite for sport specta- spectatorship is inextricably linked to technology
cles laden with violence, such as gladiator matches development.
In contemporary Western society, sport is a spectacle make sport a centerpiece of its programming, other cor-
in three noteworthy ways. Sport is (1) a public per- porations had no choice but to follow, and an all-out
formance of a large scale or impressive nature, such as war between networks for supremacy in sport television
the grand exhibitions of the Olympic Games; (2) a re- ensued. In the 1980s “superstations” employing trans-
grettable public display, as in the deplorable behavior of mission satellites also joined in the fray. The moguls of
destructive international soccer fans; and (3) a com- sport quickly began to package their games as even
modity, a tool of pacification, depoliticization, and greater spectacles so they would be more appealing to
“massification,” exemplified by professional football’s television audiences. The National Basketball Associa-
commercially exploitative Super Bowl. tion (NBA) and the National Hockey League (NHL) ex-
panded their playoff formats so that sixteen teams (more
SPORT AS AN IMPRESSIVE than two-thirds) reach the championship tournaments.
TELEVISED PERFORMANCE Halftime periods have been shortened so that television
The transition to large-scale, extraordinary sport spec- audiences will be more likely to stay tuned, and pre-
tacles is directly connected to the widespread popular- arranged schedules of time-outs have been added to
ity of televised sport, which got underway in the United football, basketball, and hockey games to make time for
States the afternoon of 17 May 1939, when the first tel- commercials.
evised baseball game was put on the air by NBC. The
picture impulses of a game between Princeton and Co- The Good and the Bad
lumbia University from Columbia’s Baker Field marked Even in the televised sport age, the anticipation of actu-
the beginning of a romance between the new medium ally attending a sport stadium adds immeasurably to the
and sport. excitement, evidenced by continued sellout crowds at
Until the perfection of color television, slow motion, Pakistan’s Rawalpindi Cricket Stadium, the Dallas Mav-
and replay shots in the 1960s, team sports could ericks American Airlines Center, or Manchester United’s
not easily be conveyed on
the small screen and therefore
constituted a small portion of
network budgets and program
time. When ABC decided to
The remains of the

entrance way to the
stadium in Olympia,
Greece, the site of
the ancient Olympics.
During the Greek
period, the Olympics
were organized in
honor of the Greek
god Zeus, with a
major temple on the
site built in his honor.
Old Trafford. Once at the stadium, the sharing of emo- spectacle, flames surrounded her as a choir sang and
tions with other fans heightens the intensity of the deafening orange fireworks illuminated Sydney’s sky.
experience. The spectacle was the grandest of opening ceremonies
On one hand television cheapened and trivialized to that date and had significant political implications
the spectator experience. Too many seasons, games, given the Australian government’s political relationship
teams, and “big plays” have diluted the poignancy and with the Aboriginal people.
potency of the sporting experience and have dimin-
ished the capacity of sport to furnish heroes, release SUPERBOWL
people from the ennui of daily life, and bind commu- No one at first expected the Super Bowl to far exceed
nities. Television contributed to the rise of a new set of all other sport spectacles in the size of its domestic au-
sporting ideals: nationalism, sportsmanship, and civil- dience (140 million people). In the twenty-first century
ity were replaced by self-indulgence, win-at-all-costs at- nearly one billion people worldwide are routinely ex-
titudes, and supremacy of commercial interests. pected to view the exhibitions that the NFL and its ad-
On the other hand, television broadened and deep- vertisers have in mind. Advertisers use the broadcast as
ened the drama of the spectacle by stimulating an even a way to roll out new products and pay over $2 million
broader audience, offering an exciting narrative text for a thirty-second commercial spot. The highlight is al-
that begins long before the game, framing meaning, ways the halftime show, and the 2004 version was the
and setting a tone that hypes the contests and specifies most spectacular and controversial yet. The finale was
the conflicts worthy of conjecture. Close-up, slow- a duet with American celebrity recording artists Janet
motion, and replay shots add to the appreciation of Jackson and Justin Timberlake, during which Jackson’s
beautifully executed plays, and many fans now prefer to breast was (un)intentionally exposed. The sensational-
watch sport on television instead of being in the stands ism and shock value achieved was directly in line with
because, ironically, they feel closer to their heroes. For the goals of the sport/media complex.
instance, in the sport of soccer, the Premier League’s
David Beckham not only scores goals and brings fame Sport as a Violent, Sexist Spectacle
to his team, but televised sport has also helped him Sport is also a spectacle in the sense of being a regret-
branch out into films (Bend It like Beckham) and prod- table display. As the task of attracting a sufficiently large
uct endorsements (Adidas, Marks and Spencer, and audience to satisfy advertisers becomes more and more
Gillette), bringing him into contact with his devoted challenging, “mediatized” sport has wrought two nega-
fans more and more often. Made-for-media grand-scale tive features: (1) increased violence associated with
spectacles, such as the opening ceremonies of the (male) professional sport on the field, court, and rink;
Olympic Games or the National Football League’s in the stands; and at home, and (2) the entrenchment
(NFL) Super Bowl halftime show, have large television of the trivialization of women’s sporting accomplish-
audiences and are only indirectly related to sport. ments, sexualization of women’s bodies, and overall
subordination of women’s roles.
OLYMPIC GAMES
Pageantry, political rhetoric, and showbiz extravaganzas INCREASING VIOLENCE
now characterize today’s grand-scale sporting events. In In the game, brutal tactics have led to an epidemic injury
September 2000 Australian Olympian Cathy Freeman, rate in football, and similar license in other sports
an Aborigine, carried the Olympic torch for its last leg (hockey and basketball) has been well documented. More
up toward a vast waterfall before she ignited the caul- often, activities that lead to the temporary incapacita-
dron. In an extraordinarily intricate and dangerous tion, knockout, or injury of competitors are the norm.
Sport as Spectacle
An Ethiopian Horse Sport
“The game of gugs is based on warfare, but where Empirical evidence supports the appeal of sport vio-
a cavalryman carried two spears, a light one for lence. One recent study found that more (perceived) vi-
throwing, and a heavier job for infighting, the olence in football matches led to greater enjoyment, so
gouks [gugs] player uses only light wood wands. in addition to actual hostility between players, empha-
The object is for members of one team to gallop sis by commentators on athletes’ antagonisms aug-
off followed by the others who are supposed to ments audience enjoyment. Another study discovered
hit them with their wands, either by hurling at that watching televised sport at home was connected to
them or by catching up and hitting them. Those seemingly senseless and brutal attacks on the female
being pursued are protected with traditional cir- partners of fans.
cular shields in hippo or rhinoceros hide, some
covered with coloured velvet and decorated with SEXISM
gold and silver. As they tear away across the Feminist sport critics who study the portrayal of female
plain, they may dodge, hang off the horse or athletes in the mass media reveal the degree to which the
ward off with the shield. The riders are often in sport media contribute to the oppression of marginal-
traditional costume, or at any rate the cloak and ized groups, particularly women, by reinforcing “natural”
gold-fringed lion or baboon headdress!!” sex differences through representations of sports that
Source: Baker, W. J., & Mangan , J. A. (1987) Sport in Africa—Essays in social privilege and empower men over women. Female ath-
history (p. 226). New York: Africana Publishing Company.
letes are more often celebrated if they play “feminine”
sports, those that depict females in aesthetically pleasing
motions and poses, often emphasizing the erotic physi-
Mindless acts of violence intricately tied to win-at-any- cality of the female body with tight bodices and short
cost ethics and retribution have led to player indictments. skirts (e.g., gymnastics, tennis, and figure skating).
For instance, in 2004 National Hockey League play, the Skating emphasizes artistry over athleticism, and its
Vancouver Canucks’ Todd Burtuzzi attacked the Col- use of grace, music, and costume have a culturally in-
orado Avalanche’s Steve Moore from behind. Moore suf- fluenced gender appeal designed to attract and sustain
fered a concussion and a fractured neck. Burtuzzi was female viewers and titillate male viewers. International
indicted for assault causing bodily harm and plead guilty. tennis sensation Anna Kournikova is one of many fe-
In the stands, fan violence can be deadly. For at least male athletes better known for her modeling career
two decades there has been a widespread tendency for than on-court achievement. The spectacle of sport al-
English fans to be castigated for aggressive behavior, lows her to earn more in endorsements than any other
drunkenness, and open displays of xenophobia and female player, despite her indifferent performances,
racism. Spectators have cursed, yelled racial slurs, given while women who have won recognized tennis tour-
death threats, and thrown objects onto the field. Dur- naments on the international circuit gain much less in-
ing Euro 2000, disappointment turned to violence in come and attention. In mainstream sports women also
Charleroi, France, as supporters of the English team play passive, supporting roles and conform to patriar-
brought terror to the streets following a loss, resulting chal standards of sport and femininity. Scantily clad fe-
in 850 arrests. And in one of the most grotesque dis- male models (car racing), cheerleaders (gridiron
plays of human belligerence, over three hundred people football), or half-time dancers (basketball) secure a
were killed and one thousand injured in a Lima, Peru, large audience of men by creating an atmosphere of
soccer riot in 1964. Fans may feel so invested in the hegemonic masculinity.
drama of sport and nationalism that losses become too Many more women are absent from televised sport be-
painful to bear. cause they are prevented from participating or because
their sports are not considered sufficient audience draws mands, and create new needs, essentially creating more
and are therefore not promoted through mainstream work. Despite the fact that athletes’ performances can
media. Despite the fact that women’s athletic participa- be breathtaking, a race won or a ninth-inning base hit
tion in modern-day Olympic Games exceeds their par- hair-raising, these aspects of the spectacle are considered
ticipation in any other major sporting event, a sexist a “free lunch” or bonus of the commodity spectacle,
ideology persists in the media which highlights and re- which is one created purely for its market value; sport
inforces the supposedly natural differences between serves the purpose of providing audiences for advertis-
males and females and overwhelmingly favors men’s ers. The strategic vision of using sport programming
participation as they compete separately in the same (produced cheaply and transferred easily across cultural
sport (e.g., downhill skiing) or in sex-exclusive sports, and linguistic borders) to reach new international au-
such as synchronized swimming and softball (women) diences is being aggressively shared by a growing num-
or boxing (men). Professional female athletes receive ber of media organizations: Eurosport, Sky, ESPN, Fox,
disproportionately less television, radio, and magazine and Japan Sports Channel, to name a few. The compe-
coverage than their male counterparts. The sport spec- tition to secure the rights for seasons and finales has in-
tacle in the twentieth century has given men an arena in tensified to unprecedented levels of financial investment
which to create and reinforce an ideology of male on the part of media outlets. For instance, BBC pays
superiority. £105 million for the rights to Saturday and Sunday
The quintessential example of a violent, sexist, “me- night Premier league highlights; Fox acquired the rights
diatized” sporting spectacle is the pseudosport of pro- to MLB baseball’s playoffs, World Series, and All-Star
fessional wrestling. While discounted as a genuine sport Game for $417 million per year; and NBC pays $2.2
by most, professional wrestling has evolved into a cul- billion for rights to broadcast the Olympics.
turally powerful multimedia complex. Specifically, pro-
fessional wrestling’s mandate is to excite audiences via RACISM
contrived and hyperviolent athletic competition and to Creating a “big-time sport” spectacle has led to big
portray “hot babes of wrestling” as sexy props on the drug abuse, big recruiting briberies, and big academic
margins of the men’s matches or against each other in cheating among major American colleges. Along this
titillating showcases of “raw feminine energy.” It teaches loathsome byway, the black athlete has been especially
lessons about masculinity and femininity to massive misused. The belief that people with dark skin are
audiences who tune in for both sport and theater. The driven by brawn rather than brains was used to justify
World Wrestling Federation, New Japan Pro Wrestling colonization and exploitation during slavery and con-
and Australian Wrestling Federation have prospered tinues today to justify manipulation and exploitation in
because they offer entertainment consistent with the “mediatized” sport. In the NFL and NBA the majority
entrenched interests of the sport/media/commercial of the workers are black; yet the majority of the own-
complex. ers, administrators, league presidents, and network ex-
ecutives are white and make millions of dollars more
Sport as a Commercially than the average player. Many black athletes, although
Exploitative Spectacle recognizing that pro sports are akin to slavery, refuse to
Finally, as a tool of “massification” and pacification, let go of their share of the pie. Inflated contracts are
spectator sports appear to provide escape from the pres- confused with achievement and the end of racism, and
sures or banality of the work world; however, patrons audiences and athletes alike have been pacified and de-
are subsequently trapped by corporations, which use politicized. Some argue that greed has changed the
sports as commodities to fuel desires, stimulate de- spectacle into a circus. On the other hand, without
Serious sport has nothing to do with fair play. It is bound up with hatred,
jealousy, boastfulness, disregard of all rules and sadistic pleasure in witnessing
violence: in other words it is war minus the shooting. ■ GEORGE ORWELL
media coverage and the considerable amounts of Wann, D. L., Allen, B., & Rochelle, A. R. (2004). Using sport fandom
money paid by advertisers and corporations, the pop- as an escape: Searching for relief from under-stimulation and over-
stimulation. International Sports Journal, 8(1), 104–113.
ularity and revenue-generating potential of commer- Wenner, L. (Ed.). (1998). MediaSport. New York: Routledge.
cial spectator sports would be seriously limited. Even
without ever visiting a stadium, dedicated fanatics can
experience the unpredictable drama, human transcen-
dence, and joys of performance through newspapers’
daily sports pages, television and radio broadcasts,
and Internet updates.
Sport Politics
The Future
Communication technologies have raised sport specta-
T he late Avery Brundage of the United States, Inter-
national Olympic Committee (IOC) president, ar-
gued that sports and politics are and should always be
torship more than a thousand-fold. Multichannel direct- separate. Yet, clearly even a cursory look below the sur-
satellite services, and Internet sports give fanatics the face indicates how sports are a heady mix of inspiration
ability to choose from numerous live sporting events and representation, with the latter related to obvious
any time games are being played, anywhere in the forms of identification within the social context.
world. With increased awareness of sport-related vio- When we consider politics in sports we must exam-
lence and discrimination against women and black ath- ine the internal, external, and peripheral influences on
letes, sporting spectacles will become increasingly more sports. Internally, the authorities and organizations that
humane and fair, but the almighty dollar still reigns, determine the development of their particular sport can
and the media will continue to provide the type of spec- be viewed as inherently political. The fact that key pol-
tacle that will maintain the biggest audience. The West- icy decisions are made by governing bodies and sports
ern sport spectacle has been completely revolutionized authorities makes this a political process. The issue of
in under a century and is now transmitted to and imi- politics affecting the sporting environment from outside
tated by nations worldwide. is more obviously dependent on the use of examples.
Janelle Joseph The issue is particularly related to how during the twen-
tieth century sports became increasingly affected by the
See also Olympics, Summer; Olympics, Winter
political undercurrents within society. The interaction
between sports and politics has also been partly a result
Further Reading of increasing international exchange at a diplomatic
Bernstein, A., and Blain, N. (2003). Sport, media, culture: Global and
and sporting level. However, another key agent in this
local dimensions. Portland, OR: Frank Cass. developing dynamic since the mid-nineteenth century
Betts, J. (1953). The technological revolution and the 1rise of sport, has been peripheral influences such as the growth of the
1850–1900. Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 40, 231–256.
Gantz, W., & Wenner, L. A. (1995). Fanship and the television sports media. The provision of television as a mode of infor-
viewing experience. Sociology of Sport Journal, 12, 56–74. mation transfer, since the mid-1960s, has further solid-
Rader, B. G. (1984). In its own image: How television has transformed
sports. New York: The Free Press.
ified the link between political processes and the
Rowe, D. (2004). Sport, culture and the media: The unruly trinity. Mil- sporting context.
ton Keynes, UK: Open University Press.
Sansone, D. (1988). Greek athletics and the genesis of sport. Berkeley:
University of California Press. History
Underwood, J. (1984). Spoiled sport: A fan’s notes on the troubles of Sports and broader expressions of physical culture
spectator sports. Boston: Little Brown and Co.
Vanderwerken, D. L. & Wertz, S. K. (Eds.). (1986). Sport inside out. Fort have played a role throughout history as a means of
Worth: Texas A & M University Press. achieving political capital and increased popularity for
SPORT POLITICS 1505
political figures. The centrality of the ancient Roman global media provides its own form of accountability
coliseum to successive emperors is a good example of for those people making political decisions at the level
this fact. Throughout the latter part of the nineteenth of international sports.
century the organization and development of sports At the national level more complex models exist for
were firmly in the hands of elite social groups. This fact providing sports. The models can be affected by the na-
suggests that the structure of the sociopolitical envi- tional culture, climate, religion, economics, and, of
ronment played a key role in popularizing the pas- course, society in general. Perhaps most difficult to dis-
times and activities that have since spread throughout tinguish is the often informal and occasional type of
society and across the world. More recently, the Ger- provision at a local level. What is not always clear is
man chancellor Adolf Hitler’s use of the 1936 Olympic how different national political processes are supposed
Games in Berlin cast a shadow over those particular to act in the best interests of sports. In many respects
Olympics as much for the political management of the the governmental policy toward sports (even the lack of
event as for the subsequent horrors of that regime. a distinct policy) can inform our analysis of the provi-
Sports and physical culture were also significant in sion of sports. Clearly the introduction of greater de-
the former Communist countries. Indeed, significant grees of planning and organization related to school
political figures in Communist nations began to de- sports and physical education can affect notions of
velop a highly utilitarian physical culture to support health and illness within society as well as have poten-
the needs of their society. Communist societies in partially positive effects on rates of crime and recidivism.
ticular needed fit and strong people to work to support The importance of such sports development initiatives
the development of their society and also to defend the will only increase in the future. At both the national and
state if necessary. In China a long history of traditional local levels accountability is provided by the democratic
pastimes and court games informs China’s more recent process; yet, perhaps the most powerful policy makers
utilitarian system of physical culture. In command are not actually politicians. The role of the national
economies psychic income is received by the state and governing bodies provides further information about
society from having an international champion. Cuba’s how the national government interacts with its national
history of boxing success at the Olympics is a good ex- sporting authorities. The role of the governing bodies
ample of the political importance of sporting success to can also be viewed as central to the character and na-
Communist states. It provides vigor to their self-image ture of sports. An excellent example of this fact has
and raises their standing in the eyes of the world. Al- been the stewardship of the Olympic Games by the In-
though these examples illustrate the extent of state ma- ternational Olympic Committee.
nipulation of sports for political ends, this issue is not The application of political theories to sports can also
limited to Communism. provide a useful analytical lens. Pluralism and the tradi-
tional Western model of sports remain the consensus po-
Internal Politics of Sports sition for most developed countries. This position
We should examine the full extent of political processes recognizes the fact that numerous agencies have a bear-
involved in sports. They can operate at the international ing on the practical aspects of sports. The provision of a
level, as detailed in the examples related to the consensus can also be relevant to the notion of hege-
Olympics. In the former USSR sports were little more mony (influence) within sports. A more controversial
than a tool of the state. They provided a focus for their political ideology that has had a crucial influence on the
achievements on an international stage, and the gov- way that sports are viewed within their socio-economic
erning bodies operated under direct governmental con- context relates to traditional Marxism. Although the
trol to further this goal. Certainly the full glare of the German political philosopher Karl Marx did not actually
focus on sports, an analysis of the sociopolitical context sage. This incident was to have terrible and far-reaching
can be directly applied to the sporting context. Marx’s consequences after the massacre of Israeli athletes at the
focus on the inequalities inherent within the structure of 1972 Olympic Games in Munich. The Palestinian ter-
many societies is a perspective that continues to influ- rorist group Black September used that global sports
ence the growing study of how best to provide practical festival as a means to disseminate its message related to
forms of sports development. the prevailing political situation in the Middle East.
Sports remain part of a policy-making process, and by Four years later the boycott of the Montreal Olympic
definition politics and political structures are a central Games by the Organization of African Unity (OAU)—
part of any policy-making process. Sports, by definition, after protests against sporting links with apartheid
have to be organized by decisions made within a par- (racial segregation) South Africa—provided a global
ticular nation’s politicoeconomic structure. Conse- focus for examining and hardening attitudes toward
quently, sports would not enjoy the popularity that they that pariah state. Again the role of the media in pro-
have if not for the influence and control provided by the viding a vehicle for disseminating such messages is
varied efforts of political associations and organizations significant.
as well as politicians and policies throughout history. In- Clearly sports have the ability to act as a metaphori-
deed, Bruce Kidd, an expert on international sport, put cal background or a pressure-relief valve for both na-
it rather eloquently in the British series about the history tions and individuals. On a number of occasions the
of the Olympics, The Games in Question (1988): sporting arena in general and the Olympic Games in
particular have provided a stage where the two super-
Politics have always been part of international sport and
powers could compete in a sporting environment in
to suggest otherwise is ludicrous. Training and competi-
front of the eyes of the world. In a number of instances
tion . . . everything connected with an international sports
politics has adversely affected the proceedings. Indeed,
event are provided by a decision-making process that I
one can argue that without politics a broad interest in
would call political. They involve the allocation of re-
international sports would not exist today. The use of
sources towards sport and away from something else and
the Olympic Games as a tool in boycott politics during
that is a political process.
the 1970s and 1980s was possible only because of the
influence of the mass media on global society during
External Politics Affecting Sports the latter half of the twentieth century.
After World War II the Cold War provided a backdrop The Olympic Games during the Cold War provide
to world sports between 1950 and 1990 and added a examples of this inherent tension within the developing
significant political aspect to the practice of interna- sporting exchange. The Moscow Olympic Games of
tional relations, including sports. However, not all in- 1980 and the Los Angeles Olympic Games of 1984
stances of political intrusion at the Olympic Games were tarnished by boycotts related to ongoing fractious
were related to Cold War tensions. The black power superpower relations. Yet, in 1976 in Montreal the
salute of Tommy Smith and John Carlos at Mexico City Olympic Games were boycotted by the Organization of
in 1968 remains an enduring example of the use of the African Unity in protest of South Africa’s apartheid
sporting arena for the expression of diverse political regime. Although the 1976 boycott was clearly political,
agendas, in this case regarding the issue of civil rights perhaps the best examples of Cold War tensions in
within the United States. An unintended consequence sports were the boycotts of the early 1980s. At both
of the protest at Mexico City was to highlight to others Moscow and Los Angeles the Olympic Games acted as
with diverse and often radical political agendas how a showcase for the political ideologies of Communism
sports can be used as a vehicle to communicate a mes- and capitalism, respectively. Too often in the history of
SPORT POLITICS 1507
Until you’ve been in politics you’ve never really been alive; it’s rough and
sometimes it’s dirty and it’s always hard work and tedious details. But, it’s
the only sport for grown-ups; all other games are for kids. ■ UNKNOWN
the Olympic Games opportunities to learn about peo- conflict that served to challenge interethnic relations. Il-
ple in other countries and to develop a sense of social lustrative examples during the early 1990s were
responsibility have been undermined by the subordi- matches between the Red Star Belgrade (Serbia) and
nation of sports and recreation to political and com- Dynamo Zagreb (Croatia), which took on a significant
mercial goals. political element. These often violent, highly charged
Some academics subsequently have argued that the matches mirrored the tensions related to the slow, in-
huge success of the Los Angeles Olympic Games after exorable collapse of the Yugoslav state.
the spectacular overspending at Moscow showed which As sports provide a focus for social interaction they
political system worked better. Although this argument inevitably come under pressure from those people seek-
may be a bit simplistic to take at face value, we should ing to use sports events (or success in an event) to high-
realize the power of the media in providing a sufficient light a particular political agenda. In many cases the
vehicle for the dissemination of political messages, attempt to control the political environment through
whether positive or negative. Undoubtedly the media sports results in a spectacular and contentious sporting
can operate more effectively in a market rather than a outcome. Sports are undoubtedly a political endeavor
centralized command economy. In that sense it can di- when they involve national rivalries, and politics likely
rectly affect not only the type of message disseminated, will continue to be central for sports on many fronts,
but also how that message is received. Indeed, we both in a theoretical sense and in a practical sense. The
should remember that the media provide a means of strong representational element within sports (which in
data and information transfer for sports. In this respect turn are supported by the political system) elevates
we can view sports as a victim of their own success. The sports within our social psyche and so makes them
relationship between sports and the media is vital to more important to our societies. Sports provide every-
this process. Sports are a uniquely cheap and effective one from a head of state to a fringe ideologue with the
programming resource, in relative terms, for different ability to present his or her message to millions across
forms of media. In fact, this axis with the media must the globe.
continue to provide a major revenue stream in support
of both the organization and development of sports. Separation of Power
In most nations a separation exists between those peo-
Sports as Representation ple in charge of developing sports and those people in
Indeed, the influence of politics on sports, coupled with charge of funding sports. Even this separation of power
the development of media coverage, was one of the on sound organizational principles is an example of
defining features of the development of international politics affecting sports. Such separation fundamentally
sports during the latter part of the twentieth century. affects the interaction between groups related to the
The late U.S. President Richard Nixon used the pretext funding and organization of sports. Often as a result of
of a sporting exchange to nurture closer relations with the organizing and planning process, sports tend to ex-
hard-line Communist China. A table tennis match was hibit characteristics related to a particular national iden-
scheduled between the two nations. This match led to tity and its perceived uniqueness. During this nonlinear
a short period of high-level exchange, which became process sports become increasingly relevant to societies
known as “Ping-Pong diplomacy.” The role that sports in a representational sense. We should not underesti-
have played in the hardening of attitudes in tense situ- mate the importance of the representational element of
ations should not be underestimated. In the former sports to policy and political groups. Politicians and po-
Yugoslavia prior to the war in the Balkans, soccer teams litical structures usually act to channel national re-
provided a focus for demonstration and even violent sources toward certain sporting goals, particularly when
Racing and hunting excite man’s

heart to madness. ■ LAO-TSE
a sport has enjoyed success on the world stage. The po- Through the Renaissance and into the twentieth cen-
tential of a feel-good factor provided by sporting success tury European and later U.S. doctors of physiology con-
to sustain the popularity of politicians has been recog- tinued to expound on exercise physiology, focusing on
nized since ancient Roman times. Despite the protes- exercise metabolism and physiology, environmental
tations of many administrators and sportspeople, the physiology, clinical pathophysiology, exercise and
link between sports and politics was firmly established aging, nutrition, and assessment of physical fitness. In
before sports became the all-pervasive element of pop- 1891 Harvard University founded the first exercise lab-
ular culture that they are today. oratory. Led by George Wells Fitz (1860–1934) and
named the “Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and
Jonathan M. Thomas
Physical Training,” it soon matured into the Harvard Fa-
See also Economics and Public Policy; Sport and Na- tigue Laboratory (1927–1946). Under the direction of
tional Identity David Bruce Dill (1891–1986), the Harvard Fatigue
Laboratory was the source of groundbreaking research
in exercise physiology and fitness assessment testing.
Further Reading
Allison, L. (Ed.). (1993). The changing politics of sport. Manchester, UK:
Manchester University Press.
Classical Issues in
Collins, M. (2003). Sport and social exclusion. London: Routledge. Sport Science Research
Hill, C. (1996). Olympic politics. Manchester, UK: Manchester Uni- Sport science began as an observational science as re-
versity Press.
Horne, J., Tomlinson, A., & Whannel, G. (2001). Understanding sport:
searchers made careful notes of heart-rate changes,
An introduction to the sociological and cultural analysis of sport. Lon- body-composition changes, work capacity adaptations,
don: Spon.
and oxygen consumption during exercise. It soon
Kellas, J. (1991). The politics of nationalism and ethnicity. London:
Macmillan. branched into the experimental realm as sport scientists
Kruger, A., & Riordan, J. (1999). The international politics of sport in began to ask questions on how to optimize perform-
the 20th century. London: Spon.
Mandell, R. (1984). Sport: A cultural history. New York: Columbia
ance and increase the quality of life for the general pop-
University Press. ulation. The early investigators were also noted
Mangan, J. (Ed.). (1999). Sport in Europe: Politics, class, gender. Lon- inventors as they designed tools to better observe exer-
don: Cass.
Sage, G. (1990). Power and ideology in American sport. Champaign, IL: cise physiology. Tools such as the calorimeter, a device
Human Kinetics. to measure the body’s heat production, and closed-
circuit spirometry, which accurately quantifies energy ex-
penditure, are still used in exercise science laboratories.
Sport-science technology is also used in medicine.
Sport Science The graded-exercise treadmill test is used to assess the
ability to transport and use oxygen during exercise,
S port science can be traced back to the ancient Greek

physicians and philosophers, such as Herodicus and
Hippocrates, who advocated following a proper diet
called “maximal oxygen uptake.” Most physicians and
exercise physiologists consider this test to be the most
valid measurement of cardiovascular fitness.
and physical training to prevent disease. One of the
first known definitions of exercise was written by the Physical Fitness Assessment
Greek physician Galen (131–201 CE): “To me it does During the mid-1950s the U.S. government began to
not seem that all movement is exercise, but only when take a proactive (acting in anticipation of future prob-
it is vigorous . . . The criterion of vigorousness is change lems, needs, or changes) stance in the prevention of
of respiration.” sedentary and obesity-related diseases. In 1955 U.S.
SPORT SCIENCE 1509
President Dwight D. Eisenhower established the Presi- cause of deaths of professional and collegiate athletes at-
dent’s Council on Youth Fitness, later renamed the tributed to heat stress, although research in these topics
“President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports,” to has been a staple of exercise physiology for some time.
highlight the need for increased physical activity in Much research in these topics comes from the military.
schools, business, and industry. Along with the new The U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental
council, the American Association for Health, Physical Medicine and the Institute of Military Physiology at the
Education, and Recreation (AAHPER) developed fit- Heller Institute in Israel are major contributors to re-
ness assessment tests with national standards and search in these topics as they strive to keep their military
norms that could easily be used in physical education personnel healthy and safe when traveling to different
classes throughout the country. parts of the world. The Harvard Fatigue Laboratory was
Fitness testing for adults became commonplace dur- home to much of the early research in environmental
ing the 1970s. Along with the graded-exercise treadmill and altitude exercise physiology.
test, other specialized tests began to be used to assess Landmark studies of acclimatization to hot and cold
cardiovascular health and to develop exercise programs. climates have given us a greater understanding of the
Cardiorespiratory fitness can be estimated using cycle adaptability of humans to survive. For instance, within
ergometers or step tests in addition to treadmills. fourteen days of exposure to a hot environment, phys-
iological adaptations occur, via an improved control of
Heart-Healthy Lifestyle cardiovascular function, to reduce cardiac strain. More
Aside from the finding of a decline in physical fitness of recent research involves central nervous system adapta-
youth in the United States, another finding stimulated tions, cell pathology of heatstroke, and even the role of
the government’s interest in promoting physical activity clothing on the body’s ability to thermoregulate (regu-
during the middle of the twentieth century. Autopsy relate temperature). Likewise, in the study of hydration
ports of young soldiers killed during the Korean War status and exercise, sport science research has clarified
showed significant coronary artery disease. This finding the profound physiological effects that dehydration has
coupled with the increasing death rate from coronary ar- on physiological functions.
tery disease among middle-aged men spurred exercise sci- The physiological effects of high altitudes are not
entists to determine the cause. Large epidemiological often considered until people travel from sea level to a
studies showed that the triad of a high-fat diet, cigarette mountainous area and find themselves host to numer-
smoking, and inactivity was the major risk factor in pre- ous physiological adaptations. Sport-science literature
ventable coronary artery disease, prompting government- reports numerous short-term and long-term adaptations
sponsored programs to promote early initiation of healthy to altitude, including hematological (relating to blood),
behavior, including diet and exercise, as the best defense cardiovascular, and hormonal changes. This literature
against coronary artery disease. has helped to identify and alleviate several altitude-
related illnesses, such as acute mountain sickness,
Braving the Elements: through changes in physical activity and diet.
Environmental Physiology In nearly all realms of science space is considered the
Environmental physiology studies not only the obvi- last frontier. Sport science is no different. Early obser-
ous adaptations to hot-humid and cold weather, but vation of space flight showed remarkable physiological
also the effects of dehydration on performance, training changes in humans, including changes in posture, body
at altitude, and the effects of gravity during space travel. composition, the musculoskeleton, and fluid shifts.
The topics of hydration and exercise during extreme To simulate a microgravity environment, researchers
weather conditions have been in the news recently behave used strategies such as head-down bed rest, cast
The male
muscular system.
Source: istockphoto/LindaMarieB.
immobilization confinement,
limb suspension, and water
immersion to study physio-
logical effects. To combat the
numerous effects of space
flight, exercise, particularly re-
sistance training, is now a
standard activity during all
flights.
Strength and
Resistance Training
Although sport science has a
history as old as that of sport
itself, the main focus of re-
search was usually on disease
prevention, physical activity of
the general and clinical popu-
lations, and scientific observa-
tion of physiological mechanisms. Recently the Development, the first magazine dedicated to the sport
progression of training programs and nutritional de- of bodybuilding. Other magazines soon hit the news-
sign came from anecdotal evidence, passed from stands, including Ironman and the modern Joe Weider
coaches to athletes in their quest to make and become publications such as Muscle and Fitness. These publi-
champions. However, as the sports industry becomes cations were instrumental in the popularization of re-
more lucrative and as more emphasis is placed on peo- sistance training.
ple in the general population starting an active lifestyle, Despite the popularity of such magazines, resistance-
more research is focused on optimizing performance. training research was uncommon until the 1970s. Dur-
During the early twentieth century strength and re- ing the 1980s more research on strength and resistance
sistance training began to emerge from basement training was published, and the focus shifted from ath-
gyms and circus side-show exhibitions into the realm letes to women and men in the general population.
of science. In 1945 Thomas DeLorme introduced the Leading this new trend in science was the National
concept of progressive resistance exercise. Three years Strength and Conditioning Association, which in 1987
later he teamed with A. L. Watkins and published a began publishing the first journal dedicated to strength
paper on long-term resistance training for rehabilita- and conditioning research, The Journal of Strength and
tive purposes. Conditioning Research. During the past twenty years
Although research scientists were just beginning to tremendous advancements have been made in physio-
recognize the importance of strength and resistance logical adaptations and mechanisms, gender differ-
training, the popularity of lay publications dedicated to ences in training, and specificity of training. Most
this new form of exercise was rising. In 1932 Bob Hoff- importantly, resistance training research has high-
man, founder of the York Barbell Company, published lighted the importance of regular strength and resist-
Strength and Health, a landmark magazine dedicated to ance training to two important sections of our
weightlifting. In 1964 Hoffman published Muscular population: youth and the elderly.
SPORT SCIENCE 1511
Future Athletes and Researchers in several areas of the sport sciences, in-
Weekend Warriors cluding nutrition, epidemiology, and strength resistance
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control report that 24 per- training, have published articles about this costly dis-
cent of high school boys do not engage in the recom- ease. Early research focused on increased calcium in-
mended amount of daily physical activity. For high take, hormone therapy, and daily exercise to prevent
school girls the number is 38 percent. An average of osteoporosis. However, strength and resistance training
15 percent of children between the ages of six and nine- has come to the forefront as not only a preventive meas-
teen are overweight.This number increases to 64 percent ure, but also as a possible treatment. Studies show that
among adults, with those adults engaging in the recom- high-intensity resistance training not only can prevent
mended amount of physical activity at only 26 percent. osteoporosis when started at a young age, but also can
The decline in physical-activity rates and the increase in increase bone density later in life.
obesity rates have prompted government-sponsored pro- Resistance training can have several other health ben-
grams to promote youth fitness and sport scientists to efits in the elderly. Sarcopenia, the progressive reduction
publish research devoted to improving the fitness levels of muscle mass, is another health concern for the eld-
of children to prevent obesity and inactivity-related dis- erly. Resistance training can ameliorate and even re-
eases later in life. verse physical frailty in the elderly. When resistance
Organized sport and physical activity aren’t the only training is combined with daily physical activity and
recommendations for youth anymore; for many, aerobic exercise, the risk of developing sarcopenia and
strength and resistance training for children is an area osteoporosis can be drastically reduced.
of growing interest. Studies show that a moderate-
intensity strength-training program can help increase Putting It All Together
strength, decrease the risks of injury while playing The pioneers of exercise physiology built a solid foun-
other sports, increase motor performance skills and dation for modern theories based on a few principles.
increase bone density, and enhance growth and devel- Arguably the most important principle is specificity, de-
opment in children. As a result of research that dispels veloped by DeLorme. Specificity of exercise is targeted
old myths that children should not lift weights, the adaptations of muscles, hormones, energy metabolism,
American Academy of Pediatrics has issued a state- and the cardiovascular system. For example, aerobic
ment advocating strength training for children. training increases aerobic capacity, whereas heavy re-
sistance training increases muscular strength. Although
Golden Years seemingly simple, this principle serves as a basis for al-
The average life expectancy is 77.2 years, and life ex- most every sport-specific training program.
pectancy increases even more if a person reaches age Overload is another important principle. Overload
fifty-five. Thus, much of the research in sport science refers to the fact that a system or tissue must be exer-
is focused on improving the quality of life in the cised at a level beyond which it is accustomed for a
elderly. training effect to occur. The principle of progressive
A major health concern for the elderly is osteoporo- overload is equally important, especially in resistance
sis, a disease characterized by low bone mass and struc- training. Introduced by DeLorme, it is the principle of
tural deterioration of bone tissue, leading to bone gradually increasing the amount of weight lifted over
fragility and an increased susceptibility to fractures, es- time to increase muscular strength.
pecially of the hip, spine, and wrist. The U.S. National In addition to these two principles, one should con-
Institutes of Health estimate that one in two women sider several other variables when designing an exercise
and one in four men will develop the disease. routine. These variables include frequency, intensity,
duration, and volume. Frequency (how often one per- performance decrements and injury. To lower this risk,
forms a specific type of training) and duration (the variations in training are essential.
length of time the exercise is performed) have a direct
impact on intensity. Periodization
Intensity is defined in many ways and is different for During the past three decades a method of training
different types of exercise. In aerobic exercise intensity called “periodization” has evolved to ensure progres-
often is defined as “a percentage of maximal heart rate.” sive gains and to minimize overtraining. Periodization
Commonly the age-predicted maximal heart rate equa- is the changing of program variables to continually
tion is used: elicit performance gains. Strength athletes initially relied
on the classical periodization model, also called “linear
220 – person’s age = maximal heart rate
periodization.” The concept of linear periodization is at-
The resulting maximal heart rate can then be multi- tributed to the work of Eastern Bloc sports programs
plied by a desired percentage to get a target heart rate during the early 1950s. It came about by trial and error
or the optimal heart rate a person should achieve for a as coaches tried to optimize sports performance. They
given intensity. For instance, if a forty-year-old person noticed that decreasing the volume and increasing the
wishes to exercise at 80 percent (a relatively high- intensity (in this case defined as “a percentage of near-
intensity workout), the calculation would be as follows: maximal effort”) during the weeks leading to a compe-
tition elevated performance.
220 – 40 = 180 × 0.80 = 144
Early periodization models were built around four
Thus, the heart rate that this person would want to phases: (1) preparation, (2) first transition (end of the
achieve and maintain for a given workout would be preseason), (3) competition, and (4) second transition
144 beats per minute. The duration of this exercise (off season). The preparation phase involved increasing
bout would also affect the overall intensity. strength and muscle mass. Volume was high, and in-
In resistance training intensity is a function of dura- tensity was low in this phase. In the first transition
tion, frequency, volume, order of exercise, and rest time phase volume decreased as intensity increased, with
between exercise sets. Volume is a product of the num- optimizing muscular power and skill-proficiency train-
ber of repetitions performed and the amount of resisting being the goals. The competition phase is also re-
ance used. The order of exercise in a bout of resistance ferred to as “peaking,” leading to the second transition
training is equally important. As a general rule, exercises or off season. The off season was spent performing ac-
that utilize larger and more numerous muscle groups tivities that would aid in recovery and rehabilitation
should be done in the beginning of the workout. Also, but not lead to complete detraining.
these exercises require more work and increase the in- The terms mesocycle, microcycle, and macrocycle fit
tensity of the workout. The amount of rest taken be- into these phases. A mesocycle is a small number of
tween sets can also affect the intensity of a workout. In training sessions in which the goal (i.e., power) is the
addition, individual differences and training states may same. One or two weeks in any one phase would be a
affect intensity. For instance, an elite marathon runner mesocycle. A microcycle is a run of mesocycles and is
may find a bout of heavy resistance training to be high analogous with an individual phase. A macrocycle is a
intensity, whereas an Olympic weight lifter may con- whole competitive season; all four phases are included
sider the same bout to be low intensity. in this cycle.
In all types of training staleness and overtraining can Linear periodization also often utilizes progressive
occur. Overtraining is a potentially serious and debili- overload within in its phases. This utilization calls for
tating physical and emotional condition that can lead to gradual and linear increases in weights lifted from week
SPORT SCIENCE 1513
Sport Science
The New Value of Play
Dr. Russell H. Conwell tells a beautiful story During the past decade undulating periodization has
which illustrates this close connection between replaced classical periodization. Rather than sequen-
play and work. A pious old Arab, who lived to tially increasing or decreasing volume and intensity, un-
the age of a hundred years, made it his duty to dulating periodization calls for more frequent changes
go to the temple every day to pray. He got there —on a weekly and sometimes daily basis. Recent re-
safely each morning, for, as he came out into the search comparing undulating periodization to linear
city, a beautiful angel took him and led him by periodization has shown that making more frequent
the hand. He went forth happy each day, but al- variations to a program elicits greater gains. Another
ways returned home sad, for every night as he important aspect of undulating periodization is the vol-
left the temple there came behind him a terrible ume and intensity of the assistance work that a person
form that followed him to his house, and filled does. Individual differences are also of consideration
him with fear and trembling. On one certain when designing this type of program.
day,—the day before his death,—as he was mak-
ing his last journey from the temple, the shadow- Exercise Prescription
form came up behind him, put her hand upon Guidelines of the American College of Sports Medicine
his shoulder, and spoke to him. The old Arab call for twenty to sixty minutes of intermittent or contin-
said, “I seem to recognize that voice.Yes, it is the uous aerobic activity three to five times a week. Activities
voice of the lovely angel who guides me in the can include biking, running, aerobic dancing, and swim-
morning to prayer.” The form answered, “I am ming. Intensity should reach at least 55 percent of max-
that angel who guides you every morning to imal heart rate.
prayer, and I would have guided you home every According to the American College of Sports Medi-
night, but you were afraid. You saw me in the cine, healthy adults should incorporate resistance train-
morning in the light, but when you returned ing in their physical fitness routine at least two to three
from the temple I was in the shadow.” times per week. More advanced lifters should train with
The impulses that lead men to labor are the weights three to four times per week. A full body rou-
same that must lead them to play,—a vital in- tine with progressive overload should be used by
terest in the personal well-being, and a desire for novices, leading to a periodized, split body (working dif-
the best rounded life, of the social organism of ferent body parts on different days) routine as they be-
which they are a part. come more advanced.
Source: The new value of play. (1915). The Badminton library of sports and pastimes: The Human Genome Project (an international re-
Character through recreation (pp. 37–38). London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
search project to determine the complete sequence of the
3 billion deoxyribonucleic acid subunits, identify all
human genes, and make them accessible for biological
to week. Although the basic idea that a person wants to study) has led to medical and scientific advancements
lift more weights from week to week seems inherently that were unheard of even a decade ago. Some experts
correct, progressive overload, in its simple form, is not speculate that the knowledge gained from this project
the most effective method of enhancing performance will lead to the ability to control human physiology.
over a long period of time. Its most notable downfall is This speculation has led to the possibility of genetic-
the tendency to plateau in various phases of the cycles engineered athletes in the future. In an effort to remain
after a few macrocycles. Periodization has evolved be- proactive, the World Anti-Doping Agency has already
yond this downfall, and more modern forms can be ma- hosted a conference to stay abreast of potential problems
nipulated to meet the special needs of athletes. that genetic engineering poses to drug-tested sports.
Careers Fielding, R. A. (1995). The role of progressive resistance training and

nutrition in the preservation of lean body mass in the elderly. Jour-
Sport scientists have a broad range of professional pos-
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sor and from research scientist to personal trainer. Many nal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 13(1), 250–255.
Guy, J. A., & Micheli, L. J. (2000). Strength training for children and
graduates further their education and become cardiac adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopedic Sur-
rehabilitation specialists, physical therapists, and physi- geons, 1, 29–36.
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Sport Tourism
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I ncreasingly people travel—as individuals, as families,
as organizations—to watch or participate in sports.
Such sport tourists may travel for holiday or business
sistance exercise. Archive of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation,
29, 263–273. (nonholiday) reasons.
Dill, D. B. (1938). Life, heat, and altitude. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Sport tourists also may be active or passive. Active
University Press.
Evans, W. J. (1999). Exercise training guidelines for the elderly. Medical
sport tourists may engage in “sports activity holidays,”
Science Sports Exercise,, 31(1), 12–17. during which sports are a main purpose of their trip, or
SPORT TOURISM 1515
Sport Tourism
Sport-Event Tourism
In the listing below, sports marketing expert Donald ■ Improve the organizational, marketing, and bid-
Getz notes the potential benefits and goals of sport- ding capability of the community
event tourism: ■ Secure a financial legacy for management of new
■ Attract high-yield visitors, especially repeaters sport facilities
■ Generate a favorable image for the destination ■ Maximize the use of, and revenue for, existing
facilities
■ Develop new infrastructure
■ Increase community support for sport and
■ Use the media to extend the normal communica-
sport-events
tions reach
Source: Getz, D. Trends strategies and issues in sport-event tourism (1998). Sport Mar-
■ Generate increased rate of tourism growth or a keting Quarterly, 7(2), 9.
higher demand plateau
in “holiday sports activities,” during which sports are in- skiers an hour.The ski market accounts for 20 percent of
cidental and not the main purpose. People take two the total European holiday market. Tourism influences
types of sports activity holidays: (1) the single-sport sports participation, and sports infrastructures have fol-
holiday during which people enjoy a specific sport and lowed the example set by the tourism industry. For ex-
(2) the multiple-sport holiday during which people ample, to complement the beach and to provide an
enjoy several sports. The two types of holiday sports ac- attraction during inclement weather to extend the length
tivities are (1) incidental participation in organized of the holiday season, resorts have constructed indoor
sports (usually in groups, as in competitive beach games) swimming pool complexes.
and (2) private or independent sports activities (e.g.,
walking or playing golf). Impact of Sports on Tourism
We may further classify passive sport tourists ac- The Tour de France, France’s three-week bicycle race,
cording to how important sports are to the purpose of claims to be the world’s largest annual sports spectat-
their trip. Connoisseur observers are extensively pas- ing event, attracting several million spectators along its
sively involved and discriminating in the sports they 4,000-kilometer route. In Britain 2.5 million people
watch as spectators or officiators. Casual observers watch outdoor sports, and another 1 million watch in-
enjoy watching a sporting event and usually happen door sports while on holiday in the United Kingdom.
across it rather than plan their holiday around it. Research indicates that 88 percent of the 110,000 in-
ternational visitors who traveled to Australia for the Syd-
Impact of Tourism on Sports ney Olympics in 2000 returned to Sydney as tourists.
Probably as many people have learned to swim on hol- Furthermore, the games were responsible for attracting
iday as have learned to swim in their local swimming an additional 1.7 million visitors, generating a $6.1 bil-
pool. Likewise, skiing prowess (except in Alpine coun- lion economic boost, between 1997 and 2004. The
tries) is virtually wholly attributable to holiday experi- Olympics advanced Australia ten years in the awareness
ences. Skiing, the most popular of all winter sports, is the of people in other parts of the world, meaning that the
classic example of a sport-tourism sport. Every year ski- world wouldn’t have “known about” Australia until 2010
ing introduces 40–50 million visitors to the European had Sydney not hosted the games.
Alps, with forty thousand ski runs and twelve thousand The British Tourist Authority (BTA) reported in 1992
cable ways and lifts capable of handling 1.5 million that 26 percent of its respondents cited sports as the
A man ascending a
Himalayan peak.
Source: istockphoto.com/Caval.
main purpose of their trip.

Gibson and Yiannakis found
that 22 percent of respondents
considered opportunities to
participate in sports important
when planning a holiday.
In Belgium 27 percent of
residents participate in sports
during domestic holiday trips;
this percentage increases to
30.4 percent for holidays
abroad. Similar statistics are
found elsewhere, namely in
New Zealand and France. If
we consider holidays in which
sports are an incidental aspect
instead of holidays in which
sports are the main aspect, the
participation rate rises to be-
tween 25 and 80 percent.
The Future
Changes in the international
travel market are leading to an
increasing variety of tourist
types, needs, and patterns. Ad-
venture and activity holidays
are a growing segment of the
tourist industry, and sports
training is an important pro-
cess for which tourism can be
the catalyst.
Health care and body training also have created an Europe alone, a figure that compares well with that of
important industry. Since the beginning tourism was similar markets in the United States and Asia.
promoted for its health-improving aspects. People went Sports as part of business hospitality are also profitable
to seaside resorts because of the “presumed health- and growing, with most clients watching sports events
giving properties of sea bathing” (Urry 1990, 37). Sea miles from their place of work. Active sports associated
bathing led to sunbathing, but the risk of skin cancer with business tours are also becoming more popular.
has shifted the emphasis toward a fit body that is Professional sportspeople increasingly must travel to
trained through exercise and sports. Sports as therapy pursue their careers. Team tours are also popular with
are another growing segment of the tourism industry, amateur clubs who engage agents to find events and
with an estimated 15 million annual visits to spas in arrange accommodations and transport.
SPORTING GOODS INDUSTRY 1517
NOP Market Research. (1989). Activities by the British on holiday in

Britain. London: British Tourist Authority/English Tourist Board/
National Opinion Poll.
Redmond, G. (1990). Points of increasing contact: Sport and tourism
in the modern world. In A. Tomlinson (Ed.), Sport in society: Policy,
politics and culture (pp. 158–169). Eastbourne, UK: Leisure Stud-
ies Association.
Rigg, J., & Lewney, R. (1987). The economic impact and importance
of sport in the UK. International Review for the Sociology of Sport,
22(3), 149–169.
Standeven, J., & De Knop, P. (1999). Sport tourism: An international
perspective. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Urry, J. (1990). The tourist gaze:Travel, leisure and society. London: Sage.
Sporting Goods Industry

C ultural, political, and, especially, economic forces
operating increasingly on a global scale have
shaped the sporting goods industry. As sport sociologist
Sledding down a track at Davos, George H. Sage (1998, 131) notes, however, contem-
Switzerland, in the late 1800s. porary sport “needs to be understood as a historical mo-
ment: today’s highly commercialised sport industry is
not a cultural universal.”
Travel agents are looking at new markets to broaden The sporting goods industry encompasses sports
their base. At the American Society of Travel Agents equipment, sports apparel, and sports footwear. The
World Travel Congress in Portugal in 1994, the sports United Nations Statistics Division Classifications Reg-
sector of niche travel was recognized as a major growth istry using the Standard International Trade Classifica-
market. Whatever the special interest, a company will tion (SITC) Revision 3 (code number 894.7) defines
organize a vacation around it. “sports goods” mainly as equipment. This includes such
P. De Knop articles as fishing rods and tackle, ice and roller skates,
snow and water skis, surfboards and sail boards, golf
equipment, tennis and badminton rackets, gloves and
Further Reading mitts, as well as other equipment used for physical ex-
Australian Tourist Commission. (2001). Australia’s Olympics: Special ercise. Arguably, however, sporting goods should also
post games tourism report. Sydney, Australia: Author.
Benton, N. (1995). Taking the waters. The Leisure Manager, 13(4), 40. include clothes and footwear designed for or that could
Burton, R. (1995). Travel geography. London: Pitman Publishing. be used in sports.
Gibson, H., & Yiannakis, A. (1995). Some characteristics of sport tourism:
A life span perspective. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the
North American Society for the Sociology of Sport, Savannah, Georgia. Global Sporting Goods Market
Kleskey, A., & Kearsley, G. W. (1993). Mapping multiple perceptions
The sportswear goods industry has been especially prof-
of wilderness so as to minimize the impact of tourism on national
environments. In A. J.Veal, P. Jonson, & G. Cushman (Eds.), Leisure itable during the past twenty years because of the rise of
and tourism: Social and economic change (pp. 104–119). Sydney, sportswear as fashion wear. Much of the athletic wear
Australia: University of Technology Press.
Mader, U. (1988). Tourism and the environment. Annals of Tourism Re-
purchased—some estimates put it at more than 50 percent
search, 1(2), 274–277. —is not actually used during active sports performance.
These are my new shoes. They’re good shoes. They won’t make you rich like me,
they won’t make you rebound like me, they definitely won’t make you handsome
like me. They’ll only make you have shoes like me. That’s it. ■ CHARLES BARKLEY
Sports clothing and equipment each account for about that have segmented the market for sporting goods are
40 percent of the total sales of sporting goods and serv- the following:
ices. Footwear sales account for the other 20 percent. In
■ Age
1999, the U.S. market for sports clothing alone was
■ Gender
worth an estimated $32 billion, ten times the U.K. mar-
■ Place
ket and nearly half of the entire worldwide market of
■ Social class
$70 billion (Buckley, 2000).Within the European Union
in 2001, the leading countries by economic turnover of In the United States in 2003, for example, men spent
sporting goods and equipment were Germany, France, twice as much as women did on sports footwear, and
the United Kingdom, Italy, and Spain. Together, these 40 percent of purchases of sports clothing were for chil-
countries represented 35 percent of global sales of sports dren aged seventeen and younger.
clothing and shoes, whereas the United States had Modern sports developed at the same time as mod-
42 percent, Asia 16 percent, and the rest of the world ern consumption practices and the mass market
7 percent (Ohl and Tribou 2004, 142). The Sporting emerged (Fraser 1981). Developments in retailing, de-
Goods Manufacturers Association of the United States partment stores, and chains of shops were accompa-
(www.sgma.com) reported that the U.S. market for nied by the growth of mass circulation newspapers
sports clothing and footwear in 2003 reached $50 bil- and magazines. Sport offered one means of stimulating
lion and that in Canada, it was worth $6.86 billion. In consumption and offered a means of stimulating and
Canada, the largest category of sports equipment sold in promoting the general consumption of other goods
2003 was bicycles ($780 million). and services. Sport became part of the “magic system”
that helped promote, market, and circulate goods in
Sporting Goods Industry capitalist economies (Williams 1980). Participants in
Organizations and Associations sports have increasingly lent themselves to becoming
Alongside national organizations such as the SGMA, the agents of the promotion of goods and services (“en-
sporting goods industry has organized international trade dorsees”) and “media sport stars” (Whannel 2002).
fairs and had international organizations representing it Sport as a mass-mediated spectacle helps sell newspa-
since the late 1970s. The World Federation of the Sport- pers and other channels of communication while en-
ing Goods Industry (WFSGI), for example, was founded couraging sports enthusiasm. This in turn creates a
in 1976 following the first World Congress of the sport- market for the products endorsed and sometimes worn
ing goods industry. The WFSGI is an independent asso- by the athletes—for example, the Michael Jordan phe-
ciation of industry suppliers, national organizations, and nomenon (LaFeber 1999).
sporting goods industry-related businesses. The mem-
bership has reflected many of the leading brands in the Emergence of the
sporting goods world and has included industry leaders Sporting Goods Industry
such as Armin Dassler, Kihachiro Onitsuka, and Masato Where did this market come from? How did it emerge?
Mizuno. The International Trade Fair for Sports Equip- Who buys sporting goods? The sporting goods indus-
ment and Fashion, which takes place in Frankfurt, Ger- try arguably was “born in the USA.” The U.S. sporting
many, is one of the largest annual trade fairs. economy overall was worth US$194 billion in 2001—
ahead of chemicals, electronics, and food—amounting
Sport and the Circulation of Goods to more than 1 percent of the value of all goods and
According to historical and contemporary studies of services produced in the United States, where there are
consumption trends, the four major social influences 150 major sports franchises, a dozen professional
The “Xtradordinary” bicycle.
come and capital formation but also social prestige and

opportunities for local influence, so that expected gains
were not always expressed in economic terms” (Lower-
son 1995, 226).
Agreeing that many sport promoters in Britain were
not directly in pursuit of profit, Vamplew (1988, 281–
283) notes, nonetheless, that the “industrialisation of
British sport can be charted as the working out of sup-
ply and demand in the market place.” In the United
States, by comparison, the profit maximizers won the
battle between those “who saw sport as something sep-
sports tours (such as the PGA), and hundreds of other arate from business and those who saw no reason not
commercial sports events. to make profit from sport” (Mason 1988, 115).
Sport can be seen as an industry with all the prob-
lems of conventional industrial relations—involving Contemporary Economic
employers, workers, and consumers. Modern sport has Significance of Sport
been associated with business for a long time although One measure of the contemporary economic significance
the relationship has not always been a straightforward of sport is retail sporting goods sales figures. Table 1 il-
commercial one. In Britain, one hundred years ago, for lustrates that the consumption of sport is a preserve of the
example, the “entrepreneur was not attracted to sport advanced capitalist countries.
for the profit that could be made out of it” (Mason Sport Market Forecasts, an annually revised publica-
1988, 115). Hence, in England, (association) football tion based on research conducted at the Universities of
clubs were limited liability companies with boards of di- Sheffield and Sheffield Hallam in England, draws on rel-
rectors and shareholders, but dividends were limited to evant official and independent research sources to com-
5 percent and directors were not paid. pile a snapshot picture of sport-related consumer
expenditure in Britain. Table 2 details the latest of these
■ By 1895, one estimate suggests that British expendi-
reviews.
ture on sport reached £47 million per year and that
The following features are most noteworthy. Spend-
investment in sports represented 3 percent of gross na-
ing on sporting goods in Britain amounted to £5.706
tional product (GNP) (Mitchell & Deane 1988, 828).
billion in 2002—more than one-third (34.6 percent) of
■ By 1912, expenditure on golf alone was £7 million,
the total spent on sport in the United Kingdom. Of this:
with £600,000 being spent on 7.2 million golf balls
annually. ■ Clothing and footwear amounted to almost 20 percent.
■ Growth of manufacturing in golf and cycling was ■ Equipment and boats accounted for 11.5 percent.
also partly responsible for economic recovery in areas ■ Walking and hiking clothing and trainers and run-
affected by economic depression. ning shoes accounted for the biggest share of sales of
■ In 1892, 915,856 cycles were exported, but at “the sports apparel and footwear.
height of the cycling boom, in 1896, the figure had ■ Golf and fitness equipment accounted for the largest
increased to 1,855,604” (Lowerson 1995, 226). share of sales of sports equipment.
Other sports required imported equipment, but many Books, magazines, and newspapers are included in
middle-class people seized the new investment oppor- the category “publications,” and the SIRC report attrib-
tunities offered by sport: “They generated not only in- utes a specific share of total expenditure on newspapers
Table 1. Table 2.
Retail sports sales and outlets in selected countries Sport-related consumer expenditure in the U.K. in 2002
in 1999 A. SPORT GOODS
Sales (US$m) Sports shops Clothing & footwear £3.227 billion 19.6 percent
Australia 1,163 3,144 Equipment £1.92 billion 6.6 percent
Canada 815 916 Boats £0.816 billion 4.9 percent
Denmark 645 1,311 Publications £0.571 billion 3.5 percent
France 2,323 N/A Subtotal £5.706 billion 34.6 percent
Germany 4,563 8,012
B. SPORT SERVICES
Japan 16,007 6,140
Gambling £2.601 billion 15.8 percent
Switzerland 401 1,717 Participant sports £2.276 billion 13.8 percent
United Kingdom 5,010 3,997
Health and fitness £1.727 billion 10.5 percent
United States 25,000 19,500
TV and video £1.810 billion 11 percent
Sources: Euromonitor 2001a, 308, 317; 2001b, 456, 464.
Travel £1.042 billion 6.3 percent
Spectator sports £0.861 billion 5.2 percent
Other £0.465 billion 2.8 percent
to the sport market “based on the average share of sport Subtotal £10.782 billion 65.4 percent
in the total content of newspapers” (SIRC 2003, 4). Totals (A+ B) £16.488 billion 100 percent
Source: Sport Industry Research Centre (SIRC) 2003, 4–6.
The largest sector of the sport services market was
gambling, which accounted for 15.8 percent. Of this,
horseracing accounts for 70 percent of all sports-related
gambling. Participation sports included admission fees 2003, 4). One indicator of this is the increase in gym
and subscriptions to voluntary sports clubs and public- membership.
sector sports centers and swimming pools. Health and
■ During the past ten years, private companies such as
fitness includes fees for private health and fitness clubs
Cannons, David Lloyd, Fitness First, Holmes Place,
and has been the second most rapid growth area since
LA Fitness, and Next Generation have developed
the late 1990s. Together, membership fees and sub-
their market.
scriptions accounted for 24.3 percent of service expen-
■ There are now about 2,600 private clubs in addition
diture. Sports-related TV and video expenditure—
to the public-sector leisure centers.
including subscriptions to satellite, digital and cable
■ Despite warnings that some health and fitness clubs
TV channels—included an estimate for the sports com-
were locking their members into long contracts with
ponent of the TV license fee. This has been the most
large cancellation penalties, 18.6 percent of the U.K.
rapid growth area since the late 1990s. The other cate-
population (8.6 million people) has joined.
gory included food, drink, and accommodation associ-
■ Turnover for private health clubs reached £1.85 bil-
ated with participation, spectating, and other forms of
lion in 2003, an increase from £1.23 billion in 1999.
involvement at sport events.
The total figure of £16.488 billion was equivalent to
approximately 2 percent of gross domestic product Issues and Controversies
(GDP) and 2.5 percent of total consumer expenditure Most sales of sporting goods occur in the developed
in the U.K. world, yet the bulk of their manufacture is carried out
The SIRC report noted, “Although the media has in the poorer, less-developed countries for companies
emphasised the strong growth over the recent past in such as Nike, Reebok International, Adidas-Salomon,
professional sport, and in particular football, consumer K-Swiss, and the Pentland Group. Perhaps the best way
expenditure in the sport market consists in the main of to understand the growth of the sports industry is by fo-
expenditures related to the consumer’s own participa- cusing on its global political economy (Miller et al.
tion in sport rather than to sport spectating” (SIRC, 2001). Sporting goods manufacturers and businesses
are increasingly transnational corporations (TNCs) markets. Founded in Liverpool in the early 1930s as the
based in advanced capitalist countries. They have un- Liverpool Shoe Company, the company was floated on
dergone consolidation through mergers and acquisi- the London Stock exchange in 1964. It remained a
tions. Global horizontal and vertical integration has public company for thirty-five years until November
occurred. The network approach to production and sub- 1999 when it was taken back into private hands. As this
contracting has lead to several “flexible business net- is now a private company there is a paucity of infor-
works” (Dicken 2003, 262–265) in the sporting goods mation in the public domain. Although Pentland’s
industry. There has been a transfer of labor-intensive global headquarters are in the U.K., the group has of-
production to the less developed “South” or Third fices in Australia, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Indo-
World. In some of these, “export-oriented industrial- nesia, Italy, Korea, the Netherlands, Taiwan, Thailand,
ization” has created a New International Division of the United States, and Vietnam. The total number of em-
Labour (NIDL). Miller et al. (2001) suggest that in ployees was 2000.
sport there is a New International Division of Cultural Robert Stephen Holdings Ltd., the Rubin family’s in-
Labour (NICL), which occurs because developing coun- vestment firm, owns Pentland. The chair of the company
tries provide the following: is R. Stephen Rubin, the CEO is his son Andrew K.
Rubin, and the other director is R. S. Rubin’s wife, An-
■ Lower wages and fewer worker benefits
gela. R. S. Rubin has been president of the WFSGI. In
■ Fewer organized (unionized) workforces, resulting in
1998, the last year before it went private, the company re-
greater management control over the labor process
ported group turnover in excess of £500 million. The
■ Less stringent or poorly enforced health and safety
Pentland group owns several international sports, out-
regulations
door, and fashion brands, including Speedo, Mitre,
■ Less stringent environmental and community health
Ellesse, Kickers (a 50 percent joint venture), Berghaus,
and safety regulations
Brasher, Kangaroos,Ted Baker, Grazia, and Red or Dead.
Other researchers have drawn attention to the exis- Pentland also holds licenses from other brand owners, in-
tence of “global commodity chains” in sporting goods cluding a worldwide license for Lacoste footwear. In the
manufacturing (Gereffi 1994). Hence, businesses such as late 1980s, Pentland also owned a 37 percent stake in
Nike do not own production facilities, so strictly speak- Reebok. Pentland supplies private label footwear and
ing, they are not manufacturers because they have no fac- clothing to well-known national and international retail-
tories. Instead, they design and market the branded ers. Speedo is the clear market leader in branded
products they sell. The firm relies on a complex tiered swimwear with a 10 percent share of the market and a
network of contractors that perform all its specialized 75 percent share of performance swimwear. The group’s
tasks. The commodity circuitry of the Nike shoe has brands are sold directly by companies or licensees and
been illustrated by Goldman and Papson (1998, 8). distributors in more than 120 countries.
Many companies with well-known global brands have
their headquarters in the United States, but a brief pro- Corporate
file of the brands produced by the Pentland Group, Social Responsibility
which has its headquarters in the United Kingdom, is il- Sports participants in the richer countries rely on the
lustrative. The information is based on the company’s manufacturing, distribution, and circulation of goods
and its subsidiaries’ websites and material available from from a global sports industry whose key characteris-
Mintel Research and Who Owns Whom in 2002. tics, researchers suggest, are sweatshops, high profit
Pentland is an international brand management margins, and the exploitation of vulnerable groups of
group involved in the sports, outdoors, and fashion workers. Researchers argue that the great excesses of
capitalist commodification are just as likely to be found factories run by the U.K.-based company Umbro pro-
in sporting goods manufacture as anywhere else. ducing sportswear, including excessive working hours
The following illustrations show the circumstances and poor wages.
and practices that lead to calls for greater corporate
Hence, concerns including child and labor rights,
social responsibility among sporting goods industry
gender divisions, freedom of association, health and
firms:
safety, the monitoring of conditions, and rehabilitation
■ Rawlings Sporting Goods Co. of St. Louis, Missouri, of those affected by the practices of some of the manu-
produces baseballs for the Major League Baseball. In facturers has lead to a backlash against some of the
1953, Rawlings has moved manufacturing from best-known sports brands.
St. Louis to Licking, Missouri (a non-union plant). In John Horne
1964, it moved to Puerto Rico (exploiting a tax “hol-
See also Spectator Consumption Behavior
iday” for inward investment). In 1969, it moved to
Haiti (the poorest country in the Western hemi-
sphere, where strikes were illegal). In 1990, it moved Further Reading
to Costa Rica where the factory sewers stitched 30– Buckley, R. (2000). Globalised sport. Cheltenham, UK: Understanding
35 balls a day for US$5–6 and pieceworkers at home Global Issues Ltd.
Dicken, P. (2003). Global shift (3rd ed.). London: Sage.
earned 15 cents a ball (Sage 1998, 272). Euromonitor (2001a). European marketing data and statistics 2001.
■ In 1995, research conducted for Christian Aid found London: Euromonitor plc.
Euromonitor (2001b). International marketing data and statistics 2001.
the following in Nike and Reebok factories in Asia: London: Euromonitor plc.
■ Two-thirds were women under the age of 25. Fraser, W. H. (1981). The coming of the mass market. London:
Macmillan.
■ Typical workers in Indonesian plants were paid Gereffi, G. (1994). The organization of buyer-driven global commod-
19 cents an hour for 10-and-a-half–hour days, six ity chains: How US retailers shape overseas production networks.
In G. Gereffi & M. Korzeniewicz (Eds.). Commodity chains and
days a week, and forced overtime.
global capitalism Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
■ The monthly wage was 30 percent less than that Goldman, R., & Papson, S. (1998). Nike culture. London: Sage.
required to meet “minimum physical needs.” Kingsnorth, P. (2003). One no, many yeses. London: Free Press.
Klein, N. (2000). No logo. London: Harper Collins.
Hence, a pair of trainers that sold for £50 in the LaFeber, W. (1999). Michael Jordan and the new global capitalism.
U.K. was made in a production process involving New York: Norton
Lowerson, J. (1995). Sport and the English middle classes 1870–1914.
40 workers who were paid a total of £1 between
Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press.
them. The Nike Air Pegasus, which sold for $70 in Mason, T. (1988). Sport in Britain. London: Faber & Faber.
the United States, incurred labor costs of $1.66. Miller, T., Lawrence, G., McKay, J., & Rowe, D. (2001). Globalization
and sport. London: Sage.
■ In 2000, the India Committee of the Netherlands Mitchell, B. R., & Deane, P. (Eds.). (1988). British Historical Statistics.
(ICN) published The Dark Side of Football—Child Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Ohl, F., & Tribou, G. (2004). Les marches du sport: Consommateurs et
and Adult Labour in India’s Football Industry and the distributeurs (“The sports market: Consumers and distributors”).
Role of FIFA. The report showed that agreements Paris: Armand Colin.
Sage, G. (1998). Power and ideology in American sport (2nd ed.).
about labor rights reached between Fédération In- Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
ternationale de Football (FIFA), the world governing Sage, G. (1999). “Justice Do It!” The Nike Transnational Advocacy Net-
body for association football, and the football man- work. Sociology of Sport Journal, 16(3), 206–235.
Sport Industry Research Centre (2003). Sport market forecasts 2003–
ufacturing companies who placed FIFA logos on 2007. Sheffield, UK: SIRC/Sheffield Hallam University.
their balls, were often violated. Vamplew, W. (1988). Pay up and play the game. Cambridge, UK: Cam-
bridge University Press.
■ In 2004, an Oxfam report, Play Fair at the Olympics, Whannel, G. (2002). Media sport stars. London: Routledge.
also revealed details of poor working conditions in Williams, R. (1980). Politics and letters. London: New Left Books.
SPORTS MEDICINE 1523
Winning is overrated. The only time it is really

important is in surgery and war. ■ AL MCGUIRE
INFLUENCE OF GALEN
Sports Medicine The next great figure in the history of sports medicine
is Galen of Pergamon (c. 129–210 CE), who became a
T oday most elite athletes are provided with the as-

sistance of physicians, physiologists, nutritionists,
biomechanists, psychologists, and other medical and
physician to emperors and gladiators. His important
work, De Sanitate Tuenda [On Hygiene], analyzed the
notion of the naturals versus the nonnaturals (he also
scientific experts in order to improve their performance. discussed the contranaturals). The naturals were “of na-
Athletes, physicians, and scientists have worked with ture” while the nonnaturals were those things that were
one another both formally and informally for more not innate and thus could be manipulated in order to
than a century, and the history of sports medicine goes create health. These nonnaturals included air, food/
back even farther. drink, motion/rest, sleep/wake, excretion/retention, and
The medical aspects of sport are founded on scientific the passions of the mind. Galenic theories borrowed
research. One of the critical concerns in sports medi- heavily from Hippocrates, especially the notion that
cine, however, is how quickly new scientific results reach there was a need for balance in the bodily system. Ex-
the practitioner. In fact, an even greater worry is ercise was a way of creating this balance.
whether or not the practitioner is utilizing newer results Galenic theory continued to influence thought on
at all. Early trainers in sport often based their methods health and hygiene well into the medieval and Renais-
and practices on traditions passed down from trainers sance period. The early Renaissance (twelfth century) fo-
before them. However, over the past several decades, cused on the recovery of the writings and knowledge of
sports medicine has become increasingly tied to its sci- the ancients. This included both literary and scientific
entific foundations. This should ensure that the latest re- work. The later Renaissance (fifteenth and sixteenth
search findings quickly reach the coach and athlete. centuries) was not only the rebirth of ancient knowledge
but also an examination of ancient knowledge in a new
History context.
The history of sports medicine goes back at least as far A variety of scholars began to investigate the concept
as the ancient Greeks; many would argue that it goes of hygiene in the mid-sixteenth century. Thomas Elyot’s
back even farther to ideas passed down from the (1490–1546) The Castel of Healthe (c. 1539), Cristobal
Ayurveda in India on exercise and massage between Mendez’s (1500–1561) Libro del Exercicio Corporal
1000 and 800 BCE. In China ideas about the “Five Ele- [Book of Bodily Exercise] (1553), Girolamo Cardano’s
ments [Wuxing],” from approximately the second and (1501–1576) De Sanitate Tuenda [Care of Health]
third century CE, were connected with many phases of (1560), and Hieronymus Mercurialis’s (1530–1606)
life, including the organs of the human body. Acu- De Arte Gymnastica Aput Ancients [The Art of Gymnas-
puncture was practiced as early as the Han Dynasty tics Among the Ancients] (1569) all set forth Galenic the-
(202 BCE–220 CE) to treat symptoms of disease. ories as the foundation for their ideas about exercise
A traditional starting point in the Western world is and health.
Hippocrates of Cos (c. 460–370 BCE), who is often
called the “father of scientific medicine.” Hippocrates’s MOVEMENT AWAY FROM GALENIC THEORY
work focused on the four humors—blood, yellow bile, Vesalius’s (1514–1564) De Humani Corpi Fabrica [On
black bile, phlegm—and the necessity of creating bal- the Fabric of the Human Body] (1543) created a fun-
ance among the four in order to achieve health. There damentally new way of teaching anatomy. For Vesalius,
were few drugs during this era, and treatments typically the cadaver was a source of information about the
consisted of massage, bloodletting, or hydrotherapy. body. Despite the fact that he found several hundred
A leg in a brace shortly

after knee surgery, a
very common sports
medicine procedure.
Source: istockphoto/kcopperhead.
inconsistencies with Galenic

theory, he was not interested
in setting aside Galenic no-
tions; in particular he contin-
ued to support Galenic
physiology.
William Harvey (1575–
1657), however, brought
about a revolution. Although
he did not make many discov-
eries, he did serve as a catalyst
for change in the overall view of Galenic theory. The sig- great deal of influence on medical and therapeutic atti-
nificance of Harvey’s De Moto Cordis [The Motion of the tudes toward exercise. Swedish medical gymnastics
Heart] (1628) is that it substituted one way of thinking would serve as the foundation for a great deal of sports
for another. These were not Harvey’s ideas; many were medicine, including physical and occupational therapy
from his precursors. However, the entire nature of phys- and athletic training.
iological research after Harvey was transformed. Harvey It appears that George Taylor was among the first to
moved the focus in physiology from the liver, which had bring Per Henrik Ling’s system to America in the 1850s.
been the central organ for Galen, to a new focus on the Hartvig Nissen published his work in Practical Massage
circulatory system. and Corrective Exercises with Applied Anatomy (1889).
Other important texts on Swedish gymnastics included
HYGIENIC AND MEDICAL ASPECTS Baron Nils Posse’s Handbook of School Gymnastics and
The 1700s and 1800s saw an increase in awareness in the Swedish System (1891), Anders Wide’s Handbook of
the hygienic and medical aspects of sport through two Medical Gymnastics (1899), and William Skarstrom’s
basic avenues. First there was rising interest in some- Gymnastic Kinesiology (1909), which first appeared as a
what more formalized sport and thus some concern series in the American Physical Education Review in
about the training of athletes. In addition there was 1908–1909. Widely practiced in physical education in
growing interest in the use of gymnastic exercise for Europe and America in the late nineteenth and early
therapeutic reasons. John Sinclair’s Code of Health and twentieth centuries, Swedish gymnastics clearly is the
Longevity (1807), which was based substantially on basis for many of the allied health fields.
the work of the ancients, provided information about
training regimens during this time, particularly for box- BRINGING TOGETHER SCIENCE,
ing and pedestrianism. A diet heavy in red meat, which MEDICINE, AND ATHLETICS
most resembled the muscle that it was supposed to By the middle decades of the 1800s a number of works
build, and other training ideas based substantially on emerged that attempted to look at the connections
creating a balance in Galenic humoral theory through among science, medicine, and athletics. Scotsman
sweating, purging, and vomiting were the centerpiece of Archibald McClaren published Training in Theory and
this work. Practice in 1866. In this work he applied his medical
The gymnastics systems emerging in Europe, in par- training and his knowledge of gymnastics and exercise
ticular the Swedish system of Per Henrik Ling, had a to the emerging field of athletic training. By the early
1900s training manuals appeared, including those from cal smear” chromosome test in favor of polymerase
Michael C. Murphy and S. E. Bilik, whose Trainer’s chain reaction (PCR) testing. In 1999 the IOC provi-
Bible, first published in 1917, went through numerous sionally withdrew all sex testing beginning with the
editions. R. Tait McKenzie brought together medical 2000 Games in Sydney. However, the IOC has not
and athletic knowledge in his 1909 work Exercise in Ed- ended sex testing, because if anyone questions a com-
ucation and Medicine. petitor, tests will be conducted by what the IOC calls
Sports medicine in Germany was more organized “appropriate medical personnel.” It is important to note
than in many places including the first official sport that not one male posing as a female competitor has
Physician Congress in 1912. The interest of German been detected since sex testing began in 1968.
physicians in sports medicine set the groundwork for
the first meeting of FIMS (Federation Internationale de Contemporary Issues in
Médecine Sportive) at the II Olympic Winter Games Sports Medicine
held in St. Moritz [it was at first called Association In- Athletes in Galen’s time could never have predicted the
ternationale Medico-Sportive (AIMS); the name was issues on which sports medicine needs to focus in the
changed to FIMS in 1934]. A number of similar or- twenty-first century. Injury prevention, environmental
ganizations were formed throughout the world in the factors such as heat stroke and so-called “oxygen debt,”
twentieth century that focused on the topic of sports and new and increasingly difficult-to-detect performance-
medicine, including the American College of Sports enhancing drugs are just a few of the thorny problems
Medicine, founded in 1954. that sports medicine will be grappling with in the future.
The connection between the International Olympic
Committee (IOC) and FIMS continued to grow, and SPORTS INJURIES
FIMS was “officially recognized” by the IOC at its meet- Injury prevention, as a topic of inquiry, is slowly be-
ing in Oslo in 1952. The 1960 Olympic Games in ginning to come to the forefront. Athletes, coaches, and
Rome had a Medical and Scientific Committee that es- researchers understand the potential benefit of pre-
tablished a complete scientific study of the athletes tak- venting injury rather than rehabilitating it; however, lit-
ing part in the Games, and the Tokyo Games of 1964 tle research has been conducted up to now in this area.
included an International Congress of Sport Sciences. Recent studies have looked at the beneficial impact of
Doping was one of the major scientific/medical prob- equipment such as facial protection in hockey and hel-
lems that confronted the IOC in the early 1960s. The met use in pole vaulting and cycling.
suspicious death of a Danish cyclist during the 1960 Although all injury in sport is potentially serious, in-
Rome Olympics led the IOC to take action, and they juries to the head, neck, and spine are considered to be
created a Medical Commission that by 1968 would the most significant. Thus, a great deal of research is
begin drug testing of Olympic competitors. concerned with preventing such injuries and treating
Sex testing (or gender verification) was another sci- and rehabilitating athletes with head, neck, and spine
entific/medical problem that emerged in the 1960s. injuries. Recently, such research has focused on the
Although it took nearly 30 years, scientists and physi- issue of concussions in sport. This includes work on pre-
cians who had protested the testing since its inception vention of concussion via specialized equipment, the
finally made inroads with the major sport organiza- need for better diagnosis following injury, the impact of
tions. By 1992, the International Association of Ath- multiple concussions on an athlete, and the legal im-
letics Federations (IAAF) had dropped genetic testing plications of allowing an athlete to return to competi-
for female athletes. The IOC, however, moved at a much tion following the concussion. Low back pain is another
more deliberate pace. In 1992 they dropped the “buc- issue that is common to a variety of sports. Managing
low back pain has become another topic of research in- of ways; most importantly for the elite athlete is the in-
terest. Topics studied in this subfield include warmup creased production of red blood cells. This allows the
exercises, joint manipulation, and dynamic stability blood to carry oxygen more effectively, and it should
exercises. lead to an improvement in performance. Technological
Treatment for sports injury no longer is isolated to sophistication entered the equation many years ago with
full open surgery. Increasingly, athletes opt for arthro- the practice of blood doping and the production of
scopic surgery when possible and thus are able to begin drugs such as erythropoietin that increase the red-blood-
rehabilitation much more quickly and return to com- cell count. In addition, as the latest theories now argue
petition much faster than ever before. Thus injuries to that the athlete should perhaps “live high and train low,”
shoulders, elbows, knees, and other joints do not nec- there have been a number of products developed that
essarily end an athlete’s season. allow competitors to simulate different altitudes via
After joint injuries, muscle and tendon injuries are the breathing apparatus or in specially constructed tents
next critical issue in sports medicine. Sudden tears and, and chambers.
increasingly, overuse injuries are commonplace. Mag- Heat-related illness, particularly sudden onset, is a se-
netic resonance imaging (MRI) has become a useful rious problem in sport. Concerns have also developed
tool in evaluating musculoskeletal injuries. A better un- that an individual who has had one occurrence of a
derstanding of biomechanical and mechanical princi- heat-related illness is more likely to have successive
ples is giving us an enhanced understanding of how to episodes. There have, unfortunately, been numerous ex-
better evaluate and improve performance. In addition, amples of athletes dying suddenly during a variety of
mechanics are contributing to the understanding of in- sports, particularly in American football, but also in
jury rehabilitation. Rehabilitation from injury increas- wrestling and soccer. Keeping athletes adequately hy-
ingly includes active exercise. drated and having them avoid dietary supplements that
may exacerbate dehydration is of key importance. An
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS additional environmental factor that impacts perform-
Altitude, heat, and pollution are all potential threats to ance is pollution, although limited research is con-
athletes. The problems of altitude were exposed to the ducted in this area compared to the other two factors.
public as a result of the selection of Mexico City as the
site of the XIX Olympiad. The greatest concern ex- DRUGS AND SPORT
pressed by distance runners was that their bodies would There is no foreseeable end in sight to the use of
not be able to overcome what they called the “oxygen performance-enhancing drugs in sport. Doping con-
debt” imposed by running at such a high altitude. The tinues despite the increasingly sophisticated detection
term oxygen debt was introduced in 1925 by the dis- techniques created by physicians and scientists. The
tinguished British Nobel Prize–winning physiologist Worldwide Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) attempts to
A. V. Hill. As with many scientific and medical terms, control the doping problem within sport, but despite
use of the term oxygen debt has had a long duration, the support of most of the elite sport world is success-
even as research has provided more appropriate terms. ful in only a limited way. New drugs are developed and
Altitude continues to be a topic of interest in sports are virtually impossible to detect. These new drugs are
medicine. Today, scientists believe that high altitude has added to the list of banned substances as quickly as
a definite impact on performance, particularly on events possible, but the rapidity with which they are created
after the return to sea level by altitude-trained athletes. and distributed makes drug testing a seemingly
When an athlete lives and trains at high altitude for an Sisyphean task. The favorite doping methods of only a
extended period of time, the body adapts in a number few years ago, such as nandrolone and EPO, are
Sports Medicine
Naming Sports Injuries
As sports increased in popularity during the late nine- game continuously, there is sometimes observed a
teenth century, critics began to question the effects of peculiar overgrowth of the muscles of the back on the
sports on participants.The following account reveals the right side. This causes loss of straightness and sym-
concerns of doctors regarding this new class of injuries. metry to the spinal column, amounting almost to de-
formity. It is, I believe, a rare condition. Mr. Dodge
Mr. Charles Richards Dodge, in the February Outing,
suggests a medical nomenclature with which to por-
refers to the subject of the “pathology of Recreative
tray the injuries and idiosyncrasies of bicycle riders.
Sports,” . . . based evidently upon articles which I con-
There has already been one cycle-disease noted. In
tributed to the Medical Record and to Science of No-
boys who ride much upon bicycles the continual
vember last, . . .
pressure of the saddle upon the perinaeum some-
The “lawn-tennis arm” and “lawn-tennis leg” are
times causes irritation of the urinary passage and
accidents peculiar to tennis, and having a special
neighboring organs. Even a stricture may be devel-
train of symptoms. Therefore, we give them special
oped, in this way, it is alleged. I believe this injury to
names for purposes of convenience. We physicians do
be extremely rare, and am so far from being an
not create the disease, but simply name it, in which
alarmist, that I would freely permit young patients to
there certainly can be no harm. I must add, that,
ride bicycles as much, perhaps, as they wished. But it
since my articles have been written, another tennis in-
is always wise to know about possible dangers. . . .
jury has been noted. It is called “lawn-tennis back.” In
Source: Dana, C. L. (1885). Pathology of sports. Outing, June, 362.
boys who begin to play tennis early, and keep up the
quickly replaced by designer steroids like THG. Con- ter understand the effect of exercise on bone mass in fe-
cern is also raised because not only does doping create males throughout their lifespan.
an uneven playing field in the world of sport, but it can A series of studies have focused on the fact that fe-
potentially create and exacerbate health problems in males in some sport activities are three to four times
training and competition. more likely to have an ACL (anterior cruciate ligament)
injury than male athletes. Much of the research on this
Women, Children, topic has examined the differences in the “Q-angle” (the
Older Adults direction of the quadriceps muscle force during a con-
The basic research in sports medicine continues to focus centric contraction) between males and females. A num-
on the elite male athlete, while women are categorized ber of researchers argue that ensuring the development
as different—as are children, older adults, people with of safer movement patterns among female athletes will
disabilities, and people of color. As all of these groups potentially lead to a reduction in these types of injuries.
are treated as special, there appears to be less research Of particular concern among young children is the ef-
conducted on these groups and their medical issues fect of activities such as weight training, competition-
within the world of sport. However, women do receive modified diets, and certain types of physical activities
considerably more attention than all of the others and such as pitching mechanics or high-impact training. Al-
far more than they did only two to three decades ago. though some forms of impact training are crucial in the
A variety of recent studies have looked at the decline in development of optimal bone density, caution must be
the level of physical activity among girls as they enter exercised to not cause injury. There is still a great deal
adolescence. In addition, researchers are also looking at of research that supports the contention that children
the issue of bone loss in young girls in an effort to bet- between the ages of nine and fourteen should not be
taught certain sport activities such as how to throw a Essays in the history of sports medicine. Urbana: University of Illi-
curveball or a slider in baseball. nois Press.
Dickinson, B. D., Genel, M., Robinowitz, C. B., Turner, P. L., & Woods,
Over the past four decades, exercise has been utilized G. L. (2002). Gender verification of female Olympic athletes. Med-
increasingly as a mode of recovery from coronary heart icine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34, 1539–1542.
Dirix, A., & Sturbois, X. (1998). The first thirty years of the Interna-
disease (CHD). Research is ongoing into the type and tional Olympic Committee Medical Commission. Lausanne, Switzer-
amount of aerobic exercise needed to be effective in car- land: International Olympic Committee.
diac rehabilitation. Additionally, there have been an in- Green, H. (1986). Fit for America: Health, fitness, sport and American
society. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
creasing number of studies on the effect of training on Grover, K. (Ed.). (1989). Fitness in American culture: Images of health,
the cardiovascular health of older women. Recent stud- sport and the body. Amherst, MA, and Rochester, NY: University of
Massachusetts Press and the Margaret Woodbury Strong Museum.
ies in older adults have focused particularly on the issue Hoberman, J. (1992). Mortal engines: The science of performance and
of gait function, a key issue in helping to keep the eld- the dehumanization of sport. New York: The Free Press.
erly active, mobile, and injury free. A number of re- Horvath, S. M., & Horvath, E. C. (1973). The Harvard Fatigue Labo-
ratory: Its history and contributions. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
searchers have concluded that strength and endurance Hall.
training do have beneficial effects on older adults. Johnson, W. R. (Ed.). (1960). Science and medicine of exercise and
sports. New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers.
Massengale, J. D., & Swanson, R. A. (Eds.). (1997). The history of ex-
Encouraging Physically Inactive ercise and sport science. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
People to Exercise Park, R. J. (1987). Edward M. Hartwell and physical training at the
Johns Hopkins University, 1879–1890. Journal of Sport History,
The vast majority of work in sports medicine has been 14(1), 108–119.
devoted to elite athletes. However, today there is greater Park, R. J. (1990). Health, exercise and the biomedical impulse, 1870–
1914. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 61(2), 126–140.
interest in the experiences of everyday people; in partic- Rabinbach, A. (1990). The human motor: Energy, fatigue and the origins
ular, there are grave concerns about the high levels of of modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press.
sedentary behavior among the general public. Thus, a Ryan, A. J. (1968). Medical history of the Olympic Games. Journal of
the American Medical Association, 205(11), 715–720.
number of researchers are trying to better understand the Ryan, A. J. History of the development of sport sciences and medicine,
type, amount, duration, and intensity of aerobic exercise xxxiii–xlvii. In L. A. Larson (Ed). (1971). Encyclopedia of sport sci-
ences and medicine. New York: The Macmillan Company.
that the public needs in order to not only reduce weight Shephard, R. J. (Ed.). (2003). Yearbook of Sports Medicine: 2003.
but also to improve cardiovascular functioning. A variety Philadelphia: Mosby, Inc.
of researchers are struggling with the issue of how to get Wilson, W., & Derse, E. (Eds.). (2001). Doping in elite sport: The poli-
tics of drugs in the Olympic movement. Champaign, IL: Human
the public to adhere to some sort of exercise program. Kinetics.
This is not only a sport-medicine issue but a public- Wrynn, A. M. (2002). The grand tour: American exercise science and
sports medicine encounters the world, 1926–1966. International
health issue as well. In addition, increased physical ac- Sport Studies: Journal of the International Society for Comparative
tivity will lead to a potential reduction in the incidence Physical Education and Sport, 24(2), 5–18.
of cardiovascular disease and adult-onset diabetes. Wrynn, A. M. (2004). The human factor: Science, medicine and the In-
ternational Olympic Committee, 1900-70. Sport in Society 7(2),
211–232.
Alison W. Wrynn
See also Anemia; Diet and Weight Loss; Disordered Eat-

ing; Exercise and Health; Injuries, Youth; Injury; Injury
Risk in Women’s Sport; Nutrition; Osteoporosis; Pain Sportsmanship
Further Reading
Berryman, J. W. (1995). Out of many one: A history of the American Col-
F air play in sport, more commonly referred to as
sportsmanship, is demonstrated through ethical
conduct by athletes during competition and a positive
lege of Sports Medicine. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Berryman, J. W., & Park, R. J. (Eds.). (1992). Sport and exercise science: attitude toward the game by players, officials, and
SPORTSMANSHIP 1529
Pro football is like nuclear warfare. There are

no winners, only survivors. ■ FRANK GIFFORD
spectators. Advocates of sportsmanship consider the diana, chose to hold up and finish second in a 10-kilo-
game worth playing only if all athletes have equal op- meter race in Toledo (Ohio), because the leader had acci-
portunity to win, if they use only their physical or dentally taken a wrong turn. In these examples sports
strategic prowess to overcome their opponents, if they competitors showed respect for each other and for the
treat others as they would like to be treated, and if game when they strictly adhered to rules set out by gov-
they refuse to accept a tainted victory. Many sports- erning bodies, no matter how minor, in an attempt to
manlike behaviors have been abandoned of late, in- maintain a “level playing field.” They acted as role models
cluding congratulating opponents after defeat, for many, teaching that a tainted victory is no victory at all.
personally checking on injured players, thanking ref- The essence of sports is competition governed by spe-
erees for a job well done, refraining from use of pro- cific rules that structure and define the practice. Rules are
fanity, and shaking hands, smiling, and moving on designed to place constraints and conditions upon the
when the game is over, regardless of the score. competition in order to make success more difficult to
Sportsmanship ideals can be extended from individ- achieve. Therefore, in order to “win” in a sport, a com-
ual in-game behaviors to the behaviors of sports or- petitor must adhere to an illogical framework. In Euro-
ganizations. Are uniforms made in compliance with pean handball players are restricted to carrying the ball
labor and human rights standards? Is the game avail- a maximum of three steps before they must bounce or
able for all people to play regardless of classes, gender, pass it. Slalom skiers are required to cross with both skis
age, sexual orientation, or race? Does the organization the imaginary line between the two poles of every gate
respond to the personal needs of the athletes and fans of the slalom course. These strict rules demarcate sports
and reward or promote respect for self, others, and the from other activities and present a challenge to
game? All of these aspects of sportsmanship should be competitors.
taken into consideration. Historically, in sports that have maintained much of
their amateur credo (i.e., golf, baseball, tennis, and
Sports Construct Ethical Character cricket) an emphasis on fairness, recreation, and per-
A broadly held assumption is that participation in com- sonal challenge has prevailed. Although these sports
petitive games prepares athletes for success in a cutthroat can be played at a highly competitive level and for con-
society. Athletes may learn to strive for excellence, perse- siderably large purses at the professional level, scandals
vere, sacrifice, follow orders, be selfless, work with others, involving unethical behavior by athletes in these sports
and to be fair. With this assumption sports have gained a are rare in comparison with scandals in sports that are
prominent place in school and community programs, and driven by the tenets of professionalism, and in particu-
both amateur and professional sports are usually well lar those sports that highlight physical strength and
supported by the media. D. Stanley Eitzen (1999) re- physical domination over opponents. In sports such as
counts many examples of outstanding ethical behavior on association football and gridiron football, ice hockey,
the part of coaches and athletes. For instance, a month or rugby, and basketball, the goal of gaining an advantage
so after Rockdale County (Georgia) won the state bas- over rivals has prevailed, and in many cases a spirit of
ketball championship in 1987, the coach, Cleveland fair play and a respect for rules and personal well-being
Stroud, found that he had unknowingly used an ineligible have been forsaken.
player in a game. Although the player in question was in
the game only a minute or two and had not scored, Sports Deconstruct Ethical Character
Stroud notified the authorities of the infraction. As a result, According to Beller and Stoll (1993), although sports
the school forfeited the only state championship it had do build character if character is defined as “loyalty,
ever won. In a similar vein Andy Herr of Bloomington, In- dedication, sacrifice, and teamwork,” they do not build
Hunting is not a sport. In a sport, both sides

should know they’re in the game. ■ PAUL RODRIGUEZ
character if character is defined as “honesty, responsi- Batters, such as Billy Hatcher of the Houston Astros in
bility, and justice.” All levels of all sports, from youth 1987, Wilton Guerrero of the Los Angeles Dodgers in
leagues to professional ranks, are becoming more and 1997, and Sammy Sosa of the Chicago Cubs in 2003,
more “professional,” with children as young as six countered by illegally corking their bats in order to hit
years old adopting a “no place for second place” atti- the ball farther. On 3 June 2003, Sosa, known for hitting
tude. As the salaries and status associated with win- explosive home runs, grounded out but knocked in a
ning have increased, some athletes, coaches, and even run, breaking his bat on impact. The home plate umpire
spectators have accepted a “winning-at-all-costs” phi- discovered the cork in Sosa’s bat, and Sosa was subse-
losophy, which has led to the dehumanization of ath- quently ejected from the game. Although Sosa denied
letes and their alienation from their bodies and the intentional use of an illegal bat, he and all players
competitors. Under these conditions we should not be caught cheating instantly cast doubt on their entire prior
surprised that research reveals consistently that sports sporting success.
stifle moral reasoning and moral development.
When coaches, athletes, and fans corrupt the ideals Profanity in Sports
of sportsmanship in their zeal to succeed, they are likely Profanity is creeping into youth sports as a result of the
to employ or condone similar tactics outside sports. antics of professional athletes in televised sports. The
They might accept the necessity of dirty tricks in poli- media continue to show adults out of control because
tics or misleading advertising in business because the to do so increases ratings. Television close-ups display
overall goal is to win even if winning requires moving college athletes and coaches mouthing obscenities in re-
outside the established rules. Rule violations that serve action to an official’s call. Cameras zoom in on athletes
efficiency and team interests are widely accepted in who lose their cool and provide intense interviews lib-
many sports; however, problems arise when both teams erally interspersed with “bleeps.” Coaches who release
have not consented to certain “interpretations” of the streams of four-letter words to anyone within earshot
rules. The negative values learned in sports may include are guaranteed to be featured in prime time. Bobby
selfishness, envy, conceit, greed, hostility, and brutality. Knight, formerly of Indiana University, is the most in-
Athletes cheat, use profanity, performance-enhancing famous coach known for verbally abusing officials and
drugs, and violence to gain a competitive edge and see his own players, throwing chairs, and even kicking his
these unfair tactics as “strategy” rather than cheating. own son. Equally loved and hated by many, Knight
was known for his vulgarities and his winning record.
Cheating in Sports He acted as a role model to athletes and other coaches
Some illegal acts have become so commonplace that alike. Unbridled profanity can also be found in car rac-
they are now accepted as part of the game. In basketball, ing. In 2004, National Association for Stock Car Auto
hockey, and association football, for example, a player Racing (NASCAR) president Mike Helton threatened to
commonly pretends to be fouled or injured in order to fine drivers and crewmen for “inappropriate” language
receive an unmerited free throw, power play, or penalty and issued stern warnings for drivers to watch their
kick with a relatively high certainty of scoring. In fact, mouths.
these “penalties” are built into the structure of the game,
and the concept of no contact, which is in fact, written Performance-Enhancing
into the rules, is completely ignored. Pitchers in baseball Drugs in Sports
sometimes achieve an illegal advantage by scuffing the The history of athletes using drugs to enhance their en-
ball or by putting a foreign substance (i.e., saliva or durance, power, or strength is a long one, dating back
Vaseline) on it so that it drops suddenly when pitched. to the Greek athletes who raised their testosterone levels
SPORTSMANSHIP 1531
by eating sheep testicles during the ancient Olympic backup catcher Chad Kreuter was sitting in the bullpen
Games. British cyclist Tommy Simpson died on a hill when a fan hit him in the head and stole his cap.
climb of Mont Ventoux during the 1967 Tour de France. Kreuter and several other Dodgers went into the stands,
A vial containing an amphetamine was found on his and a mob scene ensued. Sixteen players and three
body. In 1988 Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson tested coaches were given suspensions. The most notorious
positive for anabolic steroid use after winning the Seoul, cases of fan violence have occurred in European foot-
South Korea Olympics men’s 100-meter race. His ball. In 1909 a riot that even today would warrant
medal was revoked, and subsequently the International headlines internationally broke out in Scotland after
Amateur Athletics Federation banned him from com- officials declined the fans’ demand for extra-play time
petition for life. Despite the fact that drugs are illegal to settle a draw between Glasgow and Celtic. The riot
and cause harmful side effects, elite athletes in many involved six thousand spectators and resulted in injury
sports, in particular sprinting, weightlifting, bodybuild- to fifty-four policemen, serious damage to the grounds
ing, and weight throwing (shot put, discus, hammer, and emergency equipment, and the destruction of vir-
javelin), are almost required to take steroids if they want tually every street lamp in the area. At Euro 2000 Brus-
to be successful and meet international standards. sels police arrested 850 fans during a street riot that
erupted before a match between England and Germany.
Violence in Sports Fans of both nations began with chanting and taunting
Violence has become a prevalent feature of contempo- before throwing chairs and beer bottles at each other in
rary sports, both in its instrumental and hostile forms. the city’s main square. Riot police armed with a water
Instrumental violence helps an athlete to achieve the canon eventually quelled the violence; however, Euro-
goal of winning a competition. Sports are one of the pean fans continue to bring the sport of association
few settings in which acts of aggression are not only tol- football into disrepute.
erated, but also enthusiastically applauded and even
required from athletes. Hostile violence is intentionally Lacking Ethics at the
harming another person, whether that person is a Organizational Level
player, referee, or spectator, and its incidence is on the Immorality is not a matter of just breaking or bending
rise. In the past National Football League coaches (con- the rules—the rules themselves may be unfair or even
trary to league rules) gave monetary awards each week immoral. Powerful organizations such as the National
to players who hit their opponents the hardest, and at Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the Inter-
least one, Kansas City Chiefs coach Marty Schotten- national Olympic Committee (IOC) have denied equal-
heimer, offered to pay off any fines his team incurred for ity to women and have exploited athletes. During the
breaking the jaws of opponents or knocking down ad- 1960s the National Organization for Women (NOW)
versaries. This emphasis on intimidating violence is al- gathered data at the national and local levels on dis-
most universal among gridiron football, rugby, and crimination against girls and women in neighborhood
hockey coaches, players, and fans. The objective is not and school sports. Armed with this data, the organiza-
just to hit but to punish and even to injure. Sociologist tion lobbied Congress, which ultimately passed Title
Michael Smith has argued that violence in hockey, as in IX, the 1972 education amendment that prohibits dis-
war, is a socially rewarded behavior. The players (and crimination against women in U.S. federally funded ed-
fans) are convinced that aggression (body checking, in- ucation programs. Until that time, compared with
timidation, and the like) is vital to winning. men’s sports, women’s sports received less funding,
Spectators have been known to assault opposing fewer scholarships were awarded to women athletes,
spectators and players. In 2000 Los Angeles Dodger women had fewer opportunities to play, and coaches of
Some critics of hunting

do not consider it very
sportsmanlike because
the animals do not
know they are part of
the competition.
women’s teams received lower

salaries. Although much
progress has been made, more
than thirty years later gender
equity has not been reached.
The NCAA has not effectively
implemented the law and con-
tinues to uphold rules that ex-
ploit athletes.
NCAA regulations require
that athletes commit to a four-
year agreement with a school,
yet schools make only a year-
by-year commitment to ath-
letes. This fact means that
athletes can lose scholarships
at the whim of their coaches,
yet they cannot move to an-
other school without sitting
out a year. Meanwhile,
coaches who break their con-
tracts can coach immediately
at another school. Coaches
have physically assaulted and
publicly belittled their players,
but if their teams win, they are rewarded handsomely. and not only deny athletes access to an education, but
“Big-time” college sports in the United States have cor- also increasingly pervert the educational value of sports.
rupted academe by engaging in recruiting violations, The emphasis on sportsmanship by the leaders of the
waiving academic requirements, and actually preventing IOC tends to be nullified by questionable practices con-
student-athletes from studying and attending classes. As doned by administrators. During the 1990s eleven In-
more schools are seduced by the potential profits (sev- ternational Olympic Committee members resigned or
eral million dollars in revenue) from successful inter- were expelled as a result of scandals over vote buying.
collegiate competition, they are treating athletes more IOC members demanded bribes of up to one million
and more as investment capital; many have forgotten dollars from cities bidding to host the games. Marc
that college athletes have been promised an education Hodler, a member of the International Olympic Com-
in exchange for their sports participation. Intercolle- mittee executive board at the time, claimed abuses in
giate sports have become big business; athletic pro- voting occurred for the 1996 Atlanta games and the
grams seek to remain competitive to maximize profits 2000 Sydney games before unscrupulous IOC mem-
SPORTSMANSHIP 1533
bers were caught taking cash bribes, medical expenses, from discrimination, brutal training tactics, and cut-
travel expenses, gifts, entertainment, and college tuition throat competition.
payments for their children during Salt Lake City’s suc-
cessful 2002 Winter Olympics bid. During this same The Future of Fair Play
era, while other international sports organizations such It has been said that unless we remind ourselves of
as the International Amateur Athletics Federation were the essentials of sportsmanship it will gradually fade,
eliminating gender testing, the IOC continued to re- as have other traditional societal values. To return to
quire all women competitors to “prove” their femininity, a more ethical sporting ethos (distinguishing charac-
much to the chagrin of many women Olympians. ter, moral nature, or principled guiding beliefs), what
is most important is the change that fans can bring
Returning to about. Sports fans pay the costs of big-time college
Ethical Sports Behavior and professional sports, spending $100 billion a year
The Federation Internationale de Football Association on sports equipment, memorabilia, tickets, and the
(FIFA), the world governing body for soccer, has rec- like. If enough fans withdrew their financial support
ognized that the world’s top teams and players have a of professional sports in protest, refusing to forgive
responsibility as role models for young people taking and forget the irresponsible behavior of players,
up the game and fans in the stands. FIFA now obliges coaches, and owners, meaningful improvements
all players in the World Cup finals and other FIFA might occur. Sports enthusiasts may also work within
events to sign a “fair play declaration.” The number of the system, volunteering to coach youth sports teams
occurrences bringing football into disrepute in Euro- or serve on the board of directors of a sports league.
pean countries has been reduced as a result of close co- Teachers and professors can become coaches, move
operation with the respective authorities and strict into athletic administration, or serve on athletic com-
guidelines for match organization and “no standing mittees. As people become insiders and move into po-
room” stadium design. As well as rewarding its various sitions of increasing power, they must fight against
world champion teams with cups and diplomas, FIFA the status quo.
also recognizes special acts of fair play by presenting Thousands of games are played worldwide every day
individual and team FIFA Fair Play Trophies. without incident. Players and fans act appropriately,
The Citizenship Through Sports Alliance (CTSA) is coaches and referees behave beyond reproach. Unfor-
the largest coalition of professional and amateur ath- tunately, incidents of immoral behavior are more likely
letics organizations in the United States concerned to make headlines, and professional athletes are always
with character in sports. CTSA promotes sportsman- on display. The problems in sports are not solely the re-
ship at all levels of sports to reinforce the positive val- sult of “a few bad apples.” Society demands that ath-
ues that sports can teach. Since 1997 CTSA has been letes remain drug free and, at the same time, honors
building a sports culture that encourages respect for only those athletes who win and break records. For
self, others, and the game. Fair Play for Children those who triumph, the rewards for them (and perhaps
(FPC), an international organization based in the their families and their coaches) are substantial, so in-
United Kingdom, promotes every child’s right to play stead of privileging sportsmanship, winning at any price
with fair attitudes and activities worldwide. The has become the prevailing code of conduct. Sports psy-
United Nations has declared that every child has a chologist Charles Banham put it simply: “Good sports-
right to engage in age-appropriate play and recre- manship may be a product of sport, but so is bad
ational activities, and FPC works to ensure that each sportsmanship.” Examining issues such as trash talking,
child has equal opportunity for full participation, free cheating, flagrant fouls, doping and athletes as role
Years ago, the sports pages were the best-written, most lively,
and most informative about the many cultures of this nation
than any other pages in the paper. ■ MICHAEL NOVA
models will provide coaches and educators with effec- sportswriting is a record of sports reporters sometimes
tive tools for promoting sportsmanship. failing and sometimes passing the test of good
Janelle Joseph journalism.
See also Values and Ethics

The Father of All Sportswriters
Beginning in 1787 and continuing until 1824, Eng-
Further Reading land became enamored of sports, especially bare-
Beller, J. M., & Stoll, S. K. (1993). Sportsmanship: An antiquated concept? knuckle prize fighting. In 1810 and again in 1811, the
Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 64, 74–79. British champion Tom Cribb fought and defeated a
Eitzen, D. S. (1999). Fair and foul: Beyond the myths and paradoxes of
sport. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
freed American slave named Tom Molineaux, and al-
Gough, R. W. (1997). Character is everything: Promoting ethical ex- though the fights were illegal and had to be held in the
cellence in sports. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace. country to evade the authorities, crowds of approxi-
Loland, S. (2002). Fair play in sport: A moral norm system. London:
Routledge. mately five thousand attended the fights and countless
Ruskin, H., & Lammer, M. (2001). Fair play: Violence in sport and so- others awaited news of the outcomes in London and
ciety. Jerusalem, Israel: Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
Smith, M. D. (1983). Violence and sport. Toronto, Canada: Butterworth.
other cities. The followers of sports, all sports, were
known as “The Fancy,” a subculture of males from all
walks of society who gathered in taverns and who were
enthusiastic about athletic contests. The man who sup-
plied this subculture with information and thereby es-
Sportswriting tablished a sense of a sporting community was Pierce
Egan. Egan was born in Ireland in 1772, and he died
and Reporting in England in 1849. During the course of his journal-
ism career, Egan became “the greatest writer about the
I n the worldwide development and acceptance of

sports, few institutions have played a more important
role than the sporting press. In fact, the growth of news-
ring who ever lived,” according to A. J. Liebling, who
considered his collection of boxing stories, The Sweet
Science, to be an extension of Egan’s work (Liebling
papers in the nineteenth century coincided with the 1956, 8, 12). In 1813 Egan published Boxiana, a book
growth of modern sports, and although until the last that can be regarded as a guide for both the novice and
decade of that century the sporting press existed and more experienced member of the Fancy who sought to
flourished somewhere beyond the pale of standard jour- learn more about the history and current state of the
nalism, the traditional functions of the press applied to prize ring. Egan educated the public on the slang of the
sportswriting and continue to do so. Journalism supplies ring and other sports, but his particular genius and his
information to the reading public and builds community; claim to an influential role in the popularization of
journalism sets an agenda for public discourse; and jour- sports are based on the fact he was the first to recognize
nalism serves as a social watchdog. These basic func- that an audience that craved information existed.
tions, some more powerful than others at different Egan worked as a compositor for the London Weekly
historical periods, shaped the development of sports- Dispatch, and in 1816 he joined the staff as a sports-
writing. As Stanley Walker of the New York Herald Tribune writer. In 1820 he went on his own and began to pub-
noted about sportswriters in City Editor: “[T]he best ones lish and edit Bell’s Life in London, an all-sports weekly
know that the test of good sports reporting is not sub- that virtually served as a template for other sports
stantially different from that of all other good reporting” weeklies published in England and the United States
(1934, 133). Walker and others agree that the history of until 1860. Egan covered sports and the social scene
SPORTSWRITING AND REPORTING 1535
surrounding sports, and in doing so he provided a In 1853 Frank Queen began publishing and editing
public record in print of a spirit of freedom and ad- the weekly New York Clipper, the paper that inaugu-
venture that young men were beginning to experience. rated the baseball box score, an invention of the game’s
first great chronicler, Henry Chadwick. More so than
American Sportswriting Pioneers other publications of the period, Queen’s Clipper func-
Egan sold Bell’s Life in London in 1824, but its influence tioned as a booster, an educator, and a builder of an
extended beyond that time and across the Atlantic. The emerging American sports culture. The paper flourished
first successful attempt to sustain a sporting publication until Queen’s death in 1882, and it continued to pub-
in the United States was the work of John Stuart Skinner, lish, although dealing primarily with theater news, until
who published the American Farmer in 1819 and the 1923 when it was bought by Variety.
more sports-oriented American Turf Register and Sport- With the reading audience for sports news increasing
ing Magazine in 1829. Skinner included some articles annually, Francis C. Richter responded in 1882 by issu-
on sports, recreation, and exercise in American Farmer, ing Sporting Life, a weekly published in Philadelphia
but for the most part he covered events that fell under that included regular reports on baseball, track and field,
the headings “Rural Sports” and “Sports of the Plough” cycling, yachting, tennis, and prize fighting. Devoted to
(Berryman 1979, 46). As its title suggests, American the increasingly popular sport of baseball, Al and Char-
Turf Register focused on horses and field sports. lie Spink’s Sporting News first appeared in 1886 in
The initial issue of the first true sports weekly in St. Louis, and by 1900 it usurped the Clipper’s title as
America, William Trotter Porter’s Spirit of the Times, the “Bible of baseball.” Richard Harding Davis became
appeared on 10 December 1831. While covering a mul- editor of Harper’s Weekly in 1890, and he retooled the
titude of sports, Porter aimed his publication at an au- magazine in an effort to attract an audience of young,
dience of America’s sporting gentry. He favored horse primarily well-to-do men. Davis hired Casper Whitney to
racing and field sports, and his most famous contribu- write a weekly column on “Amateur Sports,” and be-
tor was William Henry Herbert, who wrote outdoors tween them they introduced and helped popularize the
sketches under the pen name Frank Forester. Forester’s “school sports hero” (Messenger 1981, 151–153).
work gained great popularity, but Herbert, who har-
bored loftier literary ambitions, was ashamed of what James Gordon Bennett Jr.
he considered his hack writing. Despite becoming, in Promotes Sports
the estimation of John Rickards Betts, “the first nation- Editors of daily newspapers were slow to acknowledge
ally famous sportswriter,” Herbert committed suicide in the surging importance of sports as news, but James
1858 (1953, 42). Gordon Bennett Jr., whose father started the New York
George Wilkes launched the National Police Gazette Herald in 1835, proved an exception. In the 1860s,
in New York City in 1845, and in 1856 he bought the after taking the reins of the paper from his father, Ben-
Spirit of the Times, which for a while was published si- nett consistently devoted space, if not specifically de-
multaneously under slightly different names and with voted pages, to sports news, covering baseball, prize
different owners. The more famous version of the Na- fighting, and horse racing in particular. Bennett was
tional Police Gazette, the notorious “barbershop Bible” also a self-promoter. In 1866 he used the newly laid un-
printed on pink paper, began in 1876 when Irish im- derwater cable to wire back reports of the victory of his
migrant Richard Kyle Fox bought the weekly and turned yacht in a transatlantic race in which each participant
it into the sporting paper with the greatest influence and put up $30,000 in a winner-take-all challenge.
largest circulation in the United States in the last Bennett’s win led to the reinstitution of the America’s
decades of the nineteenth century. Cup challenge in 1870, and his coverage led other
Where is sport without the words

that surround it? ■ BUD COLLINS
newspaper editors to increase their attention to sports. 13 July 1954, Rice continued to cover sports in daily
In 1878 Charles Wright was named sports editor of the newspapers, in his syndicated column, in film shorts,
Syracuse Courier, and he is believed to be the first Amer- and in magazines. Rice was, in the estimation of Robert
ican journalist to hold such a position. In the same Lipsyte, “the prototype superstar sportswriter of the
year Francis Richter, who four years later launched Golden Age” (1975, 170). For better or for worse, Rice
Sporting Life, directed other reporters in a full-fledged spawned generations of journalistic imitators, prompting
sports department at the Philadelphia Public Ledger. Lipsyte to claim that Rice’s influence was “the most lib-
erating and the most destructive” in sportswriting history
The Birth of (1975, 170). Early in his career, Rice formulated his
Daily Sports Pages philosophy of sportswriting: “[G]ood sportsmanship
It was not until the 1880s, when professional baseball should apply not only to playing sport but to writing
earned a spot in the national consciousness and heavy- about it as well. No cheap shots” (Harper 1999, 122).
weight champion John L. Sullivan was becoming enor- Rice never took a journalistic cheap shot at anybody. If
mously popular, that daily newspapers began to an athlete or coach did something worthy of criticism,
experiment with the radical idea of including regular Rice’s approach was to ignore that person and event and
sports pages. In New York, Charles A. Dana of the Sun devote his column inches to the more smiling aspects of
and Joseph Pulitzer of the World featured regular sports the game.
pages. In Chicago, a fiercely competitive newspaper Stanley Walker determined that “two fairly definite
town whose papers reflected the boisterous, bustling na- schools” of sportswriting existed in Rice’s time, the
ture of the city, a crime reporter for the Inter-Ocean, “Gee Whiz!” and “Aw Nuts!” schools (1934, 123). Rice
Leonard Washburn, accepted an assignment to cover a was the premier practitioner of the Gee Whiz style,
Chicago White Stockings game. Washburn’s story, ac- writing that used classical metaphors and often used
cording to Hugh Fullerton, revolutionized the genre verse to mythologize an athlete or team. Ironically,
because he produced a story “interesting and entertain- W. O. McGeehan, who for a time in the 1920s was
ing enough to be read by all the patrons of the paper” Rice’s sports editor at the New York Herald Tribune,
(1928, 18). Washburn’s efforts in sports coverage were was, along with Westbrook Pegler and Heywood
soon to be followed by another Chicago stylist, Finley Broun, the foremost practitioner of the Aw Nuts
Peter Dunne, and the sportswriter as storyteller, as op- School, which sought to treat athletes as real people
posed to a compiler of facts and statistics, was born. with human failings and games as business enterprises.
Sometimes the results of this style proved less than in- McGeehan, for example, refused to refer to the people
formative. Noting that the objective of the first Ameri- attending a sporting event as “fans,” preferring instead
can sports pages was to tell a reader who won and to label them the “customers.”
who lost, Randall Poe observed in his essay “The Writ- Rice’s most famous story was his Four Horsemen re-
ing of Sports” that “the scores often got in the way of ro- port on the 1924 Army–Notre Dame football game.
coco description and were lost” (1974, 173–174). “Outlined against a blue-gray October sky,” he wrote,
“the Four Horsemen rode again.” His story ran not only
Grantland Rice and the in the Sunday editions of the Herald Tribune, but be-
Golden Age of Sportswriting cause of syndication, in numerous papers around the
Grantland Rice joined the sports staff of the New York country. With one deftly chosen sports-page trope, Rice
Evening Mail in December 1910, and it could be argued romanticized and made immortal a Notre Dame back-
that modern sportswriting reached an age of robust ado- field that was only a bit above average. More signifi-
lescence at the same time. Up to the day of his death on cantly, though, he romanticized and helped popularize
Sportswriting and Reporting

The Rise of Sportswriting
Fred Lieb, a man who spent more than seventy years ulated by naive kids or “free loaders who long ago
writing sports, recounts the tale of covering a mid- gave up their dreams and a healthy part of their
winter baseball meeting in 1915 when the Federal morals,” as Seymour Krim observes in his essay
League was challenging the established National and “Sportswriting: Square and Avantgarde.” Too often,
American leagues for economic supremacy. Lieb left sportswriters were propagandists, mere shills for a
the Manhattan meeting site with Heywood Broun, promoter who could buy their coverage with a few
then the sports editor of the New York Tribune. Broun dollars or a bottle of whisky. And sometimes both.
had been raised in a wealthy New York family and While that may have been the case at the begin-
went to Harvard. Lieb grew up in decidedly more ning of the twentieth century, the situation in the
modest circumstances in Philadelphia and graduated sportswriting business at the beginning of the twenty-
from Central Manual High School. What drew these first century has changed completely. In his “Fore-
two men together was a mutual love for sports and word” to the collection titled The Best American
sportswriting. Sports Writing of the Century, Glenn Stout notes that
Upon leaving the meeting, Lieb accepted Broun’s in the past three decades “sports writing has become
invitation to dine with him at the Harvard Club. something of a respected genre of American litera-
“One of his old Harvard professors stopped at our ture.” Indeed, sprinkled throughout virtually all of
table and chatted familiarly for several minutes,” Lieb the anthologies of literary journalism are stories writ-
writes in his 1977 book Baseball as I Have Known It. ten by sportswriters. What used to be a “backdoor
“As the professor started to move away, he stopped trade” has emerged as an admired genre of nonfiction
and said, `I forgot to ask, what are you doing now, literature.
Broun?’ Heywood replied, ‘I’m writing baseball for Significantly, it is worth noting that Heywood
the Tribune.’ The professor’s face dropped. ‘Bah! Broun’s son, Heywood Hale Broun, followed his fa-
Have you fallen to that?’” ther into sportswriting and became one of the most
The professor’s reaction to Broun’s chosen profes- respected writers and sports commentators of the
sion in 1915 was not surprising. Sports reporting latter half of the century.
had a deserved reputation as a “backdoor trade” pop-
Dennis Gildea
intercollegiate football, as well as other sports to which produced. Lardner was born on 6 March 1885 in Niles,
he turned his attention, most notably golf. Michigan, and he initially built his reputation as an as-
tute writer covering major league baseball, especially his
Ring, Runyon, and beloved Chicago White Sox. Lardner earned a lofty
Other Luminaries place in American literature when his bitingly humorous
American press boxes in the first three decades of the You Know Me Al stories were published in book form in
twentieth century were filled with some of the greats of 1916. Written in dialect and from the point of view of
the profession. Ring Lardner, Damon Runyon, Hugh White Sox rookie pitcher Jack Keefe, the stories were
Fullerton, Paul Gallico, Fred Lieb, John Kieran, Charles originally published in The Saturday Evening Post.
E.Van Loan, and John R. Tunis all were covering sports Runyon, who grew up in Pueblo, Colorado, covered
on a regular basis. Of that group, Lardner, Runyon, sports and wrote a column for the New York American
and Gallico are noted for their work as sports reporters from 1911 to 1946, but it was in 1931 when Guys
and for the fiction, sports-related and otherwise, they and Dolls was published that he achieved literary
Sportswriting and
Reporting
The Big Game Gallico, McGeehan, and Tunis, who wrote eighteen
sports-based novels for juvenile readers from 1938 to
Sportswriter Grantland Rice penned sonnets
1973, filled the role of journalistic watchdogs of sport.
about a variety of sports. Here he captures the
mood of a football game in 1924.
The Fresh Eye of Red Smith
You take the color and flash of the game, Red Smith, a writer once observed, “has given sports
And the human gardens of rose-lip girls, what Monet gave sunrises—a pure and constantly fresh
And all the pageant that waits the call eye” (Poe 1974, 176). Smith began covering sports for
As the toe drives into the waiting ball the Milwaukee Sentinel in 1927 and was still writing a
But leave me the halfback’s driving might, column for the New York Times when he died on 15 Jan-
The surging lines in a bitter fight, uary 1982. He won the Pulitzer Prize for distinguished
The sweat and smear of the warring soul commentary in 1976, becoming just the third sports-
As the tackle opens a two-foot hole; writer to achieve journalism’s highest honor. New York
The roar of the crowds, with their beasts aflame, Times columnist Arthur Daley won in 1956, beating out
The ringing cheers, with their eddying swirls, Smith and Jimmy Cannon of the New York Post, and in
The interference, the deadly pass, 1951 Max Kase of the New York Journal-American won
The grip and crash of the swirling mass. for his story exposing the college basketball point-
For the crowd fades out and the cheers dip low shaving scandal.
When the fourth down comes, with a yard to go, Like Grantland Rice, Smith spent his career in sports
And in the struggle along the field journalism, but unlike Rice and Rice’s many imitators,
The battle changes to sword and shield Smith never shied away from critiquing sports.When the
And the knightly tourneys that used to be Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1980, Smith was
In the golden era of chivalry. the first sports columnist to advocate a United States
The world soft as the years advance boycott of the Summer Olympic Games in Moscow.
Further and further from sword and lance, Ironically, the New York Times chose not to run the col-
When the caveman, after his morning’s fun. umn because the editors felt it was politically inappro-
Slew the mammoth and mastodon; priate. However, the column ran in 350 papers that
But his ghost at the gridiron calls through space: subscribed to the Times news service, and it helped draw
“These, too, are worthy to build a race.” national attention to the boycott issue. In 1968 he sup-
Source: Rice, G. (1924). Badminton (p. 136–137). ported Tommy Smith’s and John Carlos’s right to make
the black-glove protest on the medals podium at the
Mexico City Olympics, and as early as 1957 he called
baseball’s reserve clause a version of the “slave trade.”
immortality. Runyon’s stories introduced readers to
the characters, language, and the values of New York Sports Illustrated and the
City’s underworld and sports culture, earning him the Texas Sportswriters
title “The Chronicler of Broadway.” Sports Illustrated debuted with the issue of 16 August
Gallico was born in New York City on 26 July 1897, 1954.The brainchild of Time Inc. founder and publisher
and he served as sports reporter and sports editor of the Henry Luce, the magazine at first fell considerably short
New York Daily News from 1923 to 1936. Gallico was of being a blockbuster success, an outcome that many in
a Gee Whiz writer who came to regret his journalistic the Time Inc. business office ominously predicted. “Only
style, as he notes in his 1938 book Farewell to Sport. males read sports magazines,” a prepublication business
You can become a winner only if you are

willing to walk over the edge. ■ DAMON RUNYON
office assessment read, and “most of the males are either Journal was a pioneering woman sportswriter. Garber
juveniles or ne’er-do-wells . . . and that even having the began writing all sports in 1944 and retired in 1986.
word Sport in a magazine title may be financial folly” A short list of top women sportswriters would in-
(MacCambridge 1997, 22). To offset that perception, clude Sally Jenkins, whose work has appeared in Sports
one that could be traced to the beginnings of sport and Illustrated, Women’s Sport & Fitness, and the Washing-
sports journalism in the nineteenth century, the maga- ton Post; Diane K. Shah, a former sports columnist for
zine’s editors made their product high-toned, aiming at the Los Angeles Herald Examiner and a contributing
a well-heeled, socially elite audience. Still, the magazine writer for ESPN: The Magazine; Jackie MacMullan of the
languished and seemed doomed for extinction. Boston Globe; and Joan Ryan, who covered sports for
The turnaround of the floundering magazine began in the Orlando Sentinel and the San Francisco Examiner,
April 1955 when Roy Terrell, an ex-Marine from Texas, as well as writing the highly acclaimed book about
was hired as a writer, and salvation was realized when young gymnasts, Little Girls in Pretty Boxes.
on 19 March 1956 Time Inc.’s senior European corre-
spondent Andre Laguerre was hired as the assistant man- Murray and Liebling:
aging editor and, shortly thereafter, the managing editor. The Past as Prologue
Laguerre revamped Sports Illustrated, transforming it While women continue to take their rightful place in the
from a curious mix of high-society sports and cookbook press boxes in the twenty-first century, sportswriters in
recipes to a publication that showed a genuine affection general will continue to do what sportswriters have
for sports. Moreover, Laguerre hired more writers like done since the days of Pierce Egan—work hard to get
Terrell—Texans, for the most part, “whose prose was a complete story and write it as compellingly as possi-
lucid, irreverent, and unapologetic about the central role ble. The instantaneous and virtually universal coverage
of sports in modern society” (MacCambridge 1997, 4). of television and online reporting has liberated print
At the forefront of the infusion of Texas-trained sports- journalists from being just reporters of fact and freed
writers were Dan Jenkins and Bud Shrake, both of them to be writers who produce more personalized, at-
whom began their sportswriting careers at the Fort Worth mospheric, and analytical pieces. A canon of contem-
Press under legendary sports editor Blackie Sherrod. porary writers of sport would include names such as
Jenkins and Shrake led the way in making the magazine Frank Deford, David Halberstam, Mike Lupica, Jon
more mainstream in terms of sports coverage and cutting Krakauer, Roger Angell, Dave Anderson, William Nack,
edge in terms of writing style.The Sports Illustrated style Sally Jenkins, and the late Dick Schaap, all of whom use
forged “the blueprint for modern American sports jour- or used the techniques of literary journalism—genuine
nalism” (MacCambridge 1997, 4). storytelling. In that respect, they are like the best of
their immediate predecessors, stylists such as Jim Mur-
Women Sportswriters ray and A. J. Liebling.
As opportunities for women athletes increased in the Murray, who, as the West Coast correspondent, was
final three decades of the twentieth century, so, too, did one of the few bright lights on the beginning Sports Il-
opportunities for women sportswriters, who, increas- lustrated staff, wrote a nationally syndicated column
ingly, have not been limited to covering just women’s for the Los Angeles Times from 1961 until his death in
sports. A survey of fifty American sports departments 1998. Murray won the Pulitzer Prize in 1990. Liebling,
conducted by the Women’s Sports Foundation revealed a reporter for The New Yorker for almost thirty years
that from 1991 to 2001 the number of women cover- until his death in 1963, graced the pages of the maga-
ing sports rose from 6 percent of staff to 13 percent. zine with his essays on boxing. Noting that editor
Mary Garber of the Winston-Salem (North Carolina) Harold Ross tried to discourage him from covering
such “low-life” events, Liebling persevered, insisting that, Lloyd, A. (1977). The great prize fight. New York: Coward, McCann &
“Low-life was Ross’s word for the kind of subject that Geohegan.
MacCambridge, M. (1997). The franchise: A history of Sports Illus-
I did best” (1956, 6). Liebling’s pieces combined liter- trated Magazine. New York: Hyperion.
ary metaphors with blow-by-blow detail to lift a bout Messenger, C. K. (1981). Sport and the spirit of play in American fic-
tion: Hawthorne to Faulkner. New York: Columbia University Press.
from the low-life to a genuinely courageous and heroic Nugent, W. H. (1929). The sports section. The American Mercury, 16,
display. Liebling’s words did what good sportswriting 329–338.
should always strive to do—inform, entertain, and even Oriard, M. (1993). Reading football: How the popular press created an
American spectacle. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
inspire. Orodenker, R. (1996). The writer’s game: Baseball writing in America.
Dennis Gildea New York: Twayne.
Orodenker, R. (Ed.). (1996). Dictionary of literary biography: Twentieth-
See also Literature; Magazines; Newspapers century American sportswriters. Detroit, MI: Bruccoli Clark Layman.
Orodenker, R. (2001). Dictionary of literary biography: American sports-
writers and writers on sports. Detroit, MI: Bruccoli Clark Layman.
Poe, R. (1974). The writing of sports. Esquire, 173–176, 373–379.
Further Reading Rapoport, R. (Ed.). (1994). A kind of grace: A treasury of sports writ-
ing by women. Oakland, CA: RDR Books.
Adelman, M. L. (1986). A sporting time: New York City and the rise of
Rice, G. (1954). The tumult and the shouting: My life in sports. New
modern athletics, 1820–1870. Urbana and Chicago: University of
York: Barnes.
Illinois Press.
Schilke, P. (1987). The pilgrimage of Pierce Egan. Journal of Popular
Andrews, P. (1987). The art of sports writing. Columbia Journalism Re-
Culture, 21, 1–9.
view, 25–30.
Walker, S. (1934). City editor. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins Uni-
Berkow, I. (1986). Red: A biography of Red Smith. New York: McGraw-
Hill. versity Press.
Berryman, J. W. (1979). The tenuous attempts of Americans to “catch Woodward, S. (1949). Sports page. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Yardley, J. (1977). Ring: A biography of Ring Lardner. New York: Ran-
up with John Bull”: Specialty magazines and sporting journalism
dom House.
1800–1835. Canadian Journal of the History of Sport and Physical
Education, 10, 33–61.
Betts, J. R. (1953). Sporting journalism in nineteenth-century America.
American Quarterly, 5, 39–56.
Dizikes, J. (1981). Sportsmen and gamesmen. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Evensen, B. J. (1996). When Dempsey fought Tunney: Heroes, hokum, and
storytelling in the Jazz Age. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.
Fountain, C. (1993). Sportswriter: The life and times of Grantland Rice.
Squash
New York: Oxford University Press.
Frank, S. (1944). Sports extra. New York: Barnes.
Fullerton, H. (1928, April 21 ). The fellows who made the game. The
Saturday Evening Post, 18–19, 184–188.
Gallico, P. ( 1990). Farewell to sport. New York: International Poly-
S quash is an indoor racket sport, probably the fastest
sport inside four walls. Fifteen million people play
squash on fifty thousand courts in 130 countries.
glonics. (Original work published 1938)
Gildea, D. (1996). Cross-counter: The Heenan-Morrissey fight of 1858
and Frank Queen’s attack on the respectable press. Colby Quar- Origins
terly, 32, 11–22. Squash was invented at the Harrow school in England
Halberstam, D. (Ed.). (1999). The best American sports writing of the in about 1830 and spread to British colonies such as
century. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Harper, W. A. (1999). How you played the game: The life of Grantland Pakistan, Egypt, India, Australia, South Africa, New
Rice. Columbia: University of Missouri Press. Zealand, and Canada and during the 1880s to the
Holtzman, J. (1995). No cheering in the press box. New York: Henry
Holt.
United States. The U.S. version differed from the inter-
Inabinett, M. (1994). Grantland Rice and his heroes: The sportswriter as national version in that the squash court was narrower
mythmaker in the 1920s. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee and the ball harder. During the 1980s squash was stan-
Press.
Lieb, F. (1977). Baseball as I have known it. Lincoln: University of Ne- dardized in accord with the international version. The
braska Press. British Open Championship, which served as the world
Liebling, A. J. (1956). The sweet science. New York: Penguin.
Lipsyte, R. (1975). Sports world: An American dreamland. New York:
championship until 1967, was first played in 1920.
New York Times Book. The Women’s British Open was first played in 1922
SQUASH 1541
and was dominated by British women until 1960, with occurred, and women and men now share leadership of
Janet Morgan (1921–1990) winning the title ten times. the sport. A “women’s committee” was given responsi-
Even more successful was Heather McKay of Australia, bility for organizing the world championships for
who won seventeen championships in a row, the last women and junior women, as well as advancing op-
three from 1975 to 1977 after squash entered the open portunities for women and girls in squash generally.
era, with amateurs and professionals competing in the This responsibility included encouraging women to join
same tournament. In the United States the first national ISRF committees such as coaching, competitions, rules
championships were played in 1907, and the event was and referees, medical, and technical.
dominated by men and women from Philadelphia, In 1989 a ISRF survey identified the factors limiting
Boston, and Wilmington, Delaware. women’s participation in squash. Member nations (al-
most exclusively administered by men at the time)
Rules and Play funded men’s and boys’ championships but had no
People play squash on a court measuring 9.7 meters funds for women and girl players, who were less of a
long by 6.4 meters wide.Two players, each using a racket priority. Few women served in administrative roles or
approximately half the size of a tennis racket, strike a on governing committees. Professional women’s events
small black ball alternately against the front wall of the made up only 18 percent of the international tourna-
court. The ball is soft and “squashes” on impact, causing ments and paid out just 8 percent of the prize money.
it to bounce slowly and causing the players to work In a number of nations separate men’s and women’s as-
hard, both mentally and physically, to keep it in play. sociations managed the sport, with the inevitable du-
Squash has been judged to be the toughest cardio- plication of resources. The women’s associations had
vascular sport played with a ball, ahead of water polo significantly smaller player bases and limited capacity to
and soccer (association football). generate financial support and development.
When the International Squash Rackets Federation
Women Take the Court became known as the “World Squash Federation” the
From the beginning squash was a men’s sport, and new constitution provided for three vice presidents, one
men players outnumbered women by more than ten to of whom was required to be of the “other sex,” rather
one, with some nations such than specifying a woman as
as Egypt having no women before—a subtle but impor-
players at all. Squash was run tant change. Member nations
internationally by separate also were required to have a
men’s and women’s associa- single governing body, which
tions. In 1985 the men’s and meant that men’s associations
women’s associations merged and women’s associations
under the banner of the Inter- had to merge.
national Squash Rackets Fed- The World Squash Federa-
eration (ISRF), with the name tion took other steps to end
changed in 1992 to the male control. Athletes were
“World Squash Federation” now referred to as “he” or
(WSF). Despite predictions “she” as appropriate, not as
that involvement by women simply “he,” as had been the
would disappear under male A man and woman playing an early practice. The rules of squash
leadership, the opposite has version of squash racquets. were revised to make them
Golf is a day spent in a round of strenuous

idleness. ■ WILLIAM WORDSWORTH
gender neutral, and the content of federation publica- Early History

tions was made gender neutral and gender balanced. Golf has almost certainly been played at St. Andrews on
During the late 1990s squash became more open to the links fringing the North Sea since the first half of the
women around the world. For example, in 1997 Egypt fifteenth century, but the first definite mention of golf at
hosted a women’s grand prix final in a court situated St. Andrews dates to 1552. After the Reformation (a
outdoors on a resort island—a spectacular event that sixteenth-century religious movement marked ultimately
would have been unthinkable just a few years earlier in by rejection or modification of some Roman Catholic
that Muslim nation. Another example is Malaysia, which doctrine and practice and establishment of the Protes-
initially supported women’s squash because people there tant churches), the ancient cathedral city of St. Andrews
recognized that a woman might be able to achieve in- lost much of its importance, and after a period of de-
ternational recognition more easily than a man. In 1998 cline, in 1754 twenty-two “Noblemen and Gentlemen
Malaysia had two girls in the top eight world junior of the Kingdom of Fife” founded the Society of St. An-
rankings, one of them just fourteen years old. drews Golfers and contributed to a silver club that
In late 2004 Lee Beachill of England was first in the would be played for annually over the St. Andrews
Professional Squash Association men’s world rankings. links. These men were both founding a private golf so-
Australia’s Rachael Grinham was first in the women’s ciety to enjoy the sport and good company and in-
world rankings by the Women’s International Squash tending, by holding an annual competition for a
Players’ Association (WISPA). valuable trophy, to restore the reputation of St. An-
drews as the home of golf.
Governing Body This golf society was not the world’s oldest golf club;
The World Squash Federation (www.squash.org) is the that distinction belongs to the Gentlemen Golfers of
primary regulating organization for the sport. Leith, who later became the Honourable Company of
Edinburgh Golfers, but the latter had difficulty estab-
Edward J. (Ted) Wallbutton and
lishing itself at a satisfactory course and moved three
Susie Simcock
times during the period when the prestige of St. An-
drews was becoming firmly reestablished. By 1834 the
Further Reading leading position of St. Andrews was confirmed by the
World Squash Federation. (1999). The rules of squash. Retrieved De-
granting of royal patronage.
cember 27, 2004, from www.squash.org
The Royal & Ancient Golf Club
The title “Royal & Ancient Golf Club” was given to the
club by King William IV in 1834, and agreement was
later reached with the nearby Union Club to make use
St. Andrews of its premises, which overlooked the course. In 1854
the original part of the present clubhouse was built, and
S t. Andrews golf club—officially called the “Royal &

Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews”—is located in the
city of St. Andrews, Scotland. It is the governing body of
by the end of the nineteenth century golf clubs through-
out Great Britain looked to St. Andrews as the game’s
leading authority. This role was officially recognized in
golf throughout the world except for the United States, 1897 when the growth of the game led to a demand for
Canada, and Mexico. The Old Course at St. Andrews is a standard set of rules as opposed to a variety of local
the most famous golf course in the world and has been regulations; the members of the Royal & Ancient Golf
the venue for twenty-six Open Championships. Club agreed, with perhaps some reluctance, to take
ST. ANDREWS 1543
the course to eighteen holes as they were played twice,

and it was this change that led to the worldwide adop-
tion of the eighteen-hole standard. In 1856–1857 sep-
arate holes were cut for those golfers playing the
outward and inward holes, and soon afterward tees
were introduced to replace the practice of starting each
hole from the preceding green. The original clockwise
route that players took around the course was eventu-
The final hole at St. Andrews more than one- ally changed to counterclockwise, new bunkers were
hundred years ago. added periodically, and more recently six new champi-
onship tees were created to cope with the power of
modern professionals. Although the Old Course is not
control of the rules of the game, and the first Rules of the most difficult championship course in the world, it
Golf Committee was appointed. remains a unique and timeless challenge.
The role of the Royal & Ancient Golf Club steadily
became more wide ranging and international, until The Open Championship
today it has four main areas of responsibility. It ad- The Open Championship was begun by Prestwick
ministers the rules of golf, in conjunction with the Golf Club, and although the Royal & Ancient Golf
United States Golf Association; it runs the Open Cham- Club and the Honourable Company of Edinburgh
pionship (generally known as the “British Open” outside Golfers soon became involved and contributed to the
the United Kingdom) and other key events; it fosters the purchase of the famous Claret Jug first awarded in
development of golf throughout the world, using the 1872, not until 1920 did the Royal & Ancient Golf
profits from the Open Championship to do so; and it Club take over sole management of the event and the
continues to operate as a private golf club with more first championship committee was appointed.
than two thousand members. The first Open Championship was held at St. An-
drews in 1873, and hence the Old Course has been
The Old Course on the list of venues currently used for the champi-
The well-drained soils, short grass, natural humps and onship longer than any other. In all, twenty-six Opens
hollows, and banks of whin (a European shrub) made have been played there to date, and winners have in-
St. Andrews’s links land next to the sea a natural cluded some of the greatest names in golf. J. H. Tay-
ground for golf. Although many changes, both natural lor (1871–1963) and James Braid (1870–1950) each
and human-made, have been made through the cen- won twice at St. Andrews before World War I; the
turies, the basic qualities of the Old Course are the U.S. amateur Bobby Jones (1902–1971) won in
same as they were when golf was first played there. 1927; Sam Snead (1912–2002) won the first post–
In the early days golfers played twenty-two holes, al- World War II Open in 1946; the Australian Peter
though only eleven existed, and they were played twice: Thomson (b. 1929) won the second of his four
first out toward the River Eden and then back into the Opens in 1955; Jack Nicklaus (b. 1940) won con-
city. Homeward players had priority, but after holing secutive St. Andrews Opens in 1970 and 1978; and
out they had to tee off within one club’s length of the in the Millennium Open of 2000 Tiger Woods (b.
hole. This practice created both a terrible surface for 1975) was the winner with the lowest winning score
putting and considerable delays and confusion. In 1764 yet recorded at St. Andrews (269) and with one of the
the first four holes were made into two, thus reducing largest margins (eight strokes).
The Future Health Haven

The unique roles of the Royal & Ancient Golf Club and St. Moritz, initially one of many places known for its
of the Old Course in the history and development of waters’ curative qualities, became an aristocrat’s haven.
golf, combined with some willingness to adapt to chang- St. Moritz’s winter season started with the tale of Jo-
ing times and requirements, are likely to ensure that St. hannes Badrutt’s bet to a group of well-to-do English-
Andrews will maintain its position of importance in the men that the winter was as sunny as the summer. The
game and will continue to be regarded as “the home of village became a particularly English place with a resi-
golf,” where both playing and winning will have special dent parson and Anglican church to minister to the
significance for golfers from all over the world. English colony. Summer guests could play tennis (the
Palace hotel had one of the first indoor courts), golf,
Tony Sloggett
and croquet and could putt, bowl, sail, try their expert-
ise on the archery range and badminton court, and
Further Reading keep in form in the cricket net. In winter, they could
Behrend, J., & Lewis, P. N. (1998). Challenges and champions: Royal & skate, toboggan, and ski. The village’s cachet was suffi-
Ancient Golf Club 1754–1883. St. Andrews, UK: R & A Golf Club. cient for it to host the II Winter Olympic Games in
Behrend, J., Lewis, P. N., & Mackie, K. (2001). Champions and
guardians: The Royal and Ancient Golf Club 1884–1939. St. An-
1928 and the first post–World War II Games in 1948.
drews, UK: R & A Golf Club. As a health resort, St. Moritz was not the easiest
Jarrett, T. (1995). St. Andrews golf links: The first 600 years. Edinburgh, place to reach. The journey from London to Chur,
UK: Mainstream Sport.
Joy, D., & Macfarlane Lane, I. (1999). St. Andrews and the Open Cham- Switzerland, took two days, then came the exhausting
pionship: The official history. St. Andrews, UK: R & A Golf Club. stagecoach ride over the Julier Pass to arrive in time for
Mackie, K. (1995). Golf at St. Andrews. Gretna, LA: Pelican Publishing.
Muirhead, D., & Anderson, T. (2000). St. Andrews: How to play the Old
a late dinner. The Abula tunnel provided the railroad
Course. Edinburgh, UK: Mainstream Publishing. connection from 1904 on, cutting the journey time to
Olman, M. W., & Olman, J. M. (1995). St. Andrews and golf. Pinehurst, less than two days.
NC: Market Street Press.
Stanley, L. T. (1987). St. Andrews, the home of golf: The course, the his- The locals built hotel after hotel to cater to the in-
tory, the players.. London: HarperCollins. creasing numbers of royalty, aristocracy, and wealth.
The Kurhaus opened in 1865, and in quick succession,
the Beau Rivage, Bellevue,Victoria, Du Lac and, finally,
in 1896, the Palace opened. With its vast and lavish ap-
St. Moritz pointments, and irreproachable service, the Palace set
the standard and gave St. Moritz its mystique. The clien-
S t. Moritz—named for a martyred saint—has built

its reputation on attracting wealth and international
high society, so much so that other like-minded resorts
tele came for the air, for skating, tobogganing and, in
the years before World War I, for skiing.
are now measured against St. Moritz. When Godfrey St. Moritz Athletic Clubs
Dewey made successful efforts to obtain the Winter and Events
Olympic Games of 1932 for Lake Placid, New York, he The St. Moritz Skating Club, founded in 1880, prac-
did so to make his Lake Placid Club and surrounds ticed a disciplined style—as stiff, precise, and proper
into America’s St. Moritz. Averell Harriman used the as the English colony itself—that became known as
same formula when building America’s own St. Moritz, the English style. However, many Europeans had been
which he called Sun Valley, in the wilds of the cowboy much impressed by Jackson Haines, an American who
town Ketchum, Idaho. toured Europe giving exciting exhibitions in which
ST. MORITZ 1545
his arms and legs appeared to be utterly free. He set- rigeur. Longer and lower sleds were built to accom-
tled in Vienna, and the Viennese and other Europeans modate the lying position.
emulated his style, which became known as the Con- Skiing of a rough country sort by Engadine farmers
tinental style. As early as 1872, Viennese skaters came in 1860 gave way to sporting activities in the late nine-
to St. Moritz for a contest. The two styles skated side teenth century. These became formalized in 1904 in
by side on the hotel rinks in uneasy fashion until well the Ski Club Alpina. Generally, high society found ski-
after World War I. On the rink, too, curlers from Scot- ing uncongenial, but little by little as the Ski Club of
land could be found and a St. Moritz Curling Club Great Britain and the Public Schools Alpine Sports
came into being. Club organized their wealthy members into winter
Meanwhile, in the neighboring valley, a toboggan- sporting, St. Moritz became one of the venues where
ing club had been formed in Davos with members even women could find pleasure and where, as the
from many countries; the first international match Times of London explained, “Practise can be had with
took place in St. Moritz in 1883. Johannes Badrutt a minimum of fatigue.” The Engadine’s two main ski vil-
had laid out a toboggan run from St. Moritz to the villages were Davos, home to the first English ski club in
lage of Cresta, just above Celerina. The Cresta Run 1903, and St. Moritz. They vied with Mürren and Mon-
gave St. Moritz the first of its sporting cachets. At first, tana in the Bernese Oberland.
men and woman rode the Cresta on their small to-
boggans, then a Mr. Cornish lay on his sled, chin Olympic Games in
inches from the ice, and this Cresta style became de St. Moritz
Until 1936, it was never certain that Winter Olympic
Games would be a viable counterpart of the modern fes-
tival created by Pierre de Coubertin and first held in
1896. The Winter Games—retrospectively officially
called Olympic—were held at Chamonix, France, in
1924. The Scandinavians—who felt they were supreme
in Nordic sports—came only after assurances were given
that the games were not called “Olympic.” Norwegians
garnered half of the skating medals and all but one of
those given for skiing. After such overwhelming success,
there were calls in Norway to join in Winter Olympics.
In the Norwegian Ski Association a vote was taken to see
if a team should be sent to the 1928 Winter Olympics
to be held at St. Moritz: 29 voted for, 27 against.
The weather for these games was awful; one whole
day’s events had to be cancelled. Still, the Norwegians
won eight of twelve medals awarded for skiing and six
of nine for skating. The star of the St. Moritz Olympics
was the young Norwegian skater, Sonja Henie, who
dazzled both the judges and crowds.
Unbombed St. Moritz played host to the Winter
The Cresta run at St. Moritz. Olympics again in 1948. Europe was still recovering
from World War II, and the Cold War continued to

make life uncertain. Germans and Japanese were
banned from the games and the Russians were not
Stanley Cup
present. The poor weather and outworn facilities did
not give the Winter Olympic postwar era a particularly
good start. Scandinavians dominated the Nordic events,
T he Stanley Cup is awarded each year to the cham-
pions of the National Hockey League (NHL) of the
United States and Canada. It is the oldest trophy in
and French and Swiss skiers gained medals in the professional sports in North America and is widely
Alpine skiing competitions. One American woman, considered to be the most coveted prize in ice hockey.
Gretchen Fraser, put the Europeans on notice that the Each year NHL teams play an arduous regular season
United States was an up and coming “Alpine” nation schedule to qualify for the Stanley Cup playoffs. Only
with a win in the slalom. American Dick Button revo- sixteen of thirty teams qualify. After they make the
lutionized men’s skating with his acrobatic jumps, playoffs they must win four best-of-seven series to win
which gained him a gold medal. the Stanley Cup.
The Stanley Cup is unique in that the names of each
Constantly Re-Inventing winning team and all of its members are inscribed on
St. Moritz became known for its skijoring—being pulled it. A series of bands was added to the cup to allow
by a horse. Its ski school started in 1929, and the fol- space for the names of new champions to be inscribed
lowing year the Kilomètre lance, from which modern each year. Each band has the capacity for thirteen win-
speed skiing is derived, was developed. In 1969, St. ning teams, and so every thirteen years the oldest com-
Moritz hosted the now-annual Engadine marathon and pleted band is removed, and a blank band is added. The
in 1987 held the first Snowboard World Championship. original Stanley Cup was officially retired in 1969 and
The village—now town—has found a way to keep is now located in the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto,
up culturally with modernization yet it retains its old- Canada.
money style and remains one of the great playgrounds
of the rich. History
E. John B. Allen Sir Frederick Arthur Stanley of Preston, Canada, was ap-
pointed the sixth governor general of Canada in 1888
and quickly became an avid supporter of ice hockey.
Further Reading Three of his sons played on the Government House
Bushnell, A. S., Ed. (1948). Report of the United States Olympic Com- Rideau Hall Rebels hockey team, and his oldest son,
mittee 1948 Games XIV Olympiad London, England, V Olympic Win-
ter Games, St. Moritz. New York: United States Olympic Association. Arthur, is credited with organizing one of the first ice
Digiacomo, M. (2000). Apparently Unharmed. Riders of the Cresta hockey associations in Canada, the Hockey Associa-
Run. London: Texera.
Flower, R. (1982). The Palace. A profile of St. Moritz. London: Debrett.
tion of Ontario. Stanley recognized the need for a chal-
Phillips, E. (1996). The VII Olympiad: Paris 1924, St. Moritz 1928. Los lenge cup that would be won and held each year by the
Angeles: World Sport Research. leading hockey team in Canada. He resigned his post as
Pottinger, G. (1972). St. Moritz: An alpine caprice. London: Jarrolds.
Seth-Smith, M. (1976). The Cresta Run: A history of the St. Moritz To- governor general early because of the death of his
bogganing Club. New York: Foulsham. brother and returned to England in July of 1893, but he
remained an ardent supporter of ice hockey. Shortly
after returning to England he sent a letter to his suc-
cessor, Lord Kilcoursie, suggesting the development of
a challenge cup. He wrote in this letter that “there does
not appear to be an outward or visible sign of the cham-
STANLEY CUP 1547
There is a syndrome in sports called

“paralysis by analysis.” ■ ARTHUR ASHE
pionship at present. Considering the interest that Detroit Red Wings, the Chicago Blackhawks, and the
hockey matches now elicit and the importance of hav- New York Rangers—to compete for Stanley Cup su-
ing the games fairly played under generally recognized premacy. The next major expansion of the NHL oc-
rules, I am willing to give a cup that shall be annually curred in 1967 with the addition of six teams. In 1979
held by the winning club” (McFarlane 1978, 17–18). the NHL added four teams from the rival World Hockey
Lord Stanley’s offer was accepted, and the Stanley Association, including the Edmonton Oilers and a
Cup was born. Stanley arranged for the purchase of a player who would go on to become one of the greatest
gold-lined silver cup that was worth approximately $50 players in the history of Stanley Cup competition—
and would be awarded each year to the leading hockey Wayne Gretzky.
team in Canada. The administration and awarding of The Montreal Canadiens won twenty-four Stanley
the cup would be controlled by two trustees. These Cup championships between 1916 and 2004.They won
trustees, P. D. Ross and John Sweetland, played a piv- five straight Stanley Cups between 1956 and 1960 and
otal role in deciding who would compete for the Stan- six between 1965 and 1973. The Toronto Maple Leafs
ley Cup during the challenge era. won five Stanley Cup championships in the 1940s and
The Stanley Cup was originally an amateur trophy, four in the 1960s. The New York Islanders became the
and the winner was determined through a challenge first expansion dynasty when they won four straight
system. Any team that was willing to travel could chal- Stanley Cups between 1980 and 1983. The Edmonton
lenge the holders of the cup. The first winner of the Oilers were the last dynasty in Stanley Cup history when
Stanley Cup was the Montreal Amateur Athletic Asso- they won five championships between 1984 and 1990.
ciation hockey team in 1893. Between 1893 and 1910
the Stanley Cup was awarded to both amateur and pro- Significance
fessional teams, but in 1910 it became an exclusively The Stanley Cup is one of the most enduring trophies
professional trophy. An agreement that one team from in sports. It has been awarded every year since an in-
the East and one team from the West would compete to fluenza epidemic caused the 1919 series to be can-
determine the winner of the cup went into effect in celled—until 2005 when the Stanley Cup was not
1915. This agreement signaled the beginning of the awarded because of labor problems in the National
end of the challenge era. In the spring of 1917 the Seat- Hockey league. The hockey players competing for the
tle Millionaires became the first non-Canadian team to cup have become increasingly international. Players
win the Stanley Cup. from all over the world now compete to have their
In 1917 the National Hockey League was formed. names engraved on the most cherished trophy in ice
Between 1917 and 1926 the Stanley Cup was awarded hockey, the Stanley Cup.
to the winner of a playoff series between a team from
Laura Frances Chase
the NHL and a team from the Pacific Coast Hockey As-
sociation (PCHA). With the demise of the PCHA in
1926 the Stanley Cup became the sole property of the Further Reading
NHL. This event marked the beginning of the Stanley Diamond, D., Duplacey, J., & Zweig, E. (2003). The ultimate prize: The
Cup playoffs as we know them today. Then ten teams Stanley Cup. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel.
played in the NHL, and six of them would compete in Falla, J., Batten, J., Hornby, L., Johnson, G., & Milton, S. (2001). Quest
for the cup: A history of the Stanley Cup finals 1893–2001. Toronto,
the Stanley Cup playoffs. However, the Great Depres- Canada: Key Porter Press.
sion of the 1930s eventually claimed four of these Fischler, S., & Fischler, S. (1996). Great book of hockey: More than 100
years of fire on ice. Lincolnwood, IL: Publications International.
teams and left only six teams—the Toronto Maple Houston, W. (1992). Pride and glory: 100 years of the Stanley Cup.
Leafs, the Montreal Canadiens, the Boston Bruins, the Toronto, ON: McGraw-Hill Ryerson.
Nobody roots for Goliath. ■ WILT CHAMBERLAIN
Jenish, D. (1996). Stanley Cup: One hundred years of hockey at its cle size, that determines capacity to move a load. The bi-
best. Toronto, Canada: McClelland and Stewart.
ceps, for example, anchors to the scapula and insert at
McFarlane, B. (1978). Stanley Cup fever: The incredible story of the men
and the team’s who have fought for hockey’s most prized trophy. the radius. At one end of the radius and ulna, the two
Toronto, Canada: Pargurian Press. bones of the forearm, is the elbow, the joint about
McFarlane, B. (1999). Stanley Cup fever: More than a century of hockey
greatness. North York, Canada: Stoddart Publishers. which they move, and at the other end is the load. The
McKinley, M. (2000). Putting a roof on winter. Vancouver, Canada: higher up the radius the biceps attaches, the greater its
Greystone Books.
capacity to move a load, a fact that becomes obvious if
Roxborough, H. (1964). The Stanley Cup story. Toronto, Canada: Ry-
erson Press. one imagines the forearm as a lever. To take an exam-
Young, S. (1989). 100 years of dropping the puck. Toronto, Canada: ple of a lever, one might imagine the ulna and radius as
McClelland & Stewart.
a door, the elbow the hinge and the knob the point of
insertion. The door will be difficult to open with the
knob at the hinge, the point of insertion on the human
forearm, but easy to open with the knob at the end, its
Steeplechase Racing customary place on a door. A chimpanzee derives
strength in part from the biceps’ comparatively high at-
See Horse Racing tachment on the radius. As with the number of muscle
fibers, heredity determines a muscle’s point of origin
and insertion.
A muscle moves a load by contracting or shortening
Steroids its fibers. The body does not recruit every fiber to move
a light load, but only by contracting them all can it
See Performance Enhancement move the maximum load. During the eighteenth cen-
tury the Italian physician Luigi Galvani demonstrated
that electricity stimulates a muscle to contract. A nerve
carries electricity in the form of ions—molecules with
Strength a chemical charge. The charge is an electrochemical sig-
nal that has a cascade, rippling down the length of a
S trength is the capacity to move a load. Many sports

require a high level of strength for peak perform-
ance. Strength is a function of the musculoskeletal sys-
muscle fiber and causing its filaments to slide past
each other as the fingers of two hands slide past each
other in interlocking. This sliding of filaments bunches
tem. The larger a muscle, the heavier the load it can a fiber together and is by definition the contraction of
move. A muscle’s size depends on the number of its a muscle.
fibers and their thickness. Heredity determines the num- The Russian fitness instructor Pavel Tsatsouline de-
ber of fibers. Age, diet, and exercise determine thickness. scribes three types of strength. Maximum strength is the
A muscle does not directly move a load but rather capacity to move the maximum load in a single effort.
moves a bone to which it attaches. Every muscle has An athlete who lifts the bumper of a car displays max-
two attachments: origin and insertion. In the parlance imum strength. Explosive strength is the capacity to
of physiology, the point where a muscle does not move unleash force in a burst. A basketball player who leaps
a bone is the point of origin, and the point where a for a rebound displays this type of strength. Strength en-
muscle does move a bone is the point of insertion. The durance is the capacity to move a load over time. A cy-
point of insertion is the second factor, along with mus- clist who climbs a mountain or an athlete who performs
STRENGTH 1549
A woman building strength

through weight training.
Source: istockphoto.com/uploaded by: bankok.
men. In the end brain trumped brawn: Van Helsing’s

vampire hunters killed the undead. Yet, people continue
to have a quasi-Darwinian admiration of strength, a
conviction that the stronger vanquish the weaker in the
struggle for survival.
Despite the belief that evolution has blessed humans
with innumerable advantages, we cannot boast excep-
tional strength. A 54-kilogram chimpanzee is on aver-
age three to five times stronger than a man. An ant can
drag 5,000 percent of its weight, whereas a human can
drag only 60 percent of his or her weight. Even among
hominids (erect bipedal primate mammals comprising
recent humans and extinct ancestral and related forms)
humans rate poorly. The skeletons of Homo erectus and
Homo neanderthals are robust and their slots for the ori-
gin and insertion of tendons wide compared with these
traits in humans. Even Cro-Magnon, the earliest
anatomically modern people of Europe, were more ro-
bust than we are. In the parlance of paleoanthropology
we are the gracile (slender) hominid. Simply put, we
have less muscle and are surely weaker than were our
closest hominid kin.
Women have on average two-thirds the strength of
one hundred push-ups displays this coupling of strength men because they have less muscle. The disparity is
and endurance. greater in the upper body, where women have 40–60
percent the strength of men, and less in the lower body,
Differences in Strength where the percentage rises to 75. The notion that
Long before humans understood how muscles work women are the weaker sex is a holdover from the Vic-
they mythologized men of strength.Whether literary cre- torian era. Where muscle mass is equal, women are as
ations or historical figures Hercules and Samson rose strong as men. To put the matter another way, a muscle
above the common man through their strength. The an- fiber has the same strength in women as in men. At the
cients equated strength with virility, which itself implied level of the muscle fiber the distinction between female
virtue. Strength was thus an ethical quality as well as a and male vanishes.
physical fact. However, strength can be an ambiguous
quality. The author of the biblical book of Ecclesiastes Strength Exercises
said that chance more than strength determines the out- By one estimate women and men can increase strength
come of events. The English writer Mary Shelley’s 30–60 percent through exercise. Coaches and athletes
Frankenstein monster had prodigious strength but used distinguish between two types of strength exercises.
it for evil. The same is true of the English writer Bram Isometric exercise causes muscles to tense but not con-
Stoker’s Count Dracula. The character Abraham Van tract. An athlete who pushes against a wall performs
Helsing estimated the count’s strength as that of twenty isometric exercise because his or her muscles do not
Strength
Testing Strength in Siberia
The boys know many games for testing strength. not mirror the reality of competition. A basketball player,
A boy lies down flat on the ground with his for example, must leap for several rebounds rather than
arms out-stretched. Three others grab him, one merely one during a game. Better, they assert, to build
by each arm and one by the legs, and carry him strength through multiple repetitions of an exercise.
along, and it is up to him to hold himself stiff as Rather than free weights or machines an athlete may use
a rod as long as possible. Or one boy holds a the body, as in a push-up or pull-up, as the load.
wooden stick in his elbow joints while two oth- An undercurrent of sexism still circulates in some cir-
ers take hold of the ends of the stick and lift cles of strength training. Women, critics contend, sacri-
their legs from the ground. The boy then tries to fice femininity in attempting to build strength; if women
carry these two a few steps ahead. Or two men must train, critics argue, women’s delicate physique con-
sit down on the ground facing one another, legs fines them to light weights. The issue of gender and
straight and feet against feet. They both hold on strength pivots as much on the definition of femininity
to a leather strap or belt and each tries to pull as on innate ability to increase strength. Men would do
the other boy over to him. Or a boy lies on the well to define femininity broadly enough to acknowl-
ground and another, kneeling in front of him, edge muscle mass and strength as female attributes as
grabs him under the knees and tries to pull him much as male attributes.
into an upright position, or sitting down they A second type of error confuses weight lifting with
pull each other by the middle finger. They make strength training. Whereas many athletes lift weights to
stilts in a jiffy from suitable trees, but they are increase strength, bodybuilders lift weights solely to
very clumsy in using them. They also have lots of sculpt their physique. The prospect that a bodybuilder
fun racing on their knees. will grower stronger is incidental to the purpose of en-
Source: Sverdrup, H. U. (1938). With the people of the tundra (pp. 78–79). larging muscle and reducing fat to the point that he be-
Oslo, Norway: Gyldendal Norsk Forlag.
comes “ripped,” the lexicon for extreme muscle definition.
Bodybuilding underscores the fact that most athletes do
not toil to increase strength as an end in itself.The discus
shorten despite the greatest exertion so long as the wall thrower wishes to increase the length of his toss and the
holds firm. Isotonic exercise requires muscles to con- tennis player the speed of her serve. In short, athletes
tract. An athlete who curls a dumbbell from waist to want to grow stronger in order to improve performance
chin performs isotonic exercise because he or she con- in a sport.
tracts the biceps in moving a load.
Weight training is a form of isotonic exercise. An ath- Strength Competitions
lete may use free weights: dumbbells and barbells that A small group of sports demands strength more than
are not attached to a supporting structure. The absence other attributes.The Scottish Highland Games bill them-
of support requires an athlete to balance as well as lift a selves as the oldest strength competition at one thou-
free weight. Alternatively an athlete may use a machine sand years. The seven events include the familiar
that supports weight through its range of motion, obvi- hammer throw and shot put, but others are unique. The
ating the need to balance the weight while lifting it. caber throw requires participants to hoist a 68-kilogram
Controversy rages over the number of repetitions of an tree trunk, balance it during an 18-meter run, and toss
exercise that an athlete should perform. Proponents of it for distance and accuracy: The trunk must align par-
low-repetition exercise assert that only exertion for a allel to the participant’s line of approach for full points.
single repetition pits an athlete’s strength against the The event that makes explicit the competition’s ethos
maximum load. Critics counter that such exercise does (distinguishing character, sentiment, moral nature, or
STRENGTH 1551
Strength does not come from physical capacity. It

comes from an indomitable will. ■ MAHATMA GANDHI
guiding beliefs) is the lifting of massive stones. Partici- The quest for strength leads some athletes to supple-
pants call them the “manhood stones,” affirming the old ment their diet with anabolic steroids, a class of chemi-
prejudice that strength is solely a masculine attribute. cals that mimics the male hormone testosterone in
The Basque people have their own stone-lifting con- building muscle mass and strength. One researcher es-
test in Ustaritz, France. Contestants hoist a stone timates that 1 million athletes in the United States use
around which the tribal elders once met. Basques be- steroids, generating $10 million in annual sales on the
lieve that the stone lift, more than a strength contest, black market. Studies document that athletes on steroids
commemorates their Druid origins. The Basque stone is may increase strength 5–10 percent in six weeks. Once
a religious symbol, and the men who hoist it demon- off steroids, however, athletes return to their original
strate through their strength that the gods favor them. strength within six weeks.The fact that strength gains are
The stone lift affirms strength as a divine attribute. temporary may goad athletes to take steroids for months
Since 1977 Universal Studios in the United States or even years. Long use increases the risk of liver
has hosted the World’s Strongest Man competition. It
draws inspiration from the contests in Scotland and
France but belongs to the machine era of Henry Ford
and the Wright brothers. Stones and tree trunks give way
to the Boeing 747, which contestants must pull along a
runway. Another event requires contestants to lift a tire
from a semitrailer. The competition pits man against
machine in the tradition of John Henry. In this respect
it is less a world event than a U.S. one in its ethos.
Diet and Drugs

Weight lifters and their ilk center their diet on protein
in hopes of growing strong. The body synthesizes pro-
tein into muscle. Most protein replaces muscle that the
body has metabolized, although when diet and exercise
are ideal a fraction may build new tissue that increases
the muscle mass of an athlete. The body adds muscle by
thickening muscle fibers, not by creating new fibers.
The novice may believe the fallacy that if the consump-
tion of 100 grams of protein a day will add 1 gram of
muscle, then 200 grams of protein will add 2 grams.
Testimonials in muscle magazines promote this fallacy
in an effort to sell protein powder for mixing with milk.
Some athletes consume 400 grams of protein a day,
oblivious to the fact that they will excrete three-quarters
of it. An athlete needs roughly 1 gram of protein per
kilogram of body mass per day. A 100-kilogram athlete This illustration from A Treatise on Gym-
therefore needs not 400 grams of protein a day but nastic Exercises (1828) is titled “To Raise
rather 100 grams, the amount of protein in 481 grams the Body by Strength of the Arms on the
of salmon or 396 grams of cheese. Horizontal Bar.”
for the total weight lifted in two events: the snatch and
the clean and jerk. In 1976 385 kilograms, the sum of
both events, won the gold medal. In 1980 the winning
sum leaped to 422.5 kilograms but has since held
nearly steady, registering 425 kilograms at both the
2000 and 2004 games.
Counterintuitive as it may seem, the nearer athletes
approach maximum strength the less decisive strength
will be in separating winners from losers. Near the max-
imum athletes will have little room to improve and
thereby distinguish themselves from rivals, who will be
only infinitesimally less strong. At the maximum all
elite athletes will be identical in strength, nullifying it as
an advantage. To put the matter another way, when all
athletes are at the maximum they will all bump up
against the same strength ceiling.
Near the maximum athletes may work less to build
that last iota of strength and more to maintain
strength throughout their career. A baseball player
who can hit the ball 137 meters at age forty may ex-
tend his career and the earnings from it a decade be-
A young woman lifts herself completely off yond those of players whose strength deteriorates with
the ground. Source: istockphoto/hidesy. age. Whether athletes will covet such longevity re-
mains open to question. Multimillion-dollar contracts
make athletes financially secure after only a few years,
damage, heart disease, and cancer. The U.S. football obviating the need to play longer than they desire. Yet,
player Lyle Alzado’s admission that he used steroids athletes need a long career if they are to set records
throughout his career and his death from cancer at age and secure their place in the history of sports. If for no
forty-three caused a furor over the abuse of steroids. other reason people remember the U.S. baseball play-
Even if athletes remain healthy they risk detection. Nu- ers Lou Gehrig and Cal Ripken for longevity. For the
merous associations, including the International same reason Italians revere cyclist Gino Bartali, who
Olympic Committee and the National Collegiate Ath- in 1948 won the Tour de France ten years after his first
letic Association, ban the use of steroids. Public exposure victory, a feat no other cyclist has matched. His suc-
of steroid use tarnishes athletes, prompting the charge cess was possible only because Bartali remained
that they do not play fairly. The U.S. baseball player strong throughout his career: He was the best moun-
Barry Bonds is the latest of many athletes to lose respect tain climber among cyclists of his generation. Others
for having used steroids. were faster on level ground, but none had his strength
and the discipline to maintain it during two decades
Toward Maximum Strength as a climber. The future may belong to athletes such as
Humans cannot increase strength ad infinitum. Even Bartali who make strength the foundation of their
now we may be near the maximum. Since 1976 the In- durability.
ternational Olympic Committee has awarded medals Christopher Cumo
STRESS 1553
Strength is the product of struggle. ■ UNKNOWN
Further Reading racism, life changes, etc.) produce stress reactions. A

Ebben, W., & Jensen, R. (1998). Strength training for women: De- popular investigation of psychological stress focused
bunking myths that block opportunity. Retrieved February 22,
2005, from http://www.physsportsmed.com/issues/1998/05may/
on identifying common life changes or events ranging
ebben.htm from holidays, to sexual difficulties, to death of a
Feinberg, B. (1993). The musculoskeletal system. Langhorne, PA: spouse. Sport research tended to concentrate on factors
Chelsea House.
Serafini, A. (1981). The muscle book. New York: Arco. such as the pressure of important sporting events, ex-
Tsatsouline, P. (2003). The naked warrior. St. Paul, MN: Dragon Door pectations of significant others, coaching and playing
Publications.
Williams, M. (1989). Beyond training: How athletes enhance perform-
demands, financial difficulties, and the like. This point
ance legally and illegally. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press. of reference also leads to the use of such terms as good
stress (eustress) and bad stress (distress).
The second part of the definition focuses more on the
stress response. This orientation emphasizes the physio-
logical and emotional responses (such as arousal and
Stress anxiety) or the consequences of being placed in de-
manding sporting situations. Stress as a response was
S tress has been identified as a critical facet in sport,

influencing individual and team performance as well
as social functioning. The inability to manage stress in
popular because scientists could study the relationship
between particular biological-physiological reactions and
further consequences such as illness or performance
sport is strongly associated with increased anxiety and breakdowns. Physiological effects included activation of
burnout, increased aggression and violence, decreased the adrenal glands, producing stress hormones (cortisol,
self-esteem and enjoyment, decreased performance ex- aldosterone, and epinephrine). The stress response in-
pectancies, and performance difficulties. Nevertheless, cluded increased neural excitability, cardiovascular
one of the primary challenges in understanding and changes, increased metabolic activity, neurological
controlling stress revolves around conceptualizing it. sweating, and changes in gastrointestinal functioning.
This dilemma is revealed in the following definition of Thus, a stress response to sport stressors could included
stress: increased heart rate and heart stroke volume, sweating
palms (and other body parts), muscular tension or con-
1. Generally, any force that, when applied to a system
trol problems, butterflies in the stomach, feelings of nau-
causes some significant modification of its form usually
sea, diarrhea, and need to urinate. Psychological
with the connotation that the modification is a deforma-
responses such as emotional reactions (fear and anxiety)
tion or a distortion. The term is used with respect to
and changes in cognitive information processing are
physical, psychological and social forces and pressures.
also important.
Note that stress in this sense is a cause; it is the an-
Both the stimulus and response conceptualizations
tecedent of some effect. 2. A state of psychological ten-
are limiting. Researchers have found large individual
sion produced by the kinds of forces or pressures alluded
differences in how athletes (and nonathletes) react to
to in 1. Note that stress in this sense is an effect; it is the
the same objective stimulus. Because of these difficul-
result of other pressures. When meaning 2 is intended,
ties, the general consensus in the research field is that
the term stressor is typically used to refer to the causal
stress is best conceptualized as a process involving a dy-
agent.” (Reber and Reber 2001, 716)
namic interaction between the person and the environ-
The first part of the definition identifies stress as a ment (Lazarus 1999). This viewpoint recognizes that an
stimulus. Research based on this approach emphasized athlete’s physiological, emotional, and cognitive re-
how social-cultural factors (social class, age, gender, sponses to sporting stressors will be heavily determined
by the athlete’s motives, beliefs, goals, cognitive and important aspect of this process is determining the po-
coping abilities, physical conditioning, and other inter- tential consequences of succeeding or failing to meet the
nal factors. stressor demands. Secondary appraisal involves deter-
mining “what can be done.” This evaluation involves de-
The Stress Process termining who is or was responsible, future expectancies,
To better understand the stress process in sport per- perceived control, and coping options.
formers, it is best to identify the critical components of The appraisal of environmental demands and per-
the process. These components are environmental de- ceived consequences will produce discrete emotions
mands, cognitive appraisal, physiological arousal, ac- (i.e. anxiety, anger, fear, happiness) and associated phys-
tion tendencies or impulses, coping strategies, and iological states such as arousal and action impulses. For
emotions. A comprehensive discussion of these com- example, anxiety occurs if in the athlete’s judgment, he
ponents and their role in the stress process is beyond or she is likely to fail to achieve success in a very im-
the scope of this article (see, instead, Further Reading). portant event. This emotion is usually associated with
Nevertheless, a succinct discussion will help the reader high arousal and an action impulse to escape or with-
understand the role of these components in sport stress. draw. Coping is a critical process that can moderate this
Environmental demands create the initial stressor emotional experience. Sport researchers have recog-
conditions. Common sport stressors include opponent nized that coping strategies play an important role in
and teammate abilities and actions, match importance, the ways in which athletes of various ages manage and
referee decisions, playing conditions, sport crowd or change stress and emotion. Coping refers to cognitive
audience behavior, coach’s actions, equipment, financial and behavioral actions used to manage the external
pressures, and the support and expectations of signifi- and internal demands of a stressful situation. Most con-
cant others. None of these stressors, however, are suffi- ceptual models of coping feature at least two broad
cient in themselves to produce stress responses. coping dimensions. Problem-focused coping refers to ef-
Research has indicated that in the majority of cases it forts that attempt to change the situational demands.
is how the athlete evaluates the meaning of the stressors Common problem-focused strategies in sport include
that produces stress responses. increasing effort, planning, and information seeking.
The late Richard Lazarus suggested that psychological Emotion-focused coping are efforts to manage emo-
stress requires a judgment that the person-environment tions. This type of coping includes strategies like seek-
interactions involve one of the three stress relationships: ing emotional support, acceptance, relaxation, and
harm-loss, threat, challenge. Harm-loss and threat are positive reappraisal. Many researchers propose a third
negative interpretations, whereas challenge involves the category, avoidance coping, which includes individu-
person perceiving possible benefits but requiring high als’ efforts to remove themselves either physically or
cognitive and physical effort. The type of stress relation- mentally from the stressful situation. The strategies se-
ship is dependent on the individual’s internal character- lected by an athlete are contingent on (a) the appraisal
istics, the cognitive appraisal of the environmental that the strategy will help manage the situation, and
demands and one’s ability to manage these demands (b) the confidence the athlete has in using the strategy
(their coping ability). There are two interrelated types of in that situation.
appraisal. Primary appraisal involves determining “what Coping strategies can impact the stress process both
is at stake?” The athlete must quickly evaluate, much of in the competition preparation stage and when the ath-
which is done automatically, if the sporting situation is lete actually confronts a stressor. For example, an ath-
important to one’s goals (motivation aspect) and whether lete can plan a course of strategic action to neutralize an
the situation threatens, harms, or benefits these goals. An opponent’s strengths. Other preparation strategies
STRESS 1555
might include positive imagery, suppressing competing cular tension can influence fine motor control and dex-
activities (e.g., partying with friends), and fine tuning terity. For example, research with elite rifle and pistol
physical and technical training. Successful confrontation shooters show that the ability to control heart rate and
coping strategies might include utilizing coaching as- muscular tension is critical for top performance. Top
sistance and the competition plan, positive self-talk, golf professionals have reported being unable to feel
arousal control, and increasing effort. their arms and hands when faced with putts that are
worth hundreds of thousands of dollars.
How Stress Impacts Performance Stress can also influence cognitive information pro-
We can understand how stress can affect sporting per- cessing such as perception, decision making, memory,
formance by examining how emotional experience can and response selection. Anxiety states can impair the
potentially disrupt underlying performance mecha- ability to identify important information. The com-
nisms. Stress can exert an influence on the physiologi- bination of anxiety and arousal can produce two
cal components of performance via an increase in performance-impairing states: (a) narrowing of atten-
arousal. Increased heart rate, sweaty hands, and mus- tion such that critical information needed for optimal
performance is missed or (b) hyper-
distractibility such that the athlete
is again unable to focus on the
important information. Examples
from sport include mistakenly pass-
ing a ball to the wrong team, for-
getting part of a sequence in a play,
being unable to think, and not rec-
ognizing the position of athletes
in either defensive or offensive
formations.
Emotional control problems as-
sociated with stress can also cause
problems such as violence or with-
draw from the sporting situation.
Action impulses associated with
strong emotions such as anger may
result in one athlete striking an-
other. There have been numerous
cases in the media in which athletes
have loss control in highly stressful
situations and have attacked other
A therapist massages the

neck of a client to relieve
stress.
Source: istockphoto.com/
The difference between a successful person and others

is not a lack of strength, not a lack of knowledge, but
rather a lack of will. ■ VINCE LOMBARDI
athletes, coaches, referees, or spectators.These are clearly faster, more skillful, and more strategically adept, they
cases where athletes have lacked or chosen not to use will be better able to handle more demanding sport sit-
coping strategies to manage their action impulses. uations. However, increased ability often results in the
Prolonged experience of stress-related anxiety and sad- athlete entering a higher level of competition with in-
ness may contribute to athletes withdrawing from sport, crease demands. Psychological-skills and coping-skills
disrupting everyday social functioning, experiencing ill- training can help athletes manage stress. There are a
ness, and in extreme cases, committing suicide. Burnout number of effective skills such as relaxation, energizing,
in sport is becoming an increasing concern in organized biofeedback, goal setting, imagery, self-talk, cognitive re-
sport at both the youth and adult level. Burnout is asso- structuring, problem solving, time management, refo-
ciated with emotional exhaustion, feelings of isolation, cusing, and attention control that could help manage
low motivation, negative feelings, and concentration stress. Some intervention strategies may affect only one
problems. Burnout results from overtraining, combined component of stress (i.e., progressive relaxation targets
with prolonged exposure to high pressure to perform. muscular and arousal activation), whereas other strate-
Some sport research indicates that athletes who have a gies may directly or indirectly affect several components
tendency to have very high, self-imposed standards and (i.e., goal setting can impact the adoption of specific mo-
have an inability to accept flaws or failures within them- tivational goals and motivate changes in physical and
selves are at greater risk for burnout. psychological training).
Sport research has found that coping-skills training
Managing Stress can help athletes learn a number of coping skills to ef-
Given that sporting demands can produce undesirable fectively manage stress and emotion. Stress Inoculation
consequences, it is important to identify ways to either Training, developed by Dr. Donald Meichenbaum, is a
reduce the stressor demands or help athletes manage coping-skills training intervention in which athletes
stress more effectively. There are several key areas of learn a variety of coping responses. Athletes practice in-
stress management interventions including environ- dividually relevant coping skills, starting with small
mental management; the athlete’s physical, technical, manageable doses of stress and progressing to more
and strategic preparation; and the athlete’s psycholog- stress-inducing settings. A second program, developed
ical skills and coping strategies. Since stress involves an by Dr. Ronald Smith, called Stress Management Train-
interaction between the environment and the person, ining, involves having athletes develop an “integrated cop-
terventions should target both aspects of this relation- ing response” that enables them to better manage
ship. Environmental management can include providing stressful situations. The integrated coping response com-
supportive coaching and parental feedback, placing ath- bines both a breathing-relaxation component and self-
letes in training and competitive conditions that pro- talk. Athletes practice this integrated response to control
mote challenge rather than threat, developing training high levels of arousal generated through a technique
programs that allow for proper physical and psycho- called “induced affect.”
logical adaptation and allow sufficient rest for recovery, This article has emphasized that stress is a complex
and modifying sporting equipment and rules to pro- process that results from a dynamic transaction between
mote the development of skills, greater success, and the environment and the person. The sporting environ-
enjoyment. ment places numerous demands on the athlete, the ath-
Since stress occurs when athletes perceive an imbal- lete evaluates the meaning of these demands and
ance between situational demands and their resources, responds, and the environment counters with new de-
one means to reduce stress is to improve physical, tech- mands. It is difficult to determine what types of situa-
nical, and tactical expertise. As athletes become stronger, tions and sports are inherently more stressful than
SUMO 1557
others since so much depends on what the athlete

brings to the situation in terms of goals, motives, and
physical and psychological skills. The ability to cope
Sumo
with the competitive pressure is critical in all levels of
sport to ensure positive psychological growth. S umo wrestling is a Japanese sport in which a con-
testant loses if he is forced out of the ring or if any
part of his body except the soles of his feet touches the
Peter R. E Crocker and
ground. A sumo match usually lasts a few seconds and
Valerie Hadd
only in rare cases a minute or more.
See also Burnout; Psychology
History
Some historians have used archaeological evidence,
Further Reading such as the terra-cotta figures known as “haniwa,” to
Crocker, P. R. E., Kowalski, K. C., & Graham, T. R. (2002). Emotional claim that sumo had prehistoric origins. Others have
control intervention for sport. In J. Silva & D. Stevens (Eds.), Psy-
chological foundations of sport (pp. 155–176). Boston: Allyn & claimed the origins of sumo in the mythic hand-to-hand
Bacon. combats recorded in the Kojiki (Record of Ancient Mat-
Crocker, P. R. E., Kowalski, K. C, Hoar, S. D., and McDonough, M.
H. (2003). Emotions in sport across adulthood. In M. R. Weiss
ters) of the eighth century. However, we can reliably
(Ed.), Developmental sport and exercise psychology: A lifespan per- trace sumo no further back than 821, when sumo tour-
spective (pp. 333–356). Morgantown WV: Fitness Information naments, along with archery and equestrian archery
Technology.
Gould, D., Udry, E., Tuffey, S. & Loehr, J. (1996). Burn-out in compet- tournaments, were among the three great annual tour-
itive junior tennis players: I. A quantitative psychological assess- naments of the imperial court.
ment. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 322–340.
Hanin, Y.L. Emotions in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Sumo tournaments were staged on the grounds of
Hardy, L., Jones, G., & Gould, D. (1996). Understanding psychologi- the imperial palace. An area behind the Shishinden
cal preparation for sport: Theory and practice of elite performers. Lon- (Hall for State Ceremonies) was strewn with white sand
don: John Wiley & Sons.
Jones, G., & Hardy, L. (1990). Stress & performance in sport. Chich- for the event. Thirty-four wrestlers, drawn from the
ester, UK: Wiley. “right” and “left” imperial bodyguards, entered a garden
Lazarus, R. S. (1999). Stress and emotion: A new synthesis. New York:
Springer Publishing.
to the accompaniment of two drums and two gongs.
Meichenbaum, D. (1993). Stress inoculation training: A 20-year update. After the wrestlers came musicians, dancers, and offi-
In P. M. Lehrer & R. L. Woolfolk (Eds.), Principles and practices of cials, then the emperor and his courtiers. Members of
stress management (2nd ed.; pp. 373–406). New York: The Guild-
ford Press. the “left” team wore paper hollyhocks in their hair, the
Reber, A.S. & Reber, E.S. (2001). The penguin dictionary of psychology. “right” team wore calabash blossoms. Matches were de-
London, New York: Penguin Books.
Smith, R. E. (1984). Theoretical and treatment approaches to anxi-
cided when a wrestler fell or was dragged by his oppo-
ety reduction. In J. M. Silva & R. S. Weinberg (Eds.), Psychologi- nent to his team’s tent. After each match the musicians
cal foundations of sport (pp. 157–170). Champaign, IL: Human beat their drums, banged their gongs, and performed a
Kinetics.
ritual dance.
These tournaments were suspended from 1120 to
1156, revived intermittently until 1185, and then dis-
continued. However, sumo survived in other forms—
Strongman as no sumo (field wrestling) and kusa sumo (grass
wrestling) or as shinji-zumo (wrestling in the service of
Competition the gods). The most famous version of the latter form
was karasu-zumo (crow wrestling). It was staged at the
See Bodybuilding; Powerlifting; Weightlifting Kamo Shrine in Kyoto, where boys who represented the
Sumo wrestling
in Tokyo, Japan.
Source: istockphoto/bparren.
god Takemikazuchi wrestled boys

who represented the secular world.
Onna-zumo (women’s wrestling)
seems to have been staged for the
titillation of men.
During the early eighteenth cen-
tury Yoshida Oikaze and other
toshiyori (elders) codified sumo
wrestling and introduced some of
the rituals that make sumo distinc-
tively Japanese. Matches were
staged to entertain the shoguns
(military governors) who, until the
Meiji Restoration of 1868, exerted
greater political power than did the
emperors. According to writer P. L.
Cuyler (1979), “Shogunal sumo
lifted the sport out of the vulgar
world of entertainment and im-
parted to it a sense of ritual that later
became its major characteristic.”
Practice
Even today the administration of
sumo wrestling is a complex mix-
ture of traditional and modern
elements. All sumo wrestlers are
members of a heya (room), the
equivalent of a stable in horse racing. The most famous head of the family, did the Yoshida family agree to let
of these heya were established in Edo (modern Tokyo) the sumo organization decide which wrestlers should
between 1751 and 1781. The elders who ran the heya be elevated to the top rank.
received official recognition by the shogun in 1773 and The hierarchy of ranks is complicated. Beginners enter
by the emperor in 1885. At that time 105 elders ex- as maezumo (before sumo). They receive room, board,
isted. In 1926 the organization was restructured when and a small allowance. They also receive new names,
heya from Tokyo joined those from Osaka to form a which are written in kanji (Chinese characters). By con-
more nearly national organization. In 1958 this or- trast, not only do Japanese baseball players keep their
ganization became the Nihon Sumo Kaikyo (Japanese own names, but also, on their uniforms, these names are
Sumo Association). In 1989 forty-one heya were infor- spelled in the Latin alphabet. If the maezumo are suc-
mally organized into five great families. The Yoshida cessful in the six annual fifteen-day tournaments, they
family, which claims to have been involved with sumo rise to become jonokuchi, who are given individual rank-
wrestling since the thirteenth century, was so dominant ings. Further successes mean promotion to the ranks of
that not until 1951, after a teenager became the official jonidan, sandamme, makushita, and juryo. Only about
SUMO 1559
one in sixty wrestlers rises to juryo rank. If he reaches dle determiners). The circle is formed by twenty bags of
this rank, he is classified as sekitori and allowed to rice straw stuffed with earth. The ring is about 50 cen-
change from a black or dark blue loincloth to a white timeters high with a diameter of 4.5 meters. Before
one and to participate in the ring-entering ceremony. each match the doyo is purified by handfuls of salt. The
Members of the juryo rank wrestle daily during tourna- shimenawa—the ropes that the yokozuna wear around
ments, receive a salary in addition to their winnings, and their waists—represent the ropes that adorn Shinto
have apprentice wrestlers to assist them. When they are shrines and date from the sixteenth century.
not engaged in wrestling, they are also allowed to wear Some of sumo’s traditions are ancient, but others
a kimono and haori (a man’s light coat). can be traced back only to the eighteenth century.
The five ranks higher than juryo—maegashira, ko- Yoshida Oikaze, for example, introduced the ring-
musubi, sekiwake, ozeki, and yokozuna—comprise the entering ceremony in 1791 when sumo was staged for
makuuchi division. Members of this division are al- the shogun Ienari, and something suitably ceremonial
lowed four minutes for shikiri, the crouching, stamping, was called for. Today all sekitori participate in the cere-
and glaring that precede wrestling. Juryo are allowed mony, which includes an entrance by means of the
only three minutes of shikiri; makushita are allowed hanamichi (path of flowers). The wrestlers circle the
only two. Members of the lesser ranks must enter the ring, face inward, clap their hands, raise their arms, lift
ring and move directly into competition. their aprons slightly, and file out. The ceremony is
Election to the highest rank—yokozuna—is an honor slightly different for a yokozuna. He appears with a
that is bestowed on few wrestlers. In all other ranks a tsuyu harai (dew sweeper) and a tachi mochi (sword
wrestler can be demoted after a number of losses. A bearer). He wears a thick white rope over his apron.
yokozuna cannot be demoted. If his powers begin to di- After his hand movements, he goes to the center of the
minish, he is expected to retire. A series of successful ring, stamps his feet, lies down, rises, stamps again,
tournaments will elevate a wrestler to the ozeki rank, and repeats his hand movements. The stamping is in-
but only wrestlers whom the elders deem to have tended to drive away demons. The salt that the wrestlers
seishin (spirit) are elevated to yokozuna. Although a strew upon the doyo serves the same function. The yu-
few foreigners have become ozeki, they rarely become mitorishiki (bow dance) was first performed when the
yokozuna. When Hawaii-born Jesse Kuhaulua retired in shogun expressed his pleasure by handing one of the
1976, the elders decreed that foreign-born wrestlers wrestlers, the great Tanikaze Kajinosuke, a bow.
should not be allowed to achieve elder status. Tanikaze’s dance was an expression of his gratitude.
Westerners who watch sumo wrestling are struck not
only by the size of the participants—some of whom “Traditionalization”
weigh more than 182 kilograms—but also by sumo’s Sumo wrestling, unlike most other sports, has not un-
many rituals. Among the ritual elements is the design of dergone modernization to rid it of its religious ele-
the doyo (ring), which consists of a circle inscribed in a ments. On the contrary, sumo has been characterized
square. The doyo, which dates from the seventeenth more by “traditionalization”—an effort to introduce re-
century, is flanked by four pillars at the four corners of ligious elements into a previously secular sport and to
the rectangular “ring.” These pillars are painted blue for link it more closely to the culture of medieval Japan. The
the god of spring, white for the god of autumn, red for hat worn by the referee, which looks like the headgear
the god of summer, and black for the god of winter. of a Shinto priest from the Heian period (794–1185),
During the eighteenth century four elders would lean was adopted in 1909. His colorful kimono, which imi-
against these four pillars to assist the referee in his de- tates Heian courtly attire, also dates from that nation-
cisions. They were known as the “naka aratame” (mid- alistic period. The roof above the doyo was originally
shaped like the roof of a traditional Japanese farm- and calabash blossoms for the right. Matches were de-
house. In 1931, during another nationalistic period, the cided by falls or when a wrestler was dragged to his own
roof was redesigned to resemble the roof of the Ise team’s tent by his opponent. After each match, the mu-
Shrine, the most sacred Japanese religious site. In other sicians beat their drums, struck their gongs, and per-
words, much of the religious symbolism that an ob- formed a ritual dance.There was no independent referee,
server might assume to date to the Heian period is ac- so the emperor decided close matches. Arrows thrust
tually what the British historian Eric Hobsbawm has into the sand recorded the results.
called “invented tradition.” The annual tournaments at court lasted only until
The elders who “traditionalized” sumo were success- 1185, but sumo survived in several other forms, the
ful: Sumo is baseball’s only serious rival among spec- most important of which was probably shinjizumo
tator sports in Japan. Together the two sports symbolize (“wrestling in service of the gods”). A less exalted form
Japan’s desire to be both a traditional and a modern was onnazumo (women’s wrestling).
society. Modern sumo can be traced to the early eighteenth
Allen Guttmann century, when zujizumo (street-corner sumo) entertained
the urban population of Osaka, Kyoto, and Edo (mod-
ern Tokyo). Yoshida Oikaze and a number of other
Further Reading toshiyori (elders) codified and regulated the sport and
Cuyler, P. L. (1979). Sumo: From rite to sport. New York: Weatherhill. introduced a number of distinctive rituals. Between
Kuhaulua, J. (1973). Takamiyama. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
Thompson, L. (1989). The modernization of sumo as a sport. Unpub- 1751 and 1781, the elders, who gratefully received the
lished doctoral dissertation, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan. shogun’s official recognition in 1773, gathered the
wrestlers into a number of heya (“rooms”) where they
lived and trained. By 1885, when the emperor gave his
approval to the system, there were 105 heya, each
Sumo Grand presided over by an elder. The entire organization was
restructured in 1926 when Tokyo’s heya joined those
Tournament Series from Osaka to form a national organization. In 1958,
this organization, frequently reformed and renamed,
A lthough sumo enthusiasts claim that their sport is

thousands of years old, this uniquely Japanese form
of wrestling can be reliably traced no farther back than
became Nihon Sumo Kaikyo (Japanese Sumo Associa-
tion). In 1989, forty-one heya were informally organ-
ized into five great “families.” In 1965, the rule that
734 CE, when sumo matches were performed at the im- prohibited matches between wrestlers of the same “fam-
perial court in Nara. When the court was moved to ily” was dropped, but matches between members of the
Heian-Kyo (modern Kyoto), at the end of the century, same heya are still banned.
tournaments were held on the grounds of the imperial
palace. From 837, the site was an area behind the Complicated Rankings
Shishinden (“Hall for State Ceremonies”). It was strewn The wrestlers themselves are divided into an extremely
with white sand for the occasion. Thirty-four wrestlers, complicated pyramid of ranks. Beginners enter as mae-
drawn from the “right” and “left” imperial bodyguards, zumo (“before sumo”). They receive room, board, and
entered to the sound of drums and gongs.They were fol- small allowance. They are also given new names,
lowed by officials, musicians, and dancers, then by the which are invariably written in Chinese characters. If
emperor and his court. The teams were distinguished by the novices are successful in the six annual fifteen-day
decorations in their hair, paper hollyhocks for the left, tournaments held in Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka, they
SUMO GRAND TOURNAMENT SERIES 1561
become jonokuchi. Continued success means promo- wrestlers compete is formed by twenty bags of rice
tion to the jonidan, sandamme, makushita, and juryo. straw stuffed with earth. The doyo’s rim is approxi-
Only about one in sixty wrestlers rises to juryo status. mately 20 inches high and its diameter is slightly less
If they reach this rank, they are classified as sekitori than 15 feet. Before each bout, the ring is purified by
and allowed to change from black or dark blue loin- handfuls of salt. The shimenawa that the yokozuna wear
cloths to white ones. They wrestle daily during the wound about their waists represent the ropes that adorn
tournaments, and they receive a regular salary in ad- Shinto shrines.
dition to their winnings. When they are out in public, Some of sumo’s traditions are very old, some date
they are allowed to wear a kimono and haori (a man’s from the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries, and some
light coat). are surprisingly recent. The strewing of salt dates from
The makuuchi division comprises the five top ranks— the end of the seventeenth century. Yoshida Zenzae-
maegashira, komusubi, sekiwake, ozeki, and yokozuna. mon introduced the ring-entering ceremony in 1791.
Among the privileges enjoyed by the makuuchi is shikiri, Today, all sekitori participate in the ceremony, which
time set aside for crouching, stamping, and glaring. Elec- includes an entrance down the hanamichi (path of
tion to the eleventh and highest rank—the yokozuna— flowers). The wrestlers circle the ring, face inward,
is a great honor bestowed on very few wrestlers. The clap their hands, raise their arms, lift their aprons
yokozuna must satisfy the elders that he has seishin slightly and file out again. The yokozuna is privileged
(spirit), that he is an exemplary representative of the to enter with a tsuyuharai (dew-sweeper) and a tachi-
Japanese people. Once promoted, he cannot be reduced mochi (sword-bearer). He wears a thick white rope
in rank. (If a yokozuna loses two or three matches in a over his apron. After his hand movements, he goes to
row, he goes into retirement.) Not until 1993, after the center of the ring and stamps to drive away
Hawaii-born Akebono had won two consecutive cham- demons. The yumitorishiki (bow-dance) also dates
pionships, did the Sumo Association reluctantly elevate from the eighteenth century, when the shogun ex-
a non-Japanese to yokozuna rank. pressed his appreciation by presenting a bow to the
The rules that prohibit matches between heya-mates great Tanikaze Kajinosuke, who promptly danced his
and allow matches between wrestlers of different ranks gratitude. Some of sumo’s most distinctive symbol-
makes the selection of a tournament champion ex- ism dates from the early twentieth century, when the
tremely complicated. Calculations made on the basis of sport underwent a period of intense “retraditionaliza-
wins and losses must take into account that a sekiwake tion.” The referee’s tall black hat, which resembles the
who unexpectedly humbles a yokozuna has achieved a headgear of a medieval sumo priest, was adopted in
spectacular upset (as if a middleweight boxer defeated 1909. His colorful kimono dates from the same pe-
the reigning heavyweight champion). riod of nationalistic fervor. The roof that is suspended
over the doyo, even when sumo tournaments are held
Size, Ritual, and Traditions indoors, was originally shaped like an ordinary Japan-
Westerners who attend a sumo tournament are sur- ese farmhouse, but it was redesigned in 1931, in an-
prised by the huge size of the wrestlers, some of whom other highly nationalistic period, to resemble the roof
weigh 400 pounds or more, and by the many rituals of the Ise Shrine, Japan’s most sacred Shinto site.
that characterize the sport. The doyo (ring), which dates The elders who retraditionalized sumo were quite
from the middle of the seventeenth century, is a circle in- successful. In the very center of high-tech global moder-
scribed in a square flanked by four pillars painted blue, nity, sumo reassures the Japanese that they still have a
red, white, and black (for the gods of spring, summer, distinctive culture.
autumn, and winter). The circle within which the Allen Guttman
You learn you can do your best even when its hard,
even when you’re tired and maybe hurting a little bit.
It feels good to show some courage. ■ JOE NAMATH
Further Reading The game is played at a stadium site that is picked

Cuyler, P. L. (1979) Sumo: From rite to sport. New York: Weatherhill. years in advance of the actual game date. No team has
Guttmann, A., & L. Thompson. (2001) Japanese sports: A history.
Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.
ever played a Super Bowl in its home stadium. Super
Sharnoff, L. (1993) Grand sumo. New York: Weatherhill. Bowl games are usually awarded to stadiums in the
southern part of the United States, to help ensure
good weather since the game is played in either late
January or early February, although on a few occa-
sions the game has been played in northern locations
Super Bowl that have a domed stadium. In all, eleven different
cities in the United States have hosted a Super Bowl,
T he Super Bowl, the championship game of Ameri-

can football, is the most watched, written about,
and talked about single sports event in the United States
with New Orleans hosting the most with nine. Cities
are competitive in bidding to host the game, since the
economic impact from just one Super Bowl can be as
today. It has become a national ritual, and Super Bowl high as $250 million.
Sunday is akin to a national holiday—marked by gath- The day has become so popular—more pizzas are
erings of family and friends, food, drink, and betting on sold on Super Bowl Sunday than any other day of the
the outcome. The competitors are the winners of the year in the United States—that some consider it a
National Football and American Football conferences of
the National Football League playoffs.
An American Institution
First played in 1967, the Super Bowl is traditionally
staged on a Sunday evening, and is seen by more than
130 million television viewers alone in the United
States. Advertisers, who paid as little as $75,000 for a
thirty-second commercial for the telecast of Super Bowl
I, now pay $2.5 million for the same thirty second
commercial. Apple Computers introduced its first ever
line of Macintosh computers with a Super Bowl televi-
sion advertisement in 1984.
The NFL estimates that in 2004 almost one billion
people viewed part of Super Bowl XXXVIII in 229 dif-
ferent countries, and the game was broadcast in twenty-
one different languages. Some 3,000 media credentials
are typically assigned for a Super Bowl, including 400
to international journalists. The game’s number is tra-
ditionally referred to in roman numerals, although that
practice did not start until the fifth Super Bowl.
A Super Bowl sandwich.

Source: istockphoto.com/kcline.
SUPER BOWL 1563
When you want to win a game, you have to teach.

When you lose a game, you have to learn. ■ TOM LANDRY
de facto holiday. In 2004, more than $81 million in Far from the popular event it is today the first Super
bets were placed on the Super Bowl in the state of Bowl only attracted 61,946 fans, almost 40,000 short
Nevada, where gambling on professional sports is of capacity at the Los Angeles’ Memorial Coliseum, al-
legal. Privately, it is estimated that several billion dol- though every game since has been a sell out. Green Bay
lars is actually wagered on the game illegally. Part of won the first game, 35–10, led by quarterback Bart Starr
the Super Bowl tradition is the elaborate halftime and receiver Max McGee—who only saw action in the
show featuring top entertainers. The 2004 show was game because of an injury to starting wide receiver Boyd
controversial when singer Janet Jackson’s breast was Dowler. For the entire season, McGee had caught only
bared; the 2005 show featured former Beatle Paul four passes for 91 yards, but in the newly created title
McCartney and was much tamer. Commercials have game, he hauled in seven passes for 138 yards and two
become an integral part of the television broadcast as touchdowns. Each Packer received a “winner’s share”—
well, with major corporations vying to produce the a monetary reward for being on the victorious team—of
most creative, innovative, or amusing commercials— $15,000 each, while each Chief earned $7,500. By com-
which are then widely critiqued in the media on the parison, the 2004 winning share for each member of the
day after the game. New England Patriots was $68,000, while the mem-
bers of the losing Carolina Panthers each earned
History $36,500. The most inexpensive ticket to the first-ever
The game was originally known as AFL-NFL World Super Bowl was $6; the most inexpensive ticket price for
Championship Game, and came about because of com- the 2004 game was $350.
petition between the two competing professional foot- Seventeen teams have won the Super Bowl:
ball leagues—the American Football League founded in
Dallas Cowboys 5
1960 and the National Football League founded in
San Francisco 49ers 5
1920 as the American Professional Football Associa-
Pittsburgh Steelers 4
tion. It took the NFL name in 1922. The game didn’t ac-
Green Bay Packers 3
tually become the “Super Bowl” until 1968, before the
New England Patriots 3
third championship game. Legend has it that the owner
Oakland/LA Raiders 3
of the Kansas City Chiefs, Lamar Hunt, whose team
Washington Redskins 3
played in the first ever Super Bowl, came up with the
Denver Broncos 2
event’s name after coming across one of his daughter’s
Miami Dolphins 2
favorite toys, a super ball. The game’s number is tradi-
New York Giants 2
tionally referred to in roman numerals, although that
Baltimore Colts 1
practice did not start until the fifth Super Bowl.
Baltimore Ravens 1
The Chiefs played the Green Bay Packers, coached by
Chicago Bears 1
Vince Lombardi (considered one of the league’s most
Kansas City Chiefs 1
legendary coaches), in Super Bowl I, played 15 January
New York Jets 1
1967. Today, the trophy given out to winning team is
St. Louis/LA Rams 1
called the Vince Lombardi trophy. The Pete Rozelle Tro-
Tampa Bay Buccaneers 1
phy—named after the man who served as league com-
missioner for almost thirty years and is largely credited The New England Patriots have won three of the last
with spurring the growth and popularity of the Na- four Super Bowls. This is considered a near-amazing
tional Football League—is given out to the most valu- achievement given efforts by the league to develop par-
able player in the Super Bowl. ity among teams. The most significant Super Bowl was
the third when the New York Jets of the AFL beat the in 1956), World Life Saving (1971), and the Interna-
heavily favored Baltimore Colts of the NFL by the score tional Life Saving Federation (1993).
of 16–7. The victory had been publicly guaranteed by To qualify as a patrolling surf lifesaver, an individ-
Jet’s quarterback Joe Namath three days before the ual must gain the bronze medallion, which tests fitness
game. The victory made the AFL the equal of the NFL, (beach running, swimming in the surf, and resuscita-
and the next year the leagues merged. tion methods). Clubs conduct the test on an annual
basis, but only a minority of members has current
Brian Ackley and
medallions.
David Levinson
History
Further Reading Alerted by medical practitioners to the health-giving
Bayless, S. (1993). The boys. New York: Simon & Schuster. and therapeutic properties of cold-water bathing, the
Green, J. (1991). Super bowl chronicles: A sportswriter reflects on the English middle classes adopted bathing as a pastime
first 25 years of America’s game. Masters Press.
Konner, B. (2003) The super bowl of advertising: how the commercials
and sport (i.e., swimming) in the eighteenth century.
won the game. Bloomberg Press. But in the nineteenth century, bathers who pursued
Weiss, D., & C. Day (2002). The making of the super bowl: the inside their pleasures in public faced opposition from evan-
story of the world’s greatest sporting event. New York: McGraw-Hill.
gelically inspired factions, who campaigned against
what they deemed morally offensive and socially sub-
versive behaviors, including exposed displays of the
body. In this social climate bathing and swimming
Surf Lifesaving largely developed in enclosed baths (both seawater
and freshwater) where moral guardians could monitor
A combination of water safety educational programs

and practices and ocean and beach sports, surf life-
saving first developed on Australian, New Zealand, and
and control public displays of the human body.
In the antipodes official ordinances regulated bathing
in public (for example, prohibiting the activity during
South African foreshores in the early twentieth century. daylight hours), fueling conflict between moralists and
Many of the early clubs began as affiliates of the Royal those who deemed bathing in open waters a natural
Life Saving Society (founded by William Henry in pleasure and of high social and economic benefit. The
1891), a volunteer rescue society based in England. But factions in favor of public bathing challenged repressive
the dynamic ocean environment encouraged the clubs to beach-bathing laws. In the early 1900s, devotees won
progressively affiliate with specialist surf-based lifesaving the right to bathe in daylight hours, but the struggle to
organizations. Indeed, in 1924 the Surf Life Saving As- control the beach was far from resolved.
sociation of Australia (SLSAA) and the Royal Life Sav- Determined to protect “the common standards of
ing Society (RLSS) in Australia signed an agreement propriety that prevail among civilized nations,” moral-
that allocated responsibility for the safety of harbors, ists directed attention to bathers’ costumes, sun-
bays, and rivers to the latter. The RLSS also assumed re- bathing (which they described as a practice suitable
sponsibility for teaching lifesaving procedures to school- only for dogs), and mixed bathing. Surf bathers re-
children and public agencies. However, the social sponded by forming lifesaving patrols to demonstrate
environment played a more decisive role than the phys- their respectable intentions, and in October 1907 a
ical environment in shaping the Australian movement dozen clubs in Sydney united under the umbrella of
that has achieved hegemony on the international stage the Surf Bathing Association of New South Wales
via the International Council of Surf Life Saving (formed (SBANSW). Its objectives were to provide better
SURF LIFESAVING 1565
facilities for surf bathers, institute improved lifesaving “IRONMAN”

methods and aids, and provide rules for the proper The development of the Ironman Grand Prix circuit in
conduct of surf bathers. the 1980s exacerbated the lifesaver-athlete contradic-
The class structure and aims of SBANSW quickly tion. Introduced to Australia by touring lifeguards from
ensured official sanction for the activity. In 1911 John the United States in 1965, corporate sponsors and the
Lord, the association’s first president, chaired a four- media soon recognized the economic and sporting po-
man committee appointed by the NSW government to tential for an endurance event involving lifesavers run-
inquire into surf bathing. The government adopted vir- ning, swimming, and paddling boards and surf skis.
tually all the committee’s recommendations, including After outside commercial interests threatened to or-
structuring volunteer lifesaving clubs around rational ganize an independent event, the SLSAA introduced its
military organization, discipline, and drills. own circuit in 1986. But lifesavers quickly grew dissat-
isfied with the management and administration of the
Surf Life Saving official circuit. In 1989 a small group formed the Iron-
Association of Australia man Super Series as a “rebel” competition and secured
SBANSW survived by assuming “duty-of-care” for surf their own sponsors. Assisted by corporate rivalry be-
bathers. The association defined itself as a humani- tween the sponsors and those televising the two circuits,
tarian and volunteer safety service and, consistent with prize money for the two competitions ballooned to
this image, changed its name in 1920 to the Surf Life $1.5 million; many leading lifesavers also secured lu-
Saving Association of Australia. The SLSAA reinforced crative personal sponsorships.
its self-imposed responsibility by adopting the motto In 2001, after twelve years, breakfast food manufac-
“Vigilance and Service” and by highlighting its annual turer Uncle Tobys withdrew its financial support and
and cumulative tallies of rescues. (The SLSAA claims the “rebel” Ironman Super Series collapsed. Kellogg im-
that its members have performed over 484,000 res- mediately slashed its contribution to the official circuit
cues since 1907.) But if its assumption of “duty-of- by more than 50 percent. Ill at ease with the hype and
care” increased SLSAA’s standing in the eyes of attention afforded to its lifesavers and seeking to bal-
governments and helped secure more financial assis- ance the sporting and lifesaving aspects of the move-
tance from local councils who understand only too ment, the SLSAA restructured and downsized the elite
well that volunteer organizations can provide highly ironman competition.
effective cost-effective services, it also exposed the as- During the course of the twentieth century, the Aus-
sociation to risks of public liability. Indeed, the ex- tralian surf lifesaver became a national and interna-
pense of insuring against public liability has steadily tional icon propelled by both lifesaving and sporting
grown to the point where it currently threatens the fi- heroics on the beach. Unfortunately, successive genera-
nancial viability of many clubs. tions of officials responsible for organizing and admin-
The SLSAA has also failed to reconcile the place of istering surf lifesaving have failed to reconcile the
sport in the movement. The association nurtures the long-standing tension between the ideals and realities of
sporting image of the lifesaver that it uses to raise pub- what it means to be a lifesaver.
lic monies and entice commercial sponsorship. Com- Douglas Booth
petition at regional, state, national, and international
levels officially provides members with the means to
practice and develop lifesaving skills; in reality many Further Reading
Booth, D. (2001). Australian beach cultures: The history of sun, sand
members and clubs regard lifesaving sport as the end and surf. London: Frank Cass.
rather than the means. Hintz, P. (2001, November 10). Surf’s no longer up. Brisbane Courier Mail.
Opera in English, is about as sensible as

baseball in Italian. ■ H. L. MENCKEN
International Lifesaving Federation. Retrieved February 2, 2005, from Hawaii. There, he noted how the “naked natives of both
http://lifesaving.dsnsports.com, and http://www.slsa.asn.au/doc _
sexes and all ages, were amusing themselves with the
display.asp
Jaggard, E. (1997). Chameleons in the surf. Journal of Australian Stud- national pastime of surf-bathing.” Twain later described
ies, 53, 183–191. his first personal and futile attempts at “surf-riding” in
Jaggard, E. (1999). Australian surf life-saving and the “Forgotten Mem-
bers.” Australian Historical Studies, 112, 23–43. his book Roughing It.
Jaggard, E. (2001). Tempering the testosterone: Masculinity, women After more than five centuries, the sport of surfing has
and Australian surf lifesaving. The International Journal of the His-
developed and evolved into a well-established activity,
tory of Sport, 18 (4), 16–36.
although not before the decline of the Hawaiian culture,
which began during the 1800s. An inevitable clash of
cultures occurred when the missionaries and Europeans
traveled to the islands with differing ways and customs.
Surfing Surfing nearly ceased to exist by the end of the nine-
teenth century for many reasons, including the mis-
S urfing is the water sport of riding waves; the ancient

Hawaiians referred to surfing as He’enalu. The peo-
ples of greater Oceania are credited with developing
sionaries’ disdain for such a nonproductive activity and
disease brought to Hawaii by outsiders. A mere 10 per-
cent of the Hawaiian population is estimated to have
surfing as we know it, especially those in the islands of survived between the first outside contacts with Hawaii
Hawaii where the sport became an integral part of the and the end of the 1800s.
culture sometime around 1000 CE, centuries before The revival of surfing in Hawaii and the consequent
Columbus sought the New World. global spread of the sport thereafter was largely be-
cause of Duke Paoa Kahanamoku, a full-blood Hawai-
Origins of Surfing ian who is the revered and acknowledged father of
Although most scholars agree that the sport of surfing modern surfing. Kahanamoku is credited with spear-
traces its origins more specifically to Polynesia, where heading the return of surf-riding and its mainstream
and when the activity was first practiced remains a mys- acceptance in Hawaii by 1910 and, shortly thereafter,
tery. Hawaii holds a clue. History there was not pre- with introducing the longer ten- to eleven-foot Waikiki-
served via the written word; rather, it was passed on style surfboard.
from one generation to the next via stories and chants. In 1912, he went on to win gold and silver medals for
Countless narratives, generations deep, recalled how swimming at the Stockholm Olympics.The same year, he
deeply imbued surfing played into the culture. One such introduced surfing to the U.S. East Coast, and by 1915,
accounting was transcribed by A. S. Twombly in his he brought surfing to New Zealand and Australia. Dur-
book Kelea: The Surf-Rider, A Romance of Pagan Hawaii ing a visit to California that year, Duke advanced the
in the late 1800s and published in 1900. sports of both surfing and swimming with displays of his
The western world first learned of surfing through the water skills and because of his celebrity status.
recorded observations of the Hawaiian explorer Captain George Freeth, Hawaiian born of mixed Irish and
James Cook and his ship’s illustrator, John Webber. Hawaiian ancestry, was likewise instrumental in the
Cook’s explorations more than once brought him and his spread of surfing to California, far from the sport’s firmly
crew to Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii (Hawaii was then named established epicenter in Hawaii. Employed as a Los An-
the Sandwich Islands), where he and the crew first wit- geles county lifeguard, Freith was often seen riding his
nessed men and women surfing on boards and canoes. surfboard or using the board assisting swimmers in dan-
By the 1860s, author Mark Twain penned his ac- ger during beach rescues. Alexander Hume Ford, yet an-
count of surfing while traveling on the Big Island of other pivotal player during surfing’s revival of the early
SURFING 1567
Surfing
Surfing in Hawaii
In this report by a group of missionaries in 1823, they Sometimes they choose a place where the deep
describe surfing as practiced by indigenous Hawaiians. water reaches to the beach, but generally prefer a
part where the rocks are ten or twenty feet under
On these occasions they use a board, which they call
water, and extend to a distance from the shore, as the
papa he naru, (wave sliding-board,) generally five or
surf breaks more violently over these. When playing
six feet long, and rather more than a foot wide, some-
in these places, each individual takes his board, and,
times flat, but more frequently slightly convex on
pushing it before him, swims perhaps a quarter of a
both sides. It is usually made of the wood of the ery-
mile or more out to sea. They do not attempt to go
thrina, stained quite black, and preserved with great
over the billows which roll towards the shore, but
care. After using, it is placed in the sun till perfectly
watch their approach, and dive under water, allowing
dry, when it is rubbed over with cocoa-nut oil, fre-
the billow to pass over their heads.
quently wrapped in cloth, and suspended in some
Source: Ellis, W. (1917). Narrative of a tour through Hawaii, or Owhyhee: with obser-
part of their dwelling house. vations on the natural history of the Sandwich Islands, and remarks on the manners, cus-
toms, traditions, history, and language of their inhabitants (pp. 278-79). Honolulu,
Hawaii: Hawaiian Gazette Co. Ltd.
1900s, did much to reinstate surfing in Hawaii. By 1908, Velzy, and Hobie Alter, among others. Technologies and
Ford founded the Outrigger Canoe Club predicated upon materials developed during the war years were put to use
a group of enthusiasts devoted to preserving and devel- by the private sector; chief among the materials was an
oping surf-riding on both surfboards and canoes. assortment of plastics that revolutionized the equipment
and the act of wave-riding itself.
Surfing Innovations The advent of fiberglass allowed surfboard builders
Key surfboard designers and revolutionary design devel- to seal the surfboard’s soft South American balsa wood
opments emerged during and after World War II, espe- core. The sealed lightweight balsa soon made all the
cially in the then-developing surfing mecca of Southern heavy materials preceding its use obsolete and allowed
California. There, differing wave fields often broke close surfing to reach more people.
to the shoreline so rides were shorter in both distance
and duration compared with those of the deep water, off- Social Acceptance
shore reef venues of the islands. Until this point, the In a social context, the surfers of the late 1940s and
equipment used was heavy and crude by contemporary 1950s were initially too few to be recognized by gen-
standards, with surfboards often weighing more than eral society. California pioneers of the sport can recall
100 lbs. Constructed from a variety of woods, the heavy when almost everyone who surfed the coast knew one
boards precluded all but the strongest from participating another. By the early 1960s, further refinements in
in the sport. Surfboard designers in California devised equipment delivered the sport to the mainstream status
lightweight surfboards that would react more sponta- that surf riding currently holds. Today, surfers consti-
neously to the rider’s whims in waves, which afforded a tute a subculture whose lifestyle intrigues society at
surf-rider less time to set up for the ride. Maneuverability large. A multimillion-dollar fashion industry has de-
was the outcome, and these same surfboards soon there- veloped around the sport that finds origins dating back
after became mainstays in Hawaiian surfing equipment. to the early 1960s. Multiple media venues, including
Period design and material innovators were Matt advertising, documentaries, television, print, and news,
Kivlin, Joe Quigg, Bob Simmons, Dave Sweet, Dale all find markets and an increasing audience share
Surfers enjoying the

big waves and
offshore winds.
Source: istockphoto/mattscherf.
among the public at large, not

just sports fans. Surf riding
clearly holds a worldwide
mystique.
Acclaimed Surf journalist
Matt Warshaw reports an es-
timated 2.5 million active
surfers in the United States.
At last count, however, War-
shaw documented less than
9,000 active competitors par-
ticipating in contest circuits
within the United States
today. This stark accounting
provides insights that the real
competition in surfing is per-
haps surfer vs. nature rather
than surfer vs. surfer. What so
many surfing participants find most alluring is the (measuring 12–16 feet [3.7–4.8 meters], some examples
sport’s lack of basic rules, strategies, and tactics outside reportedly reached up to 18 feet [5.7 meters]) and were
the formal competition venues. Conversely, formal surf- reserved for use exclusively by Hawaiian chiefs and roy-
ing competition holds a key position in the sport and alty. The commoners used shorter alaia boards (6–10
provides the pathway for professional surfing. Strong feet or more [1.9–3.2 meters]), also referred to as omo.
and consistent contest ratings on the pro circuit are The longer olo boards more effectively caught the fast-
vital elements toward endorsements and sponsorship moving ocean waves, aided by additional buoyancy and
for aspiring professionals within the peripheral billion- paddling speed afforded by length.
dollar surfing industry. Formal competition resumed during the sport’s re-
vival in the 1900s. A 1918 competition held in Hawaii
Competitive Surfing was among the first to judge a winning performance on
Surfing competitions traces its origins back to Ancient style and mastery in the surf. A backlash of discontent
Hawaiian folklore, the way in which the indigenous quickly diminished any plans to continue measuring
people of Hawaii preserved their history. It is said that performance by what was then perceived as vague and
chiefs competed against each other, often for a bounty obscure standards. For the short term thereafter, the
of materials, livestock, or goods. Criteria for victory objectives dating as far back as the Ancient Hawaiians
consisted of the longest ride or perhaps the first surfer remained the predominant measure of competitive ap-
to reach a designated point in the water or on the titude (that is, distance covered, first to the beach or
beach. A contest might very well comprise a series of marker, and so on).
rides and wins to declare a final victor. In Australia, beginning in 1919, a string of surfing
The earliest known surfboards used in the competi- competitions soon came to be known as surf carnivals.
tion were the olo and kiko’o, used in the precontact days The competitions became mainstream by the 1930s,
of Hawaii. The ancient boards were long and heavy often incorporating matches between lifeguards assessing
SURFING 1569
their prowess implementing lifesaving devices that in- fabled surf break at Makaha produced dependable and
cluded an assortment of equipment used within coastal quality surfing conditions.
surf zones. Enlisting the aid of the Waikiki Surf Club (founded by
In California, the Pacific Coast Surf Riding Cham- Lind) and the local Lions Club, Lind found a strong
pionships began in 1928 and continued into the workforce of volunteers and sponsorship to help fi-
1940s. nance the event. The inaugural event in 1953 was well
Competitive surfing found genuine validity and ac- planned and well attended but relegated only to paddle
ceptance in 1953–1954. The Makaha International board races. The surfing competition was cancelled that
Surfing Championships changed how surfers’ wave- first year due to a lack of surf—the only time in the two-
riding skills were evaluated. Although somewhat flawed decade run of the event that this happened. Undeterred,
in hindsight, the judging parameters set a new standard Lind brought the event to fruition the following year
and became a blueprint from which to fabricate today’s and set the stage for the future of surfing competition.
refined appraisals. The brainchild of California trans- The event was open to anyone who wanted to enter,
plant and former lifeguard John Lind, the contest is including women’s and tandem surfing divisions. The
now acknowledged as the beginning of modern surfing final heats of top contenders were carried annually on
competition and the prototype that fostered the sport of the ABC-TV Wide World of Sports program during the
surfing’s passage into the competitive arena. early 1960s. Disputes over royalties are said to be the
Lind’s competitive background as a lifeguard and only reason why the TV coverage was dropped in sub-
surfer, replete with established competition experiences sequent years.
and organizational skills combined the ingredients nec- Competitive surfing gained further recognition
essary to create such a forum within a near-perfect con- through the United States Surfing Association (USSA),
test venue. In all but the first year of the event, the founded in California in 1961. The organization spear-
headed a drive to improve the
public image of surfing and
surfers. Soon thereafter, the
USSA became a governing
faction for surfing competi-
tion. Seven districts including
Hawaii, California, and the
East Coast had prescribed uni-
versal rules and the requisite
membership. Points could be
accumulated from different
contests with annual standings
developed. The USSA eventu-
ally gave way to four separate
zones with common interests
and competition standards
A kite surfer in mid-air.

Source: istockphoto/jgough.
Surfers heading out for a wave

at the Pass, Byron Bay, Australia.
Source: istockphoto/davidf.
because groups in California, Hawaii, and

the East and Gulf Coasts were better
equipped to govern surfing in their own
locales.
The United States Surfing Champi-
onships (USSC) sprang from the West
Coast Surfing Championships that began
in 1959 in Huntington Beach, Califor-
nia. Contrived by the Chamber of Com-
merce and Huntington Beach Recreation
Department, the championships con-
tinue drawing contestants from amateur
circuits nationwide. In 1973, the event
moved from its exclusive Huntington
Beach, California, location to different
venues annually throughout the country.
For more than four decades, the USSC
has been the springboard that allows
U.S. surfers to move into the highest
competitive ranks.
Numerous other competitive organi-
zations exist worldwide. Of note is the
United States Surfing Federation (USSF).
The union of six existing surfing organi-
zations was founded by the late Colin
Couture to establish and choose an amateur surfing differences with the Australian contingent, the IPS was
team to attend the World Surfing Championships. The superseded by the Association of Surfing Professionals
International Olympic Committee (IOC) acknowledged (ASP). Founded in 1982, the organization built on what
the USSF despite the sport’s continuously failed bids to the IPS had begun, unifying isolated and discordant
gain Olympic recognition. Many believe the inability of events into one assembly maintaining a pro circuit.
the sport of surfing to gain Olympic status lies within By 1983, the contest circuit and attending special
the playing field. A consistent, measurable, and de- events offered a purse totaling just under $500,000.
pendable venue is not to be afforded by the ocean. Prize money has grown steadily over the years but re-
In the 1970s, Fred Hemmings and Randy Rarick mains paltry when compared with mainstream sports
started the world pro surf tour. The International Pro- such as baseball, football, basketball, and tennis. As a
fessional Surfers (IPS) held professional events initially result, career surfers with strong competitive back-
in Hawaii, South Africa, and Australia. Shortly after the grounds often gain lucrative sponsorships and en-
tour’s inception, a women’s division was added. A mod- dorsements to augment their incomes, allowing a career
est purse was offered during the inaugural years, al- to be had riding waves.
though the first-season winner Peter Townend nearly Although competition does indeed play a pivotal role
broke even in prize monies against his traveling ex- in surfing, defining the leaders, trends, and hierarchy, it is
penses. Approximately five years later amidst turbulent the mainstream participants that are at the core of the
SWEDEN 1571
Sweden Olympics Results

2002 Winter Olympics: 2 Silver, 4 Bronze
sport. The very essence of surf riding remains as true and on the east by the Baltic. More than 9 million peo-
today, as it did centuries ago: the elemental, almost pri- ple inhabit Sweden, the majority of them in the cities of
mal, pleasures found within the simple yet thrilling act of the central and southern regions. Stockholm, the capi-
successfully riding upon a wave. tal and largest city, is home to 1.2 million people.
Mark Fragale Sports have helped forge Sweden’s identity as a land of
vigorous people. Cross-country skiing is the national
Further Reading passion, although many other sports claim the alle-
Ball, J. H. (1946). California surfriders. Los Angeles: Norman B. Whale. giance of Swedes, including football (soccer), cross-
Blake, T. (1935). Hawaiians Surfboard. Honolulu, HI: Paradise of Pa- country and road running, orienteering, cycling, ice
cific Press.
Bloomfield, J (1965). Know-how in the surf. Rutland,VT: Charles E.Tuttle.
hockey, bandy (a game similar to hockey), golf, rugby,
Brennan, J. (1968). Duke Kahanamoku’s world of surfing. New York: handball, tennis, and wrestling.
Grosset & Dunlap.
Cralle, T. (1991). Surfinary, a dictionary of surfing terms and surfspeak.
Berkley, CA: Ten Speed Press. History
Dixon, P. L. (1965). The complete book of surfing. New York: Coward-McAnn. Sports in Sweden grew out of the turmoil of history. The
Dixon, P. L. (1966). Men and waves, a treasury of surfing. New York:
Coward-McAnn.
political and economic instability of the Middle Ages
Dixon, P. L. (1968). Where the surfers are. New York: Coward-McAnn. persisted in Sweden into the sixteenth century, devolv-
Finney, B. R., & Houston, J. D. (1966). Surfing, the sport of Hawaiian ing into near anarchy in 1520 when Danish King Chris-
kings. Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle.
Hall, S. K., with Ambrose, G. (1995). Memories of Duke. Honolulu, HI: tian II ordered his army to massacre Swedish aristocrats
Bell Press. in a bid to conquer Sweden. Nobleman Gustav Ericsson
Hemmings, F. (1997). The soul of surfing is Hawaiian. Honolulu, HI:
Author.
Vasa escaped the massacre in Mora, Sweden, on skis,
Kampion, D. (1997). Stoked, a history of surf culture. Los Angeles, CA: fleeing 90 kilometers to Salen, where a band of towns-
RR Donnelley & Sons Co. men from Dahrna, themselves on skis, overtook Vasa
Kelly, J. M.,. Jr. (1965). Surf and sea. New York: A.S. Barnes and Co.
Klein, A. (1965). Surfing. New York: J.B. Lippincott Co. and pledged their loyalty to him. Their support helped
Klein, A. (1966). Surf’s up! An anthology of surfing. New York: Bobbs- make Vasa king and created cross-country skiing as Swe-
Merrill Co.
Kuhns, G. W. (1963). On surfing. Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle.
den’s oldest sport, although only in 1922 did King
Lueras, L. (1984). Surfing, the ultimate pleasure. New York: Workman. Gustav V establish the Vasaloppet, a cross-country ski
Muirhead, D. (1962). Surfing in Hawaii. Flagstaff, AZ: Northland Press. race between Mora and Salen, to commemorate Vasa’s
Patterson, O .B. (1960). Surf-riding, its thrills and techniques. Rut-
land, VT: Charles E. Tuttle. flight from Christian II’s army.
Pearson, K. (1979). Surfing subcultures of Australia and New Zealand. By 1922 sports were prevalent in Sweden. During
St Lucia, Australia: University of Queensland Press.
Severson, J. (1964). Modern surfing around the world. New York:
the 1880s Swedes had begun importing a variety of
Doubleday. sports from other European nations. More than did
Warshaw, M. (1997). Surfriders: In search of the perfect wave. Del U.S. sports fans, Swedish sports fans adopted a less
Mar, CA: Tehabi Books.
Warshaw, M. (2003). The encyclopedia of surfing. Orlando, FL: Harcourt. formal attitude toward sports in which clubs of ama-
teurs rather than government shaped the development
of sports. Sweden entered the international arena in
1912, hosting the Olympic Games in Stockholm.
Sweden Participant and Spectator Sports
S weden covers 411,000 square kilometers in Scan-
dinavia, a peninsula of northern Europe. The coun-
try spreads north through the Arctic Circle and south to
Despite its northern latitude Sweden has a temperate
climate that encourages participation in both winter
and summer sports. Among winter sports cross-country
the Baltic Sea and is bounded on the west by Norway skiing, ice hockey, and bandy have more than 4 million
Sweden
Key Events in
Sweden Sports History
1965 the Lidingo-loppet has been the preeminent com-
1520 Nobleman Gustav Ericsson Vasa escapes petition, hosting as many as thirty thousand runners per
a Danish massacre on skis, becomes king year. Men run 30 kilometers, and women run 10 kilo-
and cross-country skiing becomes the na- meters. A derivative of cross-country running is orien-
tional sport. teering, in which more than 100,000 Swedes
1880s Sports are imported from elsewhere in participate annually. The five-day O-Ringen since 1965
Europe. has been the jewel of orienteering. A third event is the
1903 The Swedish National Sports Federation Stockholm Marathon, which journalist and Hasselby
is founded. Athletic Club member Anders Olsson in 1979 pat-
1906 The Swedish Athletic Federation for the terned after the New York City Marathon. In 2004 the
Deaf is founded. Stockholm Marathon fielded 16,221 runners from fifty-
1908 Sweden competes in the Olympics for five countries.
the first time. Swedes embrace sports as validation of their identity
1912 The Olympics are held in Stockholm. as hardy people. This validation encourages Swedes of
all abilities and backgrounds to participate in sports, a
1922 The Vasaloppet cross-country ski race is
established. democratic vision that diminishes the importance of
elite competition.
1934 Sweden competes in the soccer World
Cup for the first time.
Women and Sports
1965 The 1965 the Lidingo-loppet cross- Women benefit from this democratic vision, participating
country running race is inaugurated.
in the same sports that men participate in. The Swedish
1965 The O-Ringen orienteering event Football Association has thirteen hundred women’s clubs
inaugurated.
and eighty-five thousand girls under age fifteen as mem-
1979 The Stockholm Marathon is run for the bers. The Lidingo-loppet hosts a 10-kilometer race for
first time.
women. Cross-country skiing, orienteering, ice hockey,
2002 Concern is raised about the used of bandy, and many other sports have women’s clubs. Every
performance-enhancing drugs. June the Swedish Cycling Federation hosts the Tjej-
Vattern, a 150-kilometer bicycle race open only to
women, and one week later hosts the Vattern-Rudan, a
enthusiasts, with cross-country skiers accounting for 300-kilometer race for women and men. Both races cir-
nearly half that total. The jewel of winter sports is the cuit Lake Vattern, Sweden’s second-largest lake.
Vasaloppet, which the Swedish Skiing Association caps
at twelve thousand entrants, turning away as many as Youth Sports
twenty thousand applicants. Swedish youth flock to sports. The Swedish Football As-
Among summer sports football rivals cross-country sociation has 250,000 members under age fifteen. The
skiing’s winter popularity, attracting more than 1 million Federation Internationale de Football Association hosts
participants. Sweden has fielded teams for the Olympic the Gothia Cup, the world’s largest junior tournament.
Games since 1908 and the World Cup since 1934. Some 600,000 boys and girls between ages twelve and
Matches draw as many as fifty thousand spectators. seventeen from 120 countries participate. The federa-
Running is likewise popular. Swedes pride them- tion recruits youth from disparate economic, ethnic,
selves on competition amid the rustic splendor of na- and religious backgrounds in hopes of promoting tol-
ture, a sentiment that suits cross-country running. Since erance. The Gothia Cup is as much a youth peace move-
SWIMMING 1573
Like a Volvo, Bjorn Borg is rugged, has good

after-sales service, and is very dull. ■ CLIVE JAMES
ment as a sports competition. The Swedish Orienteering Kindlundh concluded, was undermining the purity of
Federation sponsors the Silva Junior Cup for boys and Swedish sports.
girls under age eighteen. The Lidingo-loppet has divi-
sions for boys and girls ages seven to fifteen. The Future
Kindlundh’s research suggests that sports in Sweden may
Organizations come to resemble sports in the United States and the for-
Sweden has sixty-five national sports organizations. mer USSR in the drive to win at any price. This attitude
Since 1903 the Swedish National Sports Federation may weaken the traditions of universal access to sports,
(www.svenskdovidrott.nu/t2.asp?p=80185) has or- the ordinary Swede as athlete, and the well-rounded am-
ganized Swedish sports in twenty-two federations. The ateur. However, counter to this attitude is the example of
largest is the Swedish Football Association (www.sven- Dahrna’s townsmen—ordinary citizens rather than ex-
skfotboll.se), with more than 1 million members and traordinary athletes—who skied across the country to aid
three thousand clubs. Unique among Swedish organi- a future king.
zations is the Swedish Athletic Federation for the Deaf Christopher Cumo
(www.svenskdovidrott.nu). At its inception in 1906 the
See also Innebandy
federation fostered athletic competitions among the
deaf, notably the International Deaf Games in Gothen-
burg, and has since grown to sponsor events for Swedes Further Reading
with disabilities of all types. Kindlundh, A. (2002). Epidemiological and neurobiological evidence
for misuse of anabolic androgenic steroids. Retrieved November 5,
2004, from http://publications.uu.se/uu/fulltext/nbn _ se _ uu _ diva-
Sports in Society 2567.pdf
Sports are a progressive influence on Swedish society. Sverigeturism, F. (2004). The Swedish information smorgasbord. Re-
They promote health and the virtues of the well- trieved November 5, 2004, from http://www.sverigeturism.se/
smorgasbord
rounded athlete. Swedes encourage participation in a Swedish Football Association. (n.d.). Retrieved November 5, 2004,
range of sports rather than specialization in a single from http://www.svenskfotboll.se
Vasaloppet Week. (n.d.). Retrieved November 5, 2004, from http://
sport and prize equal access to sports above elitism. www.vasaloppet.se
Swedish competitions welcome women, men, youth,
the disabled, and people of all classes, ethnicities, and
religions in an effort to promote national unity rather
than a win-at-all-costs mentality. Swedes do not vener-
ate star athletes as much as U.S. popular culture does.
However, in 2002 Swedish biologist Anna Kind-
Swimming
lundh challenged this pristine image of sports, doc-
umenting the use of anabolic steroids and other
performance-enhancing drugs among Swedes as young
R eferences to swimming practices have been found
in hieroglyphics, drawings and paintings, legends,
and books dating back to ancient times. It was not
as seven. Approximately 3 percent of boys and 0.5 until the sixteenth century, however, that specialized
percent of girls in the high schools of Uppsala, Swe- books on the subject of swimming appeared—first
den, had used steroids, she found, in their desire to en- with a book by Nicolas Wynman in 1538, and half a
hance performance, increase muscle mass and tone, century later with a book by Everard Digby that de-
and improve their appearance. Fifteen percent of boys scribed and illustrated about forty different utilitarian
and 9 percent of girls had used some type of illicit or recreational techniques. An athletic form of swim-
drug to enhance performance. The pressure to succeed, ming appeared in England during the first third of the
Swimming
The First Test for the “Women’s Life Saving Corps,” 1920
1. Swim twenty yards, dressed in skirt, blouse and 4. Break wrist-hold, front-strangle hold, back-strangle
shoes which shall be fastened in the customary hold in deep water and land patient by swimming
way.Without resting, other than floating, she must fifteen feet.
remove the skirt, blouse and shoes, and continue to 5. Float one minute in any posture and tread water
swim for eighty yards before touching the shore. thirty seconds.
2. Swim several strokes on surface; than surface dive 6. Land a patient properly from pool, or surf or
in from six to eight feet of water, and retrieve a open water, as if unconscious.
ten-pound object, landing same on bank.The object 7. Demonstrate the Schafer prone pressure method
should be carried on the upper side of the body. of resuscitation and be a subject for demonstra-
3. Carry living subject ten yards by each of the fol- tion by another.
lowing methods: Breast stroke, cross shoulder, Source: Women’s life saving corps of the American Red Cross. (1920). In The history of
the water safety program of the American National Red Cross (p. 279). Washington, DC;
head carry, two-point carry. American National Red Cross.
nineteenth century, and since then, swimming has be- used as a basis for international regulations when the
come a major international sport and one of the most Fédération Internationale de Natation Amateur (FINA)
widely practiced sports in the world. was created in London in 1908. In these early stages,
the choice of the different events was a compromise that
History took into account demands emanating from clubs, trade
In England during the 1830s and 1840s, swimming journals, and ASA directors. The demands concerned is-
grew away from its utilitarian origins to become a com- sues such as swimmers’ rights and obligations, the pow-
petitive practice. There were enough professional swim- ers granted to officials, the distances to be covered in
mers at the time to justify the creation of the National events, and environmental characteristics (seas, rivers,
Swimming Society and a national championship in and pools were all accepted).
1837. A concern for the health of society led to the
building of an increasing number of indoor pools, FINE-TUNING
which smoothed the way for professional competitions, A differentiation among techniques was not initially
popular events to which admission was charged. At taken into consideration, but was specified in 1903
about the same time, a number of public schools and when breaststroke and backstroke championships were
universities began to encourage swimming by organiz- added to the freestyle events. The butterfly stroke
ing meets between teams, whose members later started officially appeared as an event in 1953, although it had
the first amateur clubs during the 1860s. In January already been used in 1926 by the German Erich Rade-
1869, London’s main swimming clubs united to form macher in a breaststroke event, and during the 1933
the Associated Metropolitan Swimming Club (AMSC), New York winter championships by the American Henry
a precursor of the Amateur Swimming Association Meyers in the 150-yard individual medley event. For a
(ASA). The AMSC drafted a regulatory code for all is- time it even appeared as though the butterfly might sup-
sues relating to amateur races. plant the breaststroke. In 1946, FINA prohibited chang-
In spite of the friction that existed between amateurs ing techniques during any one race, and seven years
and professionals at the time, a definition of athletic later it made the distinction between breaststroke and
swimming was finally established during the 1880s in butterfly events official. FINA continued to fine-tune the
the form of fifty-nine articles. These were ultimately details of competitive swimming, including material
SWIMMING 1575
The most extreme conditions require the most extreme response, and
for some individuals, the call to that response is vitality itself. . . .
The integrity and self-esteem gained from winning the battle against
extremity are the richest treasures in my life. ■ DIANA NYAD
factors such as the size and height of the starting block, butterfly was separated from the breaststroke to be-
approved pool length, and the modesty of bathing suits; come another style in the 1950s, the rules for the
human factors, such as how to keep contestants from breaststroke became stricter, in particular in 1957 with
getting in each other’s way, the proper starter order, and the obligation to break the surface of the water with the
the rights and powers granted to officials; and technical head; this was instated to reduce the longer periods
factors. contestants managed to stay underwater by pulling their
Over time there has been a gradual shift to a much arms all the way down to their thighs and pulling their
larger number of events with shorter distances. In 1949, heads out of the water to breathe only on turns (the
records for distances over 200 meters disappeared from Japanese were notable for using this method). The back-
the books in the backstroke and breaststroke categories. stroke changed considerably when the Americans in-
In 1968, a 100-meter event was added for the breast- troduced leg kicks before World War I; the Japanese
stroke, which previously had been held only for 200- then transformed the leg kicks in the early 1930s by
meter distances (except for the period from 1912 to eliminating the “pedaling” characteristic. American
1920, with 400 meters). Fifty-meter events were gradu- swimmer A. Kiefer introduced a straighter position of
ally added to international programs, first in freestyle the body in the water and after 1967, East German
during the 1980s (the 1988 Olympic Games) and then swimmer Roland Mattes revolutionized the back crawl.
in medley events. More recently, however, sport author-
ities have reinstated long-distance swimming in open STRENGTH OR GLIDE?
water to satisfy the dictates of entertainment: The 1991 During the 1920s and 1930s, swimmers generally took
World Championships included a 25-kilometer mara- inspiration from boats, seeking very vertical positions
thon river race for the first time. with the head lifted, in postures illustrated perfectly by
Johnny Weissmuller. During the 1960s, the focus was
THE CRAWL more on reducing resistance to forward movement, re-
In freestyle events—by definition the least rule-bound— sulting in longer periods underwater during races; dur-
the front crawl has become established as the most ef- ing the 1970s, it was more on striking a balance
ficient technique. The crawl was perfected around 1893 between powerful movements and glide. Swim training
in Sydney by professional Australian swimmers Percy was subjected to a lot of scientific research—for exam-
and Arthur Cavill and was exported to the rest of the ple, with famous American trainer James Counsilman—
world in the early twentieth century. At first their “Aus- but was also negatively affected by doping practices in
tralian crawl,” as it was called, involved a “pedaling” of countries that were experimenting with techniques on
the water with bent knees, but by 1903 a straight-leg a large scale, like the GDR. Since the 1980s, the search
flutter kick was being initiated at the hip, and this pro- for a balance between the two principles is still manifest
vided more powerful propulsion. Before World War I, in the systematic use of physical work to gain power
the stroke was optimized with a more vertical position and the shaving of body hair or wearing of wetsuits to
of the body; some swimmers also sought to develop the lower water resistance. In some countries, however, the
upward kick (the Europeans and Americans around emphasis is more on one (Germany for strength) or the
1928) and others, the downward kick (the Japanese other (China for glide).
around 1932). After 1950, professional swimming increased in pop-
ularity, in particular long-distance swimming. A number
THE BREASTSTROKE AND BACKSTROKE of international federations were created. On example is
Rooted in tradition, the breaststroke and the backstroke the World Professional Marathon Swimming Federation
changed very little until the 1920s. However, after the (WPMSF) in the United States. In 1963, the WPMSF set
It only hurt once, from beginning

to end. ■ JAMES COUNSILMAN
up a world championship circuit that included a number aids and in a more or less stabilized environment, in ac-
of events. The races took place all over the world in the cordance with specified technical conditions and in the
form of marathons and raids up to 60 kilometers long shortest time possible. FINA further specifies that its
on rivers and in lakes, performed in difficult temperature Masters Program pursues other objectives, such as “fit-
and water conditions. In 1991 FINA took over the ini- ness, friendship and understanding.”
tiative, organizing world open-water championships and The principle of sprint swimming is to compare per-
later starting a professional circuit in 1998 as a way to formance among swimmers in material conditions that
compete with the International Marathon Swimming are as neutral as possible. Some examples of such stan-
Association. dardization are an absence of currents, a predetermined
water temperature, and since 1924, delineated lanes to
WOMEN AT THE OLYMPICS separate swimmers.
Ever since swimming in Great Britain was organized In 1908, there were six different official swimming
professionally, it has been open to women. By the end events; these were the 100-, 400-, and 1500-meter
of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twen- freestyle, the 100- and 200-meter breaststroke, and the
tieth, women had their own amateur clubs in several 4 ✕ 200 freestyle relay. As of 2004, FINA now recog-
countries (the United States, Australia, and France, nizes seventeen different individual events for men and
among others) where sport in general was not particu- as many for women (the 50-, 100-, 200-, 400-, 800-,
larly favorable to women. This precedent opened the and 1500-meter freestyle; the 50-, 100- and 200-meter
door to the Olympics for women: Even before they were backstroke; the 50-, 100- and 200-meter breaststroke;
officially admitted to the program in 1928, women were the 50-, 100- and 200-meter butterfly; and the 200- and
allowed to participate in the 1912 Stockholm Games (as 400-meter medley), plus three relay events both for men
well as the following Games) in the 100-meter freestyle and for women: the 4 ✕ 100 and 4 ✕ 200-meter freestyle,
and the 4 ✕ 100 relay swim events. The women’s Olym- and the 4 ✕ 100 medley.
pic program (as well as events giving rise to World Since 1969, world records are accepted only if they
Record claims) slowly became established alongside the are achieved in approved 50-meter swimming pools;
men’s program. By the end of the twentieth century, it 33-meter and 25-meter pools are prohibited. Open-
was the same as the men’s. water events are defined as “any competition in rivers,
The recreational form of swimming is present every- lakes or ocean.” For these events, there are long-distance
where in the world, but competitive swimming has de- swimming races for distances under 10 kilometers and
veloped more in the regions where economic and marathon swimming for distances over that. World
sanitary conditions have been favorable to the existence championships and FINA competitions propose 5-, 10-,
of a network of swimming pools (North America, Asia, and 15-kilometer events.
Europe, and Australia). Competitive swimming is or-
ganized in the form of championships for all age cate- CODIFYING STROKES
gories. In some countries, junior categories have existed The breaststroke is the most codified swim technique,
since the 1920s, and for swimmers over 25, FINA’s with seven rule points (compared to five for the butter-
Masters Events have provided a system of categories by fly or the backstroke). All arm and leg movements must
a five-year age band since the 1980s. be done in the water simultaneously and symmetrically
(that is, “without alternating movement”). The hands
Competitive Swimming must be pulled down laterally with the arms extended
Competitive swimming basically consists of traveling a to form a T. The feet must be brought toward the body
certain distance at the water’s surface without material with bent knees apart, and the movement continued by
SWIMMING 1577
Swimming
The Importance of
Learning to Swim
only in 1987 that the head was allowed to break the
Robert J. H. Kiphuth, is remembered as Yale’s most surface at each full arm cycle, allowing a longer period
successful swimming coach (from 1918 to 1959) underwater as the body straightens. By 1991, given
and coach of six U.S. Olympic teams. In the ex- that the butterfly was a separate event from the breast-
tract below, Kiphuth discusses why it is important stroke, it became possible in the breaststroke to bring
to learn how to swim. the arms forward at the surface instead of underwater.
On the backward pull, however, the hands were not al-
When you go to a big bathing beach on a hot lowed to extend past the hip line.
summer day, or to the “old swimmin’ hole,” or to The butterfly was also relatively strictly codified, the
a swimming pool in a college of Y.M.C.A. gym- main difference with the breaststroke being that the
nasium, and see the thousands of men and arms were to be “brought forward together over the
women, boys and girls—particularly boys— water.” As for the backstroke, the main rule remained
splashing and shouting and paddling and cut- keeping the body on the back throughout the swim-
ting through the water, you’re likely to think that ming phases of a race. The only real change was in the
just about everybody there knows how to swim. turns, where the underwater course after push-off from
And yet there are hundreds who are frightened the wall gradually became longer with the aid of “dol-
into shivers at the thought of plunging into a river phin fishtail” movements (sometimes more than 35 me-
or lake, simply because they haven’t given it the ters), for example at the Seoul Games in 1988. FINA
right kind of try; there are as many more who are later limited this underwater distance to 10 meters in
able to paddle around and keep themselves afloat 1989 and then 15 meters in 1991. The “back only”
and do half a dozen strokes, after a fashion, but principle was also modified; during turns, swimmers
who will never become real swimmers because could touch the wall with any part of the body and were
they don’t take the trouble to learn properly. authorized to rotate onto their stomachs just before the
All of these people are missing a lot. Swim- somersault, as long as no propulsive movements of
ming is a thing that everybody can do, and do arms or legs were added.
right. More than that—it’s a thing that supplies
an amazing lot of fun, that frequently means the CHAMPIONS
difference between life and death and that is an Swimming was considered by Pierre de Coubertin as a
excellent body builder. It’s for all these reasons fundamentally utilitarian sport. It is the oldest Olympic
that a number of colleges and universities have sport, appearing on the Games program without inter-
made it compulsory for a student to pass a swim- ruption since 1896. The other major swim competition
ming test before he can get his diploma. is the World Championship, which has been organized
Source: Kiphuth, R. J. H. (1914). Are you a swimmer? In P. Withington (Ed.), every four years (in between Olympic Games) since
The Book of Athletics (p. 405). Boston: Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Co.
1978 by FINA.
During the three swimming events at the first
Olympic Games in 1896, which were held in Athens,
extending the legs laterally and pulling them back along there were thirteen participants in the 100-meter event,
an elliptical path in a frog kick. All vertical movement including eight Greeks, two Hungarians, one American,
of the legs is prohibited, and all motion along the one Swede, and one Dane; three participants in the 500-
course is at the water’s surface. The only exceptions to meter event (two Greeks and one Austrian); and nine in
the above are when executing turns and at the start, the 1200-meter event, which replaced the 1000-meter
when the arms and legs can complete the strokes. It was race at the last minute. The same swimmers participated
Teaching swimming
in Hungary in 1816.
in several events, of course. No spe-

cial installation was built for the
swimming events, which took place
in the open waters of the Bay of
Zea. Contestants swam approxi-
mate distances, surrounded by
waves. Closed swimming pools be-
came the norm only in 1908.
When Athens hosted the Games
again in 2004, 158 national dele-
gations participated in a program
of 38 different swimming events.
Eight new world records, 43 conti-
nental records, and 26 Olympic
records came out of these Games, evidence of how far swimmers. Other exceptional champions have followed
training patterns and techniques had progressed. Many in their footsteps—for example, the three prodigies of
swimmers wore wetsuits, which have been authorized the 2004 Athens Games: Australian Ian Thorp, Dutch-
since 1999. Swimmer performance was registered using man Pieter van den Hoogenband (record holder for the
electronic timing devices in each lane. Each of these 100 meter), and American Michael Phelps.
electronic touch pads (2.4-meters long, 90-centimeters In women’s swimming, much of the twentieth cen-
wide, and 1-centimenter thick) is sensitive to any pres- tury was dominated by the Americans, the Germans,
sure from 1.5 to 3 kilograms exerted on it by the swim- and the Australians, with increasing participation from
mer at the finish. The American Michael Phelps flew the Dutch. The most famous swimmers in the early
through these Olympic Games, winning a total of eight 1900s were the Australians Annette Kellerman and
medals—six of them gold—to add his name to the list Fanny Durack, but the Americans made a name for
of great Olympic swimmers. themselves in the 1920s, led by Esthelda Bleibtrey, who
Many of these champions are American: Charles broke record after record, and Gertrude Ederle, who
Daniel (four gold medals in 1904, 1906, and 1908); successfully swam across the English Channel. Dutch
Duke Kahanamoku (two gold medals in 1912 and sprint swimmer Willie den Ouden and the Dane Ragn-
1920); Norman Ross (two gold medals in 1920); hild Hveger reigned during the 1930s. Some of the
Johnny Weissmuller (three gold medals in 1924 and swimming celebrities after World War II were Australian
1928), who is just a famous for swimming the first 100- Dawn Fraser, who swam the 100-meter freestyle in
meter race in under a minute as he is for becoming under a minute in 1962; the American Debbie Meyer
Tarzan in the movies; Michael Burton (three gold medals and Germans Kornelia Ender and Ulrika Richter during
in 1968 and 1972); Mark Spitz (seven gold medals in the 1970s; and American Janet Evans and German
1972); and Jim Montgomery (three gold medals in 1972 Kristin Otto during the 1980s. The Australian Jodie
and 1976). The Australian Murray Rose (three gold Henry holds the world’s record in the 100-meter
medals in 1956 and 1960), German backstroke swim- freestyle.
mer Roland Matthes (six gold medals from 1968 to
1975), and Russian Alexander Popov, a gold medal for Governing Body
the 100-meter event in 1992 and in 1996, have also By the end of the nineteenth century, swimming was al-
earned their place in history’s Hall of Fame for great ready subject to national regulations through specific or
SWIMMING, SYNCHRONIZED 1579
multisports associations in a number of countries where Further Readings

it was practiced. The first really international organiza- Besford, P. (Ed.). (1971). Encyclopaedia of swimming. New York: St
Martin’s Press.
tion dates back to 1908, when J. de Courcy-Laffan, sec- Breuer, H., & Naul, R. (1994). Schwimmsport und Sportgeschichte.
retary general of the organizing committee of the Zwischen Politik und Wissenschaft. Sankt Augustin: Academia Verlag.
London Games, proposed that a set of international Colwin, C. (1999). Swimming dynamics.Winning techniques and strate-
gies. Chicago: Master Press.
rules modeled on the English federations be adopted for Keil, I., & Wix, D. (1996). In the swim. The amateur swimming associ-
each sport discipline. For swimming regulations, he ap- ation from 1869 to 1994. London: Swimming Times Ltd.
Oppenheim, F. (1977). Histoire de la natation mondiale. Paris: Chiron.
pointed ASA President George Hearn, who worked Orme, N. (1983). Early British swimming. 55 BC–AD 1719. Exeter, UK:
with fellow Englishman William Henry (the founder of University of Exeter.
the Life Saving Society), German-born Olympic swim- Sinclair, A., & William, H. (1893). Swimming. London: Longmans,
Green & Company.
mer Max Ritter, and Swedish swimmer Hjalmar Jo- Terret, T. (1994). Naissance et diffusion de la natation sportive. Paris:
hansson to accomplish the task. Hearn took advantage L’Harmattan.
Terret, T. (1995). Professional swimming in England before the rise of
of the occasion to call delegates from ten countries to amateurism, 1837-1875. The International Journal of the History of
a meeting on 19 July 1908, for the purpose of found- Sport, 12(1).
ing the Fédération Internationale de Natation Amateur Thomas R. (1904). Swimming. London, n.p.
(FINA). FINA’s objectives were to establish rules for in-

ternational swimming events, keep a list of official
world records, and organize swimming events at the
Olympic Games.
FINA, headquartered in Lausanne, Switzerland, has
Swimming,
been the highest authority for international swimming
ever since. In 2004 it included 223 national federa-
Synchronized
tions, which represented 42 African, 48 American, 44
Asian, 68 European, and 21 Oceanic countries. FINA
also recognizes five continental organizations. These
F rom the interwar period on, the main vehicles for
synchronized swimming were shows and musicals.
The activity only began to acquire status as a genuine
are the Confédération Africaine de Natation Amateur, sport during the 1950s, when it was included as an of-
the Amateur Swimming Union of the Americas, the ficial event by the Fédération Internationale de Natation
Asian Amateur Swimming Federation, the Oceania Amateur (FINA). It began to spread internationally dur-
Swimming Association, and the Ligue Européenne de ing the second half of the twentieth century, finally gain-
Natation (the oldest one, founded in 1926). ing Olympic recognition in 1984, although even then
Each continental organization coordinates its own it was not considered a major sport. Synchronized
championships. The European championships, which swimming is essentially a feminine sport, and one in
have been held since 1926, are the oldest. Since 1976, which North Americans have traditionally excelled.
these have taken place each year as a function of the or-
ganization of the Summer Olympic Games. The Pan- History
American Games have been taking place every four Aquatic practices called “fancy swimming” or “orna-
years (during the year that precedes the Olympic mental swimming” developed in England during the
Games) since 1951. A Latin Cup was added in 1977, mid-nineteenth century. Swimmers assumed unusual
and in Europe, a European Cup has been pitting na- positions and performed unusual figures in the water,
tional teams against one another since 1969. either during utilitarian swimming or as a feature of
professional swimming exhibitions. Around the turn of
Thierry Terret
the century, swimmers competed in “tricks and stunts”
in England and Canada, and both men and women par- solo, duet, and team categories.These were performed in
ticipated in displays of aquatic gymnastics in Germany, costume and to music.
Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. Thanks to the spread of competition in North Amer-
In 1907, Australian swimming champion Annette ica and the popularity of the musicals featuring Esther
Kellerman (1887–1975), who was celebrated as “the Williams, synchronized swimming began to spread to
most beautiful woman in the world,” took aquatic prac- the rest of the world. It was displayed at the Helsinki
tices down an even more aesthetically pleasing and Olympic Games in 1952 and recognized officially by
spectacular route. She went on tour after tour in Europe FINA that same year. Two years later, inspired by the
and North America, where her aquatic exhibitions drew Canadian and American experiences, FINA codified the
in tens of thousands of spectators. Her success inspired discipline and included it in major international
the development of water pageants in a number of competitions.
North American colleges, universities, and associations Due to its hybrid entertainment-sport origins, how-
during and following World War I. ever, the International Olympic Committee was much
University of Wisconsin student Katharine Curtis more reticent about admitting it into Olympic circles.
was the first to combine aquatic figures and music. The rebuff led synchronized swimming to shift during
Curtis created the first synchronized swimming club the 1970s from its choreographic and theatrical orien-
(the Tarpon Club) in 1923 in Chicago, where she de- tation to a practice that promoted a combination of en-
veloped what was called rhythmic swimming. This used durance (long periods under water), strength (lifts), and
combinations that were synchronized with the beat of even acrobatics, but also great virtuosity, charm, and
the music. Her students, the “Modern Mermaids,” were poise. Finally recognized as a full-fledged sport, it was
invited to Chicago’s 1933–1934 Century of Progress included in the Olympic program for the Los Angeles
Fair to give demonstrations. It was to describe their ex- Games in 1984.
hibition that the term “synchronized swimming” was Although it is spectacular and garners a lot of media
first used. attention, synchronized swimming has a relatively lim-
Katharine Curtis’ initiatives led to two different orien- ited audience and is practiced mostly in North America,
tations.The first one showcased the spectacular aspect. In Europe, and Japan. It is open to men in the United
1939, commercial performances called “aquacades” States; however, there are no mixed teams. In spite of a
started to develop in the United States. Aquacades fea- few attempts in Europe during the 1990s to include
tured former swimming champions starring in extrava- men, the international FINA and IOC regulations—
gant productions; among these, Esther Williams played a along with most national federations—restrict the
considerable role in making synchronized swimming events to women only. Champions in synchronized
popular. She became a star in aqua movie musicals such swimming often use their sport skills to launch a career
as Bathing Beauty and Neptune’s Daughter. The second in aquatic shows—for example, Linda Shelley (Ameri-
orientation developed when some of Curtis’ students de- can) and Murielle Hermine (French).
cided to organize a competition between two of
Chicago’s colleges.This took place on 27 May 1939; the Nature of
following year, the swimming committee of the Amateur Synchronized Swimming
Athletic Union officially accepted the new activity. The FINA regulations provide for solo, duet, team (from four
first national championship took place in 1946, just after to eight swimmers), and free routine combination events
World War II, and Canada followed suit five years later. in synchronized swimming competitions. Each of the
During the 1950s, championships included events in the first three events contains figure competition, technical
SWITZERLAND 1581
Switzerland Olympics Results

2002 Winter Olympics: 3 Gold, 2 Silver, 6 Bronze
routine, and free routine elements. In figure competition, with three gold medals at the 1992 Barcelona Games.
the swimmer must perform four figures chosen from a The Russian swimmers were the big winners at the 2004
list of required elements. The choice must be made Athens Games.
known eighteen to forty-eight hours before the meet. For Thierry Terret
the technical routine, required elements are also chosen
from a list, but may be performed to any music chosen
by the swimmer. Time limits are specified for all parts of Further Readings
the routine, including the deck work that precedes im- Bean, D. (Ed.). (1963–1978). Synchro-Info. Santa Ana, CA: Dawn &
Ross Bean.
mersion. In the free-routine event, swimmers are allowed Bean, D. (Ed.) (1979–1992). Synchro. Santa Ana, CA: Dawn & Ross Bean.
to choose their own choreography. Curtis, K. (1936). Rhythmic Swimming: A source book of synchronized
swimming and water pageantry. Minneapolis, MN:Burgess.
Five to seven judges score each performance on a Sydnor, S. (1998). A history of synchronized swimming. Journal of
scale of 0 to 10 (in tenths of a point). A routine is Sport History, 2(25), 252–267.
judged on both technical merit components (execution,
synchronization, and difficulty of strokes) and artistic
components (musical interpretation and manner of
presentation). FINA regulations provide for senior (ages
18 and over) and junior (ages 15 to 18) categories, as
Switzerland
well as for three different age groups (ages 12 and
under, ages 13 to 15, and ages 16 to 18). In practice,
elite swimmers are usually under 23, but there are mas-
S witzerland occupies 41,290 square kilometers in
central Europe; the Alps is its defining feature. Bern
is the capital and Zurich is the largest city, with 971,800
ter competitions for swimmers over 25. of Switzerland’s 7.5 million inhabitants. Sports mirror
class divisions and the tension between tradition and
Competition modernism. Football (soccer), downhill skiing, curling,
at the Top gymnastics, ice hockey, cycling, schwingen (a kind of
The major synchronized swimming competitions are wrestling), and hornussen (a team game) remain popu-
the Olympic Games (since 1984), the World Champi- lar even as beach volleyball attracts a new generation of
onships (since 1973), the Goodwill Games (since Swiss athletes.
1990), and the Continental Championships. There are
also a number of open international meetings with more History
flexible rules. These often take place at the same time as Switzerland’s indigenous sports developed from pagan
the national championships in the organizing country religious rituals. A seventeenth-century letter describes
(for example, the Swiss Open, the Roma Sincro, and the how peasants in Schwarzenburg would gather on
French Open). The United States and Canada have his- Christmas night to seek justice and the favor of the
torically been the leaders in competitive synchronized gods. Rivals wrestled one another and the man who
swimming. However, since the 1980s the North Ameri- threw his opponent to the ground was considered cho-
can dominance has been challenged by Japan, which sen by the gods. From this event evolved schwingen, a
places third in major championships on a regular basis; variant of wrestling in which a match ends when a
by Russia; and to a lesser extent, by France. The undis- wrestler loses hold of his opponent or is pinned to the
puted stars of Olympic synchronized swimming are the ground. Every August men and women still gather at
American Tracie Ruiz, with two gold medals at the 1984 the Swiss Alpine Herdsmen’s Festival in Interlaken to
Los Angeles Games, and the Russian Anna Kozlova, wrestle and also to see who can throw an 83-kilogram
Switzerland Switzerland
Key Events in Alpine Mountaineering,
Switzerland Sports History 1541
1840s Gymnastics are incorporated into the Konrad von Gesner (1516–1565), a Swiss nat-
school curriculum. uralist, wrote of the wonders of mountain climb-
1896 Switzerland participates in the first mod- ing in the extract below, from a letter to his friend,
ern Olympics. Vogel of Glarus.
1911 The Tour de France adds a stage through I have resolved for the future, so long as God
the Swiss Alps.
grants me life, to ascend divers mountains every
1936 The Tour de Suisse cycle race is year, or at least one, in the season when vegeta-
inaugurated.
tion is at its height, partly for botanical obser-
1948 Hedy Schlanegger is the first Swiss vation, partly for the worthy exercise of the body
woman to win an Olympic gold medal
and recreation of the mind. What must be the
in downhill skiing.
pleasure, think you, what the delight of a mind
1985 Swiss women compete in the first rightly touched, to gaze upon the huge mountain
Schweizer Cup.
masses for one’s show, and, as it were, lift one’s
1999 Beach volleyball has become a popular head into the clouds? The soul is strangely rapt
sport.
with these astonishing heights, and carried off to
the contemplation of the one supreme Architect
. . . . Philosophers will always feast the eyes of
granite block the farthest. According to folklore, body and mind on the goodly things of this
hornussen, another indigenous sport, developed from earthly paradise; and by no means least among
the practice of using a long stick to rid malevolent spir- these are the abruptly soaring summits, the track-
its from one’s property. Hornussen pits teams of sixteen less steeps, the vast slopes rising to the sky, the
to eighteen players against one another. A member of rugged rocks, the shady woods.
the offense strikes a disk toward the defense with his
stick. The offense scores a point when the disk soars
past the defenders, whereas the defense tallies a point
when a defender knocks the disk to the ground with his private entrepreneurs established ski resorts and train-
shield. ing facilities to nurture enthusiasm for downhill skiing.
In the 1840s Swiss teacher Adolph Spiess integrated Since 1911 the Tour de France has included the Swiss
gymnastics into the curriculum, a movement that led Alps among its stages, and seldom has any cyclist cap-
schools, and by extension the government, to sponsor tured the Tour without triumphing in the Alps, making
sports. Swiss schools resemble American precollegiate them the arbiter of victory. In 1936 the Swiss Cycling
schools in mandating sports as part of the curriculum Federation modeled the Tour de Suisse after the Tour de
and they resemble American high schools and colleges France. The nine-stage race every June is the final Euro-
in fielding teams for competition. pean stage race before the Tour de France. Between 23
and 25 July 1999 Switzerland hosted 737 couriers from
Participant and the United States and Europe in the Cycle Messenger
Spectator Sports World Championships.
In 1883 German Wilhelm Paulche stoked interest in ski- Since the resumption of the Olympic Games in
ing by crossing the Bernese Oberland in the Swiss Alps 1896, Switzerland has won 183 medals in the Summer
on skis. After World War II the Swiss government and
SWITZERLAND 1583
A snow covered golf course

in the Swiss Alps. The sign
says: “warning—golfballs”
in German.
Source: istockphoto/StyleP
Switzerland, Germany, France,

and Italy. That year the first Six
Country Tournament drew
women’s teams from Switzerland,
Finland, Germany, France, Den-
mark, and the United States.
Swiss women won the World
Curling Championship in 1983
and since 1988 have competed in
the Tour de Suisse Feminin, a five-
stage race held every September,
the last event of the Women’s Cy-
cling World Cup. In 2004 Switzer-
land ranked seventeenth in the
world in Women’s Beach Volley-
ball, and since 1999 the country
has hosted women pairs in the
Beach Volleyball World Tour.
Youth Sports
Every village in Switzerland has a
football club, many with members
as young as age four. Swiss
schools divide boys and girls into
six levels and teams practice two
to five times per week. Some chil-
dren play unihockey as an inex-
Games and 103 in the Winter Games, ranking nine- pensive alternative to ice hockey. Rather than an ice rink
teenth of 146 countries and eighth of 43, respectively. and skates and pads, children use the school gymna-
sium floor, gym shoes, and street clothes. Leysin Camp,
Women and Sport 1.2 kilometers above Lake Geneva, is one of several re-
Hedy Schlanegger signaled the ascent of Swiss women treats for foreigners and Swiss ages ten to seventeen; the
to elite status in 1948 when she became the first Swiss camp offers two- to four-week sessions in downhill ski-
woman to win an Olympic gold medal in downhill skiing, ice skating, tennis, swimming, and football.
ing. In 1980 a school in Fribourg started the first
women’s ice hockey team in Switzerland. In 1983 Swiss Organizations
women trained at the first Oschner Camp, and the next Lausanne is home to the International Olympic Com-
year the Swiss Ice Hockey Federation admitted women. mittee, the governing body of the Olympic Games, and
In 1985 Swiss women competed in the first Schweizer to the Federation Internationale de Volleyball, sponsor
Cup, which by 1990 fielded women’s teams from of the Beach Volleyball World Tour. Zurich is head-
The manners of mountaineers are commonly savage,

but they are rather produced by their situation than
Switzerland derived from their ancestors. ■ SAMUEL JOHNSON
Swiss Folk Wrestling, 1611
The letter below, from a Swiss court to the gov- hockey, tennis, downhill skiing, and swimming, and the
ernment in 1611, condemns a traditional folk less affluent in unihockey, football, and hornussen.
ritual wrestling match. Sports also underscore cultural attitudes, with tradi-
We have heard that the common people (das tionalists extolling hornussen and schwingen as symbols
gemeine Volk), as peasants and farm-servants, of national pride and modernists anticipating beach vol-
here in Schwarzenburg for a long time have been leyball as a movement that will open Switzerland to
meeting on Christmas night at the place where American popular culture and fashion.
the religious and secular justice is administered, Traditionalists and modernists alike suffered a set-
and hold there a wrestling match (Schwinget) back when the International Olympic Committee (IOC)
until midnight. They challenge and try their awarded the 2006 Winter Games to Turin, Italy, rather
strength against each other, and who throws the than to Sion, Switzerland. Swiss athletes and officials
other on the ground becomes famous hereby. condemned the decision as retaliation against Swiss at-
They also believe that who trains that night will torney and IOC official Marc Hedler for alleging that
be vigorous and healthy the coming year. They since 1996 countries have bought the right to host the
do not only put faith into this superstition, but Games.
they also, as it has often happened, damage their
limbs, shed their blood, and this leads to loud The Future
crying, cursing, swearing and other frivolous The IOC decision to award the 2006 Winter Games to
manners. Some come even from Freiburg to par- Turin may exacerbate the rivalry between Switzerland
ticipate. Some have already been punished and and Italy. However, the future of sports in Switzerland
this event has been forbidden and condemned may lie less with Europe than with the United States as
by our decree. American popular culture permeates Switzerland. Such
a future may not imperil football and hornussen, but
Schaufelberger, W. (1972). Der wetkampf in der alien eidgenossenschaft (Vol. 1,
pp. 22<N>23). Bern, Switzerland: Paul Haupt. downhill skiing may lose ground if beach volleyball lures
athletes and spectators to sun and sand. Much depends
on the balance young Swiss athletes strike between tra-
dition and modernism.
quarters of the Federation Internationale de Football As- Christopher Cumo
sociation, sponsor of the World Cup. The national af-
See also St. Moritz
filiate is the Association Suisse de Football.
Sports in Society
The most notable social phenomenon may be the rise of Further Reading
Arnaud, P. (1994). The origins of sport in Europe. Paris: L’Harmattan
beach volleyball, a sport that combines athleticism and Baker, W. (1988). Sports in the Western world. Champaign/Urbana:
sex appeal with women in two-piece outfits and men in University of Illinois Press.
shorts, attire that reveals muscle tone and suntan. Beach Claeys, U. (1982). Rationalising sports policies: Sport in European so-
ciety: A transnational survey into participation and motivation. Stras-
volleyball advertises itself as a free-spirited alternative to bourg, Germany: Committee for the Development of Sport.
traditional sports, whereas Swiss conservatives lament it Hickok, B. (2004). Everything you wanted to know about sports. Re-
trieved November 9, 2004, from http://www.hickoksports.com
as hedonistic and sensual. Sports mirror class divisions Mangan, J. (Ed.). (1999). Sport in Europe: Politics, class, gender. Lon-
in Switzerland, with the affluent apt to participate in ice don: Frank Cass.
SWITZERLAND 1585
Switzerland
Football Fans Tackle Heidi
Once upon a time, a Swiss heroine named Heidi Manhattan’s Rockefeller Plaza and crashed the
changed how football was broadcast by U.S. television phone exchange.
networks. On 17 November 1968, NBC aired a match- As it happened, they missed a fairly exciting 65
up between the New York Jets and Oakland Raiders that seconds. Lamonica threw a 43-yard touchdown
football historians call the “Heidi Game.” A made-for-TV pass to halfback Charlie Smith with 42 seconds to
movie of the classic children’s novel Heidi was set to pre- play, giving Oakland a 36–32 lead. The ensuing
kickoff spurted free and Ridlehuber, the Raiders’ re-
miere at 7 p.m. The game had just a little more than a
serve fullback, picked it up and ran into the end
minute to go when the network went to a commercial
zone. The Raiders had scored 14 points in a
and then right to the airing of Heidi. NBC lived to regret
shorter time than it took Heidi to yodel.
that decision because in the last minute of play, the bal-
ance shifted dramatically. The score had been 32–29, To make sure that there would never be another
with the Jets leading. Here’s how sportswriter Phil Bar- “Heidi Game,” TV networks adopted a policy of stay-
ber describes the scene as football fans saw their game ing with a sporting event until it was over—letting
replaced by Heidi frolicking in the Swiss Alps: the programming schedule “slide”—which is why
American viewers now sometimes find themselves
What happened was a torrent of angry calls from
waiting an extra 60 minutes for 60 Minutes to begin.
East Coast couch potatoes, who asked, in colorful
terms, why a spunky little girl had replaced their Marcy Ross
football game. They flooded the switchboard at Source: Barber, P. (1999, November 24). No. 10: The Heidi Game. http://www.nfl.com/
news/mostmemorable10.html
Table Tennis
Taekwando
Tai Chi
Technology
Tennis Table Tennis
Title IX
Tour de France T able tennis—also known by the trademark name
“Ping-Pong”—began to find mass acceptance at the
beginning of the twentieth century after people had
Track and Field—
Jumping and Throwing looked upon it during the late nineteenth century as an
extension of an entertaining board game, an after-dinner
Track and Field— social diversion among the English upper classes.
Running and Hurdling In 1926 table tennis became a competitive sport under
Tug of War the auspices of the newly established International Table
Tennis Federation (ITTF). By then the sport had spread
Turkey deep into the masses, even in Asia. In the May–June
Turner Festivals 1992 issue of the United States Table Tennis Associa-
tion’s publication Table Tennis Topics, Edward Bilinski
wrote of his interview with a seventy-one-year-old man
who won a small tournament in 1932 in Xizhou, China.
The conditions had been primitive: just one table with a
net but without a white center line for doubles play; a
single forty-watt bulb; a poorly glued celluloid ball, wob-
bly because of the grit lodged in its seams; and nailed
boards shaped into rackets.This account hinted that play-
ers in China might eventually take the sport seriously.
However, the dominance of Japan and then China
did not become manifest to the West until the 1950s,
when Asian players, using the supposedly outdated pen-
hold grip (European players used the shake-hand grip),
began winning ITTF world championships.
World championships began in 1926, and the ITTF,
composed of associations from more than 170 coun-
tries, continues to supervise these and other world title
events, including a biennial world veterans event (for
those forty to eighty years of age). Beginning in 1988
table tennis became part of the Olympic Games.
Origins
T
Table tennis is generally considered to be of English ori-
gin. People—mostly formally dressed gentlefolk—
Since tournament play began, controversies have played miniature “tennis” indoors in England during
arisen, such as over the use of illegal serves (still an issue the 1880s and 1890s. The table usually was set up in a
today) and over nonattacking, interminably slow play. dining room or parlor. Players sometimes improvised
Consequently, rules have been changed. For example, in nets of woven fabric, taut towels, stringed bottles, or
1936–1937 U.S. tournaments the net was lowered books. Long-handled, hollow, vellum rackets eventu-
from 17.1 to 15.3 centimeters. However, nothing has ally were replaced by short-handled wooden rackets
been more controversial than the advent of rackets with covered with cork, sandpaper, and, as the sport grew
sponge rubber-based surfaces during the 1950s. With during the first years of the 1900s, pimpled rubber.
these rackets the Japanese began to win world champi- The pips-out rubber offered better spin and control. In
onships, and the rackets have proliferated since. progressing from swatting at crude balls carved from
Players may use various grips, but with regard to the champagne corks, players came to prefer celluloid balls.
sport’s essential characteristics of spin and speed and
the athleticism that championship play requires, the Development
technological changes in the racket surfaces during By the beginning of the twentieth century table tennis
the last fifty years have brought about great changes. had outgrown the drawing rooms of the British upper
Indeed, one can speak of table tennis before sponge classes. People from every walk of life were playing the
and table tennis after sponge as virtually two different sport. Indeed, from 1900 to 1902 a table tennis craze
games. swept Britain and the United States. The sport was ath-
Meanwhile, the best players—the Chinese and Swedish letic and inexpensive and provided families with whole-
men and the Chinese and South Korean women— some entertainment. Table tennis postcards, party
continue to excel, as do their lesser counterparts, in invitations, and even musical pieces were popular. A great
leagues and tournaments in East and West. demand existed for equipment, and boxed sets sold well.
The ITTF continues to serve as a miniature United In England many table tennis clubs were formed, and
Nations, and in 1991 it enabled a combined North and tournaments, some offering prizes, were held.
South Korean team to participate in the world champi- Arnold “Ping-Pong” Parker of England (no relation
onships. The year 2001 marked the thirtieth anniversary to Parker Brothers, the game manufacturers who in
of the “Ping-Pong diplomacy” visit of the U.S. table ten- 1928 patented the trade name “Ping-Pong” in the
nis team to a China that would forever be changed. United States) was a turn-of-the-century star player and
1587
authority. He devised some much needed rules, one of “Table Tennis Association.” A similar event occurred al-
which championed the double-bounce serve. The most a decade later in the United States when players
double-bounce serve is now the standard, but, despite balked at using only Parker Brothers equipment in Amer-
Parker’s influence, it wasn’t always so. Although table ican Ping-Pong Association (APPA) tournaments spon-
tennis was in some ways similar to lawn tennis, play- sored by Parker Brothers. Although the 1930 Metro and
ers realized that some modification had to be made to the 193l First National APPA Championships, both held
the single-bounce tennis serve (in which the server’s in New York City, were successful, New York area play-
ball cannot bounce until it is on the opponent’s side). ers, wanting to preserve their independence, broke away
Because serving overhand would be viciously absurd, from the APPA to form the New York Table Tennis As-
an early rule required an underhand, one-bounce serve. sociation (NYTTA) and to hold their own national
As the server hit the ball from behind and within the championships. By 1935 APPA players had joined, as
end lengths of the table, perhaps even from a line the NYTTA players had earlier, the United States Table
drawn behind the table, only the handle of the racket Tennis Association (USTTA). Upon its formation in
could be above the waist. Thus, by the late 1920s in the 1933, this association (in 1993 renamed “USA Table
United States many players used the forehand-favoring, Tennis” or “USATT” at its Colorado Springs Olympic
blade-down penholder grip instead of the double- Headquarters) affiliated with the ITTF.
winged, shake-hands tennis grip. At the first APPA tournaments (men only; women
In 1922 a Cambridge University student, Ivor Mon- were soon to follow), one could see that table tennis is
tagu of England, began to codify the rules of the sport, a great social leveler and that the immigrant influx was
including the retention of the double-bounce serve. In strong. Evelyn Seeley, writing in 1930 in the New York
January 1926 Montagu, with representatives from Aus- World-Telegram, spoke of “an amazing miscellaneous
tria, Germany, Hungary, and Sweden, met in Berlin. group” of participants. “Bankers and brokers . . . office
With Dr. Georg Lehmann, president of the Deutscher boys and clerks, yachtsmen and Y.M.C.A. boys.” A num-
Tischtennis-Bund, taking the initiative, the ITTF was ber of players, she said, “spoke in Continental accents.”
organized. Montagu was its first and longest-serving
president (1926–1967). Hungary at the Top
The ITTF held its first world championship in 1926 In the beginning Hungarian players dominated the
in London. Lady Swaythling, Montagu’s mother, do- world championships—particularly five-time world
nated a trophy cup for the men’s team matches, and six champion Maria Mednyanszky, two-time world cham-
European countries and India competed for it. A men’s pion Anna Sipos, and the “Three Musketeers,” Victor
singles (with fifty-one players) championship and a Barna, Miklos “Mike” Szabados, and Laszlo “Laci”
men’s doubles championship were decided. Women’s Bellak. Among other European world champions before
doubles were not introduced until 1928, and women’s the Asian ascendancy during the 1950s were Czecho-
team matches for the Marcel Corbillon Cup were not in- slovakia’s Bohumil Vana and Marie Kettnerova, Hun-
troduced until 1933 in Paris. However, in 1926 the gary’s Gizella “Gizi” Farkas and Ferenc Sido, Romania’s
women had their own singles championship (fourteen Angelica Rozeanu, and England’s Johnny Leach.
players) and also mixed doubles. The most famous person in table tennis perhaps is
During the early 1920s Montagu and his Cambridge Victor Barna (born Berna). Known for his signature
friends, with the help of a leading English manufacturer, stroke, the backhand flick, he won twenty of his twenty-
Jaques, had reestablished the English Ping-Pong Associ- two world titles before he broke his playing arm in a car
ation, but when Jaques insisted that players use Jaques accident at age twenty-three. That arm was said to be in-
equipment, Montagu’s group changed its name to the sured for $10,000, but, as Barna said, “with that crash
TABLE TENNIS 1589
Chinese children
learning table tennis.
During the 1940s, after such

U.S. stars as Lou Pagliaro,
Marty Reisman, Leah Neu-
berger, Thelma Thall, and Dick
Miles had been more or less
just putting the ball into play,
Asian players, about to become
the world’s best, would aim to
win the point as quickly as pos-
sible. Ichiro Ogimura of Japan,
the 1954 and 1956 world
champion, although using
open-palm serves, nonetheless
was able to get an immediate
advantage by squatting and,
with a swipe of the racket, spin-
ning (or deceptively not spin-
ning) the ball; he would then
look to sock away the return (in
what is called a “third-ball at-
tack”) or maneuver to sock
away the next return (in what is
called a “fifth-ball attack”).
went a part of my game never to return.” After his first By the mid-1970s, after three-time world champion
exhibition tour of the United States in 1934–1935, Zhuang Zedong, his perennial runner-up Li Furong, and
Barna was the first player to warn the ITTF of the havoc long-pips initiator Zhang Xielin had established the su-
that fingerspin serves could cause. As practiced by the premacy of China, other players establishing themselves
1930s U.S. singles and world doubles champions Sol after China’s Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) showed
Schiff and Jimmy McClure and to a lesser degree by further inventiveness: By tossing the ball up 6 meters,
Europeans, these serves eventually forced a service rule then pivoting into the drop, Hsu Shao-fa found new
stating that the ball must initially rest on the flat open spins and new deceptions, and Huang Liang, taking ad-
palm and be thrown up without any fingerspin. Other- vantage of technology, used still-unfamiliar long pips-out
wise, players frustrated their opponents in various ways: rubber to defeat opponents with unreadable spins.
They would rub the ball against the racket and let it fly, Into the 1980s and 1990s players and officials had
with index and middle finger throw the ball in a wheel- to cope with behind-the-back illegal serves and players
like motion at different positions on the racket to make who legally “hid the ball” on service. Deception remains
it bounce crazily, shoot the ball off like a wobbly mar- an integral part of table tennis. Players must learn how
ble, snapped from a thumb, or even nick the celluloid to “read” not only the spin on the ball but also the
ball with a fingernail to cause it to hop like a Mexican movements of the opponent and to anticipate how best
jumping bean. Often, if the opponent was lucky enough to react to them.
to return the ball, it would present a set-up, an easy Another problem of the 1930s was the interminably
point-winning follow for the server. long play that would occur when two inveterate
One man practicing

sportsmanship is far better than
fifty preaching it. ■ KNUTE ROCKNE
defenders played a match in which both simply “chis- able to match their Chinese and Korean neighbors. In
eled,” that is, pushed the ball passively back and forth, his book Songs of International Friendship, Hikosuke
waiting for the other to miss. One point scored at the Tamasu, the “Butterfly” table tennis manufacturer, says
world championships in 1936 lasted more than two that at a Japanese training camp during the 1960s play-
hours! Naturally, a rule to expedite play had to be de- ers were not permitted to go to bed until they had hit
vised, and variations were not always to a player’s liking. one thousand forehands in a row without a miss. Thirty
The U.S. team was displeased when defending world years later he said players lack not only what technology
women’s singles champion Ruth Aarons was disquali- has made ever more indispensable—paid professional
fied from defending her title in the 1937 final, along coaching—but also dedication and love of the game.
with her Austrian opponent Gertrude “Trude” Pritzi, After emerging from their Cultural Revolution, the
for not finishing their match in the allotted time. Not Chinese coined the diplomacy slogan, “Friendship first,
long after, the four-time world champion, Richard Berg- competition second,” and reacquainted the world, espe-
mann of England, reportedly put three alarm clocks cially the so-called Third World of Asian, African, and
under the playing table because a new rule mandated Latin American countries, with their table tennis
that if a game wasn’t finished in twenty minutes, who- expertise—and their friendly propaganda. Only once
ever was ahead would be awarded the game. Thus, during the 1970s did China have a world men’s singles
iconoclastic Bergmann set his clocks to go off at inter- champion: Hsi En-ting.The table tennis historian Zdenko
vals to warn him of his lapsed playing time. Predictably Uzorinac said Hsi “tattooed” his nonplaying hand “with
the clocks were soon banned. thoughts of great thinkers.” Hsi said, “I played with both
Today the “expedite rule” stresses a fifteen-minute time hands, the one in which I held the racket and the other
period for any one game.Then, if the game isn’t finished, which inspired me with wise sayings that led me to
players must alternate services for the rest of the match, victory.”
with the stipulation that if the server’s opponent returns China’s diplomacy went so far as to occasionally
a thirteenth ball he automatically wins the point. allow Chinese players to take it easy on their opponents,
even, some thought, in major championships. Could
Spin Doctors this fact account for a number of European teams win-
However, by the 1970s the likelihood of slow, boring ning world doubles titles? Perhaps. However, given the
play was slight with the super topspin game of the Hun- opportunity, stars such as Russia’s Stanislav Gomozkov,
garians Tibor Klampar, Istvan Jonyer, and Gabor Romania’s Maria Alexandru, Yugoslavia’s Dragutin
Gergely, who, if forced to their far forehand side, could Surbek, France’s Jacques Secretin, and Germany’s Jorg
loop the ball around the table net posts with the preci- Rosskopf were capable of rising to the occasion.
sion of a bowler spinning strikes into a pocket.The same During the 1980s and early 1990s, a new wave of
applies to the attack of not only the Chinese stars but Swedish athletes—Jorgen Persson, Erik Lindh, Jan-Ove
also the Swedish world champions of the 1970s, led by Waldner, Mikael Appelgren, and Peter Karlsson—won
Kjell Johansson, Hans Alser, and Stellan Bengtsson. championships.These victories showed what a country—
Japanese women won six out of seven world women’s with a total population less than any one of China’s
singles titles from 1956 through 1969, with two-time three largest cities—could do with an excellent table ten-
winner Kimiyo Matsuzaki leading the way. Japanese nis development program, a unifying team spirit, and a
men were also successful after Hiroji Satoh’s world will to win.
championship win in Mumbai (Bombay), India, in However, the Chinese have come back. At the 2004
1952. Since then, however, the Japanese have been un- Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece, 172 athletes
TAEKWONDO 1591
competed in table tennis. China won three gold medals, Schaad, C. G. (1930). Ping-Pong: The game [and] its tactics and laws.
one silver, and two bronze: In men’s singles Hao Wang Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Schiff, S. (1939). Table tennis comes of age. New York: Henry Holt.
won silver, and Liqin Wang won bronze; in women’s Tamasu, H. (1993). Songs of international friendship. Tokyo: Kimihiko
singles Yining Zhang won gold; in men’s doubles Qi Tamasu.
Uzorinac, Z. (1981). From Sarajevo to Novi Sad. Zagreb, Croatia:
Chen and Lin Ma won gold; in women’s doubles Nan Graficki zavod Hrvatske.
Wang and Yining Zhang won gold, and Yue Guo and
Niu Jianfeng won bronze. China’s closest competition,
South Korea, won one gold, one silver, and one bronze.
In late 2004 the ITTF ranked four Chinese players
among the top six players in the world: Hao Wang,
Taekwondo
Liqin Wang, Lin Ma, and Qi Chen.
At the 2004 ITTF Men’s and Women’s World Cup in
Xiaoshang, China, defending champion Lin Ma of
T aekwondo is a Korean martial art that utilizes kicks,
hand strikes, and blocks for self-defense, sport, and
artistic expression. Taekwondo tournaments may in-
China retained his title when he beat Kalinikos Kreanga clude competition in sparring, prearranged patterns, or
of Greece in six games to win the event for the third “forms,” and board breaking. In English translation tae
time in his career. means foot, kwon means hand or fist, and do means
way—the way of hand and foot. Alternative spellings
The Future for taekwondo include tae kwon do, taekwon-do, and
Perhaps their old problem faces the Chinese anew: With t’aegwondo. Taekwondo was developed in Korea, but in
their strong sense of national pride, their large pool of the past few decades it has become the most widely
top players and coaches, and their professional ap- practiced martial art in the world. The basic techniques
proach to table tennis, who can beat them? Are China’s of taekwondo have been practiced for the past two
table tennis players perhaps too good for the sport’s thousand years, but the sport as practiced today was de-
advancement? veloped during the 1940s.
Tim Boggan
History
The history of taekwondo is interwoven with martial
Further Reading arts that have been developing since first practiced in
Barna, V. (1962). Table tennis today. London: Arthur Barker. primitive cultures throughout the Far East. Many martial
Bergmann, R. (1950). Twenty-one up. London: Sporting Handbooks.
Bilinski, E. (1992, May–June). When table tennis was “Ping-Pong” in
arts historians trace the origins of Eastern martial arts to
China. Table Tennis Topics, 37. India, and particularly to the Buddhist monk Bodhi-
Boggan, T. (1976). Winning table tennis. Chicago: Henry Regnery. darma, who taught martial arts exercises to monks in the
Clark, C. (1933). Modern Ping-Pong. New York: John Day.
Craydon, R. (1995). The story of table tennis—The first 100 years. Shaolin temple in China. From there kung fu was de-
Hastings, UK: English TTA. veloped and then spread throughout China. Monks,
Dunn, A. (1995, August 17). Table tennis anyone? New York Times.
Gurney, G. N. (n.d.). Table tennis: The early years. St. Leonards-on-Sea,
warlords, and merchants traveling to other countries
UK: International Table Tennis Federation. brought their martial arts practices with them and trans-
Miles, R. (1968). The game of table tennis. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott. mitted them to other cultures. Korea was an intermedi-
Miles, R. (1970, July–August). Miles on Bergmann. Table Tennis Topics, 1
Montagu, I. (1936). Table tennis. London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons. ary for the passage of new techniques and ideas from
Neale, D. (1970). Table tennis: The way to the top. London: Arthur China to Japan and Okinawa.
Barker.
Reid, P. (1974). Victor Barna. Lavenham, UK: Eastland.
According to the World Taekwondo Federation (WTF),
Reisman, M. (1974). The money player. New York: William Morrow. the roots and development of the art lie solely within the
Korean peninsula, and techniques were originally devel- South Koreans. To this day General Choi is not men-
oped from fighting against beasts and other humans. tioned in the history of taekwondo on the official WTF
Taekwondo was part of the physical training for young website. That year General Choi left the Korea Tae-
warriors dating back to the Silla Kingdom in 57 BC. kwondo Association (KTA) and created the International
Subak and taekkyon were early names for taekwondo. Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF), with nine charter mem-
During the Japanese occupation of Korea, the prac- ber countries. Until his death in 2002, General Choi
tice of Korean martial arts was forbidden for national- continued to visit other countries and work to spread
istic reasons. Taekkyon training went underground taekwondo throughout the world.
during that time, and was only practiced again openly In 1973 the KTA became the WTF.The ITF remained
after 1945. It was during the Japanese occupation that under the control of General Choi, and its practitioners
the father of modern taekwondo, General Hong Hi were thought to be more traditional. The WTF began to
Choi, began his martial arts training. As a boy he place more emphasis on sparring and became more
learned taekkyon, a Korean kicking art, and in 1937 he sport-oriented. There have been attempts to bring the
was sent to Japan where he attained a first degree black two federations together, so far without success. The po-
belt in karate, an art that relies more on hand tech- litical fallout from General Choi’s visit to North Korea,
niques. Choi was forced to enlist in the Japanese army and his belief that taekwondo should be taught there,
when World War II broke out, but eventually he was im- created a rift that has yet to be bridged. Currently the
plicated as a planner of the Korean Independence ITF style of taekwondo is thought to be more traditional
Movement and was imprisoned in Japan. It was during than the WTF style, tournaments are not full-contact,
this time in prison that Choi developed modern tae- students practice forms developed by General Choi, and
kwondo from his training in taekkyon and karate. the ITF style of taekwondo is still considered to be a
Choi continued to develop taekwondo, and in 1953 “martial art.” The WTF created its own forms, uses full-
he spearheaded the introduction of taekwondo training contact sparring, and their style of taekwondo is now
for the Korean military. During the same period other considered to be more of a “martial sport.”
martial arts schools, or kwans, were spreading through- The International Olympic Committee (IOC) recog-
out Korea, many using similar techniques derived from nized taekwondo as an amateur sport in 1980. Under
taekkyon, karate, and other martial arts. In 1955 the the sparring rules for Olympic taekwondo, kicks and
kwans combined together to form one art that was rec- punches were allowed to the body, but only kicks were
ognized as a Korean martial art, and it was formally allowed to the head. The reason for disallowing
named “taekwondo.” General Choi and other tae- punches to the head was that taekwondo is an art that
kwondo masters then began touring the world and is famous for kicking, and allowing punches to the head
spread the practice of taekwondo to many countries. In would lead to more of a boxing style competition. For
1960 General Choi visited the United States and per- children, however, kicks to the head were against the
suaded Jhoon Rhee, a karate instructor, to rename his rules for safety reasons. Recently the United States
school Taekwon-Do. Jhoon Rhee is recognized as the fa- Olympic Committee changed the rule to allow children
ther of taekwondo in the United States, and he was in- to score points with kicks to the head, a ruling that
strumental in spreading the art throughout the country. caused controversy because of the perceived danger.
Taekwondo was accepted into the Amateur Athletic The social context of taekwondo is an important part
Union (AAU) in 1974, and the United States Tae- of the art and sport. For many practitioners of tae-
kwondo Union (USTU) was formed. kwondo, the art is a way of life. Taekwondo students
In 1966 General Choi made a goodwill visit to North learn the Five Tenets of Taekwondo, which are cour-
Korea, which caused him to fall into disgrace with the tesy, integrity, self-control, perseverance, and indom-
TAEKWONDO 1593
itable spirit. There are strict rules for etiquette, and levels until they reach first degree black belt. At each
breaching these rules may lead to expulsion from one’s level students learn new forms and one-step sparring
school. Etiquette rules include addressing superiors techniques, and are expected to demonstrate increas-
properly, bowing when entering and leaving the practice ingly difficult board-breaking techniques. Testing may
hall (dojang), bowing to instructors, black belts, flags, also include a written knowledge test of history, phi-
practice partners, and, at the beginning and end of losophy, and Korean terminology. It takes approxi-
class, wearing the uniform properly, facing away from mately three months to progress between ranks at the
others when straightening the uniform, and other rules. lower levels, and a longer amount of time the higher
In some systems there are rules of etiquette that apply one progresses. In general it takes two to three years to
to social situations, such as order of seating at the table, progress from white belt to black belt. At the black belt
how to make proper introductions, and showing re- level students are often expected to help teach, referee
spect for one’s elders. Rules of etiquette also apply to at tournaments, and take on other responsibilities. Pro-
tournaments, and even at the Olympic level a competi- gressing from one degree of black belt to the next can
tor may be penalized for showing disrespect. take several years. The highest rank in taekwondo is
According to the Kukkiwon, which is the World Tae- tenth degree, but generally ninth degree is the highest
kwondo Headquarters in Korea, taekwondo now has one may advance, and tenth degree may be granted as
50 million participants in 175 countries. One of the an honorary rank.
people taught by General Choi who went on to start a The WTF is the ruling body for Olympic-level tae-
major taekwondo association was Haeng Ung Lee. Eter- kwondo, and participants must have Kukkiwon certifi-
nal Grandmaster Haeng Ung Lee founded the Ameri- cation of dan (degree of black belt). In sparring there are
can Taekwondo Association in 1969, and there are now eight weight divisions for men and women, ten for boys
300,000 members. The WTF is currently the largest and girls 14–17 years old in the World Junior Cham-
taekwondo governing body in the world, followed by pionships, and four for men and women in the Olym-
the ITF. pics. Men fight three rounds lasting three minutes each
A major scandal occurred in the world of taekwondo with one minute rest between rounds, and women and
when Kim Un-yong, president of the WTF and IOC mem- juniors fight three rounds lasting two minutes each with
ber, was arrested in 2003. He was accused of embezzling one minute of rest between rounds. The size of the spar-
over three million dollars from the WTF, and taking ring ring and the placement of judges and the contest-
bribes. Kim was a longtime member of the IOC and had ants are specified in the rules. In the early years of
run for president of the organization. His IOC member- taekwondo tournaments there was no safety equip-
ship was suspended when he was indicted on charges of ment, but now equipment has been developed and re-
embezzlement and bribery, and he stepped down from his fined for maximum safety. All contestants must wear the
positions as a national legislator and as president of the WTF-approved V-neck uniform, shin and forearm
WTF. Kim was sentenced to jail and fined $680,000 in guards, mouthpiece, headgear, chest protector, and men
September 2004. must wear a groin guard. Headgear and chest protec-
tors with electronic devices to score points are available
What Is Taekwondo? in some tournaments. Commands to bow, begin, stop,
Currently all Olympic competitors must be black belts, and end are given in the Korean language. Fist strikes
but in other tournaments there are divisions for com- and kicks are allowed to the body on the chest protec-
petitors based on rank. Ranking in taekwondo is indi- tor, and kicks are allowed to the face. Kicking or punch-
cated by belt color. Taekwondo students start at the ing to the spine, back of the head, or below the belt are
white belt level and then progress through color belt against the rules, and attacking these areas results in
point deductions. One point is given for forceful at- Competition at the Top
tacks to the body, two points for attacks to the head, There are numerous national, regional, and international
and one extra point if the opponent is knocked down taekwondo tournaments. The World Taekwondo League
and the referee counts. Matches are full-contact, con- holds competitions in four regional areas: Pan America,
tinuous, and the winner is the contestant with the most Europe, Africa, and Asia. Competitors must have Kukki-
points at the end of the three rounds. Below the won certification of dan, and competition rules are sim-
Olympic level, WTF-sanctioned tournaments may also ilar to WTF (Olympic) rules. Taekwondo competitions
hold competition in forms. are also held in the Asian Games, South Pacific Games,
Rules for “point tournaments” vary, and are often Pan American Games, World Games, All-Africa Games,
quite different from official WTF tournaments. In a Southeast Asian Games, South American Games, Boli-
point tournament there may be fewer or no weight varian Games, and Olympics.
classes. Divisions are based on belt rank, age, and gen- The history of taekwondo in the Olympics starts
der. Full contact may be prohibited, and in some prior to 1980. The WTF created standardized competi-
tournaments a competitor may be disqualified for “ex- tion rules and forms as they began to bid for recogni-
cessive contact.” Bouts are not continuous—judges tion by the IOC as the governing body for taekwondo
stop the action to declare points. The winner is the con- in the world, and they gained that recognition in 1980.
testant with the most points at the end of the match, In 1985 taekwondo was accepted as a demonstration
or the one who reaches the designated number of sport for the 1988 Olympics. Taekwondo was a demon-
points first. Hand techniques may be allowed to the stration sport in the 1988, 1992, and 1996 Olympics,
head, and varying numbers of points may be awarded and was accepted as a full Olympic sport for the 2000
for specific techniques delivered to specific areas. Rules games in Sydney.
for youth may be different from adult rules, such as re- Arlene Limas stands out as one of the major athletes
quiring less contact for a point to be scored, and in in taekwondo. She competed in the Olympic games in
some tournaments boys and girls may spar against Seoul, Korea, and was the first taekwondo athlete to
each other. The protective equipment required varies ever win an Olympic gold medal. Ms. Limas retired in
according to individual tournament rules, and may in- 2000 but has remained prominent in the Olympic
clude hand and footgear in addition to the type of movement in the United States, and she is an activist for
equipment required by the WTF. Point tournaments athletes’ rights. Another athlete from the 1988 games,
also generally include competition in forms and board Jimmy Kim, was the first gold medalist in the men’s
breaking. Forms competitors are divided into divisions heavyweight division, and he was Blackbelt Magazine’s
based on age and rank, and they may or may not be di- 1988 Male Competitor of the Year. Herb Perez was an-
vided by gender. other gold medalist in the 1988 games who went on to
The characteristics of taekwondo practitioners are achieve fame. He played Olympus on the television
varied. There are programs for children as young as show WMAC Masters, and he has appeared in several
three, and people are able to practice throughout their books and videos. A more recent Olympic champion of
lives. Men and women, boys and girls, of all ages, note is American Steven Lopez, who won gold medals
throughout the world practice taekwondo. Studies con- in both the 2000 Olympics in Sydney and the 2004
cerning the personality traits of taekwondo practition- Olympics in Athens.
ers have shown that it improves self-esteem and reduces Ernie Reyes has not only won many taekwondo
aggression in children, and students holding higher belt championships himself, but he set a record for training
ranks tend to be more demanding, enthusiastic and op- the most black-belt champions in one year with seven
timistic, self-reliant, and socially perceptive. of his students from his West Coast team winning
TAI CHI 1595
national championships. He has been inducted into longevity. Advocates say that disciplined daily practice
the Black Belt Hall of Fame, has appeared on the cover enhances the quality and circulation of chi (vital energy)
of every major martial arts magazine, and in 2003 was within the body, improves bodily functions, tones mus-
awarded a lifetime achievement award for twenty-five cles, and engenders a relaxed mental attitude. The ma-
years of excellence. jority of the millions of people who practice tai chi in
China and elsewhere do so for these benefits, but tai chi
Governing Bodies also is a premier martial art that can be practiced even
Governing organizations include the World Taekwondo late in life.
Federation (www.wtf.org/main.htm); Pan American
Taekwondo Union (www.patu.org); European Tae- Origins
kwondo Union (www.etuTaekwondo.org); United Chinese legendary history attributes tai chi’s origin to
States Taekwondo Union (www.ustu.org); American Zhang Sanfeng, a Daoist expert who was canonized in
Taekwondo Association; (www.ataonline.com); Inter- 1459, but tai chi entered recorded history centuries
national Tae Kwon Do Association (www.itatkd.com); later as a martial art practiced esoterically by the peo-
and World Taekwondo League (www.thewtl.com). ple of Chenjiagou in Henan Province. A form of the art
was first demonstrated and taught in public in Beijing
Erin Reilly
by Yang Luchan (1799–1872), who had learned it in
Chenjiagou. Scholars say Yang accepted all challenges
Further Reading from the many Beijing martial arts masters, never to be
Gwon, P. G., & Lee, M. (1984). Taegeuk: The new forms of tae kwon do. defeated and never to seriously injure an opponent. He
Santa Clarita, CA: Ohara. became known as “Yang the Invincible” and was ap-
Kim, S., Chung, K. H., Lee, K. M., & Kim, S. H. (1999). Tae kwon do
kyorugi: Olympic style sparring. Turtle Press.
pointed martial arts instructor to the imperial court.
Lawler, J. (2001). Tae kwon do for women. Wish Publishing. Yang Luchan publicly taught the slow and soft per-
Park,Y. H., Park,Y. H., & Gerrard, J. (1999). Tae kwon do: The ultimate formance of a lengthy sequence of patterns, but he
reference guide to the world’s most popular martial art. Checkmark
Books. transmitted a much larger and more varied body of
Perez, H. (1998). The complete tae kwon do for kids. Los Angeles, CA lore to his private students, a practice in keeping with
Lowell House Juvenile.
Rhee, J. (1971). Hwa-rang and chung-mu of kwon do hyung. Santa
martial arts tradition. Popular conceptions of tai chi as
Clarita, CA: Ohara. an only vaguely martial exercise, although beneficial to
Rhee, J. (1971). Tan-gun and to-san of tae kwon do hyung. Santa Clarita, health and longevity, are drawn from Yang’s and his suc-
CA: Ohara.
Rhee, J. (1971). Won-hyo and yul-kok of tae kwon do hyung. Santa cessors’ publicly taught form. This process of simplify-
Clarita, CA: Ohara. ing and softening has made tai chi accessible to many
Rhee, J. (1979). Chon-ji of tae kwon do-hyung. Santa Clarita, CA: Ohara.
more people than would otherwise be the case. How-
ever, the more obviously martial and physically strenu-
ous Chen style continues to be practiced, as do the
derivative Sun, Wu, and Hao styles.
Tai Chi Practice
T ai chi is a Chinese martial art that is linked to the
Daoist meditative, philosophical, and medical tra-
dition. In China invalids and the elderly often perform
As a martial art tai chi employs a subtlety of touch to
sense an opponent’s strength in order to redirect his or
her motion so that one’s defensive movement neutralizes
the soft, slow movements of the popular Yang style of it and becomes a counterattack as well. In describing
tai chi to strengthen the constitution and to promote this capacity practitioners use such phrases as “when the
opponent is still, be still; when the opponent moves, late martial encounters, have degrees of formality rang-
move first,” and “use four ounces to deflect a thousand ing from duo form sequences to freestyle sparring. The
pounds.” The technique depends upon the ability to full range of tai chi skills includes the use of weapons as
maintain gentle physical contact with the opponent with- well; the sword, broadsword, staff, and spear are used.
out resisting, that is, to never meet force with force. The In some schools students practice auxiliary exercises to
tai chi player’s counter to the aggressive move, after the facilitate the development of the physical conditioning,
instant has been seized and the movement’s force cap- skills, and mind-set appropriate to tai chi; in others
tured, can be any of several techniques. Most benignly schools tai chi itself is considered the only necessary ex-
and simply, the tai chi player can accelerate or redirect the ercise. In either case the expectation is that players will
opponent’s motion, sending him or her many feet away. learn to direct and augment the flow of vital energy
Alternatively, a player can use any of several in-fighting within the body with their mind in harmony with the
techniques, ranging from low kicks to punches to open- breath and that bodily functions will be enhanced as the
hand strikes and grappling techniques, singly or in com- body is renewed by improved circulation of chi.Through
bination, practically simultaneously with blending with this internal aspect of tai chi the body is expected to be-
the opponent’s force. The initial contact is said to be as come supple and limber; both traits are essential to
soft as cotton; the counter that it becomes is said to be good health and to proper performance of tai chi.
as springy as steel. Tai chi’s mechanical principles involve erect stances
The strength, sensitivity, skill, and mental attitude re- that combine stability with nimbleness of foot. Move-
quired to perform such feats spontaneously and without ment begins at the dantian, an anatomical point at the
effort are cultivated partly by the practice of solo forms body’s center of gravity just below the navel. With no
(sequences of patterns) and partly by other means. tensing of muscles and with mechanical efficiency and
Forms vary in length and in their composition and se- relaxed precision, the weight is shifted and energy is
quence of techniques; players can practice them at dif- transmitted via the waist to the hands. In effect the
ferent speeds with larger or smaller patterns and in legs, spine, and arms become like five bows, resulting in
higher or lower stances. In some
forms the tempo is even; in others it
varies. Instructors say a player
should practice forms with the con-
tinuity of one “reeling silk from a
cocoon.” In appearance form prac-
tice should resemble an eagle in
flight; the attitude should be that of
a cat when about to pounce on a
mouse. Form practice is a kind of
meditation in motion and requires
concentration without tension.
Paired practice routines, in which
one works with a partner to simu-
A tai chi movement.

Source: istockphoto/lovleah.
TECHNOLOGY 1597
Life is about timing. ■ CARL LEWIS
springy whole-body strength to be applied at the opti- De Marco, M. A. (1992). The origin and evolution of taijiquan. Jour-
mum instant. Footwork should be like the tread of a cat. nal of Asian Martial Arts, 1(1), 8–25.
Draeger, D. F., & Smith, R. W. (1980). Comprehensive Asian martial
Tai chi sport competition involves solo form perform- arts. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
ance and sometimes tuishou or push-hands, a demon- Holcombe, C. (1993). The Daoist origins of the Chinese martial arts.
Journal of Asian Martial Arts, 2(1), 10–25.
stration of mastery of the principles of tai chi. Jou, T. H. (1983). The tao of tai-chi chuan: Way to rejuvenation. War-
From a Chinese cultural perspective the psychologi- wick, RI: Tai-Chi Foundation.
cal and medical value of the art and its martial poten- Liang, T. T. (1977). Tai chi ch’uan for health and self defense: Philoso-
phy and practice. New York: Vintage Books.
tial are reasonable expectations. Both are in harmony Smith, R. W. (1995). Cheng manqing and taijiquan: A clarification of
with Daoist philosophical principles that are believed to role. Journal of Asian Martial Arts, 4(2), 50–65.
Sutton, N. (1991). Applied tai chi chuan. London: A. & C. Black.
be universally valid. The Daoist classics Daodejing and Tek, P. L. T. (1995). Principles and practices in taijiquan. Journal of
Yijing promulgate these principles, the interplay and Asian Martial Arts, 4(1), 65–72.
balance of opposites that tai chi embodies. Thus, one
can see tai chi as an art of harmonization with nature
that includes the ability to harmonize with an oppo-
nent’s attack and the nurturance of chi that animates
every living thing in the universe: Tai chi is considered
Technology
to be a spiritual discipline as well.
The Future T echnology has become pervasive in society as inno-

vations promise to make our lives better. We accept
most innovations that make our lives easier as long as
During China’s Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) tai
they are safe and efficient. Sport, however, is different.
chi was under political attack in China, but the situation
Challenge and tradition are central to the essence of
has changed. Tai chi has been reinstated as a national
sport, so technology presents a more complex dynamic
treasure and a uniquely Chinese form of art and sport.
in the sports arena.
Basic tai chi is taught publicly in parks and other suit-
able places, as it is in other parts of the Chinese world.
Advanced instruction is available, and form competi-
New Materials, New Opportunities,
tions are held. Lacking knowledge of Chinese philoso-
and New Challenges
Changes in materials and designs have provided op-
phy and its implications for self-defense and medicine,
portunities for countless athletes to develop their athletic
Westerners have generally been drawn to flashier mar-
potential. Innovations can make sports less expensive,
tial arts. However, that situation is changing, too; grad-
can provide flexibility in design so athletes can select the
ually tai chi is becoming better known in the West. It is
equipment best suited to their individual skills, and can
of growing interest to the international medical research
reduce risk by making sports safer:
community and to martial arts scholarship, but tai chi
is still best known in the West as a health and longevity ■ Composite bats have allowed younger baseball play-
exercise of particular benefit to seniors. ers to develop their athletic skills without having to
wield heavy wooden bats.
Michael G. Davis
■ In boating, composite materials have enabled kayak-
ers to select the hull shape best suited to their indi-
vidual skills.
Further Reading ■ Mass manufacturing of equipment has reduced the
Cheng, M. (1956). Tai chi chuan: A simplified method of calisthenics for
health and self defence. Taipei, Nationalist Republic of China: Shih cost of golf balls, which were once hand stuffed and
Chung Tai-chi Chuan Center. sewn.
■ Design, materials, and testing have produced safety chess does not meet the requirements necessary for
pads and helmets that minimize severe injuries in sport.
many sports.
Before World War II, the available materials limited
Innovation also improves performance, opportunity, the design of sports equipment. For years, the tennis
and interest: racket design remained stable. Tennis rackets with wood
heads could not withstand the stringing tension neces-
■ The fastskin swimsuits, which ignited controversy at
sary for a successful large-head racket. Thus, the nature
the 2000 Olympic games in Sydney, Australia, sig-
of the materials provided design constraints and few in-
nificantly reduce drag in the water and, thus, the
novations had a revolutionary affect on sports. Once
swimmer’s time.
new materials that emerged out of military research en-
■ Composite skis transformed skiing into a popular
tered the industrial sphere, ingenious inventors increased
recreational activity and encouraged innovative de-
flexibility to design new technologies that would revo-
signs, which led, decades later, to shape skis that
lutionize sport. Howard Head, for example, used such
allow previously intermediate skiers to quest the ad-
military materials and knowledge to design composite
vanced black diamond trails.
skis based on airplane wings. With the increased money
■ In the 1980s, after the javelin’s center of gravity was
entering the sports arena because of television fame, in-
moved forward, athletes with precise technique were
ventors had the incentive to be creative and develop
able to achieve victories that previously went to phys-
new technology that would yield victories.
ically stronger athletes.
Victories were profitable because of the increased
Not all technological innovations improve sport, revenue generated through television, and because the
however. Some new technologies can usurp the chal- newly suburban families flocked to sports activities and
lenge or tradition of the sport. If a golf ball had a guid- purchased the latest equipment—equipment that en-
ance system that guaranteed a hole-in-one every shot, it abled mass participation. New designs continued as
would certainly compromise the test of driving distance, these athletes, new to the sport, brought their own cre-
accuracy, and putting precision that golf provides. These ativity into the design process unencumbered by years
artificial challenges are the core of sports. Sport pro- of sports tradition indoctrination. For example, rules
vides physical challenges that exist purely for the sake governing golf balls were based on the size and weight
of the activity it makes possible: as well as overall distance the ball could be hit. No rules
governed dimple patterns until two non-golfers re-
■ In track, the athletes get from the starting line to the
designed the dimples to reduce hooks and slices and im-
finish line by running around the track rather than
prove the accuracy of golf ball flight.
across the infield. Rowers move from the starting
With new materials enabling creative technological
line to the finish line without the aid of a motor.
design, money from television, money from the newly
Football players have challenges including a defensive
created recreational market, and people unencumbered
line, to transfer the walk into the endzone into a
by years of enculturation, the timing was right for tech-
sport. By contrast, dance, while a physical activity, is
nological innovations to revolutionize sport and to
not a sport. Dance does not have artificial challenges
force governing bodies to address technological issues.
set up purely for the sake of the activity. These phys-
ical challenges are essential to sport.
■ Chess has challenges and artificial inefficiencies in Controlling Innovations in Sport
the design of how the pieces are allowed to move but If innovations can increase opportunities of participa-
these challenges are mental and not physical, thus tion, providing athletes the chance to express their own
TECHNOLOGY 1599
Press for an old-style

wooden tennis racket.
With a few exceptions, sport governing bodies that

had been adept at developing playing and eligibility
rules failed to address these technological revolutions
until a crisis occurred. In tennis, for example, a new
stringing system enabled players with an average top-
spin stroke to produce a shot with championship cal-
iber spin. Balls hit effectively with this stringing system
were unreturnable, so low-ranked players produced up-
sets throughout Europe. The International Tennis Fed-
eration (ITF) had no rule prohibiting the different
stringing systems, so the new and revolutionary sys-
tem was legal. In desperation, the ITF banned the new
design after a number of players had already relied on
the technology and the manufacturers and distributors
invested in the product. The rule the ITF developed to
ban the “spaghetti strung” racket focused specifically on
that stringing design without providing standards to
individual excellence, but can compromise the chal- govern future technological innovations.
lenge or tradition of sports, how can sports organiza- In contrast, when the United States Golf Association
tions make comprehensive technology policy decisions? (USGA) wanted to protect the sport from golf ball de-
How do sports organizations determine what tech- signs that were yielding longer drives, it developed a
nologies to allow and which ones would be detrimen- performance standard. No golf ball, regardless of ma-
tal to the core challenge or tradition of the sport? terial, manufacture, or production could fly longer than
Sports organizations have banned gels on the bottom a specified distance when hit with a specified force.
of rowing shells that minimize drag, dimple patterns on This performance standard proactively protected the
golf balls that reduce hooks and slices, stringing systems skills the USGA defined as essential to the sport while
on tennis racquets that increase topspin, recumbent bi- giving manufacturers maximum flexibility in design. In
cycles, and more. These regulations protect the core addition, with this performance standard, those with a
challenge of the sport. stake in golf technology knew the rules in advance.
The International Olympic Committee (IOC) is ded-
icated to protecting the integrity of its games by ensur- TEAM VERSUS INDIVIDUAL
ing that victories go to athletes and not engineers. The SPORTS TECHNOLOGY
IOC allows each sport to write its own rules for tech- Although coherent sport-technology policy is ideal,
nology policy but requires that innovations be available there are significant differences in team versus individ-
to all the athletes to make sure no one athlete has an un- ual sports, in recreational versus elite athletes, in male
fair advantage. The individual sports are thus charged versus female athletes, in adult versus youth athletes,
with determining which innovations will be permitted and in on-field versus off-field sports. Technological in-
on the field of play during sanctioned competition. novations tend to have much less impact on team sports
After the 1960s, the policy of ignoring technological in- than on individual sports because the team dynamic in-
novation, as many organizations did (cycling and golf fluences results more than an individual’s technologi-
are notable exceptions), created crises for many sports cally improved performance. In team sports, much of
governing bodies. the technology is shared—a ball for example—and
Technology
Equipment Innovations
While not always greeted with enthusiasm, change is teeth and nose; this came in vogue about 1875. In
often for the better. The following extract describes the 1876 a catcher by the mane of Thayer, of Harvard
practical innovations that have guided the evolution of College, invented the mask, which is now so univer-
baseball equipment over time. sally used; the professionals didn’t take to it at all
kindly at first and refused to use it. A few years ago
With the steady improvement in the playing of base
the rubber body protector was brought into use.
ball we have had an improvement in the appliances
There has been as much improvement in baseball
of the game. It doesn’t take a very old enthusiast to
shoes as in any one appliance; they have now almost
remember when the catcher had no protection at all
reached the perfection of lightness and durability and
from the cannon-shot delivery of the pitcher. First
constructed with special view to the requirements’ of
came the glove for the left hand, without fingers, but
the player. The ball is greatly improved over those of
slightly padded; this was first used by Douglas Alli-
ten or twenty years ago, in fact it seems to have
son in the old Cincinnati Reds of 1869. It came into
reached the acme of perfection. There is apparently
general use slowly, many catchers disdaining to use
no hope for an improvement in the bat, except that
it. The glove protection gradually found favor and im-
better material is generally used now in the manu-
provement until now we have almost every player in
facture of first-class bats than formerly. A great deal
the team using a glove on his non-throwing hand,
more attention is paid to the grounds than formerly,
and as for the catchers, they have a heavily padded
and many of them are as nearly perfect as it is possi-
mitten with a steel guard around the outer edge
ble to make them. These items enter not a little into
which effectually prevents broken and stoved up fin-
the almost perfect playing with which we are enter-
gers, and on his throwing hand a lightly padded
tained nowadays.
glove with short fingers. The first protection for the
Source: Base ball appliances. (1890). Reach’s American Association base ball guide (pp.
face was a large piece of rubber held in the mouth, 35–36). Philadelphia: A.S. Reach Co.
which, if the ball hit, it bounded off and saved the
thus, the advantage of technological innovations geared Having different rules for different athletes creates both
for the athletes’ individual skill has no impact. With philosophical and practical challenges. Recreational and
shared technology, any advantage an innovation pro- elite athletes have different skills and frequently use dif-
vides is also shared. ferent technology. Manufacturers, however, leverage the
Often an innovation will dramatically affect the recre- visibility of the professionals to market their products and
ation market before the elite athlete reaps any rewards. highlight their technologies. Recreational athletes fre-
The large-head tennis racket provides a prime example quently strive to emulate the professionals and purchase
of an innovation the governing body ignored because it the “same” equipment that they witnessed leading to such
had no initial impact on the professional tour. This new success on the professional circuit. Different regulations
racket dominated the tennis club scene and all weekend make manufacturing and testing different technologies
players wielded the new weapon, but its stringing ten- more complex and leave opportunities for nonapproved
sion was insufficient for professional athletes. Because equipment to abound. In addition, although sport gov-
the new technology did not dramatically affect the elite erning bodies do regulate championships, no one really
athletes, the ITF allowed the innovation, but once the regulates those weekend warriors, leaving the definition
large-head rackets began to affect the professional tour, of the sport and success in the sport dubious—do victo-
its prominence made it difficult to ban. ries belong to the athlete or to the engineer?
TECHNOLOGY 1601
A stop watch, a vital piece of

equipment in modern sports.
Source: istockphoto/crabmet.
governs the activities for the two

weeks of Olympic competition but
not during the years of training that
lead to that competition. The ITF gov-
erns the rules on the court of play,
and the Professional Golfers’ Associ-
ation (PGA) Tour governs activity on
the green during their competitions.
These organizations, however, have
not historically had any control or au-
thority over the training of athletes
and, thus, all the technologies used to
prepare an athlete for competition have
remained outside the rules established
by governing bodies.
CHEMICAL ENHANCEMENTS
One notable exception to the governing bod-
ies writing technology rules outside the compet-
Techno-
itive arena is in the rules of performance-enhancing
logical inno-
substances such as steroids. Governing bodies have
vation has also in-
recognized that chemical enhancements compromise
creased opportunities for female
the integrity of their sports and transform the chal-
athletes to excel but has raised the question of whether
lenge from one between athletes into one between
rules should be identical for male and female athletes.
pharmacologists. Governing bodies have, however,
Some vocal tennis commentators criticize composite
struggled to govern these new technologies for a num-
rackets as destroying the men’s game. This same tech-
ber of reasons:
nology has enabled female tennis players, however, to
thrive and produce television ratings that exceed those 1. The governing bodies had to define specifically what
of their male counterparts. was not allowed. This is not as simple as it might
sound because different athletes have different levels
OFF THE FIELD TECHNOLOGY of chemicals, and athletes take different medications
Often the greatest impact on sport comes from those for medical reasons.
technologies used in training. Rehabilitation technol- 2. Accurate tests need to withstand the legal scrutiny
ogy, weightlifting technology, simulation machines, that would result from a monopoly inhibiting an
high-altitude training chambers, and even performance- athlete from earning a living.
enhancing substances all have significantly shaped our 3. Even when sports governing bodies created a list of
games. These technologies are all used off the field of “banned substances” and developed tests to be used on
play and outside the view of the fans, challengers, and the day of competition, the regulations were vacuous
regulatory bodies. Governing bodies define the rules of because many athletes used the banned substances to
engagement on the field of play, but they have little or train and build muscle, strength, and endurance but
no authority outside the competition arena. The IOC allowed the substances to leave their bodies in time
Technology
Waxing Poetic about
Sports Equipment
and the large-head tennis racket—so that governing
An excerpt from the poem “The Outfit and the Spirit” bodies find it impossible to ban the innovation re-
by Ray Hoffman (1923): gardless of how it affects the sport. In other cases, gov-
erning bodies succeed in banning the new technology,
“Phillup” Peters had a wonder bat of willow, such as the “spaghetti strung” tennis racket or the
Must have cost him eighteen bucks or so at “Polara” golf ball, and the manufacture seeks to recoup
that; the costs through legal battles that challenge the right
But as was to be expected. of the governing bodies to implement these ad hoc
“Phillup” never once connected, policies
While Fred Ferkins knocked the homers with a Anticipating innovations is impossible, so sports
slat. governing bodies have historically waited and ruled
Did you ever know this truthful fact to fail on innovations as they arrived or created policies so
you? vague they had no practical meaning. The debate
It’s the gospel truth, I’ll say so, every time- about the fastskin swimsuit continues, for example.
Get this sentence, sport fans, hear it, The suit was allowed in the 2000 Olympic games and
‘Taint the outfit, it’s the spirit, has since appeared on swimmers at all levels. Arm-
Thought the tools you have to use cost but a bands that increase buoyancy and reduce drag were
dime. banned, however. This type of ambiguity in sport tech-
Source: Hoffman, R. (1923, January).The outfit and the spirit. Sporting Life, p. 35. nology policy could be avoided with proactive per-
formance standards.
Shifting from design standards to performance stan-
for the competition and the testing. Other athletes dards, such as the overall distance standard in golf,
took other substances that masked their use of the would effectively enable sports organizations to protect
performance-enhancing substances. the core challenge of their games without having to an-
ticipate future innovations. These proactive standards
Thus, actually protecting the integrity of the sport would provide foreknowledge to the manufacturers
means developing sport-technology policy that can be and provide protection in the legal battles that ensue
enforced off the field of play—a significant shift for from retroactively regulating technology. In addition,
sports organizations whose sovereignty has historically proactive performance standards would more effec-
extended only as long as the competition. tively protect the core challenge and tradition of sport
while providing manufacturers maximum flexibility to
The Future innovate.
While sports organizations have focused much of their J. Nadine Gelberg
attention on athlete eligibility and game rules, tech-
See also Biotechnology
nology has dramatically affected many sports. Often,
the policies governing bodies write to protect their
sports from new technologies are reactive ad hoc poli-
cies implemented following a crisis. With this reactive
Further Reading
Busch, A. (Ed), (1998). Design for sports: The cult of performance. New
policy approach, manufacturers invest research and York: Princeton Architectural Press.
development dollars in creating and marketing a new Eassom, M., & S. (Eds.), (2002.) Sport technology: History, philosophy,
and policy. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Ltd.
technology. In some cases, this technology becomes Morgan, W. J., & Meier, K.V. (Eds.), (1988). Philosophic inquiry in
accepted and used—as were square groove golf clubs sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
TENNIS 1603
Tennis is a perfect combination of violent

action taking place in an atmosphere of
total tranquility. ■ BILLIE JEAN KING
Wingfield patented the game in 1874 and sold equip-

Television ment for the sport. Tennis balls were made of uncovered
hollow rubber, and the net was 4 feet high in the center
See Media-Sports Complex and 5 feet at the posts. Rackets were spoon shaped with
long handles. In 1877 when Wingfield’s patent ran out,
the game was further modified: the hourglass shape of
the court was changed to a rectangle.
Tennis Most historians speculate that the game of tennis
was brought to America by Mary Ewing Outerbridge
T he word tennis is thought to have evolved from the

Greek word phennis or the German word tanz.
Others have speculated that the word evolved from the
of New York. Outerbridge, nicknamed the “mother of
tennis,” learned the game from British officers while
visiting her brother stationed at a British garrison in
French word tenez meaning “to play.” However the Bermuda. Consequently, she brought the equipment
name came to be, the sport has evolved from a game en- back to America. By late 1874 she had helped estab-
joyed only by the upper classes to one that is played and lish the first lawn court on American soil, in Staten Is-
watched by people of every social strata. land, New York. Initially, the sport grew mostly in the
eastern United States—especially at the women’s col-
History leges in the region. The game was introduced at Smith
The origins of tennis are much debated. The earliest re- College in Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1881. In
ports date back to ancient Greece. Information from the 1892 Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania held the
fourth century CE specifies that the Persians enjoyed a first intercollegiate tennis contest, an event that may
game called tchigan that was played in an enclosed have been the first intercollegiate contest for women in
space with rackets that were approximately four feet any sport.
long. Despite these records of early games that were After the 1920s the game was no longer assumed to
similar to tennis, most historians feel that tennis origi- be restricted to those from the upper class. Tennis is
nated in thirteenth-century France. The game, known as now played among all social classes, having moved
jeu de paume (or game of the palm) evolved from hand- “from the classes to the masses—from an informal
ball. Balls made of cloth sewn into a hard round shape lawn party to a lavish spectator show” (Bartlett and
were hit with a bare hand or a hand in a glove. Nets Gillen 1981, 11). Much of the increased participation
were made of wooden obstacles or mounds of dirt, and in tennis was due to the availability of public tennis
participants volleyed against a wall or with each other. courts.
The scoring system probably originated from the Old
French word une journee meaning a “sport match” or Worldwide Participation
“a day.” The word love, meaning “no points,” is thought Tennis was one of the first sports to be enjoyed by
to come from the French word for egg, l’oeuf, which women. The leisurely and social nature of the game ap-
sounds like “love.” pealed to the “less athletically inclined” female. Despite
the growth of women’s participation in tennis in the late
Growth of the Sport Worldwide nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, men still had
In 1873 Major Walter Clapton Wingfield, a British Army more competition opportunities than women. For ex-
officer, in an effort to liven up a lawn party invented ample, in 1884 England started the “All England Lawn
lawn tennis, a combination of badminton and court ten- Tennis Club” women’s singles championships—now
nis that was played on an hourglass-shaped court. Major known as Wimbledon—seven years after the start of the
I can’t believe how hard Agassi hits the ball. It’s like
he’s got a gun. No one hit the ball like that in my day.
Ion Tiriac didn’t drive that fast. ■ ILIE NASTASE
same event for men. Perhaps more profoundly for the 186 tournaments worldwide, with players over thirty-five
women, the early success of female tennis players and eligible to compete in a variety of age-category events.
the growth of the sport among virtually all social classes Tennis remains, however, the most visible sport in which
paved the way for women to play other sports, such as men and women of different nationalities, ethnicities,
basketball and field hockey. and backgrounds can compete, succeed, and dominate
International tennis competition for men started the center stage.
with the Davis Cup in 1900 and for the women with
the Wightman Cup in 1923 (only the United States Rules, Equipment, and Training:
and England participated). The Wightman Cup was Recent Changes
discontinued near the end of the 1980s in favor of the Since the open era of tennis began in the late 1960s, no-
more popular Federation Cup—initiated in 1963 as an table changes have occurred in areas such as scoring,
equivalent to the men’s Davis Cup. Tennis was first pre- and postmatch mandatory interviews, establishment
added as an Olympic event in 1900. Then, in 1924 the of the Code of Conduct (1975), and match protocol.
sport was eliminated because of disputes over the dis- The most recent additions include player hindrance
tinction between amateur and professional athletes. guidelines, particularly regarding excessive player “grunt-
Finally, at the Seoul Olympics in 1988, tennis returned ing” during play; removal of the rest break after the first
as an Olympic sport. With the beginning of the “open game of every set; and the use of the tiebreaker. (A full
era” of tennis in the late 1960s (a limited number of description of the current rules and regulations for pro-
tournaments were opened to amateur and professional fessional conduct and play can be found at www.
players), the Olympics became a showcase for many of itftennis.com.) With regards to training and coaching,
the top professional players. Presently, television rat- the most recognized professional coaching certifications
ings for tennis are high, and tournament attendance are generally obtained through the national governing
records are broken regularly. Tennis is recognized as a body for tennis in each respective country. (Many re-
multimillion dollar sport. This revenue has been gen- sources exist concerning tennis-related and tennis-
erated from corporate support, player endorsements, specific training practices and programs, such as www.
and tournament proceedings. Mercedes-Benz’s current tennislovers.com and www.tennisone.com.)
multiyear deal with the Association of Tennis Profes- The changes in scoring and protocol concurrent with
sionals (ATP) is worth close to $50 million. Sanex’s the onset of the open era of tennis have been accom-
sponsorship, although terminated in 2002, generated panied by changes in racket technology and the quality
over $40 million in sports revenue for the Women’s and type of clothing (especially for females). Rackets are
Tennis Association (WTA). IBM and Rolex corpora- now made of titanium, graphite, or hypercarbon (or a
tions alone have multimillion sponsorship deals with combination of these materials), as opposed to wood
the Grand Slam tournament Wimbledon (amounting (the predominant racket type until the 1970s) or alu-
to nearly $14 million each year). With $52 million at minum. The price of a racket can vary significantly de-
stake at the sixty tournaments worldwide on the pending on the quality and manufacturer. Player
women’s professional circuit, it is not surprising that clothing has also been transformed to provide greater
Venus Williams was the highest paid female athlete in comfort for the players (e.g., quicker sweating capacity,
2001–2002 along with her tournament winnings, hav- ease of movement) and provide more commercial ap-
ing signed $20 million in endorsement contracts with peal. Consequently, player clothing today consists of
companies including Reebok and Wrigley. many bright and unconventional colors and styles. Few
The popularity of the International Tennis Federation individuals now wear traditional “all white” outfits—
(ITF) Veterans Circuit is also growing. It currently offers except at Wimbledon where it is mandatory.
TENNIS 1605
Tennis
The Tennis-Court
When as the hand at Tennis plays, And he that brings the Racket in
And Men to gaming fall; Is Double Dilligence.
Love is the court, Hope is the house,
But now the Racket is Free-will,
And favour serves the Ball.
Which makes the Ball rebound;
This Ball itself is due desert, And noble beauty is the choice,
The Line that measure shows And of each Game the ground.
Is Reason, whereon judgement looks
The Racket strikes the Ball away,
Where Players win and lose.
And there is oversight;
The Tutties are deceitful shifts; A bandy, ho! The people cry,
The Stoppers, jealousy, And so the Ball takes flight.
Which hath, Sire Argus’ hundred eyes,
Now at the length good liking proves
Wherewith to watch and pry.
Content to be their gain;
The Fault, whereon fifteen is lost, Thus, in the Tennis-Court, Love is
Is want of Wit and Sense; A Pleasure mixed with Pain.
Source: Peek, H. (Ed.). (1901). Poetry of sport (p. 317). London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
Recently, there have been calls for more drastic rule the “Grand Slam,” which consists of winning all four
changes to make the game more viewer friendly and to major Grand Slam events in the same calendar year. In
reduce the dominance of the serve (especially in the 1962 and 1969, Australian Rod Laver became the sec-
men’s game). Suggested changes include the “no let” ond man to achieve this feat (twice nonetheless). In
rule (if the serve hits the net and falls in, it counts), no 1968 Arthur Ashe became the first African-American to
second serves, no ad-scoring, reducing the size of the play on the U.S. Davis Cup team and the first to win a
service box, use of wooden rackets, and on-court coach- major singles title, the U.S. Open, the first of his three
ing. These alterations have gained support from promi- (Australian Open, 1970; Wimbledon, 1975, being the
nent individuals in the tennis world, such as John others). In doing so he established a legacy that re-
McEnroe and Stan Smith (associate director of the mains today. Swedish player Björn Borg won an un-
USTA Player Development Program, 1988–1995). precedented fifth consecutive Wimbledon Singles title in
1980 (he would win a total of twelve Grand Slam ma-
Important People jors by 1981). In the 1970s and 1980s, the fiery tem-
The history of tennis contains many memorable per- pers of players such as John McEnroe, Ilie Nastase, and
sonalities, notable players, and ambassadors for the Jimmy Connors, often directed at their opponents, um-
sport. A brief summery of these men and women pires, and even the crowd, were more than matched by
follows. their genius as players. McEnroe won seventeen major
The first gentlemen characters in tennis were two titles (singles and doubles), and Connors, as well as
sets of British brothers, Ernie and William Renshaw, fol- winning eight major singles titles, is the only male to
lowed by the Doherty boys, Reggie and Laurence, who win the U.S. Open on three different surfaces. The play-
won numerous Wimbledon Singles and Doubles titles ing careers of Fred Perry (Great Britain), Guillermo
during the 1880s through the early 1900s. In 1938 Vilas (Argentina), Stefan Edberg (Sweden), Boris Becker
American Don Budge became the first male to achieve (Germany), Mats Wilander (Sweden), and Ivan Lendl
Tennis
The Spread of Tennis
Our popular athletic games are not really mod- twenty-two Grand Slam titles in a highly successful ca-
ern, but inheritances from people and times of reer that finished with a sentimental French Open Sin-
old. Tennis is probably the oldest of all the ball- gles victory in 1998. Martina Navratilova, who won a
games. Its origin is uncertain, but it first appeared record high of 170 singles and 129 doubles titles, re-
in Europe during the Middle Ages. It was popu- cently equaled Billie Jean King’s record of twenty Wim-
lar among the French nobility, who are said to bledon tournament wins, with a victory in the 2003
have borrowed it from the Italians.The English in Mixed Doubles event at Wimbledon alongside partner
turn adopted it from the French. The name of the Leander Paes. Despite retiring in 1995, Navratilova has
game is said to be French in origin being derived recently been active on the tour once again at the age of
from the expression “Tenez!” which was used by forty-seven, competing in the singles and doubles events
early French players in serving the ball. The an- at the 2004 French Open, Wimbledon, U.S. Open, and
tiquity of the game is testified to by Horace, the the 2004 Olympics, but is now contemplating retire-
Roman bard, who tells of Maecenas playing ten- ment for the second time.
nis while on the journey to Brundusium. It is largely agreed that Helen Wills and Suzanne
Source: Badminton. (1915), p. 18. Lenglen were considered the greatest female players of
all time for over fifty years, Pauline May Betz Addie was
possibly the best post–World War II player, and Mar-
(Czechoslovakian, American after 1992) also have hon- tina Navratilova and Steffi Graf were possibly the great-
orable places in tennis history, having captured between est female players of the open era. Women’s tennis has
four and eight Grand Slam titles each. Pete Sampras, an also seen a variety of successful playing styles. Strength
American, holds the record for men’s Grand Slam sin- and power were demonstrated in the game of Alice
gles titles at fourteen, having been ranked number one Mable, Suzanne Lenglen, and Helen Wills in the 1920s
for most of the 1990s. Today’s game is blessed with a and 1930s; Eleonara Sears and May Sutton Bundy in
wide variety of personalities and playing styles, from the the early 1900s; Margaret Court Smith in the 1960s
composed persona of Roger Federer to the charismatic and 1970s; and Martina Navratilova from the 1970s to
play and experience of Andre Agassi and the fiery pas- present. Finesse accompanied by dominating ground-
sion of Lleyton Hewitt. stroke games were demonstrated by Maureen Connolly
In the 1920s, Mary Kendell Browne, an American, be- in the 1950s and Evonne Cawley and Chris Evert in the
came one of the first female professional tennis players, 1970s and 1980s. Presently, a diversity of playing styles
along with the glamorous Frenchwomen, Suzanne and strokes is evident in the women’s game. This has
Lenglen. In 1950 Althea Gibson became the first undoubtedly contributed to the immense popularity of
African-American woman to participate in the U.S. the women’s tour.
Championships, which she later became the first African-
American to win in 1957 (having won Wimbledon in Significant Events
1956). In the 1970s Evonne Goolagong Cawley be- The emergence of open tennis, the “Battle of the Sexes,”
came the first and only Aborigine (Native Australian) to and the development of a women’s professional league,
win a Grand Slam event (two Wimbledon titles, one the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP), and
French, and four Australian Open Championships). In Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) are arguably the
1953 Maureen Catherine Connolly became the first fe- most important events in tennis history.
male to achieve the Grand Slam. This feat has been In response to growing concern that the most popu-
equaled by only two other women: Margaret Court lar tennis players of the era would continue to join play-
Smith in 1970 and Steffi Graf in 1988. Graf won ers already turned professional (e.g., Roy Emerson, John
TENNIS 1607
A young man playing tennis.

Source: istockphoto/Skashkin.
man, nine women (two Australians—Kerr

Melville and Judy Dalton—and seven Ameri-
cans—Peaches Bartkowicz,Val Ziegenfuss, Kristy
Pigeon, Nancy Richey, Billie Jean King, Rosie
Casals, and Julie Heldman) agreed to play despite
threats of suspension from the USLTA. By 1971
Billie Jean King became the first female athlete to
earn $100,000 in a year. Overall, the Virginia
Slims tour was developed, worth $250,000, and
twenty-four tournaments were planned for the
near future (as opposed to only two tournaments
that were guaranteed following Houston). Billie
Jean King continued to act as a prominent advo-
cate of women’s tennis and promote equality for
women in sport by defeating Bobby Riggs in the
1973 “Battle of the Sexes.” The match, which was
worth $100,000 (plus bonuses and endorse-
ments) to the winner, was watched by 30,472
people in the Houston Astrodome and over 50
million on television. Billie Jean King has since
occupied major roles as the first president of the
Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) and coach
of the U.S. Federation Cup Team. Although im-
Newcombe, Cliff Drysdale, Rod Laver, Ken Rosewell), mense progress has been made, inequality still exists
the International Tennis Federation (ITF) approved within professional tennis. Only seventeen female play-
twelve tournaments (including Wimbledon) for both ers have earned more than $300,000, compared with
amateur and professional players in 1968, signaling the fifty professional male players. Furthermore, only the
beginning of the open era of tennis. Australian and U.S. Open tournaments (both Grand
The women’s liberation movement and other social Slam competitions) award equal prize money to males
justice movements of the early 1970s prompted female and females.
tennis players to rectify the significant gender differences In 1972 the ATP, a male players’ union, was formed.
in prize money, travel allowances, and sponsorship. As The ATP has been instrumental in governing prize
a result of the 1970 Pacific Southwest Tournament or- money, tournament conditions, conduct, and organiza-
ganizers refusal to equalize the disparity in prize money tion of tournaments (except the Grand Slams) on the
(the men’s singles champion was set to receive $12,500 men’s professional circuit (ATP Tour).The WTA is a com-
compared to the women’s champion receiving only parable organization established in 1974 or professional
$1,500), a women-only tournament was established in female players and works in a similar manner to the ATP.
Houston, Texas. The prize money was set at $5,000,
plus $2,500 in additional monies (pledged by Joe Cull- The New Millennium:
man of Philip Morris tobacco) for the winner of the Issues and Challenges
tournament in exchange for naming it the “Virginia Slims The arrival of the new millennium brought both devel-
Tournament.” Led by tennis entrepreneur Gladys Held- opments and opportunities to tennis. It also highlighted
Tennis
International
Tennis Federation
To generate more “team” interest and promote a re-
In 1911 the International Lawn Tennis Federation gional association for these teams, Billie Jean King
(ILTF) was formed. This organization integrated formed World Team Tennis. Developed nearly thirty
national tennis associations worldwide and years ago, ten teams competed in 2004 season. The
helped bring a uniform structure to international franchises include Delaware, Hartford, Kansas City, New
tennis. The ILTF was officially recognized as the York (Buzz and Sportimes), Newport Beach, Philadel-
governing body for international tennis in 1924, phia, Sacramento, St. Louis, and Springfield. Unlike tra-
and in 1977 it became the International Tennis ditional tennis tournaments, coaching is allowed, music
Federation (ITF). Since the ITF was founded, it is played, and men and women compose teams.
has been involved in and helped resolve disputes Tennis has provided an avenue for college scholar-
within the tennis arena. The ITF took over or- ships, although opportunities to receive financial aid
ganization of the Davis Cup in 1979 and estab- (i.e., scholarships) to play collegiate-level tennis are pri-
lished the Women’s International Professional marily restricted to American institutions. The number
Tennis Council (WIPTC) in 1975 to monitor and of NCAA Division I, II, and III female college players
promote women’s professional tennis worldwide. has increased from 6,599 in 1981–1982 to 8,420 in
It also founded the Wheelchair Tennis Players As- 2002–2003, whereas the number of male collegiate
sociation (WTPA) in 1981. Overall, the ITF players has declined slightly from 7,340 to 7,312 dur-
(www.itftennis.org) has helped secure the contin- ing the same period. With the exception of Stan Smith
ued success and growth of professional tennis. (University of Southern California), Arthur Ashe (ULCA),
Bob and Mike Bryan (two years at Stanford Univer-
Katie Sell, Maria Newton, and Lynda Ransdell sity), and Laura Granville (Stanford University), few
collegiate players succeed in making the jump from col-
lege to the professional circuit. Controversy regarding
the large number of foreign players recruited to play at
challenges that the sport had been facing for some time. American colleges is growing, with an estimated forty-
It remains difficult to “grow the game’ (as the United eight out of the top one hundred females ranked by the
States Tennis Association would say) partly because Intercollegiate Tennis Association in 2000 hailing from
sport in today’s society is driven by its entertainment countries other than the United States.
value. The future of every sport is tied to its ability to se- The considerable success of both current and former
cure TV time and advertising dollars. The international tennis players off court symbolizes many of the
flavor of professional tennis tends to decrease the lure changes and issues that tennis is currently facing. Play-
of tennis to the American consumer because the pres- ers have given back to the sport by supporting charity
ence of an American in the final of a tournament can- events (notably Andre Agassi’s Charitable Foundation),
not be guaranteed. For example, the 2004 U.S. Open coaching, commentating, and even hosting chat shows.
was the first American Grand Slam event, since 1988, The phenomenal off-court success of current players,
to lack an American male finalist. Justine Henin- such as Venus and Serena Williams, reflects the in-
Hardenne and fellow Belgian Kim Clijsters met in the creasingly changing attitudes and interests of female
final of the 2003 U.S. Open. They had a national TV players away from the courts. The manner in which
rating of 2.5 million. That was a 52 percent drop from they have successfully parlayed their tennis success and
2002, when Serena Williams beat older sister Venus notoriety into other ventures (e.g., modeling, acting,
Williams. Fewer viewers mean less exposure, revenue, and interior designing) deserves honorable mention.
and, ultimately, interest in the game. The continual interaction between professional sports
TENNIS 1609
The serve was invented so that the

net could play. ■ BILL COSBY
and entertainment, and whether it will interfere with phobia still exists in tennis and on the tour, but tennis has
players “giving back to the game,” will be interesting to become the “heroine” because no other sport nor as many
observe in the future. fans have openly embraced lesbian athletes.
With an increase in the popularity of the sport, we Drug abuse in the form of an anabolic steroid, nan-
have also seen an increase in injuries in the men’s and drolone, has become an issue over recent years, partic-
the women’s games. Undoubtedly, the pace and power ularly in the men’s game. In 1998 the Czechoslovakian
of the game are contributing to the rise in injuries. Petr Korda tested positive for the steroid, as did seven
Overuse injuries are also prevalent due to the early age professional players between 2002 and 2003. Interest-
at which players begin training and the number of ingly, all of these players went unpunished because in-
hours spent doing so. Additionally, the increasing tentional use of the supplement could not be proven.
length of the season and pressure to play tournaments Greg Rudeski is one of twenty-two players who have
undeniably has an impact on injury rates. In order to since tested positive for the steroid (and been excused)
preserve the players and the game, steps must be taken despite the ATP’s, one of the governing bodies for
to prevent injuries. men’s professional tennis, instructing trainers not to
In the 1990s much was made of how teenagers were distribute electrolyte tablets containing the drug. Play-
dominating the women’s game. In 1998 six of the top ers are tested throughout the competitive year, as well
sixteen players in the world were under twenty years of as three times out of competition (Andre Agassi, Roger
age, and three of those were ranked in the top ten. In Federer, and Andy Roddick were all tested at least
May of 2004, there were no players under twenty in the twenty times in 2003). However, the ATP is being crit-
top ten and only two players under twenty in the top icized considerably for allowing unexplainable drug use
twenty in the world. Tennis insiders would suggest that to run rife in today’s game.
it is no coincidence that the two teenagers (Svetlana
Kuznetsova, nineteen, and Maria Sharapova, seventeen) PROMOTING GROWTH OF THE GAME
in the top-twenty rankings are from Russia. Tennis was While spectatorship is growing, both the men’s and
introduced to an entirely new generation of young girls women’s games continue to struggle to increase partic-
from Russia following the unprecedented success (albeit ipation numbers. From 1988 to 1995, the number of
not entirely tennis related) of Anna Kournikova. people playing tennis dropped from 20.4 million to
Olympic success is still also a very powerful political 17.8 million. During that same time frame, the number
tool. As evidence of the success of the Russian pro- of women participating dropped from 9.1 million to
gram, seven of the top twenty females in the world 7.3 million. Since 1995, however, participation has
(December 2004) are Russian, and the winners of the started to escalate. In 2003, 24 million people played
2004 Ladies French Open, Wimbledon, and U.S. Open tennis in the United States.
(Singles) were Russian (Anastasia Myskina, Maria To foster growth in the game, the U.S. Tennis Asso-
Sharapova, and Elena Kuznetsova, respectively). Inter- ciation (USTA, www.usta.com), along with national
estingly, the men’s game currently boasts players from governing bodies in Australia, Canada, and the United
seven different nationalities in the top ten alone. Kingdom, have developed programs such as Tennis Wel-
Sexual orientation remains a taboo subject in men’s come Centers, Growing Tennis 50/50, and the Cartoon
and women’s professional sport, but with the growth Network Tennis Club. The USTA has made efforts to di-
and development of the game, tennis has come to play a versify participation through grassroots tennis programs
powerful role.Three world-ranked players have come out that attempt to introduce the game to kids in the inner
as lesbians, including two former world number one cities. Worldwide (Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Israel,
players, Billie Jean King and Martina Navratilova. Homo- the Netherlands, Norway, Germany, United Kingdom,
There is a syndrome in sports called

“paralysis by analysis.” ■ ARTHUR ASHE
France, Spain, Czech Republic, United States, New

Zealand, Columbia, China, and Japan), tennis is a pop-
ular and prominent recreational and competitive sport
Title IX
for both men and women and has been an integral
component of physical education curricula for children
and youth for many years. Events such as “Tennis for
O n June 23, 1972, President Richard M. Nixon
signed into law Title IX of the Educational Amend-
ments. Title IX states: “No person in the United States
Africa Day,” hosted annually in Rome, Italy, and shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participa-
Dublin, Ireland, have attracted top professional players, tion in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to dis-
all participating to raise money and offer assistance to crimination under any education program or activity
less-affluent countries on the African continent. The receiving Federal financial assistance” (20 U.S.C.
goal of such events is to disseminate the game of tennis § 1681(a) [2000]). On that day the landscape of college
to all and provide opportunities for nationwide in- athletics was forever changed as collegiate institutions
volvement, especially among young people. were required under federal law to provide equitable op-
portunities, funding, and benefits to female student-
Katie Sell,
athletes.
Maria Newton, and
Lynda Ransdell
History of Title IX
See also All England Tennis and Croquet Club; Davis Although Title IX was passed into law in 1972, the en-
Cup; Wimbledon forcement of and compliance with this legislation within
college athletics has followed many paths. With passage
in 1972, there was much debate as to whether Title IX
Further Reading applied to college athletic departments. Language within
Bartlett, M., & Gillen, B. (Eds.) (1981). The tennis book. New York: the legislation was not specific, only referring to educa-
Arbor House Publishers
Collins, B., & Hollander, Z. (Eds.). (1994). Bud Collins’ modern ency- tion programs or activities receiving federal financial as-
clopedia of tennis. Detroit, MI: Gale Research. sistance. As a result numerous athletic directors and
Davenport, J. (2001). Tennis. In K. Christensen, A. Guttman, & G. Pfis-
ter (Eds.), International encyclopedia of women in sport (pp. 1168–
college presidents did not feel athletics was included
1173). New York: Macmillian Reference USA. within the scope of Title IX.
De Knop, P., Engstrom, L.M., Skirstad, B., & Weiss, M. (Eds.). (1996). In July 1975 the Department of Health, Education,
Worldwide trends in youth sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Gillmeister, H. (1997). Tennis: A cultural history. London: Leicester and Welfare (HEW) issued Title IX regulations to clarify
University Press. how Title IX should be implemented. These regulations
Hartman-Tews, I., & Pfister, G. (Eds.). (2003). Sport and women: Social
issues in international perspective. London: Routledge.
were criticized as being too vague and not providing ad-
Lichtenstein, G. (1998). Tennis: Net profits. In L. Smith (Ed.), Nike is equate instruction on Title IX implementation. HEW
a goddess: The history of women in sports (p. 57–80). New York: At- followed up with policy interpretations in December
lantic Monthly Press.
Renstrom, P. (1995). Elbow injuries in tennis. In T. Reily, M. Hughes, 1978, but confusion still existed as to the application of
& A. Lees (Eds.), Science and racket sports (pp. 155–180). London: Title IX to athletics, considering that athletic language or
E & FN Spon.
application was not included in these policy interpreta-
tions. Finally, in December 1979 the Office of Civil
Rights (OCR) in the Department of Education, the suc-
cessor to HEW charged with the administration and en-
Thoroughbred Racing forcement of Title IX, released policy interpretations that
specifically included interscholastic and intercollegiate
See Horse Racing athletics.
TITLE IX 1611
The next hurdle regarding enforcement of Title IX in- Application and

volved the federal financial-assistance component of Enforcement of Title IX
the statute. The major point of contention was whether In 1990 the OCR published the Title IX Athletics In-
the legislation applied only to specific departments that vestigator’s Manual that sets forth the requirements and
received direct federal funding or to any department standards of Title IX for interscholastic and intercolle-
within a school or institution that received federal fund- giate athletic departments. There are thirteen major fac-
ing. This issue would be decided in 1984 with the Grove tors, or program components, listed in the Title IX
City College v. Bell case. Grove City College is a private Regulation and Policy Interpretations that may be in-
college in Pennsylvania that was asked by the Depart- vestigated by the OCR. These thirteen component areas
ment of Education in 1977 to execute an Assurance of may be grouped under three primary headings: finan-
Compliance, meaning that the school would comply cial assistance (athletic scholarships), accommodation
with Title IX standards. The department felt that Grove of athletic interests and abilities, and benefits and
City was a recipient of federal funding through the ad- opportunities.
mittance of students who received Basic Educational The financial assistance component investigates
Opportunity Grants (BEOGs). The school refused, tak- whether the athletic scholarships for male and female
ing the position that it was a private institution and student-athletes are awarded on a substantially propor-
therefore did not need to comply with the government’s tional basis. In determining compliance the OCR will
request. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 1984 that look at the proportion of athletic scholarship dollars
only programs receiving direct federal funding needed provided to male and female student-athletes and com-
to comply with Title IX (often referred to as a “pro- pare this with the proportion of athletes who are male
grammatic approach”). Therefore, at Grove City College and female. In July 1998 the OCR issued a policy in-
only the financial aid program needed to comply with terpretation stating this proportional analysis should be
Title IX. This ruling caused the OCR to drop numerous within one percentage point. In other words, if the per-
Title IX cases against athletic departments if it could not centage of female student-athletes within the athletic de-
be established that the athletic department received di- partment is 45 percent, the percentage of athletic
rect federal funding. scholarship aid provided to these female student-athletes
In 1987 the Civil Rights Restoration Act (CRRA) should be within 1 percent, or not less than 44 percent.
was proposed to restore the broad scope of coverage A difference beyond the one-percentage-point allow-
and to clarify the application of Title IX, as well as the able discrepancy should not automatically be viewed as
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Age Discrimination Act a Title IX violation. Within an investigation of Title IX
of 1975, and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. component areas, including financial assistance, the
Congress felt that the application of these acts had been OCR has identified certain “nondiscriminatory factors.”
unduly narrowed and that legislative action was re- These are factors that have caused the discrepancy to
quired to restore the broad institution-wide application occur, but in themselves are not discriminatory. For ex-
of these laws. In 1988 the Civil Rights Restoration Act ample, when analyzing the financial assistance or dis-
was passed when Congress voted to override President tribution of athletic-scholarships component area,
Ronald Reagan’s veto. The passage of the CRRA re- allowable nondiscriminatory factors include higher
stored the enforcement muscle of Title IX as now an “in- costs of tuition for students from out of state that may
stitutional approach” would be followed. This meant in some years be unevenly distributed between men’s
that if any department or program within an institution and women’s sport programs, and a disproportional al-
received federal funds, then all programs (including ath- location of scholarship aid in a particular year due to a
letics) at the institution needed to comply with Title IX. sport program’s development.
Title IX
Pierre de Coubertin on Female Athletes (1910)
Can one permit women . . . to appear as female jock- should be exposed to the risk of seeing the body of
eys? Could one look calmly on from the stands while a woman smashed before their eyes. Besides, no mat-
they broke their skulls? Should female teams be alter how toughened a sportswoman may be, her or-
lowed to compete in polo and soccer matches? By no ganism is not formed to sustain certain shocks. Her
means! nerves dominate her muscles, this is nature’s will. Fi-
Respect for individual liberty requires that one nally, the . . . discipline that is brought to bear on
should not interfere in private acts. If a woman male competitors in order to establish the good order
wishes to pilot an airplane, no policeman has a right and decorum of a contest is jeopardized by female
to stop her. . . . But, when it comes to public sports participation.
competitions, women’s participation should be ab- Source: de Coubertin, P. (1910). Chronique du mois: Défense aux femmes. Revue
Olympique, 109–110.
solutely prohibited. It is indecent that the spectators
The second primary area of Title IX compliance is the a 5 percent benchmark. If a school fails to meet prong
accommodation of student interests and abilities. This 1, they can still be found in compliance with the ac-
component area addresses the extent to which the insti- commodation Title IX component area if they meet one
tution has met the interests and abilities of male and fe- of the remaining two tests. The second prong looks at
male students. A three-prong test is used to determine the history of the athletic department. An institution
compliance with the accommodation component area. must show that although their participation ratio is not
The three-prong test involves the following: (1) whether substantially proportional to the student body ratio by
intercollegiate participation opportunities for male and sex as required under prong 1, the institution has made
female students are provided in numbers substantially progress and shows continued progress toward compli-
proportionate to their respective enrollment; (2) where ance with steps being taken at the institution. In January
members of one sex are underrepresented (failure to meet 1996 the OCR provided a clarification letter that iden-
prong 1), whether the institution can show a history and tified three factors that determine whether an institu-
continuing practice of program expansion that is re- tion has established a history of program expansion:
sponsive to the developing interests and abilities of the (1) an institution’s record of adding intercollegiate teams
underrepresented sex; and (3) where the members of one or upgrading teams to intercollegiate status, (2) an in-
sex are underrepresented and the institution cannot show stitution’s record of increasing the number of partici-
a continuing practice of program expansion (failure to pants in intercollegiate athletics who are members of the
meet prong 1 or prong 2), whether the institution can underrepresented sex, and (3) an institution’s affirmative
demonstrate that the interests and abilities of the mem- response to requests by students or others for addition
bers of the underrepresented sex have been fully and ef- or elevation. In evaluating whether a continuing practice
fective accommodated by the present program. of program expansion is taking place, the court looks for
When investigating the accommodation component any formal policies in place that might indicate that the
area at an institution, the OCR will first compare the institution is monitoring the pulse of the interest of its
ratio of male and female athletes with the ratio of male students in anticipation of expansion. Syracuse Univer-
and female undergraduate full-time students (prong 1). sity was one of the first institutions that met Title IX
The OCR has no set statistical requirement for allowable compliance in the accommodation component area by
discrepancy between these percentages, but certain satisfying prong 2 (see Boucher v. Syracuse University,
courts in their decisions as well as institutions have used 164 F.3d 113 [1999]).
TITLE IX 1613
Whatever women do they must do twice as well

as men to be thought half as good. Luckily,
this is not difficult. ■ CHARLOTTE WHITTON
The third component area involves benefits and op- court case of importance to Title IX is Cohen v. Brown
portunities provided to male and female student- University (101 F.3d 155 [1996]).
athletes. Within this component area is a laundry list In 1991, due to financial constraints within the
of areas investigated by the OCR including provision athletic department, Brown University demoted the
of equipment and supplies; scheduling of games and women’s gymnastics and volleyball as well as men’s
practice time; travel and per diem allowances; oppor- water polo and golf teams from varsity to club status.
tunity to receive academic tutoring; opportunity to re- Female student-athletes brought a class action lawsuit
ceive coaching; provision of locker room, practice, against Brown, claiming that the university discrimi-
and competitive facilities; provision of medical and nated against women in the operation of the athletic
training facilities and services; provision of housing program. At issue was the effective accommodation of
and dining facilities and services; publicity; provision student interests and abilities component area of Title
of support services; and recruiting. The 1990 Title IX IX. In 1993–1994, the Brown University athletic de-
Athletics Investigator’s Manual contains instructions partment was made up of 38 percent female student-
on each, including tables for the collection of infor- athletes, while the undergraduate enrollment at
mation and for comparison purposes. Basically, it is Brown was 51 percent female. Brown’s defense relied
the goal of Title IX to see that the benefits and op- on arguments questioning the application of the “pro-
portunities provided to the male student-athletes are portionality test,” comparison of the student-athlete
comparable with the benefits and opportunities re- by sex ratio to the student body by sex ratio. In 1995
ceived by the female student-athletes. Once again, the district court ruled that Brown was in violation of
nondiscriminatory factors may be involved justifying Title IX and ordered Brown to submit to the court
any discrepancy that may exist. For example, the within 120 days a comprehensive plan for complying
equipment budget of the male student-athletes overall with Title IX. Brown University appealed to the First
may be substantially more than that provided to the Circuit Court of Appeals. The key argument in the ap-
female student-athletes. This discrepancy is allowable peals case, and one used often by opponents of Title
if it can be attributable to certain sport programs pri- IX, was the “relative interest” argument. Basically, this
marily on the men’s side that require equipment that argument states that there is a difference in the level
costs more or if more equipment is needed due to of interest in sports among the sexes in general, and,
roster sizes. No violation of Title IX occurs as long as therefore, significant disparities in athletic opportu-
the male and female student-athletes receive compa- nities should be allowed. In 1996 the First Circuit
rable treatment. Court of Appeals upheld the district court’s decision,
ruling that Brown had discriminated against female
Key Title IX Lawsuits student-athletes. In the decision the First Circuit
Since the passage of Title IX in 1972, there have been Court responded to the “relative interest” argument by
numerous Title IX lawsuits involving athletic depart- stating that interest and ability rarely develop in a
ments at the high school and college levels. Some of vacuum, but rather they evolve as a function of op-
these lawsuits have had a major impact on the inter- portunity and experience. Women’s lower rate of par-
pretation and enforcement of Title IX. For example, ticipation in athletics within colleges and high
Grove City College v. Bell, although not involving an schools is merely a reflection of the historical dis-
athletic department and sport programs specifically, di- crimination the women have been experiencing, the
minished the enforcement application of Title IX to ath- exact reason for which Title IX was enacted. Brown
letic departments due to the “programmatic” approach University appealed the case to the U.S. Supreme
employed by the U.S. Supreme Court. Another such Court, which refused to hear it.
One additional Title IX case of note is Mercer v. Mercer in cutting her from the football team because
Duke University (190 F.3d 643 [1999]). This case is she was a woman.
noteworthy in that it involves a woman participating in
a men’s contact sport, football. Title IX exempts contact Commission on Opportunity in
sports from its protection, meaning that Title IX does not Athletics Debate
mandate equal opportunity in contact sports. Title IX In June 2002, Secretary of Education Rod Paige formed
defines a “contact sport” as one in which the purpose or the Commission on Opportunity in Athletics, a federal
major activity involves bodily contact, such as football, advisory panel created to study Title IX. This commis-
wrestling, boxing, basketball, rugby, and ice hockey. sion was made up of members from Division I athletic
Heather Sue Mercer, an all-state kicker during high programs, women’s groups, and former or current ath-
school, served as manager for the Duke football team letes. It was charged with studying Title IX, including
during the 1994 season. During the spring 1995 se- the collecting information, analyzing issues, and ob-
mester, Mercer participated in conditioning drills with taining public input, with the goal of improving the ap-
the team and played in an intrasquad scrimmage that plication of current federal standards for measuring
April. In that game Mercer kicked the winning 28-yard equal opportunity under Title IX.
field goal, with the head coach afterward telling the Over the next eight months, the commission held six
news media that Mercer was on the team. By the fall public meetings across the United States, hearing testi-
1995 season, Mercer was officially listed by the univer- mony and gathering information and data from various
sity on the team roster and regularly attended practices constituency groups representing a variety of viewpoints
although not playing in any games. During the spring on Title IX and the enforcement standards. On Febru-
1996 semester, Mercer participated in conditioning drills ary 28, 2003, the commission released its report, Open
with the team. During the 1995–1996 school year, Mer- to All: Title IX at Thirty. In this report the commission
cer alleges she was the subject of discriminatory treat- developed twenty-three key recommendations, fifteen of
ment by the university and the football coach, with the which were approved unanimously. Overall, the com-
coach informing her that she was off the team at the start mission found strong and broad support for the origi-
of the 1996 football season. In September 1997 Mercer nal intent of Title IX, while also hearing a great deal of
filed suit against Duke and the head football coach al- confusion and debate over how the law should be en-
leging sex discrimination in violation of Title IX. forced. Many of the recommendations put forth by the
Duke University argued that Title IX did not apply in commission were met with opposition, with two mem-
this case because football is a contact sport, and, there- bers of the commission, Donna de Varona and Julie
fore, they were under no obligation to allow Mercer, or Foudy, submitting a minority views report. Their report
any female, to be a member of the men’s football team. summarized the concern that a majority of the recom-
The district court agreed and granted Duke University’s mendations put forth by the commission would weaken
motion to dismiss the case. Mercer appealed, with the Title IX’s protections leading to reduced opportunities
Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals ruling in 1999 that for women and girls in sport. In July 2003 the Bush Ad-
Mercer had stated a valid claim under Title IX regula- ministration endorsed Title IX as is, with no significant
tions. By initially allowing Mercer to try out for the changes made to the enforcement methods used for
football team (contact sport), the university voluntarily compliance.
opened the team to members of both sexes. Therefore, The political debate surrounding Title IX continues, as
Title IX and its regulations regarding discrimination organizations such as the National Women’s Law Cen-
based on gender were applicable. Duke University was ter, Women’s Sports Foundation, and National Organi-
found to have violated Title IX by discriminating against zation for Women, among others, argue the merits of
TITLE IX 1615
Title IX
Key Events in the History of Title IX
1972 Title IX is signed into law. 1996 In Cohen v. Brown University the First Circuit
Court of Appeals upholds the district court’s
1975 The Department of Health, Education, and decision, ruling that Brown University had
Welfare (HEW) issues regulations to clarify discriminated against female student-athletes.
how Title IX should be implemented.
1999 In Mercer v. Duke University the Fourth Cir-
1979 The Office of Civil Rights (OCR) in the De- cuit Court of Appeals rules Duke University
partment of Education releases policy inter- violated Title IX by discriminating against
pretations that specifically included Mercer in cutting her from the football team
interscholastic and intercollegiate athletics. because she was a woman.
1984 Grove City College v. Bell the U.S. Supreme 2002 The Department of Education forms the Com-
Court rules that only programs receiving di- mission on Opportunity in Athletics, a federal
rect federal funding needed to comply with advisory panel created to study Title IX.
Title IX.
2003 The Commission on Opportunity in Athletics
1988 The Civil Rights Restoration Act restores the releases its report, Open to All: Title IX at Thirty.
enforcement muscle of Title IX, as now an “in-
stitutional approach” will be followed. 2004 A suit by the National Wrestling Coaches As-
sociation arguing that the male student-
1990 The OCR publishes the Title IX Athletics athletes were being discriminated against due
Investigator’s Manual that sets forth the to the enforcement standards directly causing
requirements and standards of Title IX for a reduction in men’s sports is dismissed.
interscholastic and intercollegiate athletic
departments.
Title IX and the appropriate enforcement methods being Current Status of

used. In contrast the National Wrestling Coaches Asso- Title IX
ciation has questioned the appropriateness of certain The formation of the secretary’s commission to study
compliance standards, in particular the proportionality Title IX in 2003 caused athletic administrators to be at-
test measuring athletic participation opportunity by sex tentive to these discussions, with speculation occur-
in comparison with undergraduate student body enroll- ring as to whether the compliance standards would be
ment by sex. The primary concern of this association, as altered. The Bush Administration’s endorsement of
well as the men’s gymnastics group, is that men’s teams, Title IX, with no changes being made to the enforce-
and thus male opportunities to participate in sport, are ment standards used for compliance, has tempered,
being dropped as schools attempt to comply with Title for the time being, this concern and debate surround-
IX. About 400 men’s college teams were eliminated during Title IX.
ing the 1990s, with wrestling being hit particularly hard. As federal legislation Title IX is enforced by the Of-
The National Wrestling Coaches Association filed a law- fice for Civil Rights of the Department of Education.
suit against the Department of Education, arguing that The NCAA, as governing body of collegiate athletics,
the male student-athletes were being discriminated has not actively involved itself with this enforcement,
against due to the enforcement standards directly caus- but instead through the Principle of Gender Equity di-
ing a reduction in men’s sports. This lawsuit was dis- rects their member institutions to comply with federal
missed in May 2004 as an appeals court panel ruled that and state laws regarding gender equity. The federal re-
the parties lacked standing to file the lawsuit, which in- quirements for Title IX have been endorsed recently
stead should be litigated against the individual colleges by the president of the NCAA, Myles Brand, who,
that eliminated men’s sports. while speaking at a meeting of the National Wrestling
As long as I breathe,
I attack. ■ BERNARD HINAULT
Coaches Association in May 2004, told the group Court Cases:

that Title IX has been used as an excuse to eliminate Boucher v. Syracuse University, 164 F.3d 113 (1999).
Grove City College v. Bell, 5 U.S. 555 (1984).
sport programs. Title IX should not be seen, though, Cohen v. Brown University, 101 F.3d 155 (1996).
as the cause. Instead, these decisions are made at the Mercer v. Duke University, 190 F.3d 643 (1999).
institutional level, and while the number of wrestling
programs at NCAA schools over the past two decades
has dropped from 363 to 222, the number of football
teams has increased from 497 to 619.
As part of the Education Amendments of 1972, Title
IX was enacted to eliminate discrimination in educa-
Tour de France
tional programs or activities. The positive impact of this
law is evident as many new doors of opportunity have
been opened for women and girls in educational areas,
T he Tour de France is an annual international bicy-
cling event in which riders who represent different
brands compete. It has taken place every year since
bachelor and advanced degree programs, medical de- 1903, except during the two world wars. The race,
grees, and athletics. In 1971, 294,015 girls partici- which is usually during July, lasts a month, and each
pated in high school athletics. Today, over 2.7 million year the circuit is different. There are twenty race stages
girls are participating. From 1981 to 1999, the total on average, each one ranging from 50 to 350 kilo-
number of college women’s teams increased by 66 per- meters in length, and together they constitute a more or
cent. Although these improvements are impressive, less regular race route around the country. Since 1977,
there is still more work to be done, as girls and women the race has traditionally finished in Paris on the
continue to experience the benefits that participation in Champs-Élysées. The yellow jersey designates an indi-
sport can bring. vidual time classification, which is calculated by adding
Carol A. Barr up the overall time of each individual rider for all stages.
There is also a team classification, a best climber clas-
See also Gender Equity; Intercollegiate Athletics
sification (polka-dot jersey), and a best sprinter classifi-
cation (green jersey). The greatest champion of the
twenty-first century so far is the American Lance Arm-
Further Reading strong, who won the race six times in a row from 1999
Berry, R.C., & Wong, G.W. (1993). Law and business of the sports in- to 2004. The Tour has a number of other legendary rid-
dustries. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
Bonnette, V. M., & Daniel, L. (1990). Title IX athletics investigator’s
ers as well. The best-known are the Spaniard Miguel In-
manual. Washington, DC: Office for Civil Rights, Department of durain, the Italian Fausto Coppi, the Belgian Eddy
Education. Merckx, the American Greg Lemond, and Frenchmen
Symposium: Title IX at thirty. (2003). Marquette Sports Law Review,
14(1). Louison Bobet, Bernard Hinault, Jacques Anquetil, and
Osborne, B. (2003). Title IX in the 21st century. Marquette Sports Law Raymond Poulidor.
Review, 14(1), 141–162.
U.S. Department of Education, Secretary’s Commission on Opportu-
nity in Athletics. (2003). Open to all: Title IX at thirty, Washington, History
DC: Government Printing Office. The Tour de France was created in 1903 by Henri Des-
U.S. Department of Education, Secretary’s Commission on Opportu-
nity in Athletics. (2003). Minority views on the report of the com- grange, editor of the sports newspaper L’Auto, as a way
mission on opportunity in athletics, Washington, DC: Government to compete with his main rival, Le Vélo editor Pierre
Printing Office.
Wong, G. W. (1994). Essentials of amateur sports law (2nd ed.). West-
Griffard, as working-class sports entertainment began to
port, CT: Praeger Publishers. emerge and as bicycling became more widespread. In
TOUR DE FRANCE 1617
Belle Epoque France, the stage race concept was im- identity, gender, economics, and ethics. From its very
mediately a success, helping L’Auto to make a name for start, under the revanchist influence of the early
itself as France’s leading sports newspaper. The news- 1900s, the race put on a show that featured the
paper continued to lead even after it became L’Equipe national territory and gave the working-class French
in 1945, and it still does. the image of France they yearned for. The “Great
Desgrange remained the main organizer of the Tour Loop” went on to become one of the testimonials of
through the interwar period and initiated major inno- the French collective conscience. Historian Georges
vations designed to spark the interest of spectators and Vigarello describes the symbolic power of the race as
L’Auto readers. He set up the Tour “caravan,” a collec- a repository of French culture.
tion of team sponsors who follow the pack throughout The popular success of the Tour has also been due to
the race and take care of coordinating each stage. In its ability to create a setting for, and elevate a masculine
1919 he introduced the yellow jersey (yellow for the ideal that conformed to, the standards of the working
colors of the newspaper), which was awarded to the and middle classes during several different periods.
temporary leader in the overall individual time cate- Both the total exclusion of women in the event (or their
gory. He chose the mountain stages that were most relegation to roles as foils) and the intense media pro-
likely to add zest to the journalistic accounts of sweat motion of the physical effort, technical skills, and ever-
and tears. During the 1930s, when Europe went widening territory make the Tour de France a model of
through a period of rising nationalism, he replaced in- hegemonic masculinity.
dividual riders with national teams. The economic stakes were present from the very be-
After World War II, the Tour no longer simply out- ginning, given that the participants were already pro-
lined the borders of France. As its audience became fessional riders. Since then, the stakes have continued
more international, it crossed over into Italy, Belgium, to rise, making the Tour one of the annual sporting
Switzerland, Spain, or Germany for certain stages. After events that generates the most income. The press has
1948, when press coverage and radio broadcasts were always maintained a close relationship with the event:
joined by television, the event became even more pop- Only five race directors have reigned from 1903 to
ular. During the 1960s the Tour enjoyed one of the 1998, for example, and they have all been journalists.
largest audience in the world. As it became more of a A hundred years after it was created, the Tour (which
media event, the economic stakes started to rise and, is under the responsibility of the Amaury Sport Or-
as a result, national teams were replaced by brand- ganisation group) has an annual budget of 60 million
sponsored teams. Municipalities hoping to enhance euros and generates more than 15 million euros per
their prestige were more and more eager to host a stage year in profits.
start or finish. Since 2000, the Tour has become the The ethical issues are becoming increasingly impor-
world’s most widely followed annual sports event. tant. Since Tom Simson died in 1967 during one of the
Fifteen million people take to the roads in France to see mountain stages, a cloud of suspicion has hung over
the riders pass by. Each year a total of more than 2000 the Tour. A scandal finally broke in 1998 with what
television programming hours are devoted to the race, was called the “Festina Affair,” where it was revealed
reaching 2 billion people in 175 countries. that EPO (erytropoetin) doping was a common prac-
tice within the pack. This temporarily shook up the
Significance Tour and its image has been tarnished by cases of dop-
At least four aspects of the Tour de France contribute ing ever since.
to its special character and significance. These are Thierry Terret
Further Reading and triple jump are measures of how far a competitor
Dauncey, H., & Hare, G. (Eds.). (2003). The Tour de France, 1900– can jump horizontally after a running start. The high
2003. A century of sporting structures, meanings and values. Lon-
don: Franck Cass.
jump and pole vault test a competitor’s ability to clear
Duret, P., & Trabal, P. (2001). Le sport et ses affaires. Paris: Métailié. a bar at various heights.
Gaboriau, P. (1995). Le Tour de France et le vélo. Histoire sociale d’une
épopée contemporaine. Paris: L’Harmattan.
Terret, T. (2003). Le Tour, les hommes et les femmes. Essai sur la visi- LONG JUMP
bilité masculine et l’invisibilité féminine. In P. Porte & D. Vila. In 1922 William Dehart Hubbard and Robert Legendre
(Eds.), Maillot jaune. Regards sur cent ans du Tour de France (211–
238). Biarritz, France: Atlantica.
introduced the hitch kick technique to the long jump. Be-
Vigarello, G. (1992). Le Tour de France. In P. Nora (Ed.), Les lieux de tween 1935 and 1968 the long jump world record in-
mémoire (tome III, Les France, vol. 2: Traditions, pp. 886–925). creased a total of 8 feet, 6 inches (259 centimeters). The
Paris: Gallimard.
world record was 27 feet, 4.75 inches (8.37 meters) until
one of the most amazing feats in Olympic history took
place. Bob Beamon of the United States became the first
person to jump more than 28 (8.5 meters) and 29 feet (8.8
Track and Field— meters) with a leap of 29 feet, 2.5 inches (8.90 meters) at
the 1968 Olympics at Mexico City. His jump was not ex-
Jumping and Throwing ceeded until Mike Powell and Carl Lewis of the United
States jumped 29 feet, 3.25 inches (8.92 meters) in 1991.
T rack and field events are ancient sports. The men’s

javelin, discus, and long jump date back to the first
Olympics of the Greeks in 708 BCE, whereas the triple
The long jump is one of the simplest events in track
and field. An athlete sprints down a runway (coated
with the same surface as the running track), jumps from
jump, pole vault, and high jump originated with the a takeoff board, glides through the air, and lands in a
Celts. The hammer also is an ancient tradition, and the sand pit. The takeoff board is usually 10 feet (3.05 me-
shot put dates back to the seventeenth century when the ters) from the sand but can be closer for less experienced
English army held cannon-ball-throwing competitions. or younger athletes.The athlete throws both feet forward
Track and field has progressed from those humble and lands feet first, pivoting the body forward.The meas-
beginnings. The first college meet occurred in 1864 be- urement is taken from the footprints in the sand. If the
tween Oxford and Cambridge Universities. The Inter- athlete steps beyond the takeoff board during the run-up
national Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF), the world to the pit a foul is called, and the jump is not measured.
governing body, began with only seventeen federations The format of competition varies, but generally ath-
but today has more than two hundred. Since the revival letes are allowed three attempts to jump, and then all
of the Olympics in 1896 track and field remains one of but eight competitors are eliminated. The eight who
the premier Olympic attractions. In the United States are not eliminated are allowed three more jumps. Only
and Canada track and field events are the most popular an athlete’s longest legal jump counts toward the re-
high school sports, with more than 950,000 students sults, and the athlete with the longest jump then wins
participating each year. The achievements of track-and- the competition. Athletes who are successful in the long
field athletes have ensured that track-and-field events jump tend to have strong leg and abdominal muscles
also remain popular internationally. and superior sprinting speed.
Jumping TRIPLE JUMP

Jumping events in track and field are the long jump, The triple jump entails sprinting down a runway and
triple jump, high jump, and pole vault. The long jump jumping to reach a maximum horizontal distance. The
TRACK AND FIELD—JUMPING AND THROWING 1619
The Irish champion high jumper Kelly

clearing the bar in the 1880s. Notice
the difference in technique from
modern high jumping.
sor kick in 1876. M. F. Horine of the United States

developed a more efficient technique, the Western
roll, during which the athlete approaches the bar
on a diagonal with the inner leg being used for the
takeoff and the outer leg being thrust up to lead the
body sideways over the bar. Horine set the world
record at 6 feet, 7 inches (2 meters) in 1912. His
technique dominated through the Berlin Olympics
of 1936. The Western roll led to the straddle tech-
nique, which was widely used until Dick Fosbury of
the United States unveiled his new technique, the
Fosbury flop, during the 1968 Olympics (he won
triple jump is similar to the long jump. Often athletes a gold medal). The flop technique required the athlete to
use the facilities of the long jump, although the takeoff jump over the bar head first and land on the shoulders.
board is usually 40–45 feet (12.19–13.71 meters) for This advancement in technique was made possible in
men and 32–36 feet (9.76–10.97 meters) for women. part by the addition of soft landing material.
Successful long jumpers are often successful triple The high jump differs from the other jumping events
jumpers; however, having sprinting speed is not as im- in that athletes jump vertical distances. Athletes are al-
portant as mastering the timing and technique of the lowed three attempts to clear a crossbar that is set be-
three jumps. tween two upright poles 13 feet (4 meters) apart. The
The form of the triple jump has evolved from the crossbar is usually made of fiberglass, and the athlete
form of three consecutive long jumps by the ancient lands on a cushioned mat called a “pit.” The cross-section
Greeks to the form of hop, hop, and jump to the mod- of the crossbar can be round, triangular, or square, with
ern form of hop, step, and jump. Russian and Polish the ends being square to rest on the uprights.
athletes have had the greatest influence on triple jump Athletes run up to the crossbar and must jump off on
technique in modern times. The Polish technique em- one foot and clear the crossbar; they may touch the
phasizes the hop phase, whereas the Russian technique crossbar, but if it falls because they touched it the jump
emphasizes the step phase. becomes a miss. Athletes can use a variety of techniques
In the hop phase the athlete sprints along a running to clear the crossbar; however, the Fosbury flop is the
path, then hops into the air on the takeoff foot and comes most popular. Using this technique an athlete sprints at
down on the opposite foot. The athlete then immediately a perpendicular angle toward the crossbar, then curves
moves into the step phase, during which the athlete springs and leaps backward over the crossbar, forming a J. The
or bounds forward and lands on the takeoff foot again.To athlete pivots the head, facing upward so that the head
complete the sequence the athlete goes into the jump clears the crossbar first, and then arches the back over
phase, during which the athlete jumps into the air once the crossbar as the rest of the body follows, finishing
more and lands in the sand. As with the long jump, if the with a leg extension to clear the crossbar. The athlete
athlete steps beyond the takeoff board during the run-up to should land on the shoulders first. An athlete could
the pit, a foul is called, and the jump is not marked. also use the straddle or dive techniques; however, they
are not as successful, and elite competitors almost al-
HIGH JUMP ways choose the Fosbury flop.
In 1874 Europeans invented the Eastern cut-off tech- Usually the crossbar is set at a low height and is raised
nique of the high jump. The Celts then invented the scis- in set increments. The increments can be anywhere the
My thoughts before a big race are usually pretty simple. I tell myself:
Get out of the blocks, run your race, stay relaxed. If you run your
race, you’ll win. . . . Channel your energy. Focus. ■ CARL LEWIS
meet host wants them to be, but they are usually set at 3– During the 1990s women began competing in the pole
5 centimeters. Athletes choose their starting height and vault, and many states added the women’s pole vault to
are allowed three attempts at each height. If they fail in their high school programs. The women’s pole vault be-
all three attempts at any given height, they are out of the came an Olympic event in the 2000 games.
competition. If they clear a height, they move on to the
next increment. If athletes do not want to jump at a cer- Throwing
tain height they can elect to pass that height and move on Throwing events include the shot put, javelin, discus,
the next height.The athlete who clears the highest height and hammer. An athlete wins a throwing event by
with the fewest misses wins the competition. In the event throwing an object the farthest.
of a tie a jump-off is performed between the tied athletes. The ancient Greek poet Homer recorded one of the
first instances of competitive throwing, an account of a
P OLE VAULT rock-throwing competition during the siege of Troy.
The pole vault originated in Europe, where men used England’s King Henry the VIII was a noted throwing
the pole to jump across canals. The goal was to cover competitor, and the English army held cannon ball-
horizontal distance rather than vertical distance. The throwing competitions that evolved into the shot put.
goal became covering vertical distance in Germany in
1875. In 1900 the bamboo pole and vault box were in- SHOT PUT
troduced. The aluminum pole was introduced in 1957, The word put is derived from an old Scottish word mean-
followed by the steel pole in 1960. In 1956 the fiber- ing “to thrust,” and the word shot comes from the occa-
glass pole was invented; modern poles are made of sional substitution of a cannon ball for a stone from the
composite materials such as carbon fiber. Middle Ages onward. The shot put event involves an ath-
In the pole vault, like the high jump, the athlete at- lete propelling a heavy metal ball as far as possible. The
tempts to clear a crossbar at varied heights, but the athlete competes inside a circle. The event began in a 7-
heights are much higher. The athlete uses a flexible pole foot (2.1 meters) square; in 1860 the starting point was
to propel his or her body over the crossbar into the air changed to circle 7 feet (2.1 meters) in diameter. The ath-
and onto a pit. The pole is typically 12 to 16 feet long lete cannot leave the circle until the shot lands on the
(4–5 meters). The vaulter usually grasps the pole ground. If the athlete does not leave the circle from the
6 inches (15 centimeters) from the top, one hand placed back half a foul is called. The distance of the put is meas-
with an under grip and the other hand with an over ured from the center of the circle to where the shot put
grip. The vaulter then sprints down a runway and plants landed. An athlete can use only one arm, and thus
the tip of the pole in the vault box. The vaulter then strength is essential, but an athlete also needs speed and
swings the feet upward toward the crossbar and, as the coordination to create the momentum and maximum
feet near the crossbar, executes a handstand on the force during the propelling motion. In most competitions
pole, pushing the body feet first and facedown over the athletes are allowed three attempts, and the eight best
crossbar. The athlete pushes the pole away from the performers are allowed three more attempts. The com-
body, releases it, and drops onto the pit. Athletes are al- petitor with the farthest distance wins the competition.
lowed three attempts at each height; if they miss all Athletes use two techniques to propel the shot put. In
three attempts they are out of the competition. A miss both techniques an athlete faces the back of the circle,
is charged if the athlete displaces the crossbar or passes holds the shot against the shoulder and under the chin,
underneath it. The crossbar’s height is typically in- and launches the shot by pushing the arm forward,
creased by 3–6 inches (8–15 centimeters) at a time. putting the shot, not throwing it. The first technique in-
Table 1.
Men’s World Records
Event Distance Athlete Nation Location Date
High Jump 2.45 meters (8 feet .5 inches) Javier Sotomayor CUB Salamanca (ESP) 7/27/93
Pole Vault 6.14 meters (20 feet, 1.75 inches) Sergey Bubka UKR Sestriere (ITA) 7/31/94
Long Jump 8.95 meters (29 feet, 4.5 inches) Mike Powell USA Tokyo (JPN) 8/30/91
Triple Jump 18.29 meters (60 feet, .25 inches) Jonathan Edwards GBR Gothenburg (SWE) 8/7/95
Shot Put 23.12 meters (75 feet, 10.25 inches) Randy Barnes USA Westwood, CA 5/20/90
Discus Throw 74.08 meters (243 feet) Jurgen Schult GDR Neubrandenburg (DEU) 6/6/86
Hammer Throw 86.74 meters (284 feet, 7 inches) Yuriy Syedikh URS Stuttgart (DEU) 8/30/86
Javelin Throw 98.48 meters (323 feet, 1 inch) Jan Zelezny CZE Jena (DEU) 5/25/96
Table 2.
Women’s World Records
Event Distance Athlete Nation Location Date
High Jump 2.09 meters (6 feet, 10.25 inches) Stefka Kostadinova BUL Rome (ITA) 8/30/87
Pole Vault 4.82 meters (15 feet, 9.75 inches) Yelena Isinbayeva RUS Gateshead (RUS) 7/13/03
Long Jump 7.52 meters (24 feet, 8.25 inches) Galina Chistyakova URS St. Petersburg (RUS) 6/11/88
Triple Jump 15.50 meters (50 feet, 10.25 inches) Inessa Kravets UKR Gothenburg (SWE) 8/10/95
Shot Put 22.63 meters (74 feet, 3 inches) Natalya Lisovskaya URS Moscow (RUS) 6/7/87
Discus Throw 76.80 meters (252 feet) Gabriele Reinsch GDR Neubrandenburg (DEU) 7/9/88
Hammer Throw 76.07 meters (249 feet, 6 inches) Mihaela Melinte ROM Rudingen (CHE) 8/29/99
Javelin Throw 71.54 meters (234 feet, 8 inches) Osleidys Menendez CUB Rethymnon (GRC) 7/1/01
volves sidestepping to the front of the circle and re- JAVELIN

leasing the shot put; this technique is called the “glide.” The javelin is a steel-tipped metal spear that athletes
The second—and newer—technique involves rotating throw as far as possible. A javelin measures 8 feet,
like a discus thrower and is called the “spin.” In both 6.25 inches (2.6 meters) long and weighs 1.75 pounds
techniques the key is to gain maximum forward veloc- (800 grams) for men and measures 7 feet, 2.5 inches
ity to help speed the shot on its way. Most elite shot put- (2.2 meters) long and 1.5 pounds (600 grams) for
ters use the spin technique; however, the glide is still women. The rules for javelin throwing are similar to the
popular, especially at the amateur level, because it is eas- rules for other throwing events. The athlete is allowed
ier to master. In modern times Parry O’Brien of the three attempts, and then the top eight competitors are
United States pioneered the spin technique, and Alexan- given three more throws, with the athlete throwing the
der Baryshnikov of the USSR further advanced it. farthest winning the competition. The most noticeable
In 1906 16 pounds (7.26 kilograms) become the stan- difference between the javelin throw and other events
dard weight of the shot put, although the weight varies is that instead of throwing from a circle, the javelin
depending on the level of competition and the gender of thrower throws from a run-up area that is coated with
the competitor. Men put a 16-pound (7.26-kilogram) a rubberized surface. The athlete sprints down a runway
shot for international and collegiate competition and a toward a scratch line and near the end twists to one side
12-pound (5.44-kilogram) shot for high school competi- and draws back the javelin; to maintain running speed
tion. Women’s shot puts weigh 8 pounds, 13 ounces while leaning back for the throw, the athlete performs
(4 kilograms) for high school, collegiate, and interna- a hop or a fast cross step before throwing the javelin.
tional competitions. The throw is ruled a foul if the athlete crosses the
scratch line, if the tip of the javelin doesn’t land first, or wins the competition. If an athlete steps out of the cir-
if the javelin lands outside of the fan-shaped in-bounds cle before the hammer lands, a foul is called, and the
area. Javelin throwers gain considerable forward speed throw is not measured. The women’s hammer throw
in the run-up to the throw, making their athleticism was first included in the Olympics in 2000 in Sydney,
more similar to that of athletes in running and jumping Australia.
events than that of strength throwers.
Franklin Herd invented the hollow javelin, allowing DISCUS
a javelin to be thrown farther. Felix Erausquarin de- The discus throw uses a steel-rimmed hardwood or
vised the rotational javelin-throwing technique in 1966 metal circular platter with a diameter of 8.75 inches
and threw the javelin more than 100 meters. The Inter- (22 centimeters) and a weight of 4 pounds, 6.5 ounces
national Amateur Athletic Federation soon banned that (2 kilograms) for men and a diameter of 7.25 inches
technique, and no competitor threw farther than 100 (18 centimeters) and a weight of 2 pounds, 3.25 ounces
meters again until 1984. (1 kilogram) for women. An athlete stands in a throw-
ing circle and holds the discus in one hand, with the
HAMMER palm facing down and the arm outstretched. He or she
The hammer used in the hammer throw is a metal ball then spins one and a half times toward the front of the
attached to a handle. The handle is 4.3 inches (11 cen- circle and releases the discus. After the athlete enters
timeters) wide and is attached to a wire that is attached the circle and begins a throw he or she must not touch
to a metal ball called the “head.” The head measures
4.3–5.1 inches (11–13 centimeters) in diameter,
and the hammer must have a total length
between 4.6 and 4.7 inches (11.75 and
12 centimeters) and weigh 16 pounds
(7.26 kilograms). The athlete throws the
hammer with a spinning motion similar
to that used to throw the discus. The ath-
lete stands in a throwing circle, grips the
handle with both hands and, while keep-
ing the feet stationary, rotates the head of
the hammer above his or her head. The
hammer gains momentum as the athlete
spins the body around three times and re-
leases the hammer at the front of the circle.
If the hammer lands outside the fan-shaped
in-bounds area, the throw is ruled a foul. As
in the other throwing events athletes are
given three attempts, and then the top eight
competitors are given three more attempts,
and the competitor with the farthest throw
A pole vaulter before

poles were flexible.
the ground outside the circle until the discus has onships, the largest competition outside of the Olympics,
landed. A throw must land in the fan-shaped in- were first held in 1983 in Helsinki, Finland. The World
bounds area, which is a 60-degree arc. The athlete is Championships are held every two years in varying lo-
allowed three throws, and then the eight competitors cations across the world. In 1985 the IAAF created the
with the farthest throws are allowed three more at- Grand Prix, which was the first meet to award official
tempts. The athlete with the farthest throw wins the prize money. In 1998 the IAAF awarded more than $2.5
competition. million in prize money. In 1998 the IAAF created the
In 1954 the concrete circle was introduced, allowing Golden League to unify the elite individual meetings held
competitors to move much faster. The circle is 8 feet, in Europe. The Golden League is comprised of seven
2.5 inches (2.5 meters) in diameter. The standard meetings rich in track-and-field tradition. It is held during
weight of the discus became 2 kilograms in 1907. the height of the track-and-field season, which is ap-
proximately July and August. For competing athletes the
Amateurism and Controversy strategy is simple: Win the IAAF Golden League disci-
As track-and-field events have developed into modern pline at each Golden League meeting for a share of the
sports, issues have arisen. One major issue was the status Golden League jackpot of 100 kilograms of gold ingots,
of amateur athletes. For many years track-and-field events worth approximately $1 million.
were considered purely amateur sports, and athletes The Olympics are the last big track-and-field compe-
could not accept training money or cash prizes. If tition. In 1894 French educator Baron Pierre de Cou-
charged with professionalism, athletes could be banned bertin, speaking in Paris to a gathering of international
from competition for life. In 1913 Jim Thorpe of the sports leaders, proposed that the ancient games be re-
United States was stripped of his 1912 Olympic victories vived on an international scale. The idea was enthusi-
in the decathlon and pentathlon and banned from further astically received, and the modern Olympics were born.
completion after authorities learned he had played semi- The first Olympics were held two years later in Athens
professional baseball. By the end of the decade track-and- and are currently held every four years.
field events at their highest levels had become full-fledged All of track and field’s jumping and throwing events
professional sports. During the 1980s many countries al- have been included in the modern Olympic Games since
lowed athletes to receive appearance payments through 1896, although women were not allowed to participate
trust fund accounts. until 1928. In jumping and throwing women competed
Performance-enhancing drugs have long been a source in only two events: high jump and the discus throw. In
of controversy in sports. Sports governing bodies as well 1932 the javelin was added to the list of women’s events,
as countries have implemented testing to control the use followed by the long jump and shot put in 1948. In
of such drugs. Athletes caught using such drugs are 1996 women were given the triple jump, and in 2000
banned from competition. Repeat offenders are banned women were given the pole vault and the hammer throw.
for life, whereas first offenders are often offered a lesser The jumping and throwing events have had many no-
sentence and banned for only one to two years. They are table athletes. In the long jump Bob Beamon was the
also required to forfeit all records, prize money, and first person to jump more than 29 feet (8.8 meters).
medals. Carl Lewis is the only person to win four Olympic gold
medals in the long jump. In the triple jump Victor
Competition at the Top Sayenev won three Olympic gold medals in 1968,
Track and field has several major competitions, most no- 1972, and 1976 and is a former world-record holder.
tably the World Championships, the Grand Prix, the Jonathon Edwards of Great Britain, the current world-
Golden League, and the Olympics. The World Champi- record holder, was the first person to jump more than
The more I train, the more I realize I

have more speed in me. ■ LEROY BURRELL
60 feet (18.2 meters) in the triple jump. Al Oerter of the These activities also were imperative for survival. In pre-
United States in the discus was the first person to win historic times humans had to intuitively find means to
four Olympic gold medals in the same event. Sergey survive. Many times their only defense was to run away,
Bubka of Ukraine was the first person to surpass 20 feet jump over, and/or throw objects.These abilities were de-
(6 meters) in the pole vault. fense mechanisms as well as aids in the acquisition of
The International Amateur Athletic Federation must food. People had to throw objects to knock fruit from
certify all world records. An athlete may set a world trees and throw weapons to kill animals for meat.
record at any IAAF-sanctioned meet. Historians argue about the beginnings of organized
track and field. Recorded history shows that various civ-
Governing Bodies ilizations competed in some aspects of track and field.
Overseeing organizations for track and field include The competitions of the ancient Greeks, Romans, and
Amateur Athletic Union (www.aau.com); International Germanic tribes are well known; however, records show
Amateur Athletic Federation(www.iaaf.org); Interna- that similar events occurred in early civilizations of
tional Olympic Committee (www.olympic.org); Na- India, Egypt, the Americas, and Ireland. The ancient
tional Collegiate Athletic Association (www.ncaasports. Greeks held gatherings for social amusement and in the
com); U.S. Track and Field (www.usatf.com); and U.S. process displayed some tests of bodily strength. The
Olympic Committee (www.olympic-usa.org). Greeks sometimes held such gatherings at funerals of
distinguished men. Bodily strength was tested through
Angela Albers and Martin Short
wrestling or a half-mile foot race.
The ancient Olympic Games of the Greeks were the
Further Reading start of track and field events as we know them today.
Jacoby, E., & Fraley, B. (1995). The complete book of jumps. Champaign, The ancient Olympic Games were based with three cen-
IL: Human Kinetics. tral events: the stade, diaulos, and dolichos. The stade
McNab, T. (1980). The complete book of track and field. Toronto,
Canada: John Wiley and Sons.
was a race of 192 meters, and the diaulos was an out-
Olsen, E. (1984). On the right track: A spectators’ guide to the Olympic and-back race of double that distance. In the fifteenth
running events. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill Company. Olympiad the dolichos, a long-distance race of about
Track & Field News. (1989). Track and Field News’ little blue book. Los
Altos, CA: Tafnews Press. 5,000 meters, was added. In the beginning the Olympic
Games featured a limited amount of events and partic-
ipants. Competition was restricted to men and boys.
People began recording accounts of track and field
competition during the nineteenth century. During the
Track and Field— early 1820s men held running matches, running more
than a mile on turnpike roads or race courses. People
Running and Hurdling set aside open grass fields to allow athletes to practice
running, jumping, and throwing. Such fields were also
T rack and field is not a single sport but rather a col-

lection of sports. Track and field dates back more
than four thousand years and originated through a nat-
used for informal competitions. By the mid-nineteenth
century separate athletic cultures emerged. People
staged rural sports meetings, two-man races between
ural course of events. People of that time did not have professional athletes, open professional athletics meet-
sports in mind when they perfected their abilities to run, ings consisting entirely of running events, open athletic
jump, and throw. These are natural activities of the body meetings for the middle class (excluding the working
and are essential to the development of muscles groups. class), and intersquad competitions between universities
TRACK AND FIELD—RUNNING AND HURDLING 1625
and public schools. In 1896 Baron Pierre de Coubertin (metric mile). The summer Olympics usually follows
of France revived the modern Olympics Games. The the outdoor events program.
games were held in Athens, Greece, on a cramped,
crumbling track of Averoff Stadium. Women in Track and Field
By the twentieth century the Olympic movement was Although the ancient Olympic Games were limited to
firmly established; however, many countries were not in- male participants, women took part in their own festi-
volved in track and field. In the major nations, such as vals in honor of Hera, the patron saint of women run-
the United States and Great Britain, opportunities to ners. At such festivals women competed in running.
compete were directly related to social class. Therefore, However, after the fall of the Roman Empire until the
a significant percentage of the national teams were col- beginning of the nineteenth century women were dis-
lege athletes, who tend to be middle to upper class. couraged from participating in physical activity. During
Today athletes hold track and field events in every the Victorian era women competed in races at fairs and
country in the world. Events are easy to stage, which is festivals. The first modern meeting in which women
a major reason for their popularity. The International competed was held in 1904 in Germany.
Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF), which governs Women were excluded from the modern Olympic
international track and field meets, has more than two Games because many members of the male-dominated
hundred member nations. In the United States and governing bodies felt that women were at physical risk if
Canada track and field events are the most popular they competed in track and field events. Baron de Cou-
sports among high school athletes. bertin felt that women had only one task in the Olympic
Athletes compete in track and field events throughout Games: to crown the winners. However, in 1928 women
the year. During the winter athletes participate in in- were admitted to the Olympic Games at Amsterdam,
door events. During the spring and summer they par- Netherlands. They were allowed to compete in only five
ticipate in outdoor events. Some outdoor events are events: 100 meters, 800 meters, 4 ✕ 100-meter relay, high
converted to indoor events during the winter. These jump, and discus throw. At the end of the 800-meter race
events are the 100 meters, which is run indoors as the the women runners collapsed from exhaustion because
55–60 meters; the 100–110-meter high hurdles, which they were relatively untrained. Their collapse reinforced
is run indoors as the 55–60-meter hurdles; and the antifeminist beliefs that women should not participate in
1,500 meters, which is run indoors as the 1,600 meters competitive sports. People protested women’s participa-
tion in track and field events.
However, despite protests, the
hurdles and javelin events for
women were added to the next
Olympics.
Because of the women’s col-
lapse in 1928, not until 1960
were Olympic women athletes
Men clearing field

hurdles that are much
less forgiving than
those used today.
Track and Field

The Running Jumps
Careful attention to the proper ratio of rest to exercise mixture of various exercise for its own sake. Sprinting,
was the concern of athletes in the past as it is today. hurdling, and long jogs after practice should be a reg-
This 1914 account describes the necessary method of ular part of the early season work, but as the meets
training young men for common track and field events. come along, absolutely all exercise beyond the limited
practice of one’s special event should gradually be
For high school boys, training is a different matter
abandoned for absolute rest. Before and after a meet
than for college fellows, especially in the common
as well there ought to be a rest of two days at least.
lack of a really reliable coach. At this age exercise and
This is because the field events exhaust little muscu-
not training is to be sought. Three days a week is the
lar energy but a great deal of nervous force, which can
maximum limit for practice, of which only one may be
be replaced and accumulated only by inaction.
used for competition of any kind. For college men,
For the same reason strict training beyond enough
four days is the most to be desired. No broad-jumper
sleep and decent care of the diet is inadvisable.
should jump more than twice a week, although at
Source: Camp, J. B. (1914). The running jumps. In P. Withington (Ed.), The Book of Ath-
this event as at the others there should be a liberal letics (pp. 228–229). Boston: Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Co.
allowed to compete in any distance of more than 800 in the ancient Greek Olympics. However, the Greeks
meters.Women had to prove that they have strength and made no time comparisons because they had no accu-
endurance. Many members of the male-dominated soci- rate way to keep time. The prime means of comparison
ety held women to an image of gentility and helplessness was the order in which the runners completed a race.
and preferred not to see them engage in strenuous ac- In ancient times runners used starting blocks. Races
tivity. As the times changed and women received more were started by a herald’s call of “go” or the blare of a
rights in society, their opportunities in track and field in- trumpet. If a runner started too early he was beaten to
creased as well. The 1960 Olympics added the 800 me- death with rods.
ters, and the 1972 Olympics added the 1,500 meters. Athletes developed sprint techniques by trial and
error. Ancient sprint techniques were similar to those of
Drug Use modern sprinters. Images on Greek vases show sprint-
The use of performance-enhancing drugs has been an ers running on their toes with knees lifted high, bodies
eminent problem in track and field as athletes have tried erect, arms moving rapidly.
to gain an edge. The best-known drugs used to enhance When sprint races were held during the seventeenth
performance are steroids. Steroids reduce nitrogen loss and eighteenth centuries, most runners were members
and increase protein synthesis, enlarging the muscular of nobility, servants of nobility, or the representatives of
contracting force. Steroids give greater strength because nobility. In 1850 the stopwatch was invented, allowing
of increased muscle bulk and improve work rate, which accurate timing of sprint races. In the mid-1850s spiked
lead to better training. Steroids are now banned, as are running shoes were invented, giving sprinters traction
certain cold medicines and the dietary supplement cre- on cinder tracks.
atine. Recently many elite professional track and field The way in which races start and the techniques used
athletes have been banned because of positive drug tests. at the start of races have evolved through the centuries
and continue to be refined. Until the last half of the
Sprints nineteenth century, many sprint competitions used “start
Sprints—short-distance races—have been a part of the by consent”: Runners had to agree among themselves
competitive play of every civilization. Sprints were run on the fairness of the start. A problem of the start by
consent is that each runner had the right to appeal be- dle. He executed running “through” the hurdles as op-
fore the race, which often took a long time and caused posed to jumping over the hurdles and spending more
delays in the race. To reduce this problem a clause was time in the air.
added to athletes’ contracts stipulating that the race In addition to moving hurdles from grass to cinder
would begin by “start by consent” and that if the runners tracks, U.S. athletes modified the structure of the hur-
could not reach an agreement in one hour the race dles. During the late 1890s U.S. athletes introduced a
would start by gun. Soon all races started by a gun. loose hurdle top. Soon after 1900 a hurdle in the shape
The dab start was one of the first start techniques that of an inverted T was designed to swing down in the
athletes used. It was used until the end of the nine- middle when struck by a hurdler. In 1935 Dartmouth
teenth century. In this standing start the front foot hit coach Harry Hillman invented the modern weighted
the ground first. Another technique was a conventional L-shaped hurdle because of concern that the inverted-T
standing start from starting holes. Toward the end of the hurdle would rise up when knocked down and clip the
nineteenth century Michael Murphy, a Yale University hurdler. The new L shape allowed for more fluid sprint-
track coach, developed a crouch start from starting ing by hurdlers. The L-shaped hurdle increased the con-
holes. This start technique provided the runner better fidence and speed of hurdlers by removing the fear
stability in the “set” position and greater velocity from instilled by the inverted-T hurdle. The L-shaped hurdle is
the gun. Through the years athletes have used many used today in competition.
variations of this start technique. Some differences exist between men’s and women’s
Sprint races include the 55–60 meters (indoors), 100 hurdles. Men have been running 110-meter hurdles at
meters (outdoors), 200 meters (indoors and outdoors), their standard height of 3 feet, 6 inches (106 centime-
and the 400 meters (indoors-outdoors). Two early sprint ters) for many years. When women became involved in
stars were Jesse Owens and Wilma Rudolph. Recent hurdling they ran 80-meter hurdle races over 2-foot,
sprint stars include Carl Lewis, Florence Griffith Joyner, 6-inch hurdles (76 centimeters) until 1969, when the
Michael Johnson, Gail Devers, Maurice Greene, and hurdles were changed to 100-meter races over 2-foot,
Marion Jones. 9-inch (83 centimeters) hurdles.
At the 1900 Paris Olympic Games the 400-meter
Hurdles hurdles were added. In this race thirteen hurdles are
Hurdles as a competitive event began during the early placed around the track in 35-meter intervals. The men’s
nineteenth century in England. The standard distance hurdle height is set at 3 feet (1 meter). The 400-meter
and height for hurdles were set in the beginning: The hurdles for women was introduced in 1974.
hurdle race was 110 meters with ten 3-foot, 6-inch Well-known 100-meter and 110-meter hurdlers include
(106 centimeters) hurdles spaced about 9 meters Roger Kingdom, Renaldo Nehemiah, Gail Devers, Allen
apart. At that time athletes hurdled over sheep hurdles Johnson, and Terrence Trammell. Noted 400-meter hur-
that were fixed to the ground. Sometimes hurdlers dlers include Edwin Moses,Tonja Buford-Bailey, Kim Bat-
had to jump over a rope or cross bar that stretched ten, Felix Sanchez, Sheena Johnson, and Marie Jose-Perec.
across the track.
Hurdles tended to be run in public schools and the Middle-Distance and
universities of Oxford and Cambridge until the end of Long-Distance Races
the nineteenth century. Alvin Kraenzlein has been called The only long-distance race in the ancient Greek Olym-
the “father of modern hurdling.” Kraenzlein, a hurdler pics was the dolichos, which was about 5,000 meters
for the University of Pennsylvania, was known for his long. Depictions of dolichos runners show low, eco-
sprint action and a straight first (lead) leg over the hur- nomical action of energy, even though the athletes
A challenge for many sprinters is

developing the most efficient way
to leave the starting blocks.
seemed to be more muscular than distance

runners of today. After the ancient
Olympics the next record of competitive
distance running occurs during the eigh-
teenth century in England. Most races at
that time took place on heaths or race
courses at fairs or at running competitions
between villages. No standard distances ex-
isted for runners by the middle of the nine-
teenth century; however, the mile was as
popular then as it is now. Today middle-
distance and long-distance running events
range from 800 meters to 10,000 meters.
The 800-meter race is a balance between
endurance and speed. It has evolved into a
sprinter race because of faster times by
modern athletes.
Because of the collapse of the women
runners in the 800 meters at the 1928
Olympics, women were not allowed to
compete in middle-distance or long-
distance races. The 800 meters for women
did not reappear on the Olympic program
until 1964. Now women participate in all
distances and have attained some out-
standing performances.
Well-known distance runners have in-
cluded Jim Ryun and Mary Decker. More recently Maria meet between Oxford University and Cambridge Uni-
Mutola, Suzy Favor Hamilton, Marla Runyan, and Alan versity. The 3,000-meter steeplechase became a formal
Webb are known for their distance running. part of the Olympic program in 1920. Steeplechase
races of varying distances had been held at the 1900,
Steeplechase 1904, and 1908 Olympics. When the steeplechase first
Historians have many theories about the origins of the appeared in the 1900 Olympics, runners had to clear
steeplechase race. One theory is that the steeplechase stone fences, water, hurdles, and other obstacles. The
is a version of the nineteenth-century cross-country steeplechase is similar to the 400-meter hurdles. The
race between church steeples. Another theory is that main difference is that steeplechase racers have free-
the steeplechase was taken from the horse-racing world dom on the track and are not restricted to a single
in Oxford, England, where people discussed a horse lane. Another difference is that the distances between
race over obstacles, which led to the race being run on the hurdles and the water jump are not equal. The stee-
foot. In the steeplechase race athletes jump over over- plechase race is run in many meets by men but is grad-
sized hurdles and over water. The first 2-mile (3.21 ually becoming popular among women. However, it is
kilometer) steeplechase race took place in 1864 in a not yet an Olympic event for women runners.
Table 1.
Men’s World Records
Event Performance Name Country Location Date
100m 9.78 Tim Montgomery USA Paris (FRA) 9/14/02

200m 19.32 Michael Johnson USA Atlanta, GA 8/1/96
400m 43.18 Michael Johnson USA Seville (ESP) 8/26/99
110m Hurdles 12.91 Colin Jackson GBR Stuttgart (DEU) 8/20/93
12.91 Liu Xaing CHN Athens (GRC) 8/27/04
400m Hurdles 46.78 Kevin Young USA Barcelona (ESP) 8/6/92
Table 2.
Women’s World Records
Event Performance Name Country Location Date
100m 10.49 Florence Griffith Joyner USA Indianapolis, IN 7/16/88

200m 21.34 Florence Griffith Joyner USA Seoul (KOR) 9/29/88
400m 47.60 Marita Koch GDR Canberra (AUS) 10/6/85
100m Hurdles 12.21 Yordanka Donkova BUL Stara Zagora (BGR) 8/20/88
400m Hurdles 52.34 Yuliya Pechonkina RUS Tula (RUS) 8/8/03
Relays for all events is that all runners must start a race at the
The modern relays were created in 1893 by F. B. Ellis and same time. A good start occurs when all runners take off
H. L. Geyelin of the United States.The standard relays are after the starter fires the gun. Many runners try to an-
the 4 ✕ 100 meters and the 4 ✕ 400 meters. Early relay ticipate the starter and get an early edge on the field.
events did not require the use of batons. Instead, the When a runners takes off before the starter fires the gun
outgoing runner had to wait until he or she was touched a false start is declared. Each runner is allowed two
by the incoming runner. Now all relays (except the shut- false starts. When a runner false starts twice, he or she
tle hurdle relay) require runners to exchange a 28–30- is disqualified. In the United States this rule applies to
centimeter-long baton within an exchange zone. Until the all meets that are governed by United States Track and
Munich Olympics of 1972 the outgoing runner had to Field (USATF). The false-start rule in meets governed by
work within a 20-meter exchange zone. A 10-meter ac- the IAAF has changed. Now the entire field of com-
celeration zone was added to allow the runner time to de- petitors is given one opportunity to false start. If a run-
velop speed.The acceleration zone gave the runner more ner false starts the entire field is charged with the false
running space, but the exchange of the baton still had to start, as if all runners had made the false start them-
take place in the 20-meter exchange zone. selves. The next false start will be charged to the runner
who jumped the gun, and that runner will be disquali-
Nature of the Sport fied from the race whether or not he or she committed
In all track and field distance events the main objective the first false start. The rule was changed because losing
is the same: to be the first competitor to cross the finish time to false starts made maintaining a meet schedule
line. A bonus is to finish in record time, with a personal difficult. This rule encourages runners not to anticipate
record (PR), championship record, national record, the starter and to wait for the gun.
Olympic record, or world record. Other general rules involve good sportsmanship: Do
To officially win a competitor must follow the basic not cheat (i.e., use drugs), use deceptive tactics, or inflict
rules of track and field. Some rules apply to all events, intentional harm. Cheating is acting outside of the
and some rules apply to a specific event. A general rule rules. Using deceptive tactics—such as using illegal
Track and Field

The Art of Hurdling
Now a hurdler must have a long, easy stride and must be so regulated as to bring the same foot for-
plenty of snap and spring in his legs and body. Ob- ward each time a hurdle is to be cleared, and mind
viously he must be a good sprinter to begin with, es- you, the high hurdles are three feet, six inches high
pecially to run the low obstacles. The high hurdles are and the low just a foot shorter. In order to do this, the
placed ten yards apart and there are ten of them to be ten yards must be covered comfortably in three
safely cleared, and there lies one of the most exciting strides. In the low hurdles, which are twenty yards
elements in the race, for there are ten chances for a apart, the distance ought to be covered in seven
man to strike a hurdle and lose his stride or tumble, strides. Some short-legged men use nine strides, but
either one of which will put him hopelessly out of the they are obviously at a disadvantage.
race. For one’s stride is an all-important thing. It Source: Jackson, A. L. (1914). The art of hurdling. In P. Withington (Ed.), The book of
athletics (p. 191). Boston: Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Co.
equipment—is a form of cheating. Forms of inflicting to stay in lanes for the entire lap. When the second-leg
intentional harm include pushing, tripping, or cutting runners get the baton they must stay in that same lane
off competitors. Any infraction on these rules results in for 100 meters or the first curve. After the first 100 me-
disqualification. ters the second-leg runners are allowed to break their
Specific running events have specific rules. In the lane and run on any lane on the track (although most
100 meters, 200 meters, 400 meters, 400 intermediate runners select lane 1).The runners of the third and fourth
hurdles, 100-meter and 110-meter high hurdles, and legs are also allowed to run in any lane they choose.
4 ✕ 100 meters runners must stay in their designated Although the objective in track and field distance
lane. Running out of the designated lane results in dis- events is to be the first competitor to cross the finish line,
qualification. When a runner takes three consecutive no single strategy exists for any event. Sprinters and
steps on the line separating the lanes, the runner is dis- hurdlers run their races differently than do distance run-
qualified. In the 800-meter, 1,500-meter, 3,000-meter, ners. Each athlete adopts a strategy that works best for
and steeplechase events runners are allowed to break her or him. However, in most races athletes want to ef-
from their designated lane after a certain distance. ficiently use their energy. To efficiently use their energy,
The 4 ✕ 400-meter relay has variations to the lane most athletes rely on technique and form. Runners focus
rules. The 4 ✕ 400-meter relay can be run with a water- on staying relaxed, keeping their shoulders square,
fall start, two-turn stagger, or three-turn stagger. In the pumping their arms, and maintaining good knee lift.
waterfall start the first leg (runner) of each team starts Ideally sprinters want to be explosive and to cover
at the starting line without a stagger (offset). When the the track rapidly with the minimum loss of speed after
gun is fired the runners must fight for position to get peak velocity is reached. A sprint race can be divided
ahead of the field. This start is rarely used because the into three stages: start, pickup, and finish. At the start,
congestion causes some runners to fall or batons to be in the sprinting blocks sprinters focus on their reaction
dropped. The 4 ✕ 400-meter event can also be run with time, which is the first muscular response to the gun.
a two-turn stagger in which the first leg is required to After sprinters have reacted to the gun they must apply
stay in lanes for two curves, and then the second leg is force backward against the ground. This applied force
allowed to break as soon as runners get the baton. The is important to velocity during acceleration. During the
most common start for the 4 ✕ 400 meters is the three- pickup stage acceleration is governed by the power and
turn stagger, in which the first-leg runners are required range of the muscles of the legs during sustained
A lifetime of training for just

ten seconds. ■ JESSE OWENS
ground contact. At the beginning of the pickup stage a Facilities and Equipment
runner’s body is low to the ground; by the end of the Although some track and field equipment is specific to
stage a runner’s body is erect. During the finish stage some events, the track is used in all running events. The
sprinters decelerate toward the tape at the finish line. At standard shape of the track is oval, containing two
the finish line sprinters tend to lean toward the tape be- curves and two straightaways surfaced with an all-
cause the winner is determined by which torso crosses weather material (i.e., a rubberized compound). All races
the tape first. are run counterclockwise. The lengths of the sections of
Technique also is important in hurdles. Hurdlers a track are usually distributed evenly between the curves
should fluidly sprint over the hurdles, making only and the straightaways. The standard length of an indoor
slight modifications to sprint technique in order to clear track is 200 meters. Undersized tracks are less than 200
the hurdles. When approaching a hurdle, hurdlers sprint meters. Some indoor tracks are more than 200 meters
tall toward the hurdle, raise a bent lead leg to clear the but less than 400 meters. Indoor tracks can be flat or
hurdle, and snap the lead leg down to the ground. banked. A banked track has sloped curves, allowing run-
When they snap the lead leg down to the ground, the ners to reach top speed without running off the track. In-
trail leg circles around the hurdle in a parallel manner. door tracks tend to have six lanes. Most outdoor tracks
In the short hurdles (100–110 meters) a runner ideally have eight or nine lanes. Most outdoor track competi-
takes three steps between each hurdle. In the long hur- tions are held on an Olympic standard track. The length
dles (400 meters), the runner, depending on stride pat- of an Olympic standard track is 400 meters. Straight-
tern, tends to run thirteen to seventeen strides between aways and curves are 100 meters long.
hurdles. Men tend to take thirteen to fourteen strides In sprint races runners usually use starting blocks.
per hurdle, and women tend to take fifteen to seventeen. Starting blocks are designed to give runners traction
Some 400-meter hurdlers alternate from their normal and power. At the start of a race runners crouch and
hurdle form and use their normal trail leg as their lead place their feet on the blocks and their hands on the
leg when going over a hurdle. Hurdlers tend to alternate starting line. At the starter’s command runners come to
legs when fatigue sets in. Some 400-meter hurdlers also the set position by raising their hips. When the gun fires
use the alternate leg technique to remain consistent runners drive out of the blocks by pushing against the
over the hurdles. Thus, instead of alternating when fa- blocks with both feet.
tigue sets in, they train themselves to alternate legs
throughout the race. Competition at the Top
A distance runner should concentrate on increasing Track and field meets are held at the league, high school,
her or his capacity to supply the muscles with oxygen. collegiate, and professional levels. At the league level
For the 800 meters runners ideally get out hard and run youths ages five to eighteen participate in club summer
the first lap fast. The second lap is usually strategic, and track programs. Summer track meets in the United States
most runners try to keep the same pace or to not break are hosted by United States Track and Field and Ameri-
down too much from the first lap. In the final stretch can Athletic Union (AAU). High school track meets usu-
runners want to come in strong. The times in the 800 ally consist of dual meets, relay meets, and open meets.
meters have decreased so much that some people now At the end of each season county, district, regional, state,
look at it as a sprint. In the longer races runners try to and national track meets are held. In track meets held at
run a consistent race pattern or pace throughout the en- the high school level, athletes are allowed to compete
tire race. Some even try to run each lap faster than the against only other high school athletes. Most collegiate
previous one. track and field athletes are recruited from the high school
level. At the collegiate level runners compete in many

meets. At the end of each season they compete in meets
against runners from other schools in their conference.
After the conference meets, athletes participate in the
Drawing of school boys in Japan playing tug
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) na-
of war.
tional track meet. This meet includes the best collegiate
track and field athletes in the United States and lets ath-
letes compete for a national title. Some athletes at the
collegiate level are considered to have elite status and
thus are able to compete with professional athletes.
Many Olympic teams are comprised of college athletes.
Tug of War
Athletes who have completed or withdrawn from their
collegiate career compete at the professional level, where
they receive product endorsements and monetary com-
T ug of war is a contest of strength and skill that pits
two teams against each other as they pull on op-
posite ends of a thick rope. Contests like tug of war
pensation. When professional athletes win races at cer- were long practiced informally in the English country-
tain meets they also receive prize money. side. The event is now played as an amateur sport,
mainly in Europe and the United States.
Governing Bodies
Overseeing organizations for track and field include History
Amateur Athletic Union (www.aau.com); International Tug of war is said to have originated in the harvest-
Amateur Athletic Federation(www.iaaf.org); Interna- gathering of ancient China; to have been used to train
tional Olympic Committee (www.olympic.org); Na- slaves to haul stones up the Sphinx; or to have devel-
tional Collegiate Athletic Association (www.ncaasports. oped from the routines used by sailors in hoisting sails
com); U.S. Track and Field (www.usatf.com); and U.S. and by soldiers in hauling guns up the mountains of
Olympic Committee (www.olympic-usa.org). India’s north-west frontier.
The Dictionary of British Folk-Lore (Gomme 1898)
Amy Henry
described the evolution of this ludic activity out of a
basic catching- and-rhyming game. Two people stood
Further Reading facing one another and held their linked arms in the air.
Doherty, J. K. (1960). Modern track and field. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: The game continued until there were two teams of
Prentice Hall.
McNab, T. (1980). The complete book of track and field. Toronto, linked people. The climax of the activity was a compet-
Canada: John Wiley and Sons. itive tugging event, which went on until one of the
Olsen, E. (1984). On the right track: A spectators’ guide to the Olympic
running events. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill Company.
teams broke down or was pulled over the halfway mark.
Quercetani, R. L. (1964). A world history of track and field athletics As early as the 1840s, tug of war appeared on the pro-
1864–1964. New York: Oxford University Press. grams of various Scottish Highland Games. By 1880, the
Warden, P. (1986). Sprinting and hurdling. Marlborough, UK: British
Amateur Athletic Board. Amateur Athletic Association recognized tug of war, and
it became part of track and field meetings. In 1958, a Tug-
of-War Association was formed in Great Britain; by then,
there were nearly 1,000 clubs.The sport is coeducational
Trotting and draws competitors of all ages from around the world.
In the United States, tug of war retains a niche in
See Horse Racing agricultural and county fairs, circuses, carnivals, cel-
TUG OF WAR 1633
Tug of War
Tug of War in Korea
My favorite of all the activities of this busy month tually two ropes bent double and connected by a
(but one not done in Yean), the tug-of-war (chulda- linchpin in a way that resembles the symbol of the
rigi), originated in China but seems to have flour- cosmic interplay of yin and yang.
ished in Korea. It occurred, and in some places still Sometimes the hamlets (often named yin and
occurs, on the day of the full moon. The exact pro- yang) or the east (yang) and the west (yin) compete
cedure for this widespread activity varies. In some vil- with each other. In these cases the two ropes are
lages the two sides are all the adult males against all called male and female ropes, and the two sides place
the women and children. Regardless of age, unmar- themselves in east and west directions and think of
ried people are on the women and children’s side. themselves as male-yang and female-yin sides. In
The women and children are on the west (yin) side, Ch(char)olla Province, Koch’ang Township, Tongbu
of course, and the adult males on the east (yang). If village, “the male rope is made to go through the
the women and children win, there is supposed to be loop of the female rope, then a large wooden linch-
a good harvest. As in the ritual I observed, this is a pin is stuck through from the male rope side.”
time for recognition of the (char)um side (women, the Source: Dix, G. (1987). The New Year’s ritual and village social structure. In Kendall, L.
& Dix, G., Religion and ritual in Korean society (pp. 108). Berkeley, CA: Institute of East
young, low status, the west, the earth). The rope is ac- Asian Studies, University of California.
ebrations, and picnics. It has also found a regular Olympic Competition

place in what has come to be known as corporate From 1900 to 1920, the event was featured at the
challenge “character building” workshops that strive Olympics. The rules were simple, with two teams and
to develop teamwork. Tug of war also continues to be no weight restriction. The winning team was the one to
a popular recreational pastime of fraternities and pull the opposition six feet. The time allowed was five
sororities on U.S. college campuses. minutes and, in the event that no winner emerged after
five minutes, victory went to the team that had pulled
What Is Tug of War? its opponents the farthest distance. Regulations
Tug of war as a competitive sport is practiced by changed at each Olympics. In 1900, team size was six;
teams that are members of national tug of war asso- in 1904, there were five to a team; and in 1908, teams
ciations, which are affiliated with the Tug of War In- comprised eight athletes.
ternational Federation. The participants, who must At the 1900 Paris Olympics, victory went to the
be amateurs, are divided by gender, age, and weight Sweden-Denmark combined team. Four years later at the
class. Competitions are either indoors or outdoors, St. Louis Olympics, when very few Europeans had either
and each venue requires specific shoes. Teams must the time or money to travel to the United States, the gold
wear normal sports clothing but may also wear pro- medal went to the United States. The four top-placing
tective clothing underneath. Every pulling member teams at the St. Louis Olympics were composed of mem-
holds the rope with both bare hands. Each team at- bers of track and field teams or gymnastic clubs. At the
tempts to pull the opposing team over a center line 1906 Athens Olympics, Germany was the champion.
on a surface that is approximately 36 meters long. In 1908 at the London Olympics, there were accu-
Rules designate the rope dimensions, team substitu- sations of chicanery. Although the Liverpool police (rep-
tions, pulling area, rope grip, pulling position, and resenting Great Britain) quickly yanked the Americans
position of the anchor (the person who stands at the over the line, the cry went up that the British were
end of a line of pullers). cheats. The debate went back and forth. The British
Chinese children
playing tug of war.
policemen claimed that their

heavy boots with steel cleats
were standard everyday wear.
The Americans saw it differ-
ently. They felt the Liverpool
team was unfairly shod in
“special illegal boots.” The
Americans were unsuccessful,
and British law and order pre-
vailed with gold, silver, and
bronze medals going to three
teams of constabulary.
At the 1912 Stockholm
Olympics, Sweden won the
gold medal, and at the 1920
Antwerp Olympics, Great
Britain triumphed. The record
for the longest pull according
to Amateur Athletic Associa-
tion rules (where lying on the ground or “burying” Matthews, P. (Ed.). (1993). The Guinness book of records, 1994. New
feet are prohibited) is one of 8 minutes, 18.2 seconds, York: Facts on File.
McWhirter, N., & McWhirter, R. (1975). Guinness book of records. Lon-
between the Royal Army Service Corps (Feltham) and don: Guinness Superlatives.
the Royal Marines (Portsmouth Division) at the Palmatier, R. A., & Ray, H. L. (1989). Sports talk: A dictionary of
sports metaphors. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Royal Tournament, England, in June 1938. Since Wallechinsky, D. (1991). The complete book of the Olympics (3rd ed.).
1958, there have been national outdoor champi- Boston: Little, Brown.
onships, and European championships were inaugu-
rated in 1965.
Governing Body Turkey

The primary governing organization os the Tug of War
International Federation: (www.tugofwar-twif.org).
Scott A. G. M. Crawford and

T urkey, founded in 1923, is located between south-
eastern Europe and southwestern Asia and has a
population of 69 million people. Turkey’s history of
Robin O’Sullivan
sports and other physical activities has been influenced
by culture, social structure, living environment, and
Further Reading time period.
Arlott, J. A. (Ed.). (1975). The Oxford companion to world sports and
games. London: Oxford University Press.
Gomme, G. L. (Ed.). (1898). A dictionary of British folk-lore. Part 1: Tra-
History During the Early Period
ditional games, II. London: David Nutt. Throughout history, from central Asia to Europe and
Hoffman, F. W., & Bailey, W. G. (1991). Sports and recreations. New Africa, Turks established a number of states and encoun-
York: Harrington Park Press.
John, G., & Campbell, K. (1993). Handbook of sports and recreational
tered different cultures.Turks are descended from nomads
buildings: Outdoor sports. London: Sports Council. who roamed central Asia between the Altai Mountains,
TURKEY 1635
Turkey Olympics Results

the Eurasian steppes (vast, usually level and treeless tracts Physical Education and
in southeastern Europe or Asia), the Yenisei River, and Modern Sports
Lake Baikal. These nomads had a mobile civilization During the nineteenth century reforms were initiated to
based on tribal organization and shamanistic beliefs that modernize and Westernize the Ottoman Empire, be-
involved worship of nature. Life on the harsh steppes re- ginning with Tanzimat (reform and reorganization). Ed-
quired people to be physically fit.The equestrian tradition ucational reforms created secular schools. Gymnastics
was strong: Turkish tribesmen lived on horseback. (later called “physical education”) courses and fencing
Physical activities were part of everyday life and pri- were introduced in secular military schools in 1862 as
marily were associated with survival, warfare, religious a result of European influences. In 1868 Galatasaray
festivals, and celebrations. Turks celebrated the begin- High School became the first school to offer regular
ning of spring and conducted rituals to mark births, physical education classes, introduce modern sports,
deaths, and marriages that included equestrian games, and organize sports festivals.
archery, wrestling, dance, and singing and hunting com- Even though the Regulation for Public Education
petitions. Women joined men in these activities. program, enacted in 1869, required physical education
Turks began accepting Islam during the tenth century to be included in Rusdiye (adolescence) schools for
as a result of close trade relations, migration to Islamic boys, only a limited number of schools practiced it.
countries, and missionary activities. Conversion brought Books on physical education and modern sports, influ-
the abandonment of shamanism and replaced the no- enced by Europe, were translated to use as educational
madic warrior life with a settled existence. In the long tools at schools, and articles were published in news-
term Islamic and Turkish traditions dominated the new papers and magazines.
civilization that emerged in Turkish Anatolia. However, The first sports clubs were formed by foreign and
increasing religious constraints and laws restricted Turk- non-Muslim minorities at the end of the nineteenth cen-
ish women from public life and consequently from tury.The Ottoman ruling class prohibited Turkish young-
sports and other physical activities. sters from forming or joining sports clubs. The first
Festivals—organized under the patronage of Ot- Turkish sports clubs (for football) were the Black Stock-
toman sultans to commemorate the circumcision of ings (1899), Besiktas (1903), Galatasaray (1905), and
sons, births, weddings, war victories, and religion— Fenerbahce (1907). After creation of a constitutional
became popular. They featured activities such as eques- monarchy in 1908 Turks were given more freedom and
trian games, archery, wrestling, horse races, races, formed sports clubs and played modern sports.
weight lifting and stone lifting, and sword competi- The Ottoman National Olympic Committee was
tions. Sports and other physical activities also were founded in 1908 through the efforts of Selim Sırrı Tarcan,
used in military schools to improve physical skills. an important role model in the development of Turkish
Fields for sports events, training, celebrations, and sports and physical education. The Ottoman state was
ceremonies were built as early as the fourteenth century. represented by one gymnast at the 1908 Olympic Games
The most famous archery field (Ok Meydan in Istanbul) in London.
had special rules, including rules for training, partici- Despite the lack of schools, teachers, and gymnasi-
pation criteria, referees, awards, and behavior. Tekkes, ums, the Ministry of Education issued a physical edu-
supported by the sultans and the ruling class, were pop- cation course curriculum for teacher-training schools
ular sports clubs, especially for Turkish wrestlers and for men in 1911 and for women in 1912. The first
archers. Growing religious influence and the decline of sports festival for Turkish schools was organized in
the Ottoman Empire caused traditional sports to lose 1916 through the efforts of European-educated Turkish
their popularity and support. teachers and sportsmen.
The Turkish Sport Associations Union (Turkiye Turkey won its first Olympic medals in men’s wrestling
Idman Cemiyetleri Ittifakı [TICI]), considered to be the with Yasar Erkan’s gold medal and Mersinli Ahmet’s sil-
first national sports institution, was formed in 1922 to ver medal. At later Olympic Games and world champi-
develop Turkish sports, establish national sports feder- onships, Turkish wrestlers were successful, and in the
ations, and represent Turkey at international sports com- 1948 London Games Turkey won twelve medals, all in
petitions. The first national sports federations of wrestling.
athletics, football, and wrestling were founded in 1922, Within the Turkish school system participation in
followed by federations of cycling, fencing, and weight sports and other physical activities increased slowly,
lifting in 1923 and federations of boxing, rowing, swim- hampered by limited hours of physical education
ming, and sailing in 1924. classes, limited content, and limited sports facilities and
financing.
Development during the However, during the last decade the success of Turk-
Turkish Republic ish national teams and individual athletes at interna-
The Republic of Turkey, founded in 1923 after the War tional competitions has increased rapidly. Football
of Independence, rose from the ruins of the Ottoman continues to be the most popular sport and domi-
Empire under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. nates Turkish sports life. In recent years women’s vol-
The Turkish Republic has undergone an intense period leyball teams, men’s basketball teams, athletics teams,
of secularization and modernization with a new con- and weight lifting teams developed and gained popu-
stitution and a reform movement. larity by winning medals at world and European
Reforms have led to an increase in sports partici- championships and Olympic Games. This success has
pation and an increase in the number of clubs and created new sports role models in Turkey. However,
school sports activities. Women were given equal the growing success of Turkish sports is yet to be re-
rights, and secular laws enhanced women’s role in so- flected in the number of participants in recreational
ciety. This enhancement was reflected in sports: Turk- and elite-level sports.
ish women began participating in modern sports such Nese Gundogan
as athletics, tennis, rowing, volleyball, swimming, and
equestrianism.
Even though decades of war, revolution, and occu-
Further Reading
Atıl, E. (1999). Levni and surname: The story of an eighteenth century
pation created a disastrous economy, the government, Ottoman festival. Istanbul, Turkey: APA Tasarım Yayıncılık ve Baskı
aware of the importance of sports, provided financial as- Hizmetleri.
Diem, C. (1982). Asiatische Reiterspiele. Hildesheim, Germany: Olms
sistance, and Turkey participated with forty athletes in Presse.
the 1924 Paris Olympic Games in athletics, cycling, Fisek, K. (2003). Devlet Politikası ve Toplumsal Yapıyla Iliskileri Acısından
fencing, football, wrestling, and weightlifting. Spor Yonetimi: Dunyada ve Turkiye’de. Istanbul,Turkey: YGS Yayınları.
Kahraman, A. (1995). Osmanlı Devleti’nde Spor. Ankara, Turkey: T. C.
Under increasing pressure from the government for Kultur Bakanlıgı.
involvement in sports as part of a federal ideology, the Koryurek, C. (2003). Olimpiyadlar. Istanbul, Turkey: Istanbul
Olimpiyat Oyunları Hazırlık ve Duzenleme Kurulu.
TICI was abolished, and the semifederal Turkish Sport Shaw, S. J. (1976). History of Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey:
Association (Tirk Spor Kurumu [TSK]) was established Vol. 1. Empire of Gazis: The rise and decline of Ottoman Empire
in 1936 and followed by a general directorate of sports 1280–1808. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Sumer, F., Uysal, A. E., & Walker, S.W. (1972). The book of Dede Korkut.
in 1938 as an umbrella organization. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Not until the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin, Ger- Tayga, Y. (1990). Turk Spor Tarihine Genel Bakıs. Ankara, Turkey: Gen-
clik ve Sport Genel Mudurlugu.
many, did the first Turkish women athletes—Suat Fetgeri Yıldız, D. (2002). Caglarboyu Turklerde Spor. Istanbul, Turkey: Tele-
Aseni and Halet Cambel—take part (in fencing) and basım Yayıncılık Reklamcılık.
TURNER FESTIVALS 1637
turnen. There the foundation of a German turner union

Turner Festivals was supposed to be laid, but the effort failed. National
turner festivals have been held since 1860 in Coburg.
T urner festivals (Turnfeste) are gatherings at which

turners (members of a gymnasts movement) compete
in gymnastics and related sports.These festivals also have
From 1880 on, with the exception of the period from
World War I until 1933, they were held every five years.
The Arbeiter-Turn-und-Sportbund (ATSB), which dis-
social and cultural components. Turner festivals are held associated from the national turner festivals, organized
in all countries where the system and culture of German its own national festivals in 1922 in Leipzig and in
turnen (gymnastics) were introduced, especially Austria, 1929 in Nuremberg.
Switzerland, and eastern European nations such as In 1948, two years before the foundation of today’s
Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic. Deutsche Turner-Bund (DTB), the first West German
turner festival took place in Frankfurt. In East Germany
Historical Overview during the Cold War eight turner and sports festivals
Turner festivals of the nineteenth century helped turners were held by the Deutsche Turn- und Sportbund
unify and build identity. They contributed to the estab- (DTSB) in the former sports capital of Leipzig. Besides
lishment of a national culture and the formation of a being athletic festivals they were misused by the totali-
body-and-movement culture. They also demonstrated the tarian socialist government for political purposes.
manners and practices of the turner movement and the
ideological, mental, and political values that turners sup- U.S. Turner Festivals
ported. Festivals were associated with national rituals and For turners in the United States, who founded their first
symbols, reflected most of all in the turners’ language, societies in 1848, the festivals were of great significance
songs, poetry, flags, clothing, and physical culture. from the beginning. The American Turner Union organ-
Turner festivals developed out of the Turntage (Turner ized its first national festival in Philadelphia in 1851. The
Days). The most important turner festival before the U.S. turner festivals fostered a feeling of solidarity
German Revolution of 1848–1849 took place in 1846 among turners and German immigrants and provided
in Heilbronn. It stood for the prerevolutionary culture of an important element in the expansion of the ideas and
culture of turnen, not only among the immi-
grant Germans and German-Americans of
later generations, but also among U.S. resi-
dents who visited the festivals. A climax was
reached at the beginning of the twentieth cen-
tury, when the 1905 turner festival in Indi-
anapolis, Indiana, attracted three thousand
participants and more than ten thousand
spectators. Since 1881 turner festivals (“Turn-
fests”) have been held every four years.
The men’s competition at the

National Turnerfest of the
Nordamerikanische Turnerbund
in 1905 in Indianapolis.
Source: Kevin Grace Collection.
Turner Festivals
The 1909 Cincinnati Turnfest
One of the most memorable of the American “Turn- festivals, has had no opportunity to see so magnifi-
fests” occurred in June of 1909 in Cincinnati, Ohio, cent a festival as that which has been prepared under
drawing “turners” from all over the United States. the popular title of the North American Turnfest.”
Judging by photos of the scene, it seemed as if the en- Considering that 13,000 people participated in the
tire city either marched in or watched the parade in events and another 50,000 attended, the proclama-
honor of the festival—especially since all the factories tion wasn’t much of an overstatement.
and stores were closed that day. A proclamation de- Source: Gut Heil!: The 1909 Cincinnati German Turnfest and Urban Sport. Retrieved
May 3, 2005, from http://www.libraries.uc.edu/libraries/arb/archives/exhibits2/Turn-
clared: “Cincinnati, famed the world over for the suc- ers/index.html
cesses of her expositions and dramatic and musical
Women categories, as well as many gymnastic, dancing, and

Until World War I the question of whether and how artistic displays.
women should participate at the German turner festi-
vals provoked fierce discussions within the movement, The Future
generated by a concern for morality and the fear of an German turner festivals are held every four to five years
emancipation that would destroy German family life in a different city. They still can be characterized as a fes-
and German peoplehood (volkstum). National turner tivity for the people, as can be seen by their popularity.
festival officials and many women turners as well were The thirty-first German turner festival in 2002 in
concerned about the women’s reputation. In 1894 fifty Leipzig was organized by the DTB, with more than 5
women turners from Breslau dared to perform at the million members in more than twenty thousand clubs.
eighth German turner festival in that city. Four years About 100,000 people—mostly women—participated
later one thousand women turners from Hamburg sup- before 1 million spectators. Traditions and symbols—
posedly performed improper exercises at the ninth among them parading through the hosting city at the
turner festival in their home city. Before World War I beginning of the festival and carrying turner flags—
nonlocal women turners were not allowed to participate have survived and show a strong connection to the
at festivals. After the war, when women were able to turners’ past.
participate in the national turner festivals, the number In the United States the importance of turner festivals
of women participants rose. Today about 70 percent of has declined. In 2003 the number of participants at the
turner festival visitors are girls and women. fifty-first national festival had declined to a few hundred.
In the United States women have participated in line These festivals no longer present German-American cul-
formations or mass exercises since the 1870s. Not until ture, nor do they attract the public as much. They are
1921 were they allowed to show their skills in com- mainly attended by turners and their families.
petitive events.
Annette R. Hofmann
In the past practical turnen with free and apparatus
exercises, turner games, and competition in running,
throwing, and wrestling, as well as hikes, trips, and the
recitation of poetry, constituted the program of festivals. Further Reading
Hofmann, A. (2003). Der Beitrag der Turner zur amerikanischen Fest-
Today the program of German turner festivals is gym- tradition. [The contribution of the Turners to the American tradition
nastics and sports in individual, team, and combined of festivities]. In M. Krüger (Ed.), Erinnerungen, Geschichte(n)
TURNER FESTIVALS 1639
Traditionen: Rekonstruktionen der Vergangenheit zwischen Markt Pfister, G. (2000). Frauen bei deutschen Turnfesten: Zum Wandel der
und Mythos [Memories, histories, traditions: The reconstruction of the Geschlechterordnung in der Turnbewegung [Women at the Ger-
past between market and mythos]. (pp. 117–130). Hamburg, Ger- man turner festivities: The change of gender order in the turner
many: Czwalina. movement]. Sportwissenschaft, 30(2), 141–155.
Kruger, M. (1996). Körperkultur und Nationsbildung [Body culture and Stadtgeschichtliches Museum Leipzig. (2002). Sport Schau: Ausstellung
nation building]. Schorndorf, Germany: Hofmann Verlag. deutscher Turnfeste 1860–2002: Begleitbuch. Leipzig, Germany.
Neumann, H. (1987). Deutsche Turnfeste: Spiegelbild der deutschen Steins, G. (2002). Die Erfindung der Turnfeste. In Berliner [The inven-
Turnbewegung [German turner festivities. Mirror images of the Ger- tion of turner festivities]. Turnerbund (Ed.), Sporthistorische Blätter
man turner movement]. Wiesbaden, Germany: Limpert Verlag. 11. Berlin, Germany: DruckVogt.
Ultimate
Underwater Sports
Unionism
United Kingdom
Ultimate
U ltimate is a fast-paced sport that combines ele-
ments of soccer, basketball, and football. Oppos-
ing teams throw a plastic disk and transition quickly
from offense to defense on a large field. Players attempt
to score by catching an aerial pass in the opponent’s
end zone. Since its invention in 1967 Ultimate—
sometimes referred to as “Ultimate Frisbee”—has been
one of the fastest-growing sports in the world.
History
Ultimate was invented by a group of high school stu-
dents in Maplewood, New Jersey, who wanted to create
a countercultural sport. The students designed what
they regarded as the “ultimate sport.” The Frisbee flying
disk, a product of the Wham-O Manufacturing Com-
pany, was used originally, although Ultimate now offi-
cially uses a sturdy 175-gram disk instead of a Frisbee.
Ultimate spread by word of mouth and demonstration
as people learned to play on college greens and city
parks. Before long Ultimate was being played around
the world, although it has remained at an amateur level
of competition as it has moved from obscurity into the
realm of popular culture. However, Ultimate players
often refer to themselves as a subculture within the
larger athletic world. Approximately 100,000 people in
more than forty-two countries play Ultimate, and about
half of those players are from the United States. Ulti-
mate is also popular among students at universities in
Canada, Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom.
Ultimate purports to celebrate sportsmanship and
fair play by a principle called the “spirit of the game.”
Competitive play is acceptable but never at the expense
U
sport are transmitted through face-to-face contact with
other Ultimate players. Players insist that anyone is wel-
come to participate in pickup Ultimate. However, al-
of respect between players, adherence to the rules, and though nobody is ever turned away from a game, players
the basic joy of play. Through this spirit of the game, the who feel awkward or clumsy tend not to return after
sport teaches social values and reproaches unaccept- their first attempt. The Ultimate community includes
able behavior. Ultimate players are responsible for mak- players with various levels of involvement, but those
ing their own foul and line calls and must resolve any who play most frequently tend to identify most strongly
disputes that arise among themselves. Poor sportsman- with the community. Games in recreational leagues are
ship is discouraged and creates negative social re- more organized than pickup games, but the leagues wel-
percussions. Players say that Ultimate was, from the come newcomers and recruit players. Leagues have been
beginning, a grassroots sport without referees or play- established in Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Japan,
books. It was created as an alternative to ultracompeti- Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Portugal, Switzer-
tive, professionalized sports. Ultimate also was a land, Taiwan, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the
response to the rise of violence in sports, the corrupting United States.
influence of million-dollar contracts, and the unsports- People who want to play more strenuous Ultimate
manlike behavior of many athletes. The self-image of can join regional club teams, which hold tryouts. Club
early Ultimate players emphasized this countercultural teams travel to tournaments and compete against other
identity. Part of the allure for many players was the no- club teams in games in which the intensity level is
tion that they were engaging in a unique activity, a higher than in pickup games. When taken seriously,
sport removed from the mainstream. Ultimate is a grueling sport that requires endurance,
Ultimate players share a sense of camaraderie that is speed, and agility. The spirit of the game usually prevails
augmented by the sport’s jargon, which sets social on the field, but plenty of arguments develop. Still, a
boundaries. People who do not play Ultimate are often few players on each team often wear colorful costumes,
confounded by the terms that players yell to one another, encouraging lightheartedness in the midst of competi-
such as “force home,” “hammer,” and “lay out for that.” tion. When the games are over, members of opposing
Spectators, who are usually players themselves, also teams are expected to socialize with one another, shar-
heckle and encourage the teams with Ultimate jargon.To ing the esprit de corps of Ultimate.
feel that they belong, newcomers must learn Ultimate jar- As Ultimate becomes more mainstream each year,
gon and culture. veteran players strive to preserve the purity of the sport
Informal pickup games are the most common mani- by highlighting the unique social benefits of Ultimate.
festation of Ultimate. The skills, rules, and culture of the However, a growing number of players who come from
1641
A young woman playing Ultimate.
traditional athletic backgrounds have brought

with them the cutthroat mentality that Ultimate
was meant to avoid. A boom in popularity and
a spike in aggressiveness among players have in-
creased the level of competitiveness. Some Ulti-
mate players lament increasing disputes over
calls and less evidence of the spirit of the game.
High-level tournaments have begun using con-
troversial “observers”: nonplayers who can as-
sist in resolving player disputes. Many Ultimate purists ever, Ultimate aficionados claim that the sport is open
insist that observers are antithetical to the spirit of self- to anyone, regardless of ability, race, or class. In fact,
governing cooperation that is meant to guide Ultimate. Ultimate is primarily a sport for young, white, middle-
class men and women who are both athletic and fond
Nature of the Sport of socializing. According to demographic information
The Ultimate Players Association (UPA), the governing compiled by the UPA, which has 15,600 members, the
body of the sport in the United States, was founded in Ultimate membership base in 2004 was 65 percent
1979.The UPA continues to modify the rules as Ultimate male. Members tend to be young (71 percent are be-
has evolved, but it has essentially kept the sport intact. tween the ages of nineteen and thirty-four), educated
Teams of seven players face off on a rectangular field. A (93 percent have completed a bachelor’s degree), tech-
regulation field is 64 meters long and 36 meters wide, nologically savvy (87 percent own a computer), and
with 22-meter end zones. Ultimate is a noncontact sport middle class (54 percent report household income of
that requires no special equipment aside from a disk and more than $50,000). The UPA does not publicize racial
field. Most players wear cleats and use cones to mark the statistics, but the sport has made few inroads among
field boundaries. Players run and cut to receive a pass but nonwhites, especially compared with other sports such
must stop and pivot when holding the disk. The team as football, baseball, and basketball.
who possesses the disk is on offense and scores when one
of its players catches a pass in the defense’s end zone. If Competition at the Top
a pass is not completed, the defensive team takes pos- Elite competition in Ultimate takes the form of local, re-
session of the disk and transitions into the offense.Teams gional, national, and international tournaments. Among
may play either person-to-person or zone defense. A typ- men’s club teams, New York dominated men’s Ultimate
ical game is played to fifteen points and lasts approxi- during the early 1990s. Boston’s Death or Glory won
mately one and one-half hours. Player substitutions are numerous national and world championships during
allowed after a score. Players from both teams commonly the late 1990s. In California, Santa Barbara’s Lady
exchange songs and cheers after the game and convene Condors reigned among women’s club teams during
at a local bar or restaurant for social time. the 1980s, and Boston’s Lady Godiva captured a series
Aside from their love of the sport, many Ultimate of national and world titles between 1995 and 2002.
players feel that they share values and have more in Separate tournaments are held for mixed (co-ed) and
common with other Ultimate players than with non- master’s teams. The first World Championships for
players. The self-image of Ultimate players models itself Ultimate took place in 1983 with teams from Europe
on the ideal of being laidback, sociable, fun, athletic, and the United States. Japan joined the tournament the
passionate about the sport, and always ready for a following year. U.S. and Canadian teams have prevailed
party. Of course, Ultimate players are not all alike. How- in recent World Championships, whereas Sweden and
UNDERWATER SPORTS 1643
A player who conjugates a verb in the first person singular cannot be part
of the squad, he has to conjugate the verb in the first person plural. We.
We want to conquer. We are going to conquer. Using the word I when
you’re in a group makes things complicated. ■ WANDERLEY LUXEMBURGO
Finland have repeatedly won the European National Ultimate Players Association. (2004). Retrieved November 17, 2004,
Championships. from http://www.upa.org
World Flying Disc Association. (2005). Retrieved March 20, 2005,
Rutgers and Princeton played the first college game from http://www.wfdf.org
in 1972. College national championships have been
held annually for men since 1984, and a division for
women began three years later. The most successful
women’s college teams have been from California, with
multiple titles going to Stanford University, University
of California at Santa Barbara, and University of Cali-
Underwater Sports
fornia at San Diego. Several men’s collegiate champi-
onship teams have also hailed from Stanford and
University of California at Santa Barbara. The Junior
T he wide variety of sporting or athletic activities that
may be pursued underwater are always dominated
by an environment that cannot sustain human life. Un-
National tournament for both boys and girls has been derwater sports therefore can be classified by the means
dominated by Amherst (Massachusetts) Regional High that participants use to overcome that environmental
School, and Canada won the 2002 World Junior Ulti- challenge and fall into three broad categories. Snorkel-
mate Championship in Latvia. ing, the use of a hollow tube to breathe surface air
while the face remains submerged, allows the shallow-
The Future est penetration of the underwater world and is distin-
Ultimate is not an Olympic sport. Given its self- guished from swimming only by the use of that piece of
officiated nature and the relative lack of sponsorship equipment to facilitate breathing. When a swimmer or
compared to conventional sports, its potential for pro- snorkeler abandons ready access to air by descending
fessionalization is limited. However, in 2001 Ultimate beneath the water, that person is engaged in breath-
was included in the World Games (held in Akita, Japan) hold, or free, diving. When the diver uses life-support
for the first time as a full medal sport. equipment to continue breathing without direct access
to surface air, he or she is participating in what is gen-
Governing Bodies erally termed scuba diving.
Governing bodies of Ultimate include Asociacion Mex- Numerous activities may be pursued underwater, be-
icana de Disco Volador, Australian Flying Disc Associa- ginning with the simple exploration of an alien environ-
tion, Canadian Ultimate Players Association, European ment. Such activities may be enjoyed anywhere from a
Flying Disc Federation, Frisbee Brasil (Federacao backyard swimming pool to depths beyond the sun’s
Paulista de Disco), Hong Kong Ultimate, Korea Ulti- reach.The only constraints on sporting activities beneath
mate, New Zealand Flying Disc Association, Singapore the water’s surface are those imposed by the challenges
Ultimate, South African Flying Disc Association, UK of the environment, the means chosen to overcome them,
Ultimate Association, Ultimate Players Association, and and the ingenuity of participants.
the World Flying Disc Federation (WFDF).
Robin O’Sullivan
Origins of Underwater Sports
Although the widespread pursuit of recreational activi-
ties beneath the water’s surface is relatively new, hu-
Further Reading manity has explored and exploited the sea since the
Studarus, J. (2003). Fundamentals of Ultimate. Golenta, CA: Studarus dawn of recorded history. Ancient free divers held their
Publishing.
Ultimate Handbook. (2004). Retrieved November 17, 2004, from:
breath to collect foodstuffs, hunt, or obtain materials
http://www.ultimatehandbook.com/uh/ from shallow depths.The snorkel undoubtedly appeared
soon after, with the introduction of a hollow reed or sim- tached to a tank of compressed air provided the diver
ilar device that allowed the swimmer or diver to breathe with a breath of air at the same pressure as the sur-
with the face submerged. A person using a snorkel can rounding water. In combination with the snorkel and
remain focused on the underwater world indefinitely, but the recent development of fins worn on the feet to aid
the mechanical effort required to breathe air through a propulsion and goggles to allow the eye to focus un-
tube while submerged restricts snorkeling depths to only derwater, would-be adventurers now had access to sim-
a few centimeters. Unaided free divers can reach signif- ple technologies that made submerged recreational
icant depths, but they can do so for only short periods. pursuits possible.
Expanding the limits of depth and time required more
sophisticated technology. Dangers Underwater
The Greek philosopher Aristotle reported the use of The dangers involved in underwater activities had al-
a diving bell in the fourth century BCE, and Leonardo da ready been identified when Cousteau and Gagnan began
Vinci envisioned a submersible life-support system in to develop their apparatus. While the risks represented
the sixteenth century. But truly effective systems for pre- by sea creatures themselves are often ridiculously exag-
serving human life underwater for extended periods gerated, the laws of physics and human physiology rep-
were not developed until the nineteenth century. Even resent significant barriers to underwater sports of all
then, the cost, discomfort, and cumbersome nature of types. The most obvious of those barriers is the simple
the required equipment restricted it to commercial and fact that humans require oxygen to stay alive. Snorkelers
military applications. Underwater sports did not begin have found a solution to that problem, but it presents
to emerge until the middle of the twentieth century, more substantial difficulties for free divers.
when the technology required to expand the human At sea level, water pressure increases by one atmos-
reach underwater became widely available. phere for every 10 meters (33 feet) of descent; that is,
In the 1869 novel 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, a person 10 meters below the surface of the ocean is ex-
French science fiction author Jules Verne hypothesized posed to the normal pressure of the surface atmosphere
that a recently introduced French commercial diving and an additional atmosphere of pressure from the sur-
system that pumped air from the surface into a tank car- rounding water. Descending to 20 meters subjects the
ried by a diver and then used a demand valve to supply diver to three atmospheres of total pressure. Being sub-
the diver from the tank could be further modified. By ject to such pressure has several immediate results. Any-
eliminating the first link to the surface and personally one who has attempted to free dive in even a shallow
carrying all of the required air in a self-contained sys- pool will be aware that the air spaces within the human
tem, a diver could freely interact with the marine envi- ear must be equalized with the surrounding water pres-
ronment. A series of experiments over the ensuing sure to avoid pain or injury. If the diver is wearing gog-
decades produced successful rebreathers, devices that gles, which provide an air space to allow the eyes to
filtered carbon dioxide from a diver’s exhalations and focus underwater, the air within them must also be
replenished their oxygen levels in a continuous breath- equalized. Most divers wear masks that enclose the
ing loop. Although useful in military and commercial nose as well as the eyes rather than simple goggles so
applications, this technology remained too complex that a gentle exhalation can increase the pressure in the
and hazardous for recreational use. mask to match external pressure and so avoid painful
Two French inventors, engineer Emile Gagnan and injury. But another consequence of increasing pressure
free diver Jacques-Yves Cousteau (1910–1997), re- on descent is less obvious.
solved that difficulty in 1943 with a mechanism similar All air spaces in the human body are subjected
to the one described by Jules Verne. A demand valve at- to changes in external pressure, including the lungs.
You have to perform at a consistently

higher level than others. That’s the mark
of a true professional. ■ JOE PATERNO
Increasing the pressure of the air within the lungs also of depth. Thus ascending without exhaling would force
increases the pressure exerted by the oxygen contained the lungs to expand beyond their normal volume as the
within that air, the oxygen partial pressure. As a result depressurizing air expands, leading to rupture of the
of that increased partial pressure, a submerged free lungs and a condition known as arterial gas embolism.
diver may unknowingly metabolize a higher percentage The mantra of divers using such equipment therefore
of the total oxygen available in his or her lungs than became “never hold your breath,” marking a complete
would be possible at the surface. When the diver as- break with the habit of free diving.
cends, the decreasing external pressure may reduce the Other complications delve even deeper into physics
remaining partial pressure of oxygen below the level re- and physiology. Air is composed of approximately
quired to sustain consciousness. The resulting phe- 21 percent oxygen and 79 percent nitrogen, plus various
nomena is called shallow-water blackout, and it can trace gasses. That is, at the surface humans breathe oxy-
prove fatal. Because of this potential, free divers are gen at a partial pressure of .21 atmospheres and nitro-
well advised to pursue the sport in pairs and exercise gen at .79 atmospheres. As those pressures increase with
caution in increasing both the depth and duration of depth, the increasing partial pressure of nitrogen soon
their dives. begins to exert a narcotic effect. This nitrogen narcosis,
Perhaps the greatest danger of shallow-water black- or rapture of the deep, impairs higher brain functions
out is its counterintuitive nature. Like most dangers in and may produce a sense of well-being that increases to
underwater sports, it is associated with shallow water euphoria or a sense of unease that increases to terror. As
rather than great depth. A moment’s consideration will with alcohol and other intoxicants, individual suscepti-
reveal the cause: If the pressure on a diver goes from bility varies on a daily basis, but all divers are affected.
1 atmosphere at the surface to 2 atmospheres at 10 me- Memory and reasoning power are often affected first
ters, then to 3 atmospheres at 20 meters and so on, it and without the diver’s awareness. This condition may
follows that the increase in pressure is 100 percent in lead the diver to forget that he or she ever experienced
the first 10 meters of descent, 50 percent in the second any impairment and is often revealed in vague memories
10 meters, and continues to decrease as the total depth of a dive immediately after its completion. The gradual
increases. Pressure changes most rapidly near the erosion of reasoning power is a more serious danger, for
water’s surface, and it is that rapid pressure change that the diver may unknowingly become unable to analyze
subjects the human body to the greatest physiological and respond to an unexpected event.
hazards in underwater sports. In addition to its narcotic effect, nitrogen is an inert
Breathing compressed gasses underwater further gas that the body does not metabolize. Increasing par-
complicates those hazards. The breathing apparatus tial pressures force nitrogen from the lungs into the
that Cousteau and Gagnan developed, the Aqua-Lung, bloodstream and tissues, where it accumulates. The
provides the diver with air at the pressure of the sur- problem this produces is still referred to as “the bends”
rounding water. While the air in a free diver’s lungs is because a rapid return to normal atmospheric pressure
similarly pressurized, it achieves that pressure through allows the stored nitrogen to form bubbles that tend to
physical compression and a reduction in total lung vol- accumulate in joints and the central nervous system.Vic-
ume. The lungs and the air within them return to sur- tims may contort their bodies to relieve joint pain and
face pressure and capacity as the diver ascends, and the can experience permanent nerve damage, paralysis, or
ratio between the amount of air the lungs can hold and death. This malady first struck men working in pres-
the amount that they actually do hold remains rela- surized caissons during bridge construction and was
tively constant throughout. A diver on compressed air therefore properly known as caisson disease. In 1880
fills the lungs to their normal surface volume regardless French physiologist Paul Bert suggested that the disease,
also a problem for commercial divers, was associated buoyancy throughout the dive. Such equipment was
with exposure to pressurized nitrogen. In 1910 British normally designed for male anatomy, making it ill-
physiologist John Haldane confirmed this suspicion suited or uncomfortable for female divers.
and generated a set of tables for staged decompression, Steady growth in tropical tourism and cruise ship va-
gradual ascent from beneath the water or any other cations in the 1970s introduced thousands of people to
pressurized environment, to allow for the release of ac- snorkeling, free diving, and scuba as the popularity of all
cumulated nitrogen. The use of such tables allows divers three modes of underwater exploration continued to in-
to significantly reduce the incidence of decompression crease. But female participation in underwater sports,
sickness, as caisson disease is now more widely known. particularly in scuba diving, remained relatively limited
through the mid-1980s. The steady increase in the num-
Scuba ber of female divers since that time can be attributed to
The fundamental dangers of using an Aqua-Lung could a number of social and economic factors: the develop-
therefore be addressed by the knowledge of physics and ment of less adversarial and physically demanding train-
physiology available to Cousteau, Gagnan, and their con- ing standards, the appearance of equipment designed for
temporaries. In the wake of World War II, diving with the female use, and wider acceptance of underwater sports
Aqua-Lung and free diving both became increasingly as safe activities.
popular. Continued use of the brand name AquaLung,
under which Cousteau and Gagnan first marketed their Underwater Activities
device, to designate all such devices posed obvious diffi- A number of recreational activities are commonly pur-
culties, and the generic designation of self-contained un- sued beneath the water’s surface.Vacationers may be in-
derwater breathing apparatus, or simply “scuba,” began troduced to underwater sports, snorkeling, or free diving
to emerge as the sport developed in the 1950s. to explore the beauty of tropical reefs, but that level of
Underwater sports enthusiasts around the world participation is just the beginning of the informal pos-
banded together in a steadily growing number of clubs sibilities and the activities formally organized under the
during that decade, aided by a number of best-selling Confédération Mondial des Activités Subaquatiques
books, popular motion pictures, and television shows (CMAS), the international organization that governs
that popularized diving. Manuals and standards began training and competition in underwater sports. At the in-
to emerge as the number of equipment manufacturers formal level, snorkeling and free diving allow the par-
and retail shops increased, but training for scuba diving ticipant to reach beyond exploration into activities such
still reflected its origins in military and commercial in- as photography and videography, hunting, and impro-
struction. The heavy emphasis on physical fitness, emer- vised games. CMAS takes the possibilities a little further.
gency techniques, and performance under stress in an Under the auspices of CMAS, free divers can participate
adversarial environment that characterized most train- in Apnea, competitive breath-hold diving, in a number of
ing programs limited participation in scuba diving, par- categories. The goal of such competitions is to attain the
ticularly among women. maximum possible depth and safely return to the surface.
Resorts dedicated to scuba diving and other under- But that is only one of the internationally organized com-
water activities began to appear in the late 1950s and petitive events CMAS offers. Octopush, an underwater
1960s as participation increased. Divers benefited from variant of hockey, remains little known despite steady
the increased thermal insulation provided by the ap- growth since the late 1990s. The sport features biannual
pearance of commercially available wet suits and the in- world championships and national, regional, and local
troduction of the buoyancy compensator, a device that competitions. In those competitions single- or mixed-
allows the scuba diver to float on the surface and adjust gender teams of ten contend to move a small metal disk
across the bottom of a 2-meter- (6-feet-) deep swimming that the growing popularity and safety record of scuba
pool and into a goal, using 30-centimenter (12-inch) bats began driving some divers to extend the range of the
resembling small hockey sticks. Team members employ sport. Many were content to seek new locations, fueling
snorkeling equipment and free dive to the pool bottom to the expansion of diving resorts and underwater sports
advance the disk or defend their goal. in some of the world’s most remote aquatic locations.
CMAS also establishes international standards for Others sought to expand diving’s horizons by going
scuba instruction. As in snorkeling or free diving, sim- deeper and further than was previously possible.
ply enjoying the underwater environment is only the The later group are identified as technical divers, be-
first level of participation in scuba diving. But compe- cause their activities depend on an expanded array of
titions in the actual use of scuba equipment are rare and equipment, specialized techniques, and complete tech-
are actively discouraged by much of the international nical mastery of both for safety as they surpass the ex-
diving community due to safety concerns. Scuba diving cepted limits of recreational scuba diving. One of the
is not a competitive sport. Instead, scuba divers partic- defining elements of technical diving is abandoning the
ipate in a wide range of specialized activities. use of simple compressed air in favor of more exotic gas
Underwater hunting and artifact collecting enjoyed mixtures. Expert alteration of the ratio of oxygen to ni-
widespread popularity as the sport of scuba diving ma- trogen or addition of inert gases such as helium into the
tured, but growing environmental concerns have placed breathing mix and the use of multiple optimized breath-
a number of restrictions on those activities. Scuba divers ing mixes on a single dive can allow a diver to go deeper
were among the pioneers of the global environmental and stay longer than is advisable when using normal air.
movement, and the diving community has proven very Safely using the full range of such mixtures remains too
effective in establishing legal protections and enforcing complicated for the average recreational diver, but dur-
self-imposed restrictions. As a result of the efforts of ing the 1990s oxygen-enriched air, or nitrox, gained
divers, in conjunction with other interested parties, un- wide acceptance in the general diving community, and
derwater parks and marine sanctuaries began to ap- additional breathing gasses and advanced techniques
pear in the 1960s and continue to proliferate. have continued to migrate from the technical diving
Many scuba divers enjoy underwater photography community into more general use since that time.
and videography. Some indulge in exploration of un-
derwater shipwrecks and caves, activities that carry The Future
added risk and require very specialized training and Underwater sports remain in their infancy despite their
equipment. With proper gear, scuba divers can pursue ancient origins. The recreational use of life-support
such activities from tropical seas to mountain lakes, equipment to explore and enjoy the underwater world
and even in winter or beneath arctic ice. In one variant —scuba diving—is less than a century old. The tech-
of scuba, divers breath air supplied through a hose from nologies involved continue to change rapidly, including
a compressor on the surface rather than a true self- the widespread adoption of computers to manage the
contained system. Often marketed as little more than a complexities of dive tables, the growing use of breath-
powered snorkel, this form of diving subjects partici- ing mixtures other than air, and even the introduction
pants to many of the hazards found in scuba and of rebreather technologies long restricted to military
should be approached with proper caution. and commercial applications. Such technologies and
advances in understanding of the physics and physio-
Technical Diving logical impact of diving continue to make diving safer
A number of innovations in scuba equipment and tech- and more accessible as they expand the possibilities
niques began to emerge in the 1990s, at the same time for human recreation in the underwater world.
I’m rich. What am I supposed

to do, hide it? ■ LOU WHITAKER
Demographics indicate that female participation in also stipulate minimum salaries, benefits, and griev-
most aspects of the sport is growing toward parity, and ance procedures as well as other general employment
training agencies are developing standards and proto- provisions. Once the framework is set, individual play-
cols to introduce scuba to preteens. The medical as- ers and their agents bargain with their teams for salaries
pects of diving are complex, but specialized training and above the minimum and other benefits through the ad-
equipment allows many physically challenged individ- dition of special covenants to the uniform players
uals to participate in underwater sports, and some stud- contract.
ies suggest that such participation may have therapeutic Third, sports unions bargain within a multiemployer
value. Participation in underwater sports is likely to be- bargaining unit. That is, each of the four major team
come more widespread and diversified as the sports sports leagues, Major League Baseball (MLB), the Na-
continue to mature. tional Basketball Association (NBA), the National Foot-
Jeffery A. Charlston ball League (NFL), and the National Hockey League
(NHL), has thirty or more teams, each of which is sep-
arately owned. There is also a wide disparity in revenue
Further Reading across the teams in any given league. The widest dis-
Bookspan, J. (1995). Diving physiology in plain English. Kensington,
parities are in baseball, where the top team earns over
MD: Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Association.
Joiner, J. T. (Ed.). (2001). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- $300 million in revenue and the bottom team earns
tration diving manual (4th ed.). Flagstaff, AZ: Best Publishing. around $40 million (before revenue sharing). The small-
McMurray, K. F. (2001). Deep descent: Adventure and death diving the
Andrea Doria. New York: Pocket Books. est disparities are in football, a league within which
over 70 percent of the revenues are equally shared,
where the top team earns approximately $240 million
and the bottom team around $140 million.
These disparities are important for a variety of rea-
Unionism sons. For collective bargaining purposes their largest
significance is that team owners have very different eco-
N ot surprisingly, the Major League Baseball Players

Association (MLBPA) is often referred to as the
most successful and most powerful union in the United
nomic experiences from each other. These differences, in
turn, lead to rather distinct views about what the col-
lective bargaining agreement should accomplish.
States. This is the union that brought unrestricted free
agency into the world of team sports, and in 2003 the av- MLBPA and Collective Bargaining
erage major league player earned $2.4 million in salary. As the earlier revenue figures suggest, the disagreements
Yet if we judge by average salary, then the basketball among owners tend to be sharpest in baseball, where the
players union (the NBPA) would win the prize: The av- problems that ensue from this disunity are at least three-
erage player salary in 2003–2004 was $4.4 million. fold. First, the owners cannot agree on a common vision
Team sports unions are like no others. First, there is the for the game, let alone a cohesive plan for its future.
obvious difference that the membership would hardly Their inability to agree on basic demands inevitably
qualify as proletarian. Rather, virtually all members reside leads to long delays before collective bargaining is initi-
in the top 1 percent of income earners in the country. ated. For instance, shortly after the baseball owners re-
Second, unlike traditional unions, team sports unions opened the 1990 collective bargaining agreement in
do not bargain over specific wages; instead, they bar- December 1992, the owners’ chief negotiator Richard
gain over the framework within which wages are deter- Ravitch told Don Fehr, who represents the players
mined. Sports collective bargaining agreements (CBAs) union, that he wanted to start negotiating right away.
UNIONISM 1649
Actual bargaining did not begin until March 1994, six- Third, the MLBPA confronts formal ownership de-
teen months later. mands, but in practice it is bargaining with different
Well in advance of the 2002 CBA, Commissioner groups of owners that must be reconciled. It is put in
Bud Selig formed a unilateral Blue Ribbon Panel in the strange position of triangulating an agreement. This
1998 to study the economics of baseball and make rec- too is conducive to inefficient outcomes. For instance,
ommendations for reform.The panel produced its report a few owners may find themselves aligning more closely
in July 2000. Then, nearly a year passed before Selig with the players on the issues of revenue sharing and
authorized Paul Beeston, then MLB’s chief operating of- luxury taxes. We know this to be the case at least with
ficer, to commence discussions with the MLBPA. Ac- the New York Yankees owner George Steinbrenner. This
cording to Steve Fehr, a union negotiator, the two sides phenomenon leads the majority of owners to seek to pe-
had twenty-three meetings between 28 February 2001 nalize the owners who break ranks, even if it means de-
and 20 June 2001. When the June 20 meeting ad- viating from a rational design of its collective bargaining
journed, the MLBPA thought they had an agreement. institutions.
Beeston had responded favorably to the players’ last Similar, though generally less acute, dynamics are at
proposal and said he would get back to them in short play in the NHL, NBA, and NFL. Strong leadership
order. But the players never heard back. Selig had from the commissioner’s office can help to alleviate
abruptly terminated the discussions without explana- some of the centrifugal forces.
tion. The owners did not put their substantive demands
on the bargaining table until December 2001—a month Defining Labor Issues
after the expiration of the old agreement and eighteen While the foregoing may help to explain the difficulty
months after the Blue Ribbon Panel’s report was issued. in reaching a collective bargaining agreement, most
A likely explanation for these delays is the disunity sports fans cannot understand or accept the inability of
among owners. Since they cannot agree what demands millionaire (or billionaire) owners and millionaire play-
to put on the table, bargaining is pushed back. Then, ers to find common ground. If the issue is cast as a
when they start preliminary bargaining, a previously greedy $10 million player who wants to earn $10.5 mil-
dormant ownership clique gets wind of the talks, ob- lion, then there is little question that the players do not
jects, and the talks are terminated. The end result is merit a great deal of sympathy from the fans.
that bargaining goes down to the wire and either does Players associations, however, do not see their strug-
not get resolved in time (as in 1994) or is resolved in gles in those terms. Rather, they want to be sure that the
haste (as in 2002) with a flawed structure resting on players are getting their fair share of the billions of dol-
compromise. lars of revenue generated by the monopoly sports
Second, when the owners finally are ready to come to leagues. Owners repeatedly claim to be losing money,
the bargaining table, it is usually based on the lowest yet the value of their franchises keeps rising, and own-
common denominator among them—they would like ers have been found to hide revenue from each other as
salaries to be lower. Accordingly, rather than producing well as from the players associations.
a coherent, balanced plan for the game’s future, the Players, thus, tend to resist compensation systems
tendency of the owners has been to come to the bar- that place restrictions on a free market determination of
gaining table with a demand for unilateral sacrifice by their value. The players’ struggle for free markets origi-
the players that restricts free agency rights in one way nated in their battle against the reserve clause that pre-
or another. This sets an adversarial tone to the bar- vailed in all the team sports prior to the 1970s. The
gaining process and reinforces the deep-seated distrust reserve clause basically allowed teams to retain their
that the players have felt toward the owners. players as long as they wanted. Reserved players could
receive no competitive bids for their services from other and this is precisely what happened in 1991. The play-
teams and, hence, they received artificially depressed ers brought a proceeding that charged the owners with
salaries. hiding revenues. In July 1992 a settlement was signed
that awarded $62 million to the players.
Free Agency With the 1999 collective bargaining agreement, the
Between 1964 and 1970, the players in each of the four NBA introduced an escrow system along with a very
major team sports formed collective bargaining units. stiff luxury tax (over 100 percent) for payrolls that rose
Unrestricted free agency, however, was not gained until above 61 percent of defined revenue. NBA player pay-
1976, when the MLBPA won the Messersmith-McNally rolls have stabilized around 60 percent of defined
arbitration case. Thereafter, players with six years of league-wide revenues.
major league experience (whose existing contracts had The NFL took a more tortuous route to free agency.
expired) qualified to enter the open market and receive The National Football League Players Association
competitive bids from other teams. (NFLPA) became the collective bargaining unit for the
Unrestricted free agency followed begrudgingly in players in 1970. The owners refused to yield on any of
other sports. In the NBA a settlement was reached in the players’ key demands, which included unrestricted
1976 allowing the ABA (American Basketball Associa- free agency and impartial arbitration of all disputes. In
tion) and NBA to merge, but also creating a form of re- 1974 the players brought suit against the NFL, and in
stricted free agency. The restriction was that a team 1976 the courts declared the NFL in violation of the na-
losing a free agent would be compensated significantly tion’s antitrust laws. Fewer than half the players, how-
by the team signing the player. This restriction first was ever, were paying dues to the union, leaving the union
replaced by a clause giving each team the right of first in a weak bargaining position.
refusal before a new team signed one of its players and In this context the union and the NFL reached agree-
then, in 1984–1985, by unrestricted free agency along ment on a new CBA in March 1977. Player benefits
with a salary cap. The cap at the time was set at 53 per- were increased significantly and impartial arbitration
cent of “defined gross revenues” or DGR. was introduced for most issues, but the new free agency
The NBA cap was introduced with one very signifi- system was still highly restrictive. It stipulated that a
cant loophole, known as the “Larry Bird Exception.” A team losing a player would have a right of first refusal
team could re-sign one of its own players and pay him and then be compensated for the lost player with a
as much as they wanted (without regard to the cap). first-round draft pick. Moreover, with the NFL’s exten-
This exception reduced player mobility and made it sive revenue sharing, owners had little financial incen-
more likely that a small market team could retain its tive to invest in free agents. The result was that very few
best players, rather than seeing them flee to a large “free agents” moved to new teams.
market club as is the pattern in baseball and hockey. The Ironically, in retrospect, in 1982 the players asked for
Bird Exception is still in place. a salary cap, set at 55 percent of league-wide revenues.
Another interesting development in the NBA points at When the owners refused, the players began a two-month
one of the difficulties of a salary cap system.The amount strike. The strike was settled when the owners agreed to
a team can pay its players (payroll) is set as a percent of a considerably larger benefit-compensation package, but
some definition of league revenues. But league revenues the issue of free agency remained unresolved.
are based on team revenues, and teams have various When negotiations for the next CBA opened in
ways to legally underreport their revenues. This opens 1987, the owners were feeling their oats because their
the door for disputes between the league and the union would-be competitive league, the United States Football
UNIONISM 1651
Unionism
Resistance to a Baseball Union in the 1920s
The ball players seem determined to have another and Johnson from signing big league contracts until
union. As in the case of the old Players’ Fraternity, Kalamazoo paid $50 back pay to pitcher Schmeltz
which collapsed soon after America’s entry into the and Muskogee reinstated catcher Schmitz.
World War, the present union is being organized The new Players’ Union should profit by the mis-
from the outside. The strike of the Detroit players in takes of its predecessor. No one has any objection to the
1911 in protest against Cobb’s indefinite suspension players forming an organization, especially one which
for punching an abusive fan in New York gave Dave gives some thought to the old down-and-out player. If
Fultz, a retired ball player, the idea for a union of ball instead of searching for grievance with a microscope,
players. Unquestionably Ray Cannon, a young Mil- the new union seeks to do all it can to help the game,
waukee attorney, got considerable encouragement it can make of itself a praiseworthy institution.
when he broached the subject of a union to promi- The new union may act as a clearing house for ru-
nent ball players. mors of the diamond in the event that any set of play-
It seems largely up to organizer Cannon whether ers again attempt to undermine the game. Honest
his union shall make itself a nuisance or an organi- players, with the welfare of the game at heart, have
zation for the good of the game. Fultz’s Fraternity ac- made the mistake in the past of being too clannish.
complished some needed reforms, but Fultz then They saw things that they knew did not look right; es-
began looking for trouble. In the winter of 1916– pecially was this true of the honest Chicago American
1917, with the war right around the corner, Fultz League players in 1919 and 1920, but they whis-
called upon all fraternity members, major and minor, pered it among themselves and never went to the con-
to sign pledges not to enter into contracts with their stituted baseball authorities with their suspicions.
clubs until certain grievances of minor league players As far as we recall, Les Mann, who took Phil Dou-
were met. glas’ incriminating letter to Branch Rickey, is the only
Knowing as he did the slender thread which player who has lent much of a hand in cleaning up
bound the majors and minors together, it was a sui- the game in recent years.
cidal policy to try to keep players like Speaker, Sisler Source: Lieb, F. G. (1923). The new ball players’ union. Sporting Life, 70(24), 24.
League (USFL), had gone out of business the year be- In January 1993 the two sides reached agreement.
fore. The players had less leverage, but the union was no Owners agreed to free agency, but only if there was a
less determined to gain true free agency. The intransi- salary cap. Players agreed to the cap, but only if player
gence on each side led to a three-week strike, which costs first exceeded 67 percent of league defined rev-
ended when the ranks of the players became divided, enues. Even then, the cap would have to be relatively
and the union leader decided that the players had a bet- high—63 percent of defined revenues—and the clubs
ter chance with an antitrust action than a job action. would have to guarantee that at least 58 percent of de-
After an initial victory, the union was told that it fined revenues would be spent on players. Further, the
would have to decertify itself as a collective bargaining agreement permits teams to exceed the cap by counting
unit to proceed with its antitrust claims. The union did only a portion of up-front signing bonuses. (Histori-
this and in 1990 filed its McNeil v. NFL case against cally, until then, the players’ share of revenues had av-
the league. The jury found in favor of the union, and eraged less than 50 percent.) Importantly, the owners
the owners were forced to negotiate a more open agreed that there would be no cap in the last year of the
system. deal—1999. Finally, $195 million in damages would
have to be paid to the players in settlement of various One of the interesting features of the sports industry
court actions. This same cap system, with small modi- is precisely its degree of public exposure. Team owners
fications, has been extended four times and has been benefit from this because it makes them prominent in
the basis for uninterrupted labor peace in the NFL since the community. This prominence, in turn, yields new
1993. Labor relations in hockey were at a crossroads in contacts and influence in business and political circles.
2004. Although the league did not adopt unrestricted Thus, owning a sports team usually helps to promote
free agency until the mid-1990s, and even then allowed an owner’s other businesses.
it to only apply to players with at least ten years in the Some owners own one or more businesses signifi-
league or thirty-one years of age, the player payroll cantly related to the sports team (such as a local sports
share in revenue was considerably higher in the NHL channel or radio station, the arena or stadium, a con-
(at around 70 percent) than in the other team sports. In cessions company, surrounding real estate, etc.). The
part this is because of hockey’s system of salary arbi- more important these related businesses, generally, the
tration, and in part this is because of unrestrained sign- more valuable a player is to the owner. The player con-
ing bonuses offered to first-year players. tributes to the value of the team, but also to the other
The 1995 CBA expired after the 2004 season (as did businesses. This effect can produce very large disparities
the league’s television contract with ABC/ESPN). In in team payrolls, but it can also create payrolls that are
October 2004 the owners locked out the players. The disproportionate to the revenues generated in the sport.
owners maintained that they would not sign a new Hence, there appears to be a reasonable argument for
CBA unless it included “cost certainty.” The union in- sports labor markets to be restrained. The MLBPA has
terpreted this to mean a salary cap and has maintained accepted implicitly this argument by agreeing to a luxury
that a cap is unacceptable. Many observers predicted a tax and revenue sharing system. The NHLPA has also
long work stoppage and a further weakening of the stated that it is willing to accept tax-related restraints on
league’s fan base. payrolls.The question remains whether hard salary caps
or incentive systems are the best and fairest way to mod-
Perspectives ify free labor markets in the team sports industry. As long
Whatever the outcome of the NHL’s labor negotiations, as this issue remains unresolved, collective bargaining in
the 2004 dispute once again raises the issue of why sports promises to continue to be both contentious and
labor markets in sports should be different from else- interesting.
where in the economy. Sports unions (the NFLPA ex- Andrew Zimbalist
cepted) have argued that the free market is the fairest
See also Collective Bargaining
way to value player talent. Don Fehr at the MLBPA
and Bob Goodenow at the NHLPA (National Hockey
League Players Association) have maintained it would Further Reading
be unconscionable for their unions to accept a set of Dowbiggin, B. (2003). Money players. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart
rules that would prevent team owners from paying play- Ltd.
Leeds, M., & von Allmen, P. (2004). The economics of sport. Boston:
ers as much as they wanted to pay them. Addision-Wesley.
The owners, in contrast, have said that sports are Miller, M. (1991). A whole different ballgame. New York: Carol Pub-
different from other industries because of their popu- lishing Group.
Staudohar, P. (1996). Playing for dollars: Labor relations and the sports
larity. Owners, they argue, come under enormous pub- business. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press.
lic pressure to build winning teams, and responding to Szymanski, S., & Zimbalist, A. (2005). National pastime. Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.
this pressure leads to intense competition and excessive Zimbalist, A. (2004). May the best team win: Baseball economics and
compensation. public policy. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.
UNITED KINGDOM 1653
United Kingdom Olympics Results

2002 Winter Olympics: 1 Gold, 1 Bronze
ists. The foxhunting of the upper class was not attacked,

United Kingdom suggesting that the crusades owed something to con-
cerns about the turbulent behavior of the workers and
T he United Kingdom was the birthplace of modern

sport. From the drawing up of rules to the devel-
opment of sporting philosophies, Britons have played a
not only to the suffering of animals.
The attacks on animal sports were part of a wider
process of modernization that saw Britain transformed
major role in shaping sport as the world knows it today. into the industrial workshop of the world. Urbaniza-
This role meant that British sport was overly insular and tion, railways, factories, mills, and mines saw Britain
confident in its early days, while its post-1945 history transformed, economically, environmentally, and psy-
was marked by doubts and crises as the nation realized chologically. Modern sport was forged within this heady
that the rest of the world had moved on, a situation that mix of breakneck change; new ways of working and liv-
mirrored the U.K.’s wider crisis of confidence in a ing brought new ways of playing. Along with the as-
postimperial world. saults on animal sports, folk football was attacked in
towns because it disrupted trade and the general or-
Preindustrial Sports derliness of the increasingly regimented world that in-
Preindustrial sport in Britain resembled sport in much dustry was creating. Bare-knuckle fighting, too, was
of Europe. It was not a clearly demarcated activity but attacked as a threatening symbol of a violent working
rather part of a communal festive culture that saw peo- class that unsettled an establishment already worried by
ple congregate to celebrate high days and eat, drink, the rise of political demands from the workers.
gamble, and play. The sports of the people reflected There was, of course, much continuity between prein-
their lives: They were rough, proud, and highly local- dustrial sport and the commercialized and codified
ized. Rules were unwritten and based on customs and games that emerged toward the end of the nineteenth
informal agreements that varied from place to place ac- century. Cockfighting and prizefighting, for example,
cording to local oral traditions. “Folk” football was one survived the attempts to outlaw them, but they left the
of the most common and popular sports. It had existed centers of towns for quiet rural spots or pubs and back
in different forms across England and Wales since at streets that were away from the surveillance of middle-
least medieval times, but it resembled a melee more class authorities. Folk football too lived on, although ap-
than it resembled its modern descendant. Traditional parently on a smaller scale that was less oriented around
boundaries within rural society were celebrated in such traditional holidays and community celebrations. Its sur-
games, with contests between parishes, young and old, vival in this form surely underpinned the speed with
and married and unmarried. Other sports played at which the codified form that emerged from the public
communal festivals included running races and tradi- schools was taken up by the masses across Britain.
tional feats of strength such as lifting or throwing rocks.
The physicality of pre- and early-industrial Britain Emergence of Modern Sport
was also reflected and celebrated in bare-knuckle prize- While forms of football were on the decline in mid-
fighting, although this widespread sport could not al- nineteenth-century Britain, they were actually being
ways be clearly distinguished from public drunken adopted by the country’s public schools as a means of
brawls. The brutality of life was further evident in the controlling the boys and building their character, both
popularity of animal sports. Bear or bull baiting and as individual leaders and as socially useful team players.
cockfighting were among the most popular, but such Underpinning the values that football was thought to
recreations increasingly came under attack in the mid- cultivate were ideas of masculinity and religious con-
dle of the nineteenth century from middle-class moral- viction. Muscular Christianity deemed that men should
First time past the stands in the Gold Cup in 1825.

Notice the upright riding position.
be chivalrous and champions of the weak but also phys- Knurr-and-spell and hurling, for example, enjoyed some
ically strong and robust. The belief that such qualities popularity in the north of England and the Scottish
would create the right sort of men to lead the British highlands, respectively. Such traditional games furthered
Empire meant that a cult of athleticism, whose impor- the continuity between preindustrial and industrial
tance ran far deeper than mere play, developed within sport, but to survive, even they had to develop modern
the English public schools. organizations and sets of rules.
Modern British sport was not entirely rooted in the
CODIFICATION public schools and their spheres of influence. In
Such traditions found a natural extension in the uni- Sheffield, for example, there were independent attempts
versities. It was here, particularly at Cambridge, that to draw up sets of rules for football. Even among the
much of the impetus for common sets of rules devel- southern middle classes, there developed popular sports,
oped in order to allow boys from different public such as tennis, whose origins lay elsewhere. Golf could
schools to play together. It was from such beginnings trace its written rules back into eighteenth-century Scot-
that the moves toward the codification of rules and the land, but it was not until the wider sporting revolution
establishment of governing bodies mostly sprang. Most and mania of the late nineteenth century that the sport’s
famously, representatives of leading London football popularity exploded among the British middle classes.
clubs, including former public schoolboys, met in Lon- Cricket was another sport whose written rules were
don in 1863 to establish a common code of rules for drawn up in the eighteenth century and thus predate the
football and form the Football Association to govern public-school cult of athleticism.
the game.
With rules and a governing body behind them, for- AMATEURISM
mer public schoolboys went out into the world, taking Professionalism in cricket also dated back to the eigh-
their games with them. Not only did this encourage the teenth century, but as the phenomena developed in
diffusion of sport outside British shores but it also led other sports in the late nineteenth century, cricket too
to modern sport being taken to the masses by a pater- developed an obsession with amateurism that was
nal elite who sought to better the health and morals of closely allied to the public-school ethos of fair play and
the masses, not least because of fears of national de- playing for the sake of the game. Above all, amateurism
cline. Games like soccer and rugby were well suited to was about projecting social position in a period of so-
urban, industrial communities, requiring only limited cial change and mobility. To be an amateur in late Vic-
time and space, and they very quickly developed in torian and Edwardian Britain was to not need to be
popularity among the working classes across Britain paid to play. Thus in cricket, where amateurs and pro-
during the late nineteenth century. Such developments fessionals often played on the same team, social dis-
created an apparent homogenization of sport culture tinctions were preserved through the use of different
across Britain, but there were distinct local variations. changing rooms, different ways of writing names, and
UNITED KINGDOM 1655
Cards are war, in disguise of a sport. ■ CHARLES LAMB
initially requiring professionals to labor with bowling began to be charged for the privilege of watching and
and even menial tasks such as cleaning the kit. were hosted in purpose-built grounds. Such crowds
Yet, despite the snobbery that underpinned ama- worried the class prejudices of social onlookers, who
teurism, there was a general reluctance in most sports complained about the drinking, gambling, and parti-
to impose explicit class-based restrictions on participa- sanship of supporters, as well as about the impact on
tion, though the Amateur Rowing Association was a no- the nation’s health of a population that spent its free
table exception. Furthermore, the reality of amateurism time watching rather than playing.
did not always match the rhetoric. Nowhere was this When soccer continued to be played after the out-
clearer than in the case of cricketer W. G. Grace (1848– break of war in 1914, the reputation of professional
1915). Undoubtedly the most famous sportsman of sport plummeted among the middle classes. Nonethe-
the Victorian era, Grace was a doctor and a gentleman less, sport was to play an important role in maintaining
but he was also supremely competitive and certainly not troop morale at the front, and in the aftermath of the
above gamesmanship and demanding excessively gen- Great War, spectator sport reached new heights of pop-
erous expenses. ularity. The largest league games in soccer could attract
as many as sixty thousand spectators, yet beyond drink-
RUGBY AND SOCCER ing and gambling disorder was rare. This led the sport
It was in rugby and soccer that the issue of profession- to be celebrated as a symbol of the general orderliness
alism became most controversial. The growth of socially and good nature of the British working class at a time
mixed northern teams led to broken-time payments, of political and social unrest at home and abroad.
where working men were compensated for missing work
in order to play. Such payments, however, not only of- MASCULINE ENCLAVES
fended the amateur principles of some of the elite, but For spectators, professional sport offered an exciting
they also threatened to take power away from the mid- communal experience, where the spheres of home and
dle classes, both on and off the playing field. In soccer, work could be forgotten in the company of one’s peers.
professionalism was sanctioned in 1885 in order to en- As such, crowds at professional soccer and rugby league
sure that the middle-class Football Association retained games became overwhelmingly masculine enclaves that
control of the game, but it was soon tempered with se- fed a shared sense of community, and perhaps even
vere controls on players’ freedom to move clubs and be class identities. Sport’s ability to promote civic identity
paid what a free market might allow. Such tensions, fu- was underpinned not by the players, who being pro-
eled by north-south rivalries, led rugby to split into two fessional were transient, but by the supporters and the
codes (which became known as league and union) in club sharing the name of their town or city.
1895. Rugby league became a sport whose whole exis- Yet these crowds were not actually representative of
tence and identity was closely interwoven with ideas of such civic communities. Professional sport was mostly
working-class identity in northern England. watched by skilled male workers, with only a sprin-
kling of women and the middle classes. Unemployed
Watching and Playing and unskilled workers were, by and large, excluded by
Clubs could afford to pay players because soccer and their own poverty and the relative expense of entry
rugby had become something that people watched as prices. Consequently, as unemployment rocketed in
well as played. This owed much to the establishment of parts of Britain during the interwar depression, profes-
cup competitions, which, fed by civic and regional ri- sional sport suffered. Some clubs in the hardest-hit in-
valries, gave some purpose and excitement to matches. dustrial regions actually went bankrupt. Working-class
In the industrial north of England, the growing crowds women were excluded from professional sport by the
A wrestling match at a fair

during the Elizabethan era.
constraints of both time and money. Even the skilled

workers did not show an uncritical loyalty to their local
teams. Professional sport was ultimately entertainment,
and people exercised judgment over what was worth
spending their limited wages on.
Men played as well as watched, and the towns of
Britain boasted a plethora of different sports, from
water polo in the public baths to pigeon races from al-
lotments and quoits in fields behind pubs. Darts, domi- rural image of England that it encapsulated. Cricket on
noes, and billiards flourished inside pubs and clubs. the village green was an evocative and emotive image,
Space was, of course, a key requirement of sport but it employed even by a prime minister at the end of the
was at a premium and the land that was available was twentieth century. Yet, from the English elite cricket
heavily used. For all the excitement that sport enabled spread not only to the masses of the cities but also to the
men and women to add to their lives, they were still four corners of the vast British Empire, where it enabled
constrained by the wider structures of economic power. the colonies both to celebrate imperial links and to take
Working-class sport could not be divorced from the considerable pride in putting the English in their place.
character of working-class culture. Local sport was thus
intensely competitive and often very physical. In both HORSE RACING
football codes, bodies and fists were hurled through the Like cricket, horse racing had been organized since the
mud, cinders, and sawdust of the rough pitches that eighteenth century and was followed by all classes,
were built on parks, farmland, and even mountainsides. from lords to commoners. Gambling was at the core of
But, win or lose, for many men and boys, playing sport its attraction, and a flutter on the horses was extremely
was a source of considerable physical and emotional re- popular, despite its illegality (until 1963) when the bet
wards. For many youths, giving and taking such knocks was placed in cash and outside the race course. As
was part of a wider process of socialization: Playing with soccer, the sporting press offered form guides and
sport was an experience that helped teach them what it was studied closely, and elaborate schemes were de-
meant to be a man. Similarly, working-class sporting he- veloped to predict a winner. The race course itself was
roes reflected the values and interests of the audience; often rather disreputable, with the sporting entertain-
they were tough, skilled, and attached to their working- ment on offer to its large crowds supplemented by
class roots. beer, sideshows, and in the nineteenth century, prosti-
tutes. It provided the middle classes with an oppor-
CRICKET tunity to (mis)behave in a manner that would be
Cricket was the national sport of late nineteenth- and impossible in the wider respectable society.
early twentieth-century England, in that its following
was not limited to one class or region. Matches in urban THE MIDDLE CLASS
working-class districts may have lacked the pressed white Respectability did matter on the golf course and in the
flannels and neat green wickets of a test match at Lord’s, clubhouse. Although it had a limited working-class fol-
but they shared the same intricacy and subtlety of play. lowing, especially in Scotland, golf was a sport of the
The contest between the skill and speed of the bowler middle class and its clubs were important social and
and the technique and bravery of the batsmen was fa- business networks that conferred privilege and status
miliar to both working-class boys and upper-class gen- within the local community upon their mostly male
tlemen. Cricket’s popularity also owed something to the membership. Tennis too had both a middle-class profile
UNITED KINGDOM 1657
United Kingdom
Sports during the Boer War in South Africa
On Christmas Day, a year ago, General Buller’s army other as John Bull, placed them on the seats, and
was encamped at Chriveley Hill; and because it was an started to drag the carriage through the camps.
army of Britishers, the day was given chiefly to sports. [...]
Only ten days before this the broken regiments had In the afternoon all the kinds of sports which were
come crawling back to the camp from the disaster of possible under the circumstances were held in the
that mad attack on the Boer position at Colenso. Even open space about the camp. To the different arms of
now the tents of the foremost brigade were almost the service different sports were naturally allotted.
within range of the enemy’s big guns. It was a time of The infantry had running races, potato races and the
strange uncertainty–a time of many rumors. like; the cavalry men engaged each other in wrestling
[...] bouts on horseback and tent-pegging competitions;
Of course, both the variety of the sports and the ex- the Royal Army Medical Corps organized a race of
tent to which they could be carried out depended ambulance wagons–and these same ambulances
upon the material for such to be found with an army which now went tearing wildly over the rough
in the field. The men of the naval brigade, as always, ground of the veldt in order to be first across the fin-
were most ingenious. They decided to have what they ish line, to-morrow or the next day would crawl out
called “a bit of fun” at the beginning of the festivities. cautiously behind the advancing battle front to bring
Their officers gave permission. They borrowed a gun back the wounded from the field; but the most im-
carriage from a neighboring field battery and portant of all were the horse-races of the mounted in-
arranged long ropes to drag it by. Then they dressed fantry brigade.
one of their number as Oom Paul Kruger and an- Source: Scull, G. H. (1899, December). Vacant hours in war: the sporting instinct of the
Britisher. Outing, 3, 333–334.
and a social importance that often marginalized actually moted during the 1939–1945 conflict, as an improver
playing the game. Like archery and croquet before it, for of spirits and bodies for civilians and troops alike.
the urban middle class of the early twentieth century, Britain finished World War II victorious but physi-
the tennis club was an opportunity to meet and flirt cally and economically exhausted. In the austerity that
with members of the opposite sex of the “right sort.” In marked the late 1940s, sport was one readily obtainable
such ways, sport became an important part of the lives relief and, encouraged by growing radio coverage, soc-
of a middle class that was increasingly socially isolated cer, rugby, cricket, and boxing enjoyed huge crowds.
in the new suburbs. There were also large crowds at the 1948 Olympics,
which London hosted in the hope that the games would
INTERWAR AND P OST-WAR SPORT rejuvenate tourism and help put some color into the
Like the rest of Europe, the shadow of war was hanging postwar austerity. The games were an organizational
over the suburbs by the 1930s. In such an atmosphere, success and even made a profit—the last Olympics to
sport itself became increasingly political. The England do so until 1984. After leaning toward isolationism in
soccer team were even told by the appeasing Foreign Of- both politics and sport during the interwar years, the
fice to give the Nazi salute when playing an interna- postwar period saw a new awareness in Britain of its re-
tional game in Berlin in 1938. The threat from Germany lationship with the rest of the world. With the Empire
also led to renewed investment in playing fields, as con- being dissolved, international competitions like the
cerns resurfaced about the fitness of a nation on the Olympics began to matter more as indicators of na-
brink of war. Unlike in World War I, sport was fully pro- tional vitality. The conquest of Everest in 1953 offered
United Kingdom
Sports, Teamwork and
Colonialism
Initially, there was only limited sport shown on televi-
The following analysis of British colonial rule in sion, and many sporting authorities, not least soccer au-
the Sudan indicates that involvement in sports thorities, feared that coverage would kill live audiences.
made for more efficient administration. Yet others, like golf and horse racing authorities, saw tel-
evision as an opportunity to develop their popularity
The fact that most members played games and and thus they courted its coverage. The growth of tele-
participated in sports gave them a similarity of vised sport was therefore sporadic; in the 1950s and
outlook which was clearly reflected in their han- 1960s it was often limited to edited highlights or live cov-
dling of administrative matters. The esprit de erage of only the biggest events on the sporting calendar.
corps which bolstered the provincial polo team Yet televised sport was to become hugely popular and
was equally applicable in organizing a road gang influential. In the 1960s, coverage of the Olympics and
or supervising the construction of a bridge. the 1966 World Cup won mass audiences and turned
Source: Collins, R. O. (1972). The Sudan political service: A portrait of imperi- the events into shared celebrations of a global sporting
alists. African Affairs, 71(1172), 297.
culture. Wimbledon became, for most people, a televi-
sion event rather than a live tennis championship, while
rugby league became inextricably linked to the northern
some optimism and confidence for the future, but soc- tones of commentator Eddie Waring. By the 1970s, tel-
cer, Britain and the world’s most popular game, was not evision coverage had also helped turn rugby union’s
reassuring for its inventors. England’s first forays into Five Nations Championship into a very popular com-
the World Cup were far from successful and indicated petition that transcended the sport’s middle-class English
that the country’s loss of global power was not confined foundations.
to the political sphere.
COMMERCIAL OPPORTUNITIES
The Television Era Television also opened up opportunities to utilize sport
As economic prosperity returned in the 1950s, specta- commercially, not least through sponsorship. Athletics
tor sport suffered a downturn in popularity because it was one sport where television and sponsorship in-
now had to compete against the lure of shopping, cars, creased its profile and popularity, but this also created
and increased domestic comforts, of which television tensions between the amateur traditions of the admin-
was one of the most alluring. Such alternatives were par- istrators and the commercial demands of the stars.
ticularly appealing to older men, and thus the 1960s Other sports suffered similar tensions and responded by
seemed to witness crowds, in soccer at least, become either slowly becoming explicitly commercial, as in the
younger. One consequence was the rise of a youthful case of professional golf, or turning a blind eye to trans-
football-fan culture that utilized humorous but obscene gressions of amateur code, as in parts of rugby union.
and aggressive chants and promoted fighting between Yet ultimately money talked and amateurism gave way
rival supporters. The media spotlight, increasingly look- to commercial pressures across senior sport.
ing for sensational stories from across sport, amplified The changes television was bringing about could be
the hooligan problem, but from the late 1960s to the radical. Cricket proved surprisingly willing to embrace
1980s football fans created a genuine and widespread change and even introduced a one-day Sunday League as
subculture that drew more upon the thrill of limited vi- early as 1967, as it searched for a more accessible and
olence than upon any sense of a disempowered youth exciting one-day format to supplement the waning four-
rebelling against the world. day county game. After the invention of color television,
UNITED KINGDOM 1659
snooker was televised from the late 1960s, and the sport of the ninety-six deaths at Hillsborough in 1989) made
was transformed from the realm of smoky pubs to some- watching soccer both safer and more sanitized, and an
thing resembling a national craze.The relatively static na- influx of talented foreign players raised standards of
ture of the game meant that it was cheap to broadcast play, while a more cynical and overtly commercial edge
and conducive to dramatic close-ups. Snooker also had developed among the game’s owners and administra-
the characters and personalities that the media was in- tors. Players were the main beneficiaries as their profile,
creasingly seeking in its coverage of sport. wages, and sponsorship opportunities rapidly escalated
in the now hugely fashionable and celebrity-conscious
SATELLITE TV game. David Beckham epitomized this transition, with
The real commercial boost from television came in the his pop-star wife, countless sponsorship deals, and
1990s with the development of satellite television. Soc- media-frenzied private life.
cer was seen as the key to securing an audience for the Fans meanwhile could watch more soccer than ever
new medium. Rupert Murdoch’s Sky Global Network on television but actually attending matches had be-
spent enormous sums on securing and then keeping the come extortionately expensive. Other sports were keen
rights to televise the game’s senior division. After the to follow soccer’s example. Rugby league became Super
1980s—when hooliganism and the fatal horrors of dis- League, its teams gained American-style epithets, and
asters at Bradford, Heysel, and Hillsborough had seen the sport moved from winter to the less-crowded tele-
English football sink to its lowest ebb of popularity vision schedules of summer. Rugby union, fearing being
and standing—Sky’s millions enabled the game’s upper left behind, suddenly abandoned its amateur heritage
echelon to reinvent itself in the 1990s. New all-seater and turned professional in 1995, a move that was to
stadiums (enforced by the government to avoid a repeat bring it as many financial headaches as rewards.
Identities and
Inequalities
In the second half of the twen-
tieth century, spectator sport
and television may have be-
come interwoven in a rela-
tionship built on money, but
participatory sport did not die
out. However, it too became
part of a leisure industry that
sold everything from training
shoes to personal gyms, and
A traditional British
stile on a footpath,
used to prevent live-
stock from leaving the
pasture.
However beautiful the strategy,

you should occasionally look at
the results. ■ WINSTON CHURCHILL
participation remained skewed by class. The wealthier fessional soccer player of note has yet to emerge from
appeared not only more able to afford to play sport but the U.K.’s large Asian population.
also more interested in doing so. The foundations and While little sustained media attention was ever de-
boundaries of the British class system were becoming in- voted to sporting inequalities based on class, gender, or
creasingly blurred, and the diminishing class associa- ethnicity, nationhood was a topic of widespread popu-
tions of the most popular sports reflected that. Yet lar interest. When in 1999 the Chelsea Football Club
historical legacies and financial requirements meant that fielded a team that did not include a single British
equestrian sport still remained beyond the reach and player, there were debates about globalization’s poten-
often the tastes of the masses, while activities such as tial impact on the future success of British international
boxing and darts remained closely allied to working- sides. Sport had always played an important role in
class culture. Success at such sports could take perform- shaping national identity within the United Kingdom.
ers out of their working-class origins, but this did not For the Welsh, Scottish, and Irish, it had had an im-
end the cultural resonances that had been built up over portant symbolic role in affirming their nationhood
a century. and equality with England. While the Scots and Welsh
Nor were the gender biases of sport ended by the enjoyed cutting the English down to size at football
equal opportunity ethos of the late twentieth century. and rugby, the Irish increasingly rejected these sports in
Playing and watching sport remained far more popular favor of their own indigenous games, such as Gaelic
among men, despite the significant advances made in fe- football and hurling, which could be used to symbolize
male participation rates and the profile of some leading a separate, and non-British, cultural heritage.
sportswomen. Olympic athletes like Denise Lewis and
Martin Johnes
Kelly Holmes may have ventured into the celebrity
world of sports stardom, but at the start of the twenty- See also All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club;
first century, women are still on the margins of sport in Ascot; Boat Race (Cambridge vs. Oxford); British Open;
terms of numbers, profile, and culture. Commonwealth Games; Henley Regatta; Lord’s Cricket
Athletes from Britain’s ethnic minorities have, how- Ground; St. Andrews; Wembley Stadium; Wimbledon
ever, broken through into the mainstream of nearly all
the country’s most popular sports. In the early twenti-
eth century, there had been occasional black athletes, Further Reading
in boxing and soccer in particular, but it was the Cox, R., Jarvie, G., & Vamplew, W. (Eds.). (2000). Encyclopedia of
British sport. Oxford, UK: ABC Clio.
1970s, when the sons of the first generation of large- Cronin, M. (1999). Sport and nationalism in Ireland: Gaelic games, soc-
scale immigration reached adulthood, that saw British cer and Irish identity since 1884. Dublin, Ireland: Four Courts
sport become genuinely ethnically mixed. By the Press.
Hill, J. (2002). Sport, leisure and culture in twentieth-century Britain.
twenty-first century, England’s national teams had even New York: Palgrave/Macmillan.
had black and Asian captains in soccer and cricket, re- Holt, R. (1989). Sport and the British: A modern history. Oxford, UK:
Clarendon/Oxford University Press.
spectively. Such achievements were not simply sym- Holt, R., & Mason, T. (2000). Sport in Britain, 1945–2000. Oxford,
bolic but also encouraged a degree of wider racial UK: Blackwell.
integration in national culture. Yet sport has also been, Jarvie, G., & Burnett, J. (Eds.). (2000). Sport, Scotland and the Scots.
East Linton, UK: Tuckwell.
and continues to be, the site of explicit racism (notably Johnes, M. (2005). Sport in Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales Press.
in the form of soccer chants) and more subtle preju- Polley, M. (1998). Moving the goalposts: A history of sport and society
since 1945. London: Routledge.
dices about the playing abilities of different ethnic Tranter, N. (1998). Sport, economy and society in Britain, 1750–1914.
groups. Such prejudices must surely explain why a pro- Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Values and Ethics
Venice Beach
Violence
Volleyball
Volleyball, Beach Values and Ethics
E thics generally refers to the question of what is right
or correct from a moral standpoint. The study of
ethics necessitates the critical examination of beliefs.
This process involves clarifying the principles that un-
dergird beliefs and subjecting them to rigorous interro-
gation (Simon 2004).The conundrum for sport scholars
is to understand the field of sport as one in which com-
peting and sometimes contradictory values and ethics
are debated and idealized (Eitzen 1999). Understanding
this complex situation requires defining an approach to
the subject, rather than providing clear-cut answers. Eth-
ical inquiry into sport forms a broad field, often with
very different areas of investigation and conclusions. A
variety of theories and models have been employed and
can be applied to the example of sports.
Simon (2004) argues that what these models and
theories share is an approach that combines three com-
mon features: (1) impartial moral reasoning: one must
consider multiple perspectives and points of view, giv-
ing no special consideration to his/her position or
group; (2) systematic consistency: regardless of charac-
teristics, people should receive comparable responses to
similar actions; and (3) reflective judgments: one must
consider actual and hypothetical examples from a crit-
ical perspective. By approaching ethical dilemmas from
a perspective that employs these three features, a rea-
soned consideration may be made. Sport mirrors the
human experience and society in ways that make in-
quiry illuminating (Eitzen 1999).
Debates over
Ethics and Values
Since the inception of modern sport with the advent of
V
victory reflects a privileged position that not all athletes
(whether recreational or professional) occupy. The enor-
mous amount of debate over this subject reflects a wide
industrialization, a host of issues have been debated. range of cultural beliefs and differing social experiences.
Many debates perceived as current also plagued early
modern sport and often ancient sport as well. Such de- WHAT IS A GOOD COMPETITOR?
bates focus on questions of inclusion/exclusion, the na- How one evaluates what a good competitor is depends
ture of competition, acceptable methods by which to on one’s views of competition. Is the best competitor
pursue excellence, sportsmanship, and responsibilities the one who plays with honor and dignity or the one
toward bodies at risk. who may use anything to win, including intimidation
and psychological warfare? Additionally, who one is
THE NATURE OF COMPETITION affects how the larger culture has viewed competition.
Since the inception of modern sport with the rise of in- Early women’s sport had to contend with the idea that
dustrialization in the nineteenth century, the nature and competition would make women “manly,” and there-
value of competition has been considered from an eth- fore, competition was considered inappropriate for
ical standpoint. Is “winning the only thing,” or is it im- women. This view carried the weight of institutional ver-
material compared to “how one plays the game”? In the ification as medical professionals counseled that the
first case, competition itself must be critically consid- exertion and excitement of competition endangered the
ered. Some scholars contend that competition may be reproductive viability and even life of women (Cahn
inherently immoral or may reinforce undesirable social 1994). While many female educators decried the nega-
values. Others note that competition promotes many tive consequences of competition, others lauded the
positive traits such as loyalty, character, and persever- positive virtues and saw it as a vehicle to achieve equal
ance (Simon 2004). While some argue that participa- rights. Such beliefs still surface in charges that women
tion in sport builds character, teamwork, and a host of aren’t interested in competition or that women’s sports
other positive virtues, Shulman and Bowen (2001) re- are secondary to men’s because they represent a less
port that these traits are already present in athletes. In competitive version of games.
other words, perhaps those who already possess the
traits thought to be taught by sport self-select into them. APPROACHES TO COMPETITION
Further, many question the benefit of some of the val- Simon (2004) notes there are several different philo-
ues imparted in competitive sport. Feezell (1987) argues sophical approaches to competition in sports. In the
that victory at all costs is by necessity ethically prob- first case, one could adopt a utilitarian perspective and
lematic, while others contend that being able to eschew focus on competition in terms of the consequences. If
1663
Values and Ethics

Animal Baiting Criticized
Animal baiting, whether involving dogs, bulls, strive to improve in ways that seem to be beneficial
badgers, or bears, has always been controversial. and positive. Fourth, is winning central to competition?
This extract published in The New York Spectator While some argue that winning is at the heart of com-
on 7 September 1827 takes the critical view. petition, others contend improvement, the elevation of
Bull Baiting.—The following is the note of “Hu- the game, and how one plays the game are central.
manitas,” to which we referred yesterday. The au- What becomes clear is that there is no simple answer
thor is a gentleman of respectability, and we to these questions. If one considers that each athlete
therefore call upon the police to interpose and may take away different lessons from the same sporting
prevent the barbarous spectacle proposed by Mr. situation, the picture becomes even more complicated.
Armstrong on Thursday next. One of our friends, What follows from debates surrounding the nature of
in passing Harlem, at the time, accidentally saw competition is the behavior of those competing. Sports-
the cruel scene. manship and cheating require closer investigation.
Mr. Editor—As a friend of “humanity and cor-
rect morals,” will you give a hint to the guardians Sportsmanship and Cheating
of our city, of a most bloody and cruel Bull Bait, The code of “sportsmanship” is often cited as an exam-
which took place at Armstrong’s tavern, at ple of ethical beliefs, but a great deal of confusion ex-
Harlem yesterday afternoon—and also, that no- ists as to what the term explicitly means. The slogan
tice was given that another “Piece of Sport” of the adopted by the Sportsmanship Brotherhood in 1926,
same kind, would take place next Thursday, at “not that you won or lost but how you played the game”
the same place. These exhibitions are scan- seems to embody popular sentiment on sportsmanship
dalous, and with all the vices attending in their (Keating 1964). Keating also suggests that what makes
train, tend much to paralyze every effort that can sportsmanship so hard to define is that individuals en-
be made for the increase of morality, and virtue gage in sport at a wide range of levels and with very dif-
among us. ferent goals. He notes that for the recreational setting
sportsmanship is an injunction that one should conduct
Source: Menna, L. K. (Vol. Ed.). (1995). Sports in North America—A documen-
tary history: Vol. 2 The origins of modern sports, 1820–1840 (pp. 78–79). Gulf oneself in a manner such that the pleasure found in the
Breeze, FL: Academic International Press.
activity is not detracted from for oneself or one’s fellow
participants. The difficulty in this, as Keating points
out, is that it asks those engaged in emotionally charged
so, one must determine how consequences will be eval- and sometimes high-stakes competition to act as if they
uated. In the second case, one could evaluate competi- were merely engaged in a diversion. Keating suggests a
tion in terms of its operating as a “mutual quest for concept of fair play, in which opponents mutually
excellence.” In this view the ways in which competition demonstrate similar expectations to define competitive
may or may not impede this quest are considered. sportsmanship, while Feezell (1987) suggests that an
While some contend that competition has simply been even more fluid definition that takes specific situations
redefined as a quest for excellence, others point to how into account be employed to address each situation
competitive spirits may elevate the play of all involved. uniquely.
For example, being in a competitive situation may lead
to an athlete’s setting a new record. Third, competition CHEATING
as competition with the self must be considered. Does Cheating seems a clear-cut issue, but what exactly con-
competing with one’s earlier performances serve as a stitutes “cheating”? The controversial ending to the
positive motivating force? Certainly, many athletes 1999 Women’s World Cup, in which the American
VALUES AND ETHICS 1665
One man practicing sportsmanship is far better

than fifty preaching it. ■ KNUTE ROCKNE
team beat the Chinese team in overtime penalty kicks commonly used products enhance performance. But at
provides an often cited example. Following the match, what point does a substance become illegal? One would
American goalkeeper Briana Scurry admitted that she think this is an easy definition; but not all leagues have
had consciously violated the rules. She took two steps banned some substances.While some argue that athletes
toward shooter Liu Ying and successfully blocked the have a legitimate right to use performance-enhancing
shot. But is this cheating? Or is it a calculated risk, for substances, others maintain the risk to athletes outweighs
which she was willing to incur possible penalty? Is a the benefits to performance. Still others contend that the
strategic decision to violate the rules and run the risk of use of performance-enhancing drugs detracts from the
“getting caught” cheating? sanctity of the game. Some note the coercive pressure to
While some argue that attempting to gain an unfair use such drugs is problematic and that athletes may feel
advantage by breaking a rule deliberately exemplifies they must consume potentially harmful substances to re-
poor sportsmanship and qualifies as cheating (Feezell main competitive.
1987), others contend that it is the responsibility of
officials to prevent such infractions (Simon 2004). Pear- Sport and Socialization
son (1973) argues that there are two types of deception Similar to arguments centering around competition,
possible in sport—strategic and definitional deception. the role of sport in socialization generates a great deal
Strategic deception involves an athlete’s tricking an op- of ethical debate. Mirroring traditional divides between
ponent within the rules of the game. Definitional de- functionalist and conflict theorists, debates focus on
ception involves an athlete’s deliberately breaking the the integrative function of sport. Some note that sport
rules of the game. In this view, while strategic deception socializes children by extolling positive virtues like loy-
is acceptable, definitional deception, as committed by alty, courage, and perseverance. Further, participation in
Scurry, is not. sport teaches teamwork, the value of hard work, and re-
Debates over the intentional foul in basketball responsibility. While many presume these to be positive
veal the complexity of the situation. While some argue values, other scholars note that some of what is taught
the intentional foul is unsportsmanlike, others argue is problematic. While Marxist scholars are critical of the
that the very fact players are given a limited number of ways in which sport mirrors the logic of capitalist pro-
fouls to “use” implies that they may be strategically deduction, inculcating athletes with specific traits that pre-
ployed. Still others note that it’s not a foul unless the ref- pare them to be compliant workers (Rigauer 1981),
eree calls it. Therefore, nothing the player does is post-structuralists expand on these ideas to note the
relevant; rather, it’s how the referee interprets actions. disciplinary aspects of sport participation. Moreover,
sport, in its role of defining masculinity, has long been
Role of Performance-Enhancing Drugs seen by some as socializing men into a form of mas-
The question of cheating becomes more involved when culinity that is violent and misogynist.
one considers the role of performance-enhancing drugs in
sports.The Bay Area Laboratory Co-Operative (BALCO) Inclusion/Exclusion
scandal that broke in 2003 (in which four men employed When considering ethical issues in sport, one must
by BALCO were charged with distributing steroids and consider debates over access and control. Who can
other illegal performance-enhancing substances to top play in which venues? For whom is sport appropriate?
athletes) demonstrated that the use of such illegal drugs What type of sport? There has long been a schism be-
is endemic in amateur and professional sports. Part of the tween idealized, legitimated venues and popular
problem involves what defines a performance-enhancing amusements. Modern sport has featured a number of
substance. Certainly, legal painkillers, caffeine, and other venerated forums—for example, college sports and the
Values and Ethics

The Higher Purpose of Kendo
The credo below, enacted by the All Japan Kendo Fed- And through correct and rigid training,
eration in 1975, makes clear that the practice of To strive for improvement in the art of Kendo;
Kendo has the highest of goals: To hold in esteem human courtesy and honor,
To associate with others with sincerity,
The concept of Kendo is to discipline the human
And to forever pursue the cultivation of oneself.
character
Thus will one be able
through the application of the principles of the
To love his country and society,
Katana.
To contribute to the development of culture,
The purpose of practicing Kendo is:
And to promote peace and prosperity among all
To mold the mind and body,
peoples.
To cultivate a vigorous spirit,
Olympics—that have been viewed as displaying the of injury. While some focus on the possibilities of ex-
“best” features and traits held by the Western world and ploitation, particularly of the economically disadvan-
specifically the male world. Hardworking, persevering, taged, others see attempts to limit participation as
loyal, and successful, the idealized athlete embodied paternalism (Simon 2004).
hegemonic (the most powerful form of) masculinity
(Connel 1987, 1995). Sport and Corruption
Because these positive virtues were linked exclu- The problem of corruption at all levels continues to
sively to privileged bodies, subordinated men and plague the world of sport. Many believe that the unre-
women were excluded from the venerated venues of solved issues surrounding the concepts of amateurism
early modern sports. For example, the first modern versus professionalism contribute to rampant corruption.
Olympic Games held in Athens, Greece, in 1896 ex- These issues center around who can be paid to partici-
cluded women and those who worked for a living. pate, the implications of payment, legal age restrictions,
Though women were admitted to the second games in and the rights of players.
1900, it was in a limited capacity, and even today College sports provide an example. Accounts of col-
fewer events are offered to women than men. The ex- lege sports in the 1800s reveal the existence of “ringers”
clusion of women, people of color, and the working who spent far more time on athletics than academics.
class from legitimated sporting venues was the subject Some traveled from region to region, playing at differ-
of great debate and to some degree continues to ent colleges and being paid by alumni and local gam-
plague the world of sport. bling interests. Today, the question of what to do about
While marginalized men and women did participate amateurism remains problematic. While some advocate
in local games and events, serious concern was ex- eliminating the requirements of amateurism from high-
pressed regarding the exploitation of athletes, alcohol level college sports and certain other venues, others
use, gambling, and other social ills, despite the preva- contend that this would hardly solve the problem. In-
lence of these problems in legitimate venues. In this vestigation into an academic-fraud accusation at the
way, ethical debate actually emerged as a means for University of Minnesota in 1999 revealed that with the
disciplining and controlling “other bodies, while privi- coaches’ knowledge, an academic counselor had writ-
leged bodies were presumed to be above needing such ten hundreds of papers for players. In addition, the case
controls. Current debates consider limiting participa- uncovered improper payments, sexual impropriety, and
tion in risk sports or sports known to have a high risk a host of recruiting violations. Wetzel and Yaeger
VALUES AND ETHICS 1667
In the field of sports you are more or

less accepted for what you do rather
than what you are. ■ ALTHEA GIBSON
(2000), in their exploration of youth basketball leagues, while minimizing risk. The public and mass media have
found that corruption and unethical practices are en- largely come to support the rights of HIV-positive ath-
demic even to youth sports. The continued exploita- letes to participate; however, the public and legislative
tion of young athletes by their legal custodians, bodies remain undecided on rules of disclosure. Rather
coaches, leagues, and multinational corporations is a than adopting a single universal principle, Jackson
key problem facing the world of sports today. (1999) suggests that any ethical inquiry into HIV/AIDS
and sport should adhere to four rules: (1) specific de-
Bodies at Risk tails of any recommendations made must be given;
Concerns of exploitation must include the issue of bod- (2) the goals of the recommendation must be stated
ies at risk—athletes in many sports subject their bodies clearly and honestly; (3) ethical and factual justification
to the possibility of injury. The question of who has the for the recommendation must be given; and (4) possi-
right to control this risk (the athlete, the coach, the team ble objections to the recommendation must be given.
owner?) must be balanced against considerations of
what risks are worth accepting. Scholars are critical of Imagery
the ways in which the type of masculinity venerated in Finally, how should the imagery promoted in sport ven-
sports encourages athletes to ignore pain and injury. ues be considered with regard to values and ethics?
Such practices risk further injury, shorten careers, and The team-mascot debate provides an excellent example.
can lead to long-term physical disability (Messner 1992). Eitzen and Baca Zinn (2001) discuss what they call
Moreover, social stratification means that the riskiest “the dark side of sports symbols.” Many contend that
sports are largely practiced by those with few other vi- the use of Native American mascots and symbols is of-
able options for economic stability and success. As fensive. While some fans assert that these images are
Messner argues, men with options are often able to dis- not taken seriously or are meant to honor, not offend,
engage from sport voluntarily to pursue more stable many Native American groups have expressed serious
and less risky careers, while their working-class coun- objections to mascots such as Chief Wahoo of the
terparts more often have fewer options when no longer Cleveland Indians or gestures such as the tomahawk
able to compete. What obligation do sporting bodies chop of the Atlanta Braves. Some Native groups have
have to reduce risk, and what levels of risk are accept- supported specific schools—usually local schools with
able? For example, despite incontrovertible medical names that represent the specific nation—in their use of
evidence that links blows to the head with the risk of the name, citing few other public forums in which the
death or long-term debilitation due to head injuries, name of their group is cheered. However, there seems
head gear for boxers is not imposed at the professional little support or excuse for teams whose mascot, team
level (Jackson 1999). Further, the risk of performance- name, or chant is essentially an ethnic slur.
enhancing drugs cannot be underestimated.
The Future
HIV/AIDS AND THE RISK OF INFECTION The arena of sports remains a site of ethical contention.
In recent years, concerns centering around the trans- While sports is an arena in which positive values can be
mission of HIV/AIDS and the rights of infected and un- exhibited and taught, it is also an arena in which nega-
infected athletes have risen to the forefront. Debates tive values may be imparted as well. Indeed, debates
over athletes’ rights to privacy, risk of transmission, and over the meaning and efficacy of competition reflect
the role of athletes as public figures remain unresolved. disparities in the wider culture as to what values and
However, most leagues have adopted universal precau- ethics should be promoted. While barriers to access for
tions, protecting the rights of athletes to participate, women and people of color have been significantly
A real champion is a champion in life,

not just in sport. ■ UNKNOWN
reduced, the exploitation of athletes, acceptable means Monica and Venice, the phenomenon helped shape the
to ends practices (performance enhancing substances, image of southern California as a land of sun, fun,
deliberate rules violations, and so forth), and the role of health, and fitness and as a mecca for bodybuilders.
business remain areas of considerable debate.
Faye Wachs
Early History
Because of its congenial climate and abundant natural re-
See also Sportsmanship sources, California attracted many enterprising free spirits
from the eastern United States during the late nineteenth
century. New York businessman and visionary Abbott Kin-
Further Reading ney founded Venice in 1900 as an upper-middle-brow
Cahn, S. (1994) . Coming on strong: Gender and sexuality in twentieth
Italianate resort, replete with a 25-kilometer network of
century women’s sport. New York: Free Press.
Connell, R.W. (1987). Gender and power. Stanford, CA: Stanford Uni- canals, gondoliers, and a twenty-five-hundred-seat audi-
versity Press. torium for lectures, recitals, opera, and plays. When Los
Connell, R.W. (1995). Masculinities. Berkeley: University of California
Press. Angeles citizens did not respond to such haute (fashion-
Eitzen, S. D. (1999). Fair and foul: Beyond the myths and paradoxes of able) culture, Kinney turned his creation into a Coney Is-
sport. New York: Rowan and Littlefield Publishers Inc. land of the Pacific where the masses could enjoy a Ferris
Eitzen, S. D., & Baca Zinn, M. (2001, January). The dark side of sports
symbols. USA Today, 129, 48. wheel, shoot-the-chutes ride, skating rink, dance pavilion,
Feezell, R. (1987). Sportsmanship. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, bowling alley, shooting gallery, aquacade, and other
XIII, 1–13.
Jackson, R. (1999). HIV and sport: Constructing a framework for ethi-
amusements. This paradise by the sea declined into
cal deliberation. In G. Sankaran, K. A. E. Volkwein, & D. R. Bonsall speakeasies and gambling halls during the 1920s, but
(Eds.), HIV/AIDS in sport: Impact, issues and challenges. Champaign, Venice was destined to remain a center for leisure, recre-
IL: Human Kinetics Press.
Keating, J. W. (1964). Sportsmanship as a moral category. Ethics. LXXV, ation, and sport—a precursor of Disneyland.
25–35.
Messner, M. (1992). Power at play: Sports and the problem of mas-
culinity. Boston: Beacon Press. Original Muscle Beach
Pearson, K. (1973). Deception, sportsmanship and ethics. Quest, XIX, During the 1930s attention shifted to Santa Monica,
115–118. where, beside a pier with a roller coaster and merry-go-
Rigauer, B. (1981). Sport and work. New York: Columbia University
Press. round, fitness enthusiasts gathered on the beach to en-
Shulman, J. L., &. Bowen, W. C. (2001). The game of life. Princeton, NJ: gage in volleyball, acrobatics, and gymnastics and to
Princeton University Press.
Simon, R. L. (2004). Fair play: The ethics of sport. Boulder, CO: West-
enjoy the sun and fresh air. Known as the “Santa Mon-
view Press. ica Beach Playground,” it also attracted weightlifters and
Wetzel, D., & Yaeger., D. (2000). Sole influence: Basketball, corporate bodybuilders who found the milieu conducive to train-
greed, and the corruption of America’s youth. New York: Warner
Books. ing, getting tanned, showing their bodies, and possibly
even landing a movie role in nearby Hollywood.The city
government encouraged these activities by improving
the facilities for acrobats and installing a weight pit for
the musclemen. Even before World War II this physical
Venice Beach culture hotbed attracted thousands of spectators and
participants, especially on weekends and holidays.
V
“ enice Beach” is an expression used to describe the
physical culture phenomenon that emerged in the
Santa Monica Bay region of southern California during
During the postwar years the playground entered its
golden age and became nationally renowned as “Mus-
cle Beach.” It featured such notables as Abbye (Pudgy)
the 1930s. Centered in the seaside communities of Santa Stockton, the first woman bodybuilder, who with her
VENICE BEACH 1669
Sports do not build character.

They reveal it. ■ HEYWOOD BROUN
husband, Les, operated a gym on Sunset Boulevard. Avenue. His gym eventually spread to more than five
Jack LaLanne brought physical fitness (and the Califor- hundred locations in twenty-six countries and became
nia beach culture) to a new level through his television the most famous fitness franchise in the world. These
show that aired from 1951 to 1984 on approximately neighboring outdoor-indoor facilities created the ar-
two hundred stations to millions of viewers. Harold resting image and expression of “Venice Beach” during
Zinkin, an acrobat and bodybuilder, helped devise the the 1970s.
Universal Gym in 1957. Screen star Mae West recruited When leading fitness promoter Joe Weider moved
her celebrated troupe of musclemen from Muscle Beach his operations from New Jersey to Los Angeles in 1972,
for nightclub appearances in major cities during the the reputation of this new Muscle Beach was enhanced
1950s. Muscle Beach was also a magnet for prominent by photographs in his magazine of such physique stars
weightlifters, including Olympic champions John Davis, as Arnold Schwarzenegger, Franco Columbu, and Lou
Paul Anderson, and Isaac Berger, and such bodybuild- Ferrigno training there. The most notable icon, however,
ing greats as John Grimek, George Eiferman, and Dick was Dave Draper, the “Blond Bomber,” who co-starred
Dubois. However, the most famous Muscle Beach (with Tony Curtis, Claudia Cardinale, and Sharon Tate)
trainee was the 1947 Mr. America, Steve Reeves, who in the 1967 film Don’t Make Waves, based on Ira Wal-
starred in various sword-and-sandal epics, including lach’s novel Muscle Beach. Muscle magazine photos of
Hercules, the highest grossing film of 1959. Draper and others frolicking in the sun, sand, and surf
Closely associated with the beach culture was Vic and surrounded by bevies of beautiful women inspired
Tanny’s Gym, opened in the late 1930s in a loft above a generation of bodybuilders, many of whom moved to
an auto repair shop on Second Street in Santa Monica. Venice to take part in the California dream.
Assisted by his brother Armand, a physique star and
Muscle Beach regular, Tanny expanded his operation Bodybuilding’s Mecca
into the first major chain, eventually resulting in eighty- This phenomenon had a direct impact on the fitness
four gyms nationwide, grossing $15 million a year by boom that swept the United States during the late
the 1960s. Annual Mr. and Miss Muscle Beach contests, 1970s. Despite the growth of many other bodybuilding
combining brawn and beauty, added luster to Santa centers during the next two decades, attention remained
Monica’s image and contributed to the popularity of the focused on Venice. After selling his original franchise,
growing sport of bodybuilding. However, the intrusion Joe Gold established his first World Gym International
of unsavory elements and some unfortunate incidents in 1987 on Main Street between Santa Monica and
prompted city leaders to close Muscle Beach in 1958. Venice. It eventually blossomed into 280 gyms world-
wide with headquarters in the adjacent community of
Muscle Beach Marina del Rey. The most important center for body-
Moves to Venice builders, however, remains at the Gold’s Gym located
The weightlifters and bodybuilders retreated temporar- at Hampton and Sunset in Venice, where the champions
ily to the “Dungeon,” a workout facility operated by Vic train and pose for photographers.
Tanny in the basement of a nearby commercial build- Venice Beach also remains a sentimental source of in-
ing. Then they convinced the city of Venice to set up a spiration. True to its origins, a carnival-like atmosphere
weight pen on the beach, about two miles south of the prevails on the mile-long Ocean Front Walk where cy-
old location. This new Muscle Beach soon attracted a clists, joggers, and in-line skaters mingle with jugglers, ac-
regular clientele and spectators, but without the robats, tarot card readers, musicians, bikini-clad women,
acrobatic-gymnastics component. It was complemented and gawking tourists—a kaleidoscope of humanity that
in 1965 when Joe Gold opened his first gym on Pacific one would expect to find in southern California. The
When a man wants to murder a tiger he calls

it sport; when a tiger wants to murder him he
calls it ferocity. ■ GEORGE BERNARD SHAW
weight pen, too, is still there, reconstructed in 1986 with Violence, Sport, and a
a stage to conduct bodybuilding and powerlifting com- Critical Understanding
petitions. At the same time, in recognition of a tradition The list of athletes involved in some form of violence or
stretching back a half-century, the city formally desig- another is long and growing longer. Nor is violence in
nated the venue “Muscle Beach Venice.” sport limited to current and former professional ath-
letes; in fact, violence perpetrated by athletes begins
John Douglas Fair
early on, often in high school. Coaches and fans, as
well, have been a factor in recent years, so that violence
Further Reading is certainly not limited to the court or playing field.
Alexander, C. (1999). Images of America: Venice, California.
Charleston, SC: Arcadia. CONTRIBUTIONS OF ATHLETES TO SOCIETY
Basten, F. (1997). Paradise by the sea, Santa Monica Bay: A pictorial
history of Santa Monica, Venice, Marina del Rey, Ocean Park, Pacific
No one could deny that many athletes do good works.
Palisades, Topanga, & Malibu. Los Angeles: General Publishing In college, some volunteer at local human-resource
Group. agencies or work with troubled kids, and as profes-
Draper, D. (2001). Brother Iron, Sister Steel: A bodybuilder’s book.
Santa Cruz, CA: On Target Publications. sionals, many donate food to homeless shelters or
Rose, M. (2001). Muscle Beach. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin. money to charities. Some speak out on the travails of
Starr, K. (1985). Inventing the dream: California through the Progressive
Era. New York: Oxford University Press.
smoking, drinking, and drug use as an underage
Webster, D. (1979). Barbells + beefcake. Irvine, UK: Coasbyprint. problem in America. A few athletes are also socially
Zinkin, H. (1999). Remembering Muscle Beach. Santa Monica, CA: conscious and will address issues of poverty and inad-
Angel City Press.
equate healthcare for the elderly.
Jeanette Lee, a professional pool player, more com-
monly known as the “Black Widow,” is currently the na-
tional spokeswoman for the Scoliosis Association. In
Violence addition, the Jeanette Lee Foundation raises money to
help create more public awareness about this disease
V iolence in sport is not a new area of study. What is

new is the systemization of the research being con-
ducted on violence, both on and off the field of play.
and the need for more physical therapy programs and
scoliosis research.
Emmitt Smith, a professional athlete well known for
Sport used to be about games; not any more. These his football achievements, is becoming equally recog-
days no sport is immune from the effects of violent be- nized for his contributions to community services. To
havior, even those we refer to as “country-club” sports date Smith has raised over $350,000 for charity by
(e.g., tennis, golf, and figure skating). Violence now ex- auctioning game-worn items and artifacts from his foot-
tends beyond the playing field or the court into real life. ball career. He put it thus: “Football has given me an ex-
Baylor men’s basketball player Carlton Dotson has traordinary opportunity. This is just one way that I can
been accused of killing Patrick Dennehy, his teammate continue to give back. I have always believed that I
and roommate. And NHL hockey player Mike Danton have a responsibility to make an impact beyond the
was involved in a failed murder-for-hire plot. These sce- football field.” Troy Aikman, former Dallas Cowboys
narios are real, and they and many other events have football star, started the Starbright Foundation, which
begun to impact the institution of sport in ways that no establishes Troy Aikman End Zone playrooms in chil-
athlete, professional or amateur, who played in the dren’s hospitals around the country.
1940s, 1950s, or even as late as the 1970s could have These accomplishments are admirable and should
imagined. always be recognized as athletes giving back to their re-
VIOLENCE 1671
spective communities. However, increasingly, some ath- upon as something that carried no responsibility and
letes are bringing violence into the very communities had no consequences.
they inhabit and sometimes into the communities they
visit in sport competitions. SPUR P OSSE
Another incident similar to the Glen Ridge case took
Violence in High School Sport place in 1993 in Lakewood, California, a town where
When most adults today were growing up, violence as- the Youth Sports Hall of Fame is not at the high school,
sociated with high school sport involved fistfights be- not at City Hall, but in the local McDonald’s.
tween local rivals after a football game or the occasional In the Lakewood case, teenage male athletes from a
scuffle between players. street sex gang that went by the name of “Spur Posse”
made use of their athletic popularity in high school to
GLEN RIDGE RAPE seduce female classmates. When done, they passed
Today, however, violence in high school sport involves these girls around for sex and then publicly bragged
assault and even rape. Incidents can take place both on about their conquests. The news of their exploits sent
and off the field and can sometimes affect nonathletes shock waves across the community and the nation. In
as well. One incident that received national and inter- a misguided show of support, family members, moth-
national media attention took place in the middle-class ers, girlfriends, and supporters from the community
suburb of Glen Ridge, New Jersey. In 1989 three high came forth to defend these young males. Dottie Bel-
school athletes, all white males, gang raped a mentally man, mother of Kristopher Belman, a member of the
retarded seventeen-year-old white female in front of a Spur Posse, together with her husband Donald, served
group of their friends, using a baseball bat and a broom the Lakewood community as coaches of Little League
handle. Much of the media attention at the time fo- and Pop Warner football, and Dottie herself was a
cused on the culture in the school’s athletic program, “team mother.” She says:
one which was said not to have valued or required de-
They would make a home run or a touchdown and I held
cent character and behavior on the part of its male
my head high. We were reliving our past. We’d walk into
athletes.
Little League and we were hot stuff. I’d go to Von’s and
This incident is one of many that detail how young
people would come up to me and say, “Your kids are
males sometimes assault and commit sexual violence
great.” I was so proud. Now I go to Von’s at 5 a.m. in dis-
against females (Hattery 2001) with few consequences.
guise. I’ve been Mother of the Year. I’ve sacrificed every-
The Glen Ridge perpetrators, when convicted, appealed
thing for my kids. Now I feel like I have to defend my
and were out on bail for four years until they were fi-
honor (Didion 1993, 55).
nally sent to prison in 1997. Another aspect of this
horrific crime that is in some ways even more disturb- Dottie and Donald Belman and a host of other Lake-
ing is that there were some ten others who witnessed wood parents and residents blamed the girls who were
the crime and did nothing to stop it. involved for the boys’ troubles. It was argued that the
The high school athletes in Glen Ridge that day were girls were “loose”—as Donald Belman said on national
participating in what is for some young men a sort of television, they had to be, for these girls even had vari-
ritual, a twisted rite of passage into what they see as ous body parts tattooed. And it was even suggested
adulthood. The culture of their high school athletic pro- that perhaps the girls tricked the boys into the sexually
gram gave the impression that such behaviors as talking aggressive behavior that had transpired.Accepted be-
about and carrying out sexually violent acts against havior? Socially approved behavior? The message is
women, if not acceptable, were at the very least looked yes. The fact that much of the outcry in Lakewood was
Archers played a role in the Battle of

Tewksbury in 1471, a decisive battle in the
War of the Roses in England.
against the girls who stepped forward to complain

about this behavior speaks volumes about how Ameri-
cans still view male/female relationships and roles in
this country. The messages sent to young males are
quite clear: predatory sexual behavior carries with it no
responsibility and no consequences. Sometimes it can
even bestow bragging rights. The escalation in irrational
violent behavior among young males is a symptom of
the growing tendency in sport programs to condone vi-
olence, or at least to “look the other way.”
Violence in Intercollegiate Sport

When the essence of life is to “keep up with the Joneses,”
social problems inevitably arise as a result of this chase.
Repercussions of this uniquely American rat race are
manifest from the available data on individuals and
families living beyond their means to the numbers on
home foreclosures and bankruptcy.
With the need to win becoming the driving force in
athletics, we are seeing the recruitment of student ath-
letes from places as diverse as Riker’s Island (the SPORT –SELF -PROMOTIONAL
world’s most populous penal colony) and so-called prep SHOWMANSHIP SYNDROME
schools that have no academic standing whatsoever. One factor in the emergence of lawbreaking behavior in
athletes is the system of privilege that the institutions, the
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA INCIDENT student athletes, and the coaches have created that takes
In a college version of the Glen Ridge and Lakewood them away from the concept of “team” and moves them
crimes, a 14-year-old female child prodigy who was at- deeper into what the French sociologist Emile Durkheim
tending the University of Alabama, Birmingham, was describes in his research as “individualism.” Individual-
kidnapped and held as the sex slave of the basketball and ism can be defined as the Sport–Self-Promotional Show-
football teams for close to a full semester. This was a manship Syndrome (S–SPSS).
crime involving 25 student athletes. Not only was the S–SPSS also applies to the institutions that allow ac-
young girl used as a sex slave while living in the college ademic fraud and those that let faculty salaries lag and
dormitory, but she was turned into a drug addict as well. building maintenance deteriorate to the lowest levels,
then use the funds to enter into the Division 1A athletic
BAYLOR MURDER category. In other words, these institutions self-promote
One case that stands out as a prime example of college athletics above and beyond academics.
athletic programs out of control—crossing the line into S–SPSS applies to coaches in the greed attached to
lawbreaking behavior—is the 2003 murder of Baylor their endorsement contracts, the television and radio
basketball player Patrick Dennehy, the arrest of his for- shows, the automobiles for private use, game and even
mer roommate and teammate, and the allegation that airline tickets for family and friends, and the use of in-
head basketball coach Dave Bliss told his players to lie stitutional facilities for private gain (for example, sum-
to the FBI agents investigating the homicide. mer camps).
VIOLENCE 1673
Violence
William Hazlitt’s “The Fight” (1822)
The extract below from this famous essay by English Yet he fought on after this for several rounds, still
writer William Hazlitt graphically depicts the violence striking the first desperate blow, and Neate standing
of a boxing match. on the defensive, and using the same cautious guard
to the last, as if he had still all his work to do; and it
To see two men smashed to the ground, smeared was not until the Gas-man was so stunned in the sev-
with gore, stunned, senseless, the breath beaten out enteenth or eighteenth round that his sense forsook
of their bodies; and then, before you recover from the him and he could not come to time, that the battle
shock, to see them rise up with new strength and was declared over. When the Gas-man came to him-
courage, stand ready to inflict or receive mortal of- self the first words he uttered were, “Where am I?
fense, and rush upon each other “like two clouds over What is the matter?” “Nothing is the matter, Tom,—
the Caspian”:—this is the high and heroic state of you have lost the battle, but you are the bravest man
man! About the twelfth round it seemed as if it must alive.” Neate instantly went up and shook him cor-
have been over. Neate just then made a tremendous dially by the hand, and seeing some old acquain-
lunge, and hit Hickman full in the face. He hung sus- tance, began to flourish with his fists, “Ah, you always
pended for a second or two, and then fell back, said I couldn’t fight—What do you think now?” But
throwing his hands in the air, and with his face lifted all in good humor, and without any appearance of ar-
up to the sky. All traces of life, of natural expression, rogance; only it was evident that Bill Neate was
were gone from him. His face was like a human skull, pleased that he had won the fight. The carrier-pigeons
a death’s head, spouting blood. The eyes were filled now mounted into the air, and one of them flew with
with blood, the nose streamed with blood. the mouth the news of her husband’s victory to the bosom of
gaped blood. He was like a preternatural, spectral ap- Mrs. Neate. Alas for Mrs. Hickman!
pearance, or like one of the figures in Dante’s Inferno.
For the student athlete, it’s about trying to get as KERMIT WASHINGTON
much playing time as possible, hogging the ball in On the evening of Friday, 9 December 1977, the Los An-
games, victory celebrations that come with every score, geles Lakers played the Houston Rockets in Houston.
the end-zone dances, and drawing attention to oneself. Few remember who even won the game, but the events
Even the venerable Florida Seminoles coach Bobby that occurred in the third quarter are forever etched in
Bowden feels that because, “We give them this, we give professional basketball history (Goldpaper 1977).
them that,” it is no wonder they focus on themselves. Laker forward Kermit Washington was struggling for
This system of privilege for some athletes over others a loose ball while running up court when Houston
often leads to jealousies on teams and in the end can re- player Kevin Kunnert got into a shoving match with
sult in a loss of focus on the overall success of the team. Washington. Washington (six foot eight and 230
Because this syndrome involves giving one athlete pounds), seeing from the corner of his eye a Houston
something that another doesn’t have, all for the purpose Rockets player heading in his direction, turned and
of winning games, sometimes it’s hard for student ath- landed a right cross to the jaw of Houston player Rudy
letes and their coaches to discern right from wrong. Tomjanovich. The rest is history. NBA Commissioner
Larry O’Brien suspended Washington for 60 days (at a
Violence in Professional Sport cost of $50,000) and fined him an unprecedented
In recent years, violence has been on the rise in profes- amount of money for the time, $10,000.
sional sport; athletes engage in violence both on and off Tomjanovich, a forward for the Rockets, was sent to the
the field of competition. hospital for 15 days with a broken jaw, fractured skull,
Is it normal to wake up in the morning in

a sweat because you can’t wait to beat
another human’s guts out? ■ JOE KAPP
broken nose, cracked eye socket, and a ruined career. Lisa sioner David Stern originally suspended Sprewell for a
Olson, writing for the New York Daily News says: year from the NBA. But on 3 March, 1998, Sprewell
was reinstated to the Warriors after lodging a grievance
Tomjanovich was felled in one punch, his skull and cheek-
against the team and the league that was favorably
bone fractured, his jaw and nose sinking back into his
heard by arbitrator John Feerick, dean of the Fordham
head like bloody pulps. Abdul-Jabbar said it sounded like
University Law School.
a watermelon being dropped on cement.
According to sport writer John Feinstein (2002), the MIKE T YSON

punch thrown by Washington changed the way the On Saturday, 28 June 1997, in a much-anticipated and
National Basketball Association handled on-court vio- -touted World Boxing Association heavyweight title
lence. Fights did break out prior to the Tomjanovich- fight, “Iron” Mike Tyson twice bit the ear of his oppo-
Washington fight. Because Washington’s punch to the nent, the then heavyweight champion, Evander Holley-
face of Tomjanovich was so violent, the NBA took much field. This behavior was an all-time low even for
more severe measures in punishing out-of-control play- professional boxing, inflicted before an international
ers. Washington’s fine and suspension, for example, audience on pay-per-view television.
was unheard of prior to the fight.
VIOLENCE OUTSIDE THE PLAYING FIELD
L ATRELL SPREWELL Uncivil and violent behavior is not confined to the
The job of a coach is to make sure that the athletes on playing field or court, of course. The behavior of ath-
his team train hard and win games. Unfortunately, the letes and fans can be just as brutal outside the arena as
stresses of such an environment combined with per- it is inside.
sonality clashes or harassing behavior can lead to On 30 April 1993, Monica Seles, one of the world’s
violence. top female tennis players, was stabbed while playing in
Professional basketball player Latrell Sprewell (of a tournament in Hamburg, Germany. Gunther Parche,
the Golden State Warriors) crossed the line and is now the assailant, was apparently a fanatic fan of Stephanie
paying the price. In a fit of anger because his coach, Graf and wanted Seles out of the competition. For his
P. J. Carlesimo, was “in his face,” Sprewell choked Car- crime, Parche was given a two-year suspended sentence.
lesimo in front of other players during a practice ses- At the 1994 winter Olympic trials, Nancy Kerrigan,
sion on 1 December 1997. Phil Taylor of Sports the top contender on the U.S. team, was attacked,
Illustrated put it thus: clubbed in the leg just weeks before the Olympics.
Tonya Harding, who was the closest contender to
When he assaulted and threatened to kill his coach, P. J.
Kerrigan, was later convicted of hiring her ex-boyfriend
Carlesimo, . . . he committed one of the most outrageous
to club Kerrigan at the trials, allegedly to eliminate her
acts on the court or field of play that American profes-
from the competition and ensure Harding’s win. Kerri-
sional sports in the modern era has known, and that act
gan was able to recover in time for the Olympics and
will surely follow him for the rest of his life.
took a silver medal. Harding finished in eighth place
Almost anywhere except in the NBA, says New York and eventually served time in jail for her involvement in
Times columnist Ira Berkow, such an act would have the crime.
meant immediate dismissal. Soon after the incident
Sprewell was stripped of his four-year $32 million con- TRADITION OF CIVILITY BEING REPLACED
tract (and a loss of all endorsement revenues estimated There has always existed a tradition of civility in sport:
at $500,000 with Converse). Furthermore, Commis- it manifests itself in the form of fair play—by strict
VIOLENCE 1675
Violence
Mud Battles among the
Blackfoot of Canada What happened to the tradition of civility and fair
play, on the field and off? Latrell Sprewell in a fit of
The most primitive sport was a mud battle
anger placed his hands around the neck of his coach
fought by young tribesmen. Sides were picked,
and choked him. What does an act like this symbol-
and the two bands of Indian boys would repair
ize, even if the coach went beyond the normal bound-
to a large flat under their respective leaders, each
aries in imposing stricter practice requirements? In
boy armed with a long pliable switch about six
many office environments, employers overload work-
feet long and a big ball of mud weighing about
ers all the time. Yet most employees know that an
20 pounds. Here the opposing leaders would
action such as strangling their supervisors would re-
take up their positions, a distance of about 75
sult in at the very least termination, if not criminal
yards separating them. Each fighter would then
prosecution.
take a small piece of mud weighing about four
Should we assume that courtesy among fans, getting
ounces and press it hard on the tip of his switch.
an autograph from a professional athlete without hav-
The flexibility of a switch would send these mud
ing to pay for it, or attending a game without having
pellets flying with terrific force and they would
beer dumped down your shirt only remain as figments
burn and leave bruises on the body of anyone
of the sport sociological imagination? In answering
unfortunate enough to be struck by them. A bat-
this question we ultimately bump up against the larger
tle of this kind would rage sometimes for hours,
one of what we stand for as a society and as athletes en-
mud whistling through the air accompanied by
tering the twenty-first century.
loud yells from those in the casualty list. After
Francis Fukuyama in his immensely important book
the cessation of hostilities everyone was happy,
Trust (1995) demonstrates that when the community
despite the sore spots and numerous bruises dis-
ethos dissolves and folkways disappear, citizens are no
cernable on the bodies of the combatants.
longer trustful of each other. As this is happening in
Source: Mountain Horse, M. (1979). My people, the Bloods (p. 13). Calgary,
Canada: Glenbow-Alberta Institute; Blood Tribal Council. American society, says Fukuyama, we begin to see the
rise of violent crime and civil litigation; the breakdown
of family structure; the decline of a wide range of in-
definition, conformity to established rules. But fair play termediate social structures such as neighborhoods,
also involves such ideals as treating others with respect churches, unions, clubs, and charities; and the general
and courtesy, being a good loser, accepting responsi- sense among Americans of a lack of shared values and
bility for one’s own mistakes in a mature way. community with those around them.
There is another tradition establishing itself in the
arena of modern sport—openly avowed, assiduously ROLE OF MALE D OMINANCE
cultivated, and zealously carried out—that was suc- In her book The Stronger Women Get, the More Men
cinctly defined in the statement of Coach Woody Hayes Love Football, Mariah Burton Nelson explores the con-
that, “I’d rather die a winner than a loser,” and was nection between the growing power and strength of
nicely demonstrated in the testimony of ex-professional women and male resistance to participation by
lineman Alex Karras that, “I hated everyone on the foot- women in athletics. The furor over Title IX is a case in
ball field, and my personality would change drastically point. As Burton demonstrates, male resistance to fe-
when I got out there . . . I had a license to kill for sixty male athletic participation can be empirically vali-
minutes a week. My opponents were all fair game, and dated simply looking at the slow pace of compliance
when I got off the field I had no regrets. It was like with Title IX. This resistance can sometimes take the
going totally insane.” form of violence.
Outlook
The violent, hyperaggressive, uncivil behavior we see in
sport today is an issue that involves society at large.
Volleyball
What we tolerate in the sports arena reflects what we as
a society find acceptable. And because of the high sta-
tus and prestige placed upon athletes at all levels but es-
V olleyball is a close cousin of basketball: Both
sports were created in Massachusetts, and both
were created by men who worked for the Young Men’s
pecially in professional sport, we can expect that the Christian Association (YMCA). Although at the recre-
huge sums of money that go to the owners of fran- ational level volleyball maintains a universal appeal
chises, to the equipment outfitters, to the moguls who and an intuitive structure of play, at its most competitive
own and control the media, to the concessionaires, to level it has increasingly emphasized ball handling and
the elected officials who run cities where teams play, specialization of players. The sport was introduced into
and to the players themselves will drive individualism the Pan American Games in 1955 at Mexico City and
and greed to the extreme, and violence will continue. into the Olympic Games in 1964 at Tokyo.
The media have come to play an enormously impor-
tant role in sports. By bringing evidence of the growing Origins
lack of civility in sport and the attendant rise in violence William G. Morgan invented volleyball in 1895. He
into our living rooms and by seeming to glorify such be- was physical education director of the YMCA in
havior, the media not only report the stories, they are a Holyoke, Massachusetts, and a former student of James
contributing factor in the perpetuation of violence. Naismith of Springfield, Massachusetts, who invented
Only when we—the athletes, the fans, the media, basketball. Basketball and volleyball were, in fact, in-
the coaches, everyone involved in sport—decide that vented to be simple, diverting indoor winter sports that
the escalating violence must come to an end will civil- could augment the austere regimen of gymnastic exer-
ity again return to sport. cises that made up the greater part of physical education
Angela J. Hattery and in the United States during the late nineteenth century.
Earl Smith Neither man anticipated the popularity and competi-
tiveness of his creation.
See also Masculinity
Morgan invented volleyball for his clients at the
YMCA: businessmen who were, for the most part,
Further Reading middle-aged, unathletic, and not up to the challenges of
Didion, J. (1993). Trouble in Lakewood. The New Yorker, 26 July,
basketball. The original version of volleyball was played
46-65. by two teams who pushed a slow, oversized ball back
Feinstein, J. (2002, October). The punch. Sports Illustrated, 68–77. and forth over a net that was only a few inches higher
Fukuyama, F. (1995). Trust: The social virtues and the creation of pros-
perity. New York: Free Press. than some of the players.
Goldpaper, S. (1977, December 14). Lakers Kermit Washington Fined Because Morgan had originally used a badminton (or
$10,000. New York Times.
Hattery, A. (2001). Women, work, and family: Balancing and weaving.
lawn tennis) net for his new sport, he at first called it
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. mintonette, but its rules were derived mainly from hand-
Karras, A. (1979). Alex Karras: My life in football, television, and ball and baseball. The influence of the latter is seen in
movies. New York: Doubleday.
Olsen, L. (1997, December 21). Shattered in time. New York Daily News. early volleyball rules, which stipulated that the sport be
Smith, E. (2004). Race, sport and the American dream. Boulder, CO: played in nine “innings,” with “three outs” allowed be-
Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Smith, M. (1979). Hockey violence: A test of the violent subculture hy-
fore a team lost the serve. In 1896, while watching a
pothesis. Social Problems, 27, 235–247. demonstration of the sport, Dr. Alfred Halstead of
VOLLEYBALL 1677
An indoor volleyball match at

the Pan American Games.
F. H. Brown, yet another YMCA organizer, introduced

volleyball in Japan in 1913. Volleyball quickly became
popular, and in 1921 the Japanese Imperial Volleyball
Association was formed. The YMCA was active in other
areas of Asia as well, notably India and China.Volleyball
also became popular in the Philippines for a while, and
it was played in Manila at the Far Eastern Games or-
ganized by the international YMCA in 1913.
During and after World War I many U.S. soldiers
played volleyball in Europe, partly because many YMCA
instructors had been inducted into the Army as physical
education instructors. Many YMCA and YWCA organ-
izers stayed on in Europe after the war, and volleyball
grew in popularity through the 1920s, particularly in
France, where many volleyball clubs were formed. The
Soviets, too, became interested in volleyball, and the
Soviets and their client states were to become, with
Japan, major competitive players.
In 1931 the first international volleyball tournament
Springfield College—a YMCA colleague of Morgan— in Europe was held in Paris. The Soviets won first
suggested that the word volleyball better suits the placed against their most serious opponents, the Es-
sport’s nature of pushing the ball back and forth over tonian team, whose country at that time had only nine
the net. The new word was quickly accepted. years of independence left before it was annexed by
the Soviet Union.
Development Volleyball had become popular by 1920 in Central
Volleyball, like basketball, spread quickly and for simi- and South America, particularly in Peru and Brazil. Both
lar reasons: Both sports were simple in design and fea- countries would become top volleyball competitors.
tured clear and intuitively appealing goals. Moreover, Although the French had attempted to establish an
the YMCA and the Young Women’s Christian Associa- international volleyball organization in 1936, only in
tion (YWCA), both of which had chapters throughout 1946 was the International Volleyball Federation
the world, promoted both sports. Thus, volleyball, like formed. The federation’s most active original members
basketball, initially moved across the globe in aid of a were France on the one hand and the Soviet Union,
pragmatic and “muscular” Christianity. Yugoslavia, Poland, and Czechoslovakia—all Commu-
The first national championship in the United States nist nations—on the other. The United States showed
was played in 1922 in New York City. Twenty-three no interest in elite volleyball, and the predominance of
teams—most from no farther west than Chicago— Communist nations in elite play ensured that the sport
competed at the Brooklyn Central YMCA gymnasium. would be played in a highly politicized atmosphere dur-
The Pittsburgh team won. The Volleyball Rules Com- ing the next two decades. For example, during the 1949
mittee of the YMCA officiated this championship and world championships in Prague, Czechoslovakia, eleven
subsequent championships until 1928, when the United countries competed, and the Soviets won both men’s
States Volleyball Association (USVBA) was formed. and women’s titles. The United States did not bother to
Nigerian women
playing volleyball.
send a team. Yugoslavia did

not send a team, either, al-
though this fact had nothing
to do with athletic ability or
interest. Indeed, the Yugosla-
vians had developed consid-
erable volleyball talent, but
the Soviets wanted to send the
Yugoslavians a political mes-
sage via the Soviets’ Czecho-
slovakian clients. In the end
the “renegade” Yugoslavians—
whose maverick leader Mar-
shal Tito had offended social-
ist orthodoxy—were denied
visas to travel to the championships. Sending another women’s team played the most exciting volleyball. In
such message in 1963, the Soviet bloc boycotted an fact, one can fairly argue that the Japanese women’s
international volleyball event in Albania—another “un- team revolutionized volleyball. As one observer wrote,
orthodox” state. At the Albanian event the only teams the Japanese women played “with a ferocity and preci-
were from Albania, China, North Korea, and Romania sion that have made almost a new game of a familiar
—all socialist countries that had either broken with the playground pastime.” They were never in any danger,
Soviets ideologically or were considering doing so. losing only one set (to the Polish team), and losing that
During this period the only international volleyball only because the coach, Daimatsu Hirofumi, had taken
played by the United States was a “match” in 1955 be- some of his better players out of the game when he felt
tween the staffs of the U.S. and Soviet embassies in the that the Soviet team was learning too much about his
Hague in the Netherlands. According to the New York team’s tactics.
Times, the Soviets—who had proposed the match— The Japanese women’s team was formed in 1953
“beat the United States on the volleyball court this af- and sponsored by the Nichibo Spinning Mills near
ternoon in a setting redolent of the spirit of coexis- Osaka. Hirofumi, who was the mills’ manager in charge
tence, cooperation and goodwill.” Perhaps one can of office supplies procurement, drove his team hard: The
explain the U.S. loss by the fact that volleyball had team practiced six hours a day seven days a week all
been intended as a recreation and not as a seriously year. He had a hot temper, and insults and occasional
competitive sport. kicks were part of his training. Although some people
In 1961 the International Olympic Committee voted criticized such training, Hirofumi’s 1964 team per-
volleyball into the Olympic Games. The Soviets and formed splendidly. One headline captures the surprise
their clients and the Japanese supported this vote, and, that attended the Japanese victory, at least in the United
at the 1964 games in Tokyo the Japanese, Soviet, Po- States, as well as a lingering Cold War atmosphere:
lish, and Czech teams were the main players. The So- “Celebrated Team of Office Girls Subdues Russians.”
viets edged out the Czechs for the gold medal in the Of special interest to other teams was the Japanese
men’s competition; the Czech men won silver, and the version of the rolling retrieve, which required a player
Japanese men won bronze. However, the Japanese to fall with gymnastic precision and power to save an
VOLLEYBALL 1679
The first thing is to love your sport. Never do it to please

someone else. It has to be yours. ■ PEGGY FLEMING
incoming ball that could be up to 3 meters away. The back of one team serves the ball. The serve may be over-
player then recovered with grace and speed to rejoin the handed or underhanded; the player must serve within
ongoing play. Since the 1964 Tokyo games, volleyball five seconds of assuming the serving stance, and the
has been a hard-driving “power” sport in the inter- served ball must not touch the net. The goal of the re-
national arena. ceiving team is to return the ball to the opposite side of
At the first Olympic Games to feature volleyball, the the net. Team members may handle the ball three times
United States finished ninth. At the 1968 Olympic before the ball is returned, and, indeed, game strategy
Games at Mexico City, neither the men’s team nor the depends on such ball handling.
women’s team of the United States made a very good In the basic volleying process players must master a
showing—the Soviets, Japanese, Poles, and Czechs number of skills.The front line handles blocking. Players
dominated—and U.S. teams did not even qualify for in the front line move to the place where they think the
the Olympics again until 1984. The first U.S. national ball will be coming into their court and jump with hands
training center for volleyball, near Houston, Texas, outspread and arms overhead to block the ball.Timing is
was dedicated to women’s volleyball—a rare case of crucial, and often a beginner is coming back down to the
a sport being led, in development and elite participa- ground just as the opponent’s ball flies over the net. Play-
tion, by women. However, the U.S. men’s team won ers must avoid body contact with the net, adding another
the gold medal at the 1984 Olympics; the women’s level of challenge to mastering the block.
team won the silver; and the United States has since Should the block fail, receiving players, generally in
been a world power. the back court, use an underhanded stroke played close
However, at the 2004 Olympics in Athens, Greece, to the ground. This stroke is designed to “dig” the ball
Brazil and China tied for first place. Brazil won gold in up and into play. The stroke may be two-handed or, if
men’s, China won gold in women’s. Russia, Italy, and quick lateral movement toward the ball is required, one-
Cuba finished in third place through fifth place, handed. The goal is to save the ball and to put it into
respectively. play for another team member, who may choose to
“set” (pass) the ball toward a third team member. The
Practice third team member then attempts to “spike” the ball into
Originally teams played volleyball over a net that was the opposing team’s court. The set can be toward the
just 2 meters high, but that height has been raised sev- forward ranks or toward the back, or even lateral. Much
eral times. Now the height is 2.43 meters for men and of the skill in setting consists of holding a posture that
2.25 meters for women. The net is 1 meter deep and is conceals the direction of the intended pass until the last
stretched across the center of a court that measures possible moment.
9.14 meters by 18.29 meters. The minimum ceiling The spike—one of the more dramatic offensive
height is 7 meters. The ball—first manufactured by maneuvers—can be sent into the opposing court at
Spaulding, the company that originally manufactured speeds of more than 100 kilometers per hour, leaving
basketballs—weighs 250 to 280 grams and measures opponents with little reaction time. The spike involves
38 to 69 centimeters in circumference. a jumping attack and an overhead smash down toward
Standard teams have six players (Morgan’s original the opposite court. Quick reaction time is essential to
rules allowed nine players). Each team is arrayed in two execute a good spike: Should a player aim the spike
rows of three players: left, center, and right forwards down into the opponent’s front court area, thus risking
and left, center, and right backs. Play begins after first a successful block, or spike it toward the back to defeat
serve is determined by the toss of a coin, and the right the “diggers”?
The team who is serving wins a point if the other

team is unable to return the ball; if the serving team
loses, a “side-out” occurs, and the other team takes the
Volleyball, Beach
serve. The players on the team that scores a side-out ro-
tate clockwise so that each player begins the new set
playing from a new position. Players must be in their
B each volleyball is similar to indoor volleyball in its
structure and rules of play. However, unlike indoor
volleyball, beach volleyball has no coaches to facilitate
positions when the ball is served. However, after the play, and a player has only one teammate to rely on.
serve they may move to any position on the court, in- Beach volleyball began during the 1920s on the
troducing the possibility of specialization into a sport beaches of southern California and Europe. By the
that was designed to be universal in terms of the skills 1950s and 1960s tournaments were held in the United
required. Of course, the postserve movement of players States, Brazil, Canada, and France, and in other parts of
is also a key factor in overall strategy. Europe. During the 1960s President John F. Kennedy
The first team to score fifteen points wins, as long as attended the first official beach volleyball event at
the other team trails by at least two points. If the trail- Sorrento Beach in Los Angeles. During the 1990s the
ing team is within one point, the game continues until Federation Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB), with
the two-point spread is reached. A match consists of five 214 national federations, began to govern international
games and is won with three games; three-game beach volleyball and volleyball. The FIVB World Tour,
matches are sometimes played. Teams change sides after formerly known as the “World Championship Series,” is
each game. the official international tour. The World Tour grew
Beach volleyball—although played by many people quickly since it began in 1992, and the groundwork for
purely as a form of recreation and by elite volleyball play- this growth was laid in the sands of sunny southern
ers as a form of training—has developed its own rules, California.
teams, and a professional tour with corporate sponsor-
ship. Teams may be of two or four players, male or fe- Rules and Play
male. The cushioning effect of beach sand encourages A distinct feature of beach volleyball is the formation of
players to attempt saving dives that would be impossible teams. Unlike other sports teams, beach volleyball teams
on a hard gymnasium floor, and jumping for blocks and are not contracted for a specified length of time. Players
spiking are more difficult than in standard volleyball. can switch teams as often as they like. Many times these
switches are because of injuries, other times because of
Alan Trevithick
differences between teammates. Players can compete
with one teammate one week and another teammate the
Further Reading next. Playing on any team of only two people is chal-
Baker, W. J. (1982). Sports in the Western world. Totowa, NJ: Rowman lenging, and beach volleyball is no exception. Main-
and Littlefield.
Beal, D. (1985). Spike! The story of the victorious U.S. volleyball team. taining partnerships is not easy. The relationship
San Diego, CA: Avant Publishers. between the two players can become complicated and
Krout, J. A. (1929). The pageant of America: Vol. 15. Annals of Ameri-
can sport. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
can interfere with the ability of the players to commu-
MacGregor, B. (1977). Volleyball. Brighton, UK: EP Publishing. nicate and work together.This arrangement makes beach
Peck, W. H. (1970). Volleyball. London: Collier Books. volleyball an interesting combination of a team sport
Stokes, R., & Haley, M. (1984). Volleyball everyone. Winston-Salem,
NC: Hunter Textbooks. and an individual sport.
Turnbull, R. (1964, October 24). Celebrated team of office girls sub- Beach volleyball is played on a court of the same size
dues Russians. New York Times, p. 7.
Waggoner, W. H. (1955, August 3). Soviet downs U.S. in volleyball
and net height of an indoor volleyball court. However,
match between embassy teams in the Hague. New York Times, p. 5. beach volleyball is played in sand that is 35–40 centi-
VOLLEYBALL, BEACH 1681
Men playing
beach volleyball.
Source: istockphoto.com/barsik.
awarded a point; if the receiv-

ing team wins the rally, a
“side-out” is called, and the re-
ceiving team wins the right to
serve. When a team “regains”
service, the serve alternates be-
tween players from that team.
Players are allowed to move
freely within their court area;
no distinction is made be-
tween the front court and
back court. Because no center
line exists under the net, play-
ers can go under the net as
long as they do not interfere
with their opponents. Players
meters deep, and it is played with a slightly larger ball. do not “rotate” from one position to the other as in in-
The full playing court measures 18 by 9 meters and is door volleyball. During a rally the ball can be con-
divided by the net into two halves of equal size. The top tacted by any part of the body. Three is the maximum
of the net is 2.24 meters (2.43 for men) from the number of contacts allowed on each side. A block
ground. The area around the playing court is called the counts as a contact. The usual sequence of contacts is
“free zone” and is usually 3–5 meters wide. A line 5–8 pass (forearm pass or dig), set (volley or overhand
centimeters wide marks the perimeter of the playing pass), and attack (hit or spike) over the net. The attack
court. This line is part of the court, and if the ball lands cannot be completed with the use of an open-handed
on the line the ball is considered to be in bounds. As in tip. If the ball is set, or volleyed over the net to the op-
indoor volleyball, the boundary of the court extends up ponents, it must be set perpendicular to the shoulders
along the net. Two antennas are placed on the net where of the player setting the ball. No substitution of players
the sideline crosses under it. The antennas mark where is allowed. During each match each team is allowed two
the court boundary is located on the net. If the ball timeouts of thirty seconds. Teams also switch sides every
touches an antenna the ball is considered to be out of multiple of five points (4–1, 6–4, etc.) with a thirty-
bounds. The ball is designed for outdoor use and is second rest between side changes.
slightly larger and slightly softer than the indoor ball. A variety of scoring systems is used. The standard
Play is between two teams of two players. A rally is scoring system on the FIVB World Tour is a one-set
initiated by a serve from anywhere in the area bounded match played to fifteen points, with at least a two-point
by the 9-meter end of a team’s playing court (the team’s lead required for victory, to a maximum of seventeen
baseline) and the extensions of the two 18-meter side- points (victory by one point is possible at 17–16).
lines of the court. Each player gets only one attempt to Teams can score points only when they are serving.
serve the ball, and a “net” serve is a fault. Common
types of serves are spike serves, overhand float serves, Net Gains for Women
underhand sky serves, and standing topspin serves. The Women first appeared at beach volleyball competitions
server continues to serve until the opponent wins the as “beauty contestants,” not as competitors. However,
rally. If the serving team wins the rally, that team is by the 1970s women’s beach volleyball competitions
began to become popular. By the 1980s the United opment of beach volleyball and its acceptance by the
States and Australia began holding national tourna- Olympic community.Thus, 1992–1993 was the inaugural
ments for women; after beach volleyball became an season for international women’s beach volleyball. The
Olympic sport in 1996, many countries provided com- World Tour had two stops, a purse of $100,000, and
petitive opportunities for women. more than thirty athletes representing eight countries. By
Women had played organized beach volleyball in 1998 the World Tour had nine stops, more than $1.4 mil-
southern California since the 1950s. In fact, the United lion in prize money—with women and men receiving
States was one of the first countries to develop a women’s equal prize money in each event, and more than three
professional tour and a women’s players association—the hundred athletes representing more than thirty countries.
Women’s Professional Volleyball Association (WPVA). Beach volleyball players, like so many other athletes,
In 1987 the WPVA tour began with ten events and were now earning money from advertising. Players
$48,900 in total prize money; the top player earned could advertise their own sponsors on their competition
more than eight thousand dollars. Because of such min- suits, hats or visors, and washable tattoos. Players could
imal earning potential, many athletes maintained a reg- make a career out of playing beach volleyball. In 2002
ular job while participating in weekend tournaments. By Karch Kiraly of the United States became the first beach
1996 the WPVA tour had grown to fifteen events with volleyball player to earn $3 million in prize money. In
more than $900,000 in prize money; the top player 2002 he also became the oldest player to win a profes-
earned more than $88,000. However, in 1998 the sional domestic beach volleyball tournament at the age
WPVA and its tour began to struggle, and for the first of forty-one.
time in more than ten years no tour was sanctioned by Considering the importance of the WPVA World Tour
the WPVA. The WPVA was dissolved in 1998. in the development of women’s beach volleyball, one
The formation of the WPVA and its tour and the should not be surprised that U.S. women set the stan-
popularity of the sport in the United States played a dards during the early years of the FIVB World Tour.
major role in the development of beach volleyball The first beach volleyball event for women sanctioned
worldwide. Organizers in the United States also devel- by the FIVB was played in 1992 at the Olympic Year
oped a national tour devoted to four-player team vol- Tournament in Almeira, Spain. The winners were
leyball. Four-versus-four events were nationally televised Karolyn Kirby and Nancy Reno of the United States.
and were sponsored by large corporations, helping to This team went on to win the second FIVB women’s
increase the exposure of beach volleyball. Because of event held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1993, and each
the increased media exposure, some athletes who com- player has won numerous events since then.
peted on this tour grew in popularity and began to Since the beginning of the FIVB World Tour, Brazil-
promote beach volleyball outside of competitions. For ian women have competed almost as well as U.S.
example, Gabrielle Reese not only began writing mag- women. From the first event in 1992 to the end of the
azine articles, but also hosted television shows for the 1998 season the FIVB had sanctioned fifty World Tour
MTV (Music Television) cable channel. events. The United States won fifteen of the first twenty-
The WPVA competitions in the United States drew five events (1992–1996), and Brazil won ten. Australia
many international players who came to develop their was the first country to consistently join Brazil and
skills. For example, Jackie Silva, an Olympic gold United States at the top of the sport.
medalist in Atlanta, Georgia, in 1996, played on the Other nations began to challenge Brazil and the
WPVA tour from 1987 to 1991. United States by breaking into the top four places at an
In 1992 the FIVB realized that providing opportunities FIVB World Tour event during the 1994–1995 season.
for women as well as men was essential for global devel- The Japanese team of Sachiko Fujita and Yukiko Taka-
VOLLEYBALL, BEACH 1683
hashi finished fourth at Osaka, Japan. Takahashi has At the 2001 Goodwill Games in Brisbane, Australia,
finished in the top four places at an FIVB World Tour featuring the world’s sixteen best men’s and women’s
event three times, including one silver medal. Beate teams, the men’s medalists were Jose Loiola and Ri-
Buhler and Danja Musch of Germany won the bronze cardo Santos (Brazil), gold; Martin Conde and Eduardo
medal at the Brisbane, Australia, event in 1995. There- Martinez (Argentina), silver; and Stein Metzger and
after, Musch finished in the top four at an FIVB World Kevin Wong (United States), bronze. The women’s
Tour event seven times, with three silver medals and medalists were Sandra Pires and Tatiana Minello
one bronze. (Brazil), gold; Adriana Behar and Shelda Bede (Brazil),
Beach volleyball made its first appearance in multi- silver; and Pauline Manser and Kerri-Ann Pottharst
sport international games at the 1994 Goodwill Games (Australia) and Elaine Youngs and Barbra Fontana
in St. Petersburg, Russia. Karolyn Kirby and Liz (United States), bronze.
Masakayan of the United States won the gold medal by At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece, the
defeating Monica Rodrigues and Adriana Samuel of Ricardo-Emanuel team of Brazil won a gold medal for
Brazil. men’s beach volleyball; the Walsh-May team of the United
At the first Olympic beach volleyball match at the States won a gold medal for women’s beach volleyball.
1996 Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, Brigette Lesage
Kristine Drakich
and Anabelle Prawerman of France played Mayra
Huerta Hernandez and Velia Eguiluz Soto of Mexico
before more than nine thousand spectators. In July,
Jackie Silva and Sandra Pires of Brazil made history by Further Reading
winning the first-ever Olympic gold medal in beach Beach volleyball. (1993). VolleyWorld, 5, 2–7.
Beach volleyball women. (1996). VolleyWorld, 4, 38–48.
volleyball, defeating fellow Brazilians Monica Ro- Beach volleyball world tour, an unforgettable year. (1997). VolleyWorld,
drigues and Adriana Samuel. The gold medal won by 5, 24–29.
Silva and Pires was also Brazil’s first Olympic gold Federation Internationale de Volleyball. (2003). Beach volleyball hand-
book. Retrieved December 15, 2004, from http://www.fivb.org/
medal in a women’s sport. Natalie Cook and Kerri-Ann EN/BeachVolleyball/Handbook/2003/index2003.asp
Pottharst of Australia won the bronze medal by de- Great excitement for the world tour. (1998). VolleyWorld, 1, 4–11.
Kiraly, K. (1999). Beach volleyball. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
feating Linda Hanley and Barbra Fontana from the Rizzo, P. (1996). 100 years of global link: Volleyball centennial 1895–
United States. 1995. Lausanne, Switzerland: FIVB.
Wakeboarding
Weightlifting
Wembley Stadium
Wimbledon
Windsurfing Wakeboarding
Women’s Sports,
Media Coverage of
Women’s World Cup
W akeboarding—a sport that combines surfing,
water skiing, skateboarding, and snowboarding—
began in 1985 when California surfer Tony Finn created
Worker Sports a board called a “Skurfer” by combining a water ski and
a short surfboard.
World Cup Finn’s creation allowed a wakeboarder—or “rider”—
World Series to “freeboard” or “skurf,” performing surfing-like moves on
the board while being towed in the wave—or wake—
World University Games behind a boat. Two of Finn’s friends suggested that he
Wrestling add foot straps to the board to allow riders more freedom
of movement. Water ski company owner Herb O’Brien
Wrigley Field eventually joined with surfboard shapers to create a wake-
Wushu board that was more like a surfboard.
The “modern” wakeboard has a symmetrical front-to-
back shape and a “twin tail” design—one each in the
front and back underneath the board—to allow a more
balanced position whether the wakeboarder is riding
forward or backward.
Rules and Play

Wakeboarders can perform a variety of flips, turns, and
spins called “tricks,” with some riders going as high as
7 meters into the air. Wakeboarding competitions began
to develop in 1990 when Jimmy Redmon founded the
World Wakeboard Association (WWA), the sport’s
world governing body. World Sports & Marketing, a
sports promotion and event organizer company, began
to sponsor professional wakeboarding events in 1992.
Professional wakeboarders can compete in numerous
events today, including the World Wakeboard Champi-
onships, the Pro Wakeboard Series, and the X Games
(which consist of various so-called extreme sports). Am-
W
Darin Shapiro, Hamilton was ranked among the top
women wakeboarders in the world just a few months
after she began the sport.
ateur riders can participate in pro-am and other local During the 1998 X Games in San Diego, California,
events at which clinics are sometimes offered in con- silver medalist and first-time participant Dana Preble
junction with competitions. performed the first Air Raley by a woman. The Air
Raley is a trick that consists of a rider hitting the wake,
Women and Wakeboarding swinging the wakeboard and body head over heels to
Although men and women compete in the same com- cross the wake in the air, and landing on the opposite
petitions, they are scored and ranked separately. The side of the wake.
professional women’s wakeboarding field includes com-
petitors ranging from teenagers to riders in their mid- Competition at the Top
twenties. Tara Hamilton, a Florida high school student, The World Wakeboard Association in 2004 ranked An-
competed in gymnastics for eight years before she took drew Adkison of the United States first in the world
up wakeboarding. Training with male wakeboarder among men, Dallas Friday of the United States first in
the world among women.
C. J. Lockman Hall
Further Reading
World Wakeboard Association.
(2004). Retrieved January 10, 2005,
from http://www.thewwa.com
A wakeboarder in action.
Source: istockphoto/Ju-Lee.
1685
champions were Launceston Elliot (Great Britain) who

Weightlifting did a one-hand jerk with 156 pounds (70.74 kg) and
Viggo Jensen (Denmark) who did a two-hand jerk with
W eightlifting is a sport in which heavy objects,

usually barbells, are lifted in competition. It is
also an exercise format designed to promote health, fit-
245 pounds (111.16 kg). Weightlifting was also in-
cluded in the 1904 Olympics in St. Louis and in the
1906 intercalary games in Athens. Although world
ness, and proficiency in other sports. Since the late championships, largely made up of Europeans, oc-
nineteenth century, weightlifting has achieved world- curred from 1903 to 1913, the sport was pursued in a
wide participation. haphazard manner, with relatively few competitions
and no firm set of international rules and records. The
Early History outbreak of World War I stifled any further progress.
Competitive weightlifting can be traced to prehistoric Then in 1920, Jules Rosset, president of the French
times when ancient tribes used lifting heavy stones as a federation, instigated the International Weightlifting
test of manhood, and stone-lifting is still done in strong- Federation (Federation Haltérophile International) to
man and strongwoman contests in Europe and America. regulate and administer international competitions.
Sustained interest in weightlifting activities dates from This also was the occasion for weightlifting’s return to
the Greeks, who not only hoisted stones and tossed the the Olympics, which were staged in Antwerp. During
discus but also employed iron objects called halteres the 1920s, the French, led by light-heavyweights
that resembled modern dumbbells in their games and Ernest Cadine and Charles Rigoulot, set the pace in
training. By far the most famous Greek athlete was Milo international competition. The 1924 Paris Olympics
of Crotona, a weightlifter and wrestler. Milo, a six-time marked the last time globe barbells were used. Plate-
Olympic champion, originated the idea of progressive re- loading barbells then became standard, soon followed
sistance training by carrying a calf daily until it became by bars with revolving (ball-bearing) sleeves to mini-
a bull, thereby steadily increasing his strength. mize friction as the athlete turned the bar while hoist-
Little weightlifting activity transpired during the ing it. In 1928, the Germans returned to Olympic
Middle Ages, and not until the eighteenth century do competition for the first time since the war, and the in-
records show iron weights (dumbbells) being used for ternational federation adopted the press, snatch, and
light exercise. George Barker Windship, a Harvard- clean and jerk for use in all sanctioned competitions.
trained physician living in Boston in the 1850s, intro- These two-hand lifts (the Olympic lifts) remained the
duced heavy lifting.Windship incorporated various lifting standard for the next forty-four years and essentially
devices to develop the lower torso and promote his phi- defined the sport.
losophy, “Strength is Health.” By the end of the century, The 1932 Los Angeles Olympics attracted relatively
strongmen such as Eugen Sandow (England and Amer- few weightlifting competitors, but it brought the first
ica), Arthur Saxon (Germany), George Hackenschmidt appearance by the United States in Olympic or world
(Russia), Louis Uni (France), and Louis Cyr (Canada), championships since 1904. Because of America’s lack-
were performing competitive feats of strength. luster (third place) performance, Bob Hoffman of York,
Pennsylvania, started recruiting and training young
Weightlifting Becomes a Sport weightlifters and published Strength & Health maga-
The first official international weightlifting competition zine to promote Olympic lifting. Hoffman’s lifters
was held in London in 1891. Inspired by the Greek tra- steadily improved during the 1930s with one of them,
dition, Pierre de Coubertin included weightlifting events Tony Terlazzo, winning America’s first gold medal at
in his 1896 revival of the Olympic games. The first the 1936 (Berlin) Olympics. But the Germans, led by
WEIGHTLIFTING 1687
Josef Manger and Rudolf Ismayr, and the Egyptians, Agents of Change
under the great Khadar el Sayed Touni, dominated the By the 1960s, the sport was being affected by several
decade. By the outbreak of World War II, weightlifting ancillary developments. Because of the persistence of
was recognized widely as a sport on the international, Hoffman and other promoters such as Peary Rader and
national, regional, and local levels, but it received far Joe and Ben Weider, weightlifting was gaining a wider
less acceptance as a means for developing health and acceptance and was increasingly being employed to im-
fitness. prove proficiency in other sports, particularly football,
basketball, and baseball, but eventually even swimming,
American Golden Age golf, tennis, and distance running, where flexibility and
Given the widespread devastation of European coun- endurance were critical to success. On the other hand,
tries from the war, the United States emerged as the the increased popularity of bodybuilding (physique)
dominant weightlifting power, scoring a decisive victory and powerlifting competitions during the 1960s seri-
over the Soviet Union at the 1946 world champion- ously detracted from participation in Olympic weight-
ships in Paris. Led by Hoffman and such great champi- lifting meets on all levels.
ons as John Davis, Tommy Kono, Pete George, and Another important change during this era was the in-
Norbert Schemansky, American lifters mounted a suc- ternalization of the sport from simply training with bar-
cessful Cold War challenge to the Soviets and brought bells to the use of dietary supplements. Developed in the
about a “golden age” of American weightlifting that early 1950s by Irvin Johnson, a Chicago dietician and
lasted into the early 1960s. A climax occurred at the bodybuilding enthusiast, these products, often with a
1956 Olympics in Melbourne where Georgia heavy- soy base, were designed to make more protein available
weight Paul Anderson again led the American team to for muscle growth and improve the weightlifter’s health
victory over the Russians. So prodigious were Ander- and functioning of internal organs. Strength athletes
son’s feats of strength that he set a new standard for big started getting bigger and lifting more weight. Even more
men (being the first weightlifter to press 400 pounds critical to performance was the introduction of anabolic
(181.44 kg). By universal consensus, the greatest steroids. First isolated in 1935 by Charles Kochakian, a
weightlifter of all time was Kono, who won eleven na- University of Rochester graduate student, this drug was
tional titles, six world championships, and one silver used on a limited basis in the 1940s to help wounded
and two Olympic gold medals and set thirty-seven soldiers recuperate and in the 1950s by Russian
American, eight Pan American, seven Olympic, and weightlifters to fuel their victories in international com-
twenty-six world records in three weight classes during petition. In the early 1960s, John Ziegler, an Olney,
his seventeen-year career (1948–1965). Maryland, physician, introduced steroids to American
Eventually, however, the Soviets, led by such stand- (York, Pennsylvania) lifters. During the next decade,
outs as Arcady Vorobiev, Yuri Vlasov, Leonid Zhabotin- their use spread to virtually all sports, and in all coun-
sky, and David Rigert, were beating Hoffman’s men tries weightlifting totals and records soared. At the 1970
with regularity, and such countries as Poland, Hungary, world championships in Columbus, Ohio, Russian su-
Japan, Cuba, and Bulgaria were coming to the fore. perheavyweight Vasily Alexeev became the first man in
Most of the countries became competitive on the inter- history to clean and jerk more than 500 pounds (226.8
national level because of the introduction of vigorous kg). From 1970 to 1977, the Russian giant broke eighty
(state-funded) nationalization programs. The greatest world records and eventually moved the clean and jerk
Asian lifter during the 1960s was Miyake Yoshinobu of mark up to 563 pounds (255.38 kg). Controversies sur-
Japan, who won three Olympic medals and six world ti- rounding steroids eventually led to their ban and the in-
tles and set twenty-five world records. stitution of drug testing by the International Olympic
The battles that count aren’t the ones for gold medals. The
struggles within yourself—the invisible, inevitable battles
inside all of us—that’s where it’s at. ■ JESSE OWENS
Committee (IOC) at the 1976 Montreal Olympics. ment of a first-rate national training facility in Colorado
Weightlifters were stigmatized for steroid use in ensuing Springs, Colorado, American weightlifting continued
decades, but ergogenic drug abuse (from lack of testing) its relative decline. At the 1995 world championships in
was far more prevalent in the sister sports of powerlift- Ghangzhou, China, for instance, the American team
ing and bodybuilding. placed thirty-first, behind even Nauru, a Pacific island of
What contributed most to the relative decline of only 10,000 people. So proficient did Bulgaria become
Olympic weightlifting, however, was a controversy over at producing top-flight weightlifters that some of them
the execution of the overhead press, once the most pop- were hired to become naturalized citizens and compete
ular of lifts and a legitimate test of upper body strength. for other nations, such as Australia and Qatar, in inter-
Quite contrary to the rules, lifters were increasingly al- national competition. The continued popularity of pow-
lowed to employ the legs and hips and an exaggerated erlifting and bodybuilding, lack of grassroots coaching
backbend. Officiating became heavily mired in interna- and training facilities, and meager opportunities for
tional politics, and the whole movement became a farce. commercial gain relative to other sports contributed to
At the 1972 Munich Olympics, the International weightlifting’s declining status in North America.
Weightlifting Federation (IWF) made the momentous
decision to eliminate the press as a competitive lift. Reconstructing an
Almost immediately Olympic weightlifting, despite its International Order
status as an Olympic sport and the growing public ac- That Olympic weightlifting retained a high degree of
ceptance of weight training, began to decline in popu- recognition elsewhere may be attributed partly to the
larity, especially in the United States and Western Europe. stalwart leadership of Gottfried Schodl (Austria) and
Tamás Aján (Hungary) in positions of IWF president
East European Dominance and general secretary since the 1970s. Among their
In Eastern Europe and Cuba, however, the weightlifting achievements was a substantial increase in the number
tradition remained strong, and Bulgaria, a country of of countries and athletes participating on all levels.
only about nine million people, began to replace Rus- The 1996 centennial Olympics in Atlanta attracted
sia as the world’s greatest lifting power. In the 1970s, 100,000 spectators, the largest number in the history
Russia won 255 Olympic and world championship of the sport, each paying $34. In 2003, 1,269 male
medals to Bulgaria’s 150, but in the 1980s these totals weightlifters from 127 countries participated in IWF
were just 226 to 210 respectively. By 1989, Bulgaria calendar events. Women’s competitions, conducted on
held 14 of the world records to just 11 for Russia, and a regular basis since the late 1970s, also gained inter-
with the break-up of the Soviet Union in the early national status in 1987 with the first women’s world
1990s, Bulgaria became the dominant weightlifting championships in Daytona Beach, Florida. When
power. Bulgaria’s greatest weightlifter was Naim Sulei- women’s weightlifting became an Olympic event for
manov (“Pocket Hercules”) who set his first world rec- the first time at Sydney in 2000, Tara Nott, in the 48
ord at age fifteen but was prevented from entering the kg class, became the first American to win an Olympic
1984 Los Angeles Olympics by Bulgaria’s boycott. After gold medal in weightlifting since bantamweight Chuck
defecting to Turkey at the 1986 World Cup Tournament Vinci’s victory at Rome in 1960. In 2003, a record 721
in Australia, he became Naim Suleymanoglu and went women from 95 countries participated in sanctioned
on to win Olympic gold medals at Seoul, Barcelona, international competitions.
and Atlanta, the first weightlifter to win three in a row. Another leadership initiative has been an increased
During this time, despite a windfall of $656,000, standardization of rules, officiating practices, and
surplus from the 1984 Olympics, and the establish- equipment. In 1993, the IWF implemented a more
WEIGHTLIFTING 1689
rigorous drug-testing program that was complemented Rumania, and Qatar were producing world-class
by a restructuring of weight classes and an abolition of weightlifters in the men’s ranks. In a poll conducted on
all previous (presumably drug-induced) records. Not the IWF Internet site, Hossein Reza Zadeh (105+ class)
surprisingly, contest totals and world records dropped from Iran and Halil Mutlu (56 kg class) from Turkey re-
dramatically. In 2003, the IWF conducted 1,351 tests, ceived the most votes for world’s best lifter in 2003. As
with only 28 (2 percent) being positive for drugs. Es- of March 2004, Reza Zadeh held all the records in his
pecially with the inclusion of national spot-testing in class. Still his 578-pound (262.15 kg) world-record
some countries, weightlifting has become cleaner than clean and jerk was only 15 pounds (6.8 kg) higher than
its sister sports of powerlifting and bodybuilding. Alexeev’s 563 (255.42 kg) in 1977, a likely testimony
to the effectiveness of drug testing.
Entering the Twenty-first Century In the women’s ranks, China has utterly dominated
With the onset of the twenty-first century, Bulgaria re- competition, holding eighteen of the twenty-one senior
mained a leading lifting power, but other countries in- world records and thirteen of the junior records in March
cluding Turkey, China, Russia, Greece, Iran, Poland, 2004. By far the best female lifter, and recipient of the
most Internet votes, was Liu Chunhong of China.
Though still only a junior level lifter (at age 19), her
270 kg total in 2003 in the 69 kg class was 7.5 kg higher
than the 262.5 kg total registered by Nahla Ramadan of
Egypt in the 75 kg class. For men and women, especially
in capitalist societies, the greatest challenge remains the
relative lack of remuneration in Olympic weightlifting.
Weightlifting Basics
The objective of Olympic weightlifting is to register the
highest two-lift total in the snatch and the clean and
jerk. Each lifter gets three attempts in each lift, with the
highest weights in each category being added to his or
her total. If a lifter misses all three attempts in either lift,
he or she is eliminated from the competition. In the
event of a tie, the lighter lifter receives the higher place-
ment. The lifter has two minutes from the time his or
her name is called to start the lift. A head referee and
two side judges officiate. At least two of three white
lights are required for a passing lift. Strategy in weight-
lifting normally comes into play toward the end of the
competition where each athlete will choose a final clean
and jerk that will yield a total that other lifters will not
be able to surpass.
Weightlifting equipment.
Source: istockphoto/mevans.
In the first competitive lift, the snatch, the bar is The equipment employed in competitive weightlifting
pulled from the floor to an overhead position at arms consists of the barbell, a steel bar or rod to which cast-
length in one continuous movement. The lifter is al- iron or steel disk weights (encased in hard rubber) are
lowed to move his feet into either a squatting or split- attached at each end on a revolving sleeve. The men’s
ting position, essentially dipping under the bar while competition bar weighs 20 kg (44 pounds). For women,
it is momentarily suspended in mid-air. In the recov- the bar weighs 15 kg (33 pounds). The range of weights
ery portion of the lift, the athlete raises his or her added is 25, 20, 15, 10, 5, 2.5, and 1.25 kg (55, 44,
body to an erect position. The clean and jerk is a two- 33, 22, 11, 5.5, and 2.75 pounds). All lifts are per-
part lift. The athlete first, in the clean, lifts the barbell formed on a square platform that measures four meters
from the floor to the shoulders, again (as in the on each side.
snatch) squatting or splitting under the suspended
bar. The lifter then recovers into a standing position GOVERNANCE
with the weight resting on the shoulders. After lower- Five organizations administer the sport of weightlifting,
ing the weight with the knees, the lifter then thrusts it consisting of (in descending order of influence) the In-
overhead with his or her legs and again dips under the ternational Weightlifting Federation, National Weight-
suspended bar by assuming either a split or squat po- lifting Federations, the International Olympic Committee,
sition. In the recovery portion, the athlete again raises Olympic committees for individual nations, and the or-
his or her body erect. ganizing committees for specific competitions. Olympic
From 1928 to 1972, the press was also contested. weightlifting in the United States is governed by USA
As in the clean and jerk, the barbell was first brought Weightlifting in Colorado Springs.
to the lifter’s shoulders, using the same foot motion op-
tions. The athlete would then stand erect until the head Final Reflections
referee signaled the execution of the lift, which was Weightlifting has always been a highly individual
done by pressing the barbell overhead with the arms sporting endeavor. Although it is possible to com-
and shoulders and with no assistance from the legs or pete on a team basis, particularly on the national and
lower torso. international levels, many weightlifters prefer no af-
In each lift, the athlete must finish with feet in line, filiation. Unlike many sports, there is no possibility
body erect, arms and legs fully extended, and the bar- for direct interaction with opponents or even mem-
bell under control overhead. The lifter must hold the bers of one’s own team. This lack of physical contact
weight overhead until receiving the head referee’s signal and team strategy encourages individuality, yet a
to replace it to the floor. strong spirit of camaraderie has always existed among
participants.
WEIGHT CLASSES AND EQUIPMENT Historically, weightlifting has attracted ethnic and
Men’s competitions consist of eight bodyweight classifi- racial minorities, those seeking greater self-esteem, or in-
cations, the upper limits being: 56 kg (123 pounds), dividuals not able to participate in team sports. Contrary
62 kg (137 pounds), 69 kg (152 pounds), 77 kg to popular belief, the best weightlifters (pound-for-
(170 pounds), 85 kg (187 pounds), 94 kg (207 pounds), pound) are found in the lighter classes, often among in-
105 kg (231 pounds), and more than 105 kg. For wom- dividuals who appear quite normal and do not fit the
en, there are seven weight classes: 48 kg (106 pounds), stereotype (bulky, oversized). Speed (from fast-twitch
53 kg (117 pounds), 58 kg (128 pounds), 63 kg muscles) and flexibility are as important as strength to
(139 pounds), 69 kg (152 pounds), 75 kg (165 pounds), an Olympic weightlifter’s success. Exercise scientists, in
and more than 75 kg. fact, have identified the snatch, where great explosive
WEMBLEY STADIUM 1691
It’s scary to read things like that, you know, being the best player in England,
but it gives me confidence. I’m not going to go around shouting about things
that people say about me, but it’s nice that they say it. ■ DAVID BECKHAM
power and quickness are required, as the fastest move-

ment in all of sport. Through its association as a train-
ing aid for other sports during the past half century,
Wembley Stadium
weightlifting has gained increased respect for its health
and athletic qualities.
John D. Fair
W embley Stadium is a sports stadium in Wembley,
London, England. At the time of this writing, the
original Wembley Stadium had been torn down and a
See also Powerlifting; Venice Beach new one, scheduled to open in 2006, is being built on
the site. Wembley stadium was and is expected to con-
tinue to be Britian’s leading soccer stadium and also a
Further Reading major venue for world soccer competitions.
Drechsler, A. (1998). The weightlifting encyclopedia, a guide to world
class performance. Whitestone, NY: A Is A Communications.
In the late 1800s the ground that later became the
Fair, J. (1988). Olympic weightlifting and the introduction of steroids: stadium was Wembley Park Leisure Grounds and had
A statistical analysis of world championship results, 1948–1972. In- facilities for soccer and cricket, gardens, and foun-
ternational Journal on the History of Sport, 5, 96-114.
Fair, J. (1993). George Jowett, Ottley Coulter, David Willoughby and tains. After a failed attempt to build a huge tower as
the Organization of American Weightlifting,1911–1924. Iron Game a tourist attraction it became a golf course. In the
History, 2I, 3-15.
Fair, J. (1993). Isometrics or steroids? Exploring new frontiers in
1920s the government developed the park into a
strength in the early 1960s. Journal of Sport History, 20, 1-24. venue for a British Empire Exhibition, with the new
Fair, J. (1998). The iron game and capitalist culture: A century of Amer- stadium, then called Empire Stadium, as the center-
ican weightlifting in the Olympics,1896–1996. International Jour-
nal on the History of Sport, 15, 18-35. piece. The new stadium was marked by its distinctive
Fair, J. (1999). Muscletown USA, Bob Hoffman and the manly culture of twin towers and by its royal box, thirty-nine steps
York Barbell. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
Fair, J. (2001). The tragic history of the “military press” in Olympic and
above the field. The first event was the “White Horse
world championship competition,1928–1972. Journal of Sport His- Cup Final,” the Football Association (FA) final be-
tory, 28, 345-374. tween the Bolton Wanderers and West Ham. It is be-
Ivanov, D. (1979). The strongest man in the world, Vasili Alexeyev.
New York: Sphinx Press. lieved that some 200,000 people attended with a
Gaudreau, L. (1975). Anvils, horseshoes and cannons: The history of seating capacity of only 100,000. The game got under
strongmen. East Kingston, NH.
Kirkley, G. (1957). Modern weightlifting. London: Faber Popular
way only when Police Constable George Scorey rode
Books. up and down the sidelines on his white horse, Billie,
Mihajlovic, V. (1977). 80 years of the weightlifting in the world,1896– pushing the crowds back off the field. Hence, the
1976. Beograd, Serbia: International Weightlifting Federation.
Mihajlovic, V. (1982). Weightlifting results, Part II, Budapest, Hun- names, “White Horse Cup Final.” The FA Cup was
gary: International Weightlifting Federation. contested at Wembley every year (except when sus-
Radley, A. The illustrated history of physical culture. Preston, UK. T.
Snape.
pended due to war) until 2000, when the stadium
Saxon, A. (1992). Textbook of weight-lifting. Farmington: Modern was closed for rebuilding. It is also the home of the
Reprint Edition. National Team and hosted the final game of the 1966
Schodl, G. (1992). The lost past, a story of the International Weightlifting
Federation. Budapest, Hungary: International Weightlifting Federation. World Cup. It has also hosted five European Cup
Searle, C., & Vaile, B. (Eds.). (1996) The IOC Official Olympic com- championships and numerous lower-level British
panion 1996. London: Brassey’s Sports.
Strossen, R. (1999). Paul Anderson, the mightiest minister. Nevada
championships. Brazilian soccer immortal Pele noted
City, CA: Ironmind Enterprises. that “Wembley is the church of football. It is the cap-
Webster, D. (1976). The iron game, an illustrated history of weight- ital of football and it is the heart of football.”
lifting. Irvine, Scotland: John Geddes.
Weightlifting USA. Colorado Springs, CO: Weightlifting USA. In addition to soccer, Wembley hosted the track and
Widlund, T. (1989). Weightlifting at the Olympic Games,1896–1988. field events at the 1948 Olympics, Rugby League and
Budapest, Hungary: International Weightlifting Federation.
World Weightlifting. Budapest, Hungary: International Weightlifting
Rugby Union matches, motorcycle racing, and several
Federation. preseason National Football League games. In 1972 it
Wembley Stadium before

being replaced in 2004.
began hosting concerts. Notable

ones have been those by Bruce
Springsteen, Queen, the Spice Girls,
and the Live Aid concert in 1985.
In 2000 the stadium was closed,
and events shifted elsewhere until it
was rebuilt. The rebuilding initiative
was controversial and faced numer-
ous financial and political hurdles
including concerns about the overall
cost, the source of funds, the effect on the surrounding Inglis, S. (1983). The football grounds of England and Wales. Willow
community, and transportation issues. One major con- Books.
Nederlands Architectuurinstitut et al. (2000). The stadium: Architecture
troversy has been over the plan to set aside 18,800 seats of mass sport. NAI Publishers.
(of 90,000) for corporations that will pay between
30,000 and 50,000 British pounds to use the seats for
a wide range of events for ten years. These subscriptions
will provide 70 percent of the stadium’s revenues. Some
sports fans are concerned that the corporate presence
Wimbledon
will damage the sports experience for other fans. Man-
chester United’s captain Roy Keane has referred to them
as the “prawn sandwich brigade.” Supporters of the plan
T he All England Lawn Tennis Championships,
known as “Wimbledon” (after the locale where they
are played), is the most prestigious professional tennis
argue that it will help keep the cost down for other fans. tournament in the world. The championships are staged
The final plans were not agreed upon until 2002.The at the All England Lawn Tennis Club (AELTC), a private
90,000 seats in the new stadium will all have unob- club founded in 1868.
structed views of the field.There will be a retractable roof Attended by more than 500,000 people each year,
that will close in inclement weather but remain open at Wimbledon has grown tremendously from the gathering
other times to allow the sun to reach the grass field. The of two hundred spectators who attended the first cham-
most visible feature will be an arch 315 meters long and pionships in 1877. Only the men’s singles event, won by
133 meters high above the north end. It supports the Spencer Gore, was played originally. The women’s sin-
north stands and part of the south stands as well and re- gles event was not introduced until 1884 (the same year
places internal pillars. The royal box will be in its usual the men’s doubles event was introduced). From an entry
position in the middle of the north stand. The project is pool of thirteen women, Maud Watson became the first
budgeted at 757 million pounds. Despite the series of women’s champion.The trophies presented to the initial
false starts, Wembley Stadium seems on schedule for winners are still presented today: a silver gilt cup (in-
completion in 2006 and for the FA Cup in May. scribed with “The All England Lawn Tennis Club Single
Handed Champion of the World”) for men and a silver
David Levinson
salver named the “Rosewater Dish” for women. The
number of players included in the main draw of the sin-
gles events has increased (to 128), as has the prize
Further Reading money. In 1968 the women’s and men’s singles cham-
Blukeman, M. (1998). Wembley, the first time. Yore Publications.
Chaudhary,V. (2002). Bulldozers roll as Wembley stadium gets go-ahead.
pions received $1,313 and $3,500, respectively, which
The Guardian, Sept. 27, 2002. increased to $980,875 and $1,054,375, respectively, by
WIMBLEDON 1693
Tennis is a young man’s game. Until you’re 25, you can play singles. From 25 to 35,
you should play doubles. I won’t tell you exactly how old I am, but when I played,
there were 28 men on the court—just on my side of the net. ■ GEORGE BURNS
2004. Permanent stands replaced temporary bleachers Regardless of the nationality of its players, Wimble-
by the mid-1880s, and by 1922 a fourteen-thousand- don has become a showcase for the greatest players on
seat stadium was built, one of the most prominent ad- the professional women’s tour. The participation of
ditions to date. Presently the Wimbledon championships overseas players at Wimbledon was initiated by May
utilize all nineteen grass courts of the AELTC, including Sutton in 1905 and by Norman Brookes of Australia in
the center court (originally the court around which all 1907. During the early 1920s Suzanne Lenglen of
others were arranged) with a capacity of 13,810 and the France dominated Wimbledon by winning six titles be-
number one court with a capacity of 11,429. fore turning professional. Her countrymen, Jean Borota,
Jacques Brugnon, Rene Lacoste, and Henri Cochet (the
Players “Four Musketeers”), continued to dominate during the
In the beginning the championships were dominated by late 1920s. U.S. men (e.g., Jack Kramer and Anthony
British players. Ernest and William Renshaw won thir- Talbert) dominated the championships during the late
teen singles and doubles championships from 1881 to 1940s and early 1950s before handing the mantle to
1889, followed by Reggie and Laurence Doherty, who the Australians (e.g., Rod Laver, Roy Emerson, and
won the doubles title eight times from 1896 to 1906. John Newcombe) until the 1970s. In 1956 Althea Gib-
Since 1907 only two Britons, Arthur Gore (in 1901, son became the first African-American woman to win a
1908, and 1909) and Fred Perry (in 1934, 1935, and title at Wimbledon before Margaret Court Smith cap-
1936) have won the men’s singles title, and after 1922 tured the singles title three times (1963, 1965, and
only five British women have become singles champi- 1970). Wimbledon joined the “open era” by allowing
ons (Kitty McKane Godfree in 1926, Dorothy Round both amateur and professional players in 1968, the
in 1934 and 1937, Angela Mortimer in 1961, Ann year when Billy Jean King and Rod Laver became the
Jones in 1969, and Virginia Wade in 1977). women’s and men’s champions, respectively.
In 1971 Evonne Fay Goolagong became the first Abo-
rigine (native Australian) to win Wimbledon. In 1980 the
Swede Bjorn Borg become the first player to win five con-
secutive men’s singles titles. Boris Becker became the
youngest player (at seventeen), the first German, and the
first unseeded player to win the same event in 1985. In
1987 the U.S. player Martina Navratilova became the
first woman to win six women’s singles championships
in succession (nine in total by 1990). However, during
the late 1980s and 1990s Steffi Graf (Germany) domi-
nated Wimbledon, winning the title seven times. On the
men’s side the U.S. player Pete Sampras had also
recorded seven men’s singles wins by 2000.
Traditional Wimbledon
The plethora of Wimbledon traditions has helped
maintain the unique character of the championships.
Hardware used to secure the tennis net.

I’ll let the racket do the talking. ■ JOHN MCENROE
Wimbledon
Bill Tilden at Wimbledon
In 1920 Bill Tilden became the first American to With increases in the popularity of professional tennis
win at Wimbledon. The extract below captures his and player involvement in the fashion industry, the va-
thoughts as he came to Centre Court at Wimbledon. riety in tennis clothing will continue to flourish as it has
Here am I, America’s representative, given the done in recent years.
opportunity, the fates being kind, to do what no
other American has yet done. Under my feet is The Future
the turf which the giants of all lawn tennis time Wimbledon has changed through the years to accom-
have trod. Looking on are the shades of the Ren- modate the growth in popularity of tennis and the need
shaws, the Baddelys, the Dohertys, and scores of for improved facilities. During the past twenty-five years
others almost equally great, watching my strokes, the members enclosure was introduced, the center court
noting my strategy and tactics, nodding, approv- roof was raised for more seating, and Aorangi Park (a
ingly or the reverse, as they envision my bearing large grassed area that allows televised coverage) was
and take cognizance of my every action. Around added. Currently the major project is the construction
me, filling every available bit of space, are the of a retractable roof for center court that will allow play
men and women who compose the most distin- to continue during rain. The projected completion date
guished and critical gallery in all the lawn tennis is 2009.
world; even royalty has come to view the scene Since 2003 drug-testing policies at Wimbledon have
and add luster and éclat to it. ’Twould ill become also been increased in accordance with the Tennis Anti-
me to do aught but acquit myself well, to justify Doping Program operated by the International Tennis
my selection as one of the representatives of my Federation, the Association of Tennis Professionals, and
country. I must act worthily, as beseems the game the Women’s Tennis Association.
and its followers. And may the best man win. Katie Sell
Tilden II, W. T., & Merrihew, S. W. (1925). Match play and the spin of the ball.
New York: American Lawn Tennis.
Further Reading
Bartlett, M., & Gillen, B. (Eds.) (1981). The tennis book. New York:
Arbor House Publishers.
Wimbledon Championships. (2004). Retrieved November 24, 2004,
These traditions include the serving of strawberries from http://championships.wimbledon.org/
and cream, champagne, and Pimms (an alcoholic cock-
tail supplemented with fruit), along with the presenta-
tion of trophies by members of the royal family (e.g.,
Queen Elizabeth II in 1977, Prince Philip in 2004)
and, of course, the ivy-covered walls and timepieces
Windsurfing
throughout the grounds.
Wimbledon mandates completely white tennis attire
for both men and women. Initially white clothing was
W indsurfing (also called “sailboarding”) combines
surfing and sailing on what is basically a large
surfboard with a sail operated by one person.
popular because it masks perspiration. Clothing fash-
ions, the prerogative of women players, have always History
been a major focus at Wimbledon, from the headband Windsurfing originated during the late 1960s and, like
and silk chiffon that Lenglen added to her already del- surfing, developed a distinct culture. The windsurf
icate calf-length dress in 1919 to the form-fitting all-in- board was based on designs and technologies adapted
one white body stocking worn by Anne White in 1986. from boat sailing and surfing. By the mid-1970s
WINDSURFING 1695
A windsurfer in training.
Source: istockphoto/lisegagne.
residents) often constitute the

majority of participants.
Culture
Windsurfing, along with other
new sports such as snow-
boarding, surfing, and skate-
boarding (also called “lifestyle
sports” or “whiz sports”), de-
veloped along with counter-
culture social movements in
North America. These activi-
ties evolved in opposition to
mainstream sports and in op-
position to the institutional-
ization of sports in recent
companies were producing windsurf boards around the years. A culture has developed around these new sports.
developed world, particularly in Australia, Europe, The philosophy of windsurfing promotes fun, self-
Canada, and Japan. Windsurfing expanded rapidly dur- actualization, individualism, and other internal rewards.
ing the 1980s as more than a half-million boards were Windsurfing is less institutionalized than more tradi-
sold worldwide. This expansion was largely because of tional modern sports, has fewer rules, fewer formal re-
advances in technology, particularly the development of strictions and exclusion policies, and promotes the idea
materials with higher strength-to-weight ratios, which that anyone can participate. Only a few windsurfers be-
allowed lighter, more efficient, and more durable boards long to sports organizations. Windsurfing’s “grass roots”
and rigs (the mast, sail, and boom) that were easier to are casual weekend sailors.
use. The so-called fun board, which is shorter and
lighter, contributed to the popularity during the mid- Competition at the Top
1980s, a period when windsurfing was the fastest grow- In 1984 the Olympic Games accepted windsurfing as a
ing sport in Europe. class in the yachting events. Initially women and men
Windsurfing had matured somewhat by the early competed together, but by 1994 separate women’s and
1990s; equipment sales in Europe—home of the sport’s men’s classes were established. Nevertheless, windsurf-
largest consumer base and biggest producers—peaked ing competition takes many forms, and for many peo-
during the late 1980s. However, windsurfing has pro- ple the pinnacle is the professional funboard racing
gressed from being a fad and has established itself as a circuit, which operates under the auspices of the Pro-
genuine sport that encompasses several forms, ranging fessional Windsurfers Association (PWA).
from long-board racing and speed sailing to freestyle Recreational windsurfers tend not to engage in for-
and wave sailing.Venues range from inland waters, such mal competitions. For many windsurfers organized
as lakes and reservoirs, to the open sea. People in many competition is contrary to the freedom of the wind-
developing nations, including in Africa, South America, surfing lifestyle.
the Caribbean, and the Pacific islands, also windsurf. In late 2004 the Professional Windsurfers Association
However, because the equipment is expensive and often ranked these athletes first: Scott McKercher of Australia,
unavailable in some of these areas, tourists (rather than men’s wave; Daida Ruano Moreno of Spain, women’s
wave; Antoine Albeau of France, men’s racing; Allison ficult to learn and requires considerable power and
Shreeve of Australia, women’s racing; Ricardo Campello strength. The media (especially videos and magazines)
of Brazil, men’s freestyle; Daida Ruano Moreno, perpetuate this perception by focusing on advanced
women’s freestyle; and Matt Pritchard of the United windsurfing action, with men dominating both photo-
States, Super X. graphs and text. Thus, windsurfing is represented as a
male domain, with women often the ornamental ob-
Culture and Gender servers. This emphasis on the hard-core element of the
Women windsurf, but their numbers are disproportion- culture excludes outsiders, especially women. As Jessica
ately low, and the sport and its culture remain domi- Crisp, an elite Australian windsurfer, said, “I taught a girl
nated by men. Research in Germany and Australia the other day who felt she couldn’t even paddle a surf-
suggests that women constitute between 25 and 33 per- board because she had no muscles. But right away
cent of windsurfers, although 40 percent of the wind- she was beach-starting, uphauling the sail and sailing
surfers classified as beginners are women. around. . . . There is some myth that you have to be huge
Demographic data from the United Kingdom also and strong, but just look at us—we aren’t exactly giants.
suggest class differences. This data showed that British The equipment is so light and easy to learn on now. It’s
women who windsurf regularly tend to be able-bodied, a technique thing in the end” (Crisp 1996, 14–20).
white, and middle class. Windsurfing is an expensive However, as more women participate, elite women are
sport, although less expensive than other water sports pushing the limits. Women windsurfers of all levels have
such as sailing. Data showed that women participants described the confidence and independence they experi-
in particular have disposable incomes that enable them ence while windsurfing. Although the sport itself is indi-
to purchase the windsurfing board and sail. If partici- vidual, women have gained a sense of community from it.
pants lack the money to buy the equipment, they will
Belinda Wheaton
have only a limited interest in participating. Windsurf-
ing is a time-consuming sport; often several hours (at
least) are needed to reach the location (often inaccessi- Further Reading
ble by public transport), assemble the equipment, and British Market Research Bureau. (1995). TGI index. London: Author.
Crisp, J. (1996). The winds of Maui. Wahine, 2, 14–20.
then spend time out on the water. Women windsurfers Gosselin, L. (1994, July–August).Throwing caution to the wind. Women’s
interviewed in the United Kingdom suggested that, even Sport and Fitness, 56–61.
for professional women whose income did not limit Turner, S. (1983). Development and organisation of windsurfing. In-
stitute of Leisure and Amenity Management, 1, 13–15.
their ability to participate, finding time to windsurf was Wheaton, B., & Tomlinson, A. (1998, August 22). The changing gender
difficult; this was especially problematic for women order in sport? The case of windsurfing. Journal of Sport and Social
Issues, 252–274.
who lived a considerable distance from the water and
for women who had family commitments. As a woman
instructor explained, “Windsurfing takes up half a day,
or a day. Aerobics you can go down to the gym—fit it
in—hubby or partner will baby-sit, so windsurfing is a
problem. . . . I mean they haven’t got time to fit it in, it’s
Women
not a sport that is accessible to them.” See Baseball Wives; Body Image; Coeducational Sport;
Although improvements in both teaching equipment Disordered Eating; Feminist Perspective; Gender Eq-
and methods have made windsurfing more accessible to uity; Gender Verification; Injury Risk in Women’s Sport;
women, the perception remains that windsurfing is dif- Lesbianism; Psychology of Sex Differences; Sexual
WOMEN’S SPORTS, MEDIA COVERAGE OF 1697
Besides pride, loyalty, discipline,

heart, and mind, confidence is the
key to all the locks. ■ JOE PATERNO
Harassment; Sexuality; Title IX; Women’s Sports, Media parently based on masculine biological and physiological
Coverage of; Women’s World Cup supremacy. It is however clear that over the years, and
particularly during the 1990s, women have made many
advances in organized, competitive, high-performance
spectator sports. Overall, figures do suggest a rise in
Women’s Sports, women’s participation in sports, particularly in Western
societies and most clearly in the United States (following
Media Coverage of Title IX—an amendment to the Civil Rights Act of 1964
guaranteeing equal funding for girls and boys sports that
T he feminist critique of sport that has existed for over

three decades concludes that the marginalization and
trivialization of female athletes only serves to reproduce
became law in 1972).
Women, Media, and Sport

the domination of men over women.Writers tend to agree Why should the media be discussed in relation to
that the media play a central ideological role not only in women and sport? The main reason is that the mass
“reflecting” but also in reinforcing existing ideas about media—which are an essential feature of modern social
gender—there is a large body of work focused around the life—preserve, transmit, and create important cultural
study of the media coverage of women’s sports and female information. Indeed, one central assumption within
athletes.These studies tend to follow two main issues: the media studies is that how members of society see them-
amount of coverage and the portrayal of women’s sports selves, how they are viewed and even treated by others
and female athletes by the media. Many of these studies is determined to a great extent by their media repre-
conclude that despite all the changes that have taken place sentation. It can be argued that when it comes to sport
over the last decades, women’s sport is still underrepre- the mass media assume an even greater importance
sented in the media, and when female athletes are cov- since the overwhelming majority of spectators experi-
ered, it is still in ways that are different from coverage ence sporting events in their mediated version.
given their male counterparts. To date a substantial body of work examining the
role of the media in relation to women and sport does
Women and Sport exist and, very broadly speaking, it tends to focus on two
The notion that in sports physical and biological differ- main issues: the amount of coverage and the portrayal of
ences interface with social and cultural interpretations of women’s sports and female athletes by the media.
gender role expectations has been central to much of
what has been published in the sociology of sport. In- AMOUNT OF COVERAGE
deed, studies published during the 1970s and 1980s ex- Studies published throughout the 1980s, most of the
plored remarkable gender differences in patterns of 1990s, and onward have continued to reveal that the
athletic socialization and examined whether sport as an lion’s share of sports coverage by the media is still ded-
institution neutralizes men’s power and privilege over icated to men’s activity. Indeed, a consistent finding is
women. They concluded that the marginalization and the underreporting of female athletes and their sporting
trivialization of female athletes only serves to reproduce events throughout all mass media; for example, in 1994
the domination of men over women. In the decades that men were found to receive 93.8 percent of coverage on
followed, some scholars continued to claim that sport, U.S. television (Duncan and Messner 1998). Since the
perhaps more than any other institution, perpetuates the media is seen as reflecting what is important and has
myth of man’s superiority and woman’s inferiority, ap- prestige, this severe underrepresentation is thought to
create the impression that women athletes are nonex- home country regardless of the athlete’s gender. The
istent in the sporting world or of little value when they Olympic Games are another revealing example in this
do exist. Moreover, this “creates a false impression of context; studies by Eastman and Billings (1999) and
women’s athleticism by denying the reality of the mod- Tuggle and Owen (1999), analyzing coverage of the
ern female athlete” (Kane and Greendorfer 1994, 35). 1996 Atlanta Olympics by the American network NBC
This underrepresentation, in turn, is also viewed as cre- found an almost equal coverage of men’s and women’s
ating a vicious circle since the growth of women’s sport events as determined by parameters like proportions of
is hindered by the lack of funds that nowadays come clock time and numbers of covered medal events. Still,
primarily from sponsorship. Sponsors are interested in in these studies many reservations emerge in regard to
investing in sports and teams that are featured regularly the focusing of women’s sport coverage on those that
on television, and since women’s sports do not qualify are considered to be “feminine sports” (for a study of the
as such, they do not get the big cash injections associ- Sydney Games, see Higgs, Weiller, and Scott 2003).
ated with sponsorship. To date, women’s tennis may be the only clear ex-
It is important to point out that the most substantial ample of a sport to which the media routinely dedicate
body of work in this field originates primarily from the much airtime. Thus, for example, in 1999 the American
United States; however, according to studies from other cable channel HBO devoted an unprecedented 70 per-
(Western) countries, the coverage of women’s sport rou- cent of its tennis coverage to women (Mackay 1999).
tinely occupies no more than 5 percent of total sport The intensive coverage of women’s tennis is even more
airtime in nations like Italy (Capranica and Aversa extensive during major events like the Wimbledon tour-
2002), the Netherlands (Knoppers and Elling 2001), nament. This may be, however, not only because
Sweden (Koivula 1999), and Britain (Harris 1999). women’s tennis appears to elicit interest in sporting
Studies also consistently show that along with signifi- terms but also, as many have noticed, due to the phys-
cantly less coverage, there are fewer representations of ical appearance of some of the young female players—
those team or individual women’s sports generally con- an argument that links into the qualitative aspect of
ceived of as “masculine.” the research of women, media, and sport.
And yet, some changes in the amount of coverage of
women’s sport have been traced in major sporting MEDIA P ORTRAYAL OF
events, like the extensive and successful coverage of the FEMALE ATHLETES
1999 Women’s World Cup—in ratings terms— Beyond the quantitative questions of media coverage,
especially in the United States, the nation that hosted studies also deal with differences in the type of coverage
the games and eventually won the event. This case in women’s and men’s sports get. Over the years various
fact showed television organizations that there is profit studies have focused on different practices by which
to be made in women’s sport. The 2001 UEFA Euro- the media construct female athleticism not only as
pean Women’s Championship also attracted a high “other than” but also as “lesser than” that of the male.
level of sponsorship, live TV screening of the semifinals Don Sabo and Curry Jansen (1992), for instance, argue
in all four countries concerned, and ratings that re- that the skills and strengths of women athletes are often
vealed that every fourth television set in Germany was devalued since the dominant standards of excellence are
tuned into the opening game (Germany versus Swe- masculine, emphasizing cultural equivalents of hege-
den). These could seem like major shifts, and yet, the ex- monic masculinity: power, self-control, success, agency,
amples mentioned are of major international sporting and aggression. Furthermore, whereas male athletes are
events in which it is safe to assume any successful ath- valorized, lionized, and put on cultural pedestals, fe-
lete would get extensive media attention in his or her male athletes are infantilized by sports commentators
WOMEN’S SPORTS, MEDIA COVERAGE OF 1699
who refer to them as “girls” or “young ladies.” Messner, success and failure. Jones, Murrel, and Jackson (1999)
Duncan, and Jensen (1990) found that while male ath- in their study of the 1996 Olympics also found that for
letes tended to be described in terms of strength and female athletes playing “female appropriate” sports,
success, the physical strength of female athletes tended there was a trend toward print media accounts, which
to be neutralized by ambivalent language. Another— focused more on describing their performance than per-
much referred to in the literature—practice used by the sonality or appearance. Other findings by these schol-
media is the use of names in commentary. Indeed, ars, however, indicate that the “beauty” and “grace” of
Messner, Duncan, and Jensen (1990) found that com- the female gymnasts were still the main points of em-
mentators referred to female tennis players by their first phasis, despite their having taken U.S. gold in the event.
names 52.7 percent of the time and to men only Thus, it can be argued that the “buts” in this case out-
7.8 percent of the time. Pfister’s (1989) study of the weigh the positive findings by far. Indeed, in her study
coverage of the Olympics by German newspapers also Koivula (1999) found, for example, that infantilism
showed that while men were often addressed by their (“girl,” “young lady/woman”) was still very much part of
surnames, women were introduced by their first name, the language used by commentators for referring to
a nickname, or a fantasy name. According to her find- women athletes, while the language used to describe
ings, these diminutive, especially intimate, or overly po- men (“man” and even “old fellow/man”) linguistically
lite forms of address were among the strategies that acknowledged their status as adults—this although the
were almost exclusively applied to women. This phe- athletes were generally of similar age. Moreover, in his
nomenon is perceived by the various writers as dis- study of the representation of woman in football-related
playing a hierarchy of naming, that is, a linguistic stories in the British popular press during the course of
practice that reinforces the existing gender-based status the 1996 European Championship, Harris (1999) ar-
differences. Moreover, while the male performance is gues that the message still being portrayed is that sport
often linked to power metaphors (like war), the cover- is an essentially male activity in which women are af-
age of female athletes is often framed within stereo- forded only subordinate and/or highly sexualized roles.
types that emphasize their aesthetic appeal rather than
athletic skill. Appearance and Attractiveness
However, in this respect too some changes have been In fact, among various other findings, researchers ana-
taking place in recent years; thus, for example, in their lyzing the portrayal of female athletes from different
aforementioned study of the 1996 Olympic Games, perspectives found the coverage to be often framed
Eastman and Billings (1999) found that although the within stereotypes that emphasize appearance and at-
presence of gender stereotyping was not as over- tractiveness rather than athletic skill. According to this
whelming as had been expected, nonetheless “as tradi- argument, the sexualization of female athletes trivializes
tional gender stereotyping suggests, the descriptors them and robs female athletes of athletic legitimacy,
applied to women athletes contained more commentary thus preserving hegemonic masculinity.
about physical appearance than the descriptors applied
to men athletes” (Eastman and Billings 1999, 163). THE ANNA KOURNIKOVA PHENOMENON
Moreover, the scholars claim that one could also find— The media coverage of women’s tennis over recent years
mainly in preproduced profile reports—what can be is highly representative in this context, the most promi-
only labeled as “unfortunate stereotyping” (1999, 165). nent example being Anna Kournikova. Although Kour-
Eastman and Billings note, however, that NBC’s host nikova, prior to her early retirement, was for several
and on-site reporters were careful to attribute women’s years one of the top players in the world—in the season
success and failure to the same characteristics as men’s of 2000, for instance, she was ranked eighth in the
Set your goals high, and don’t stop

till you get there. ■ BO JACKSON
world—the amount and type of coverage she gained Sharapova was one option; Yelena Dukic was another,
(and still does) did not correlate with her tennis rank- which was illustrated by the British newspaper headline
ing. To illustrate, during Wimbledon 2000 for every prior to the match between the two being described as
picture of the single’s finalist Lindsay Davenport there “Battle of the Babes” (Daily Mirror, June 28, 2003).
were twenty of Kournikova in the British newspapers However, it is important to emphasize that the current
(Mackay 1999). The extensive media attention to the discussion of women’s image is more complex than this.
blonde, model-looking Kournikova—also dubbed “ten- In addition to the wide variety of female images cur-
nis’s pinup girl”—clearly shows the importance certain rently being presented by the media, tennis (and other
branches of the media ascribe to looks and image over sports) also offers an image of powerful sportswomen,
tennis skills. Indeed, as one Web-based writer put it, “the manifested by stars like Venus and Serena Williams.
Anna Kournikova phenomenon proves you don’t need
to win tournaments to get your name—and photo—in The Future
the media” (Thomas 2001). Over recent years women have certainly advanced in or-
Some believe that there is an up side to this phe- ganized competitive sport, and women’s sport has also
nomena—Chris Evert, three-time Wimbledon cham- gained considerable ground as far as media visibility is
pion and later a commentator for NBC, said in an concerned, particularly in major sporting events. A cer-
interview: “Girls now want to grow up and be athletes tain shift also occurred in the type of coverage of
[ . . . ] there are attractive, appealing girls out there and women’s sports and female athletes, and yet recent re-
now they realize that’s it is okay to run around and search findings show that practices used to undermine
sweat and be tough. Twenty years ago it was frowned women’s sporting achievements—and identified in the
upon and wasn’t feminine” (Mackay 1999). Further- past—are still very much in evidence. All of which con-
more, according to the Sports Sponsorship Advisory tinues to send a message that sport is in essence a male
Service, women should “play the sex appeal card to at- activity, in which women play only a subordinate and/
tract more media coverage and therefore more spon- or sexualized role. Although it can be argued that the
sorship” (Gillan 1999). This suggestion infuriated media cannot change the world, it can certainly help—
Yvonne Barker, director of Women in Sport, who said: alongside other societal forces—change attitudes about
“We believe that women’s sport should be sponsored women in sports, but for now—with all the improve-
for exactly the same reason as men—because they ap- ments that have been made—one can only hope they
peal to their audience for their achievement and intrin- will do so more in the future.
sic value. We certainly don’t feel that they should be Alina Bernstein
sponsored for sex and sex appeal” (Gillan 1999).
Generally speaking, a certain ambivalence emerges
every time a female athlete is framed as a sexual being Further Reading
or is covered by the media not for her sport performance Bernstein, A. (2002). Is it time for a victory lap?—Changes in the
but because she is attractive and conveys sex appeal. media coverage of women in sport. International Review for the So-
ciology of Sport, 37(3–4), 415–428.
Kournikova is but one example: During the 2003 Wim- Billings, A. C., & Eastman, S. T. (2002). Selective representation of gen-
bledon tournament, Maria Sharapova—who one year der, ethnicity, and nationality in American television coverage of the
later would go on to win the Wimbledon crown—drew 2000 Summer Olympics. International Review for the Sociology of
Sport, 37(4), 351–370.
much of the media’s attention for her physical appear- Capranica, L., & Aversa, F. (2002). Italian television sport coverage dur-
ance. The dramatic decline in Anna Kournikova’s tennis ing the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games: A gender perspective. Inter-
national Review for the Sociology of Sport, 37(4), 337–349.
performance (she failed even to qualify) resulted in the Creedon, P. J. (Ed.). (1994). Women, media and sport—Challenging gen-
media’s “eagerness” to crown an appropriate substitute. der values. Thousand Oakes, CA: Sage.
WOMEN’S WORLD CUP 1701
Duncan, M. C., & Messner, M. A. (1998). The media image of sport Thomas, J. ( 2001, July 11). Youth is served. Retrieved April 26, 2004,
and gender. In L. A. Wenner (Ed.), MediaSport (pp. 170–185). Lon- from http://slate.msn.com/tagteam/entries/01-07-11 _ 111826.asp.
don: Routledge. Tuggle, C. A., & Owen, A. (1999). A descriptive analysis of NBC’s cov-
Dyer, R. (1993). The matter of images—Essays on representations. Lon- erage of the centennial Olympics—The “games of the women”?
don: Routledge. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 23(2), 171–182.
Eastman, S. T., & Billings, A. C. (1999). Gender parity in the Olympics
—Hyping women athletes, favoring men athletes. Journal of Sport
and Social Issues, 23(2), 140–170.
Gillan, A. (1999, August 26). Sex appeal ‘pays in sport. The Guardian.
Retrieved April 26, 2004, from www.guardianunlimited.co.uk/
Archive/Article/0,4273,3895751,00.html.
Harris, J. (1999). Lie back and think of England: The women of Euro
Women’s World Cup
B
96. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 23(1), 96–110.
Harris, J., & Clayton, B. (2002). Femininity, masculinity, physicality and
egun in 1991, the Women’s World Cup, the pre-
the English tabloid press: The case of Anna Kournikova. Interna- mier women’s international soccer competition, is
tional Review for the Sociology of Sport, 37(4), 397–413. held every four years and involves female athletes from
Higgs, C. T., Weiller, K. H., & Scott, M. B. (2003). Gender bias in the
1996 Olympic Games: A comparative analysis. Journal of Sport & around the world. Sponsored by Fédération Interna-
Social Issues, 27(1), 52–64. tionale de Football Association (FIFA), this event in-
Jones, R., Murrel, A. J., & Jackson, J. (1999). Pretty versus powerful in
volves a series of elimination games that begin with
the sports pages. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 23(2), 183–192.
Kane, M. J., & Greendorfer, S. L. (1994). The media’s role in accom- twelve to sixteen teams and culminate in a champi-
modating and resisting stereotyped images of women in sport. In onship game between the top two teams. The Women’s
P. J. Creedon (Ed.), Women, media and sport—Challenging gender
values (pp. 28–44). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. World Cup, which has received a great deal of media
Knoppers, A., & Elling, A. (2001). Sport and the media: Race and gen- coverage, has brought issues concerning gender roles in
der in the representation of athletes and events. In J. Steenbergen,
international sports to the forefront in both academic
P. De Knop, & A. Elling (Eds.), Values and norms in sport—Critical
reflections on the position and meaning of sport in society (pp. 281– and popular writings.
300). UK: Meyer and Meyer Sports Books.
Koivula, N. (1999). Gender stereotyping in televised media sport cov-
erage. Sex Roles, 41(7–8), 589–603.
History
Lapchick, R. E. (Ed.). (1996). Sport in society—Equal opportunity or The People’s Republic of China hosted twelve teams dur-
business as usual? London: Sage. ing the inaugural year, and the United States national
Mackay, D. ( 1999, July 4). One for the ladies. The Observer. Retrieved
April 26, 2004, from www.guardianunlimited.co.uk/Archive/ team defeated Norway 2–1 for the championship in front
Article/0,4273,3880373,00.html. of a crowd of sixty-five thousand in Guangzhou’s Tianhe
Messner, M. A., Duncan, M. C., & Jensen, K. (1990). Separating the
men from the girls: The gendering of televised sports. Paper pre-
Stadium. Chinese media dubbed the front line of the
sented at the meeting of the North American Society for the Soci- American team—made up of Michelle Akers, Carin Jen-
ology of Sport, Denver, CO. nings, and April Heinrichs, who combined to score
Pedersen, P. M. (2002). Examining equity in newspaper photographs:
A content analysis of the print media photographic coverage of in- twenty of the twenty-five total goals for the United States
terscholastic athletics. International Review for the Sociology of —the “Triple-Edged Sword.” The referee for the third-
Sport, 37(4), 303–318.
place match, Claudia de Vasconcelos of Brazil, became
Pfister, G. (1989). Women in the Olympics (1952–1980): An analysis
of German newspapers (Beauty Awarded vs. Gold Medals). The the first woman to officiate at this level for FIFA.
Olympic Movement and the Mass Media (pp. 11–27, 11–33). According to a note made in June 1995 on the FIFA
Canada: Enterprises Ltd.
Sabo, D., & Curry Jansen, S. (1992). Images of men in sport media— website, “If China in 1991 was the innovation, Sweden
The social reproduction of gender order. In S. Craig (Ed.), Men, mas- in 1995 was the consecration of women’s football at
culinity, and the media (pp. 169-184). London: Sage.
the highest level.” In the second Women’s World Cup,
Scraton, S., & Flintoff, A. (Eds.). (2002). Gender and sport: A reader.
UK: Routledge Sweden hosted twelve teams and held the matches in
Shifflett, B., & Revelle, R. (1996). Gender equity in sports media cover- medium-sized venues that held fewer than twenty thou-
age—A review of the NCAA news. In R. E. Lapchick (Ed.), Sport in
society—Equal opportunity or business as usual? (pp. 237–243). Lon-
sand fans at a time. While the U.S. team was favored,
don: Sage. Norway defeated the American team 2–0 in the semi-
finals and went on to victory in the finals against bra underneath after the winning kick—an image that
Germany. Sweden’s Ingrid Jonsson became the first remains one of the most famous of all sports images.
woman to referee a FIFA final. In 2003, the Women’s World Cup was scheduled to
In 1999, the number of participating teams rose from take place in China, but due to the SARS outbreak, the
twelve to sixteen. The United States hosted the World venue was switched to the United States. This World
Cup and defeated China 5–4 in penalty kicks at the Cup took place in six cities in the United States. Nu-
Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California. This championship merous North American journalists dubbed the event
game had over ninety thousand fans in attendance—the “World Cup Lite,” because it was put together quickly
largest audience at a female sporting event to date. Al- and was held in venues that hosted crowds of twenty or
most as many fans attended this final match as had at- thirty thousand, rather than eighty or ninety thousand,
tended the entire series of matches in the 1995 Women’s as was the case in 1999. Taking place in Portland, Ore-
World Cup in Sweden. It was at this event that Ameri- gon, the final match of 2003 was between Germany
can Brandi Chastain removed her shirt to reveal a sports and Sweden, with Germany winning 2–1 in overtime.
In 2007, China will host the event as compensation for
the changed venue in 2003 due to the SARS outbreak.
Significance
Women’s sports changed dramatically in the last cen-
tury. With the creation of Title IX in the United States,
for example, young girls have more athletic opportuni-
ties at the high school and collegiate level than ever be-
fore, even if the opportunity for professional play is
limited. Nonetheless, the highly publicized photo of
U.S. national team player Brandi Chastain in her sports
bra after the 1999 win against China in overtime sug-
gests that even if women’s sports were increasing in
popularity, they were still qualitatively different from
men’s sports. Female athletes still face challenges with
regard to being seen as serious and strong athletes in a
world dominated by men’s sports.
Internationally, women have increased their partici-
pation in sports such as soccer even in countries where
women’s roles are more traditional than in the United
States. During each World Cup, journalists frequently
comment on the status of women in the participating
countries, noting that in countries such as Brazil and
Mexico, where men’s soccer is dominant, it is more dif-
ficult for female players to feel accepted than it is in the
Two American girls of Chinese and Irish United States and some European nations. However,
ancestry hold a sign saying “Victory to since the inception of the Women’s World Cup, women’s
Chinese Women’s Soccer Team” during the participation and status in international sporting events
1999 Women’s World Cup. has increased, both as participants and as spectators.
WORKER SPORT 1703
Women’s World Cup

Key Facts of the
Women’s World Cup
on the 1999 Women’s World Cup soccer championship. Sociology
of Sport Journal, 19, 170–188.
Year Host Winner/Runner-up Score Longman, J. (2000). Girls of summer: The U.S. women’s soccer team and
1991 China USA/Norway 2–1 (1–1) how they changed the world. London: HarperCollins.
Markovits, A. S., & Hellerman, S. L. (2001). Off-Side: Soccer and Amer-
1995 Sweden Norway/Germany 2–0 (2–0) ican exceptionalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
1999 USA USA/China 0–0 a.e.t. Messner, M.. (2002). Taking the field: Women, men, and sports. Minne-
(0–0) 5–4 p.** apolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Stewart, B., Stoumbos, H., Whitesell, J. B., Whitesell, P., & Hooper, C.
2003 USA Germany /Sweden 2–1 a.e.t.
(2003). Women’s soccer: The passionate game. Berkeley, CA: Grey-
(1–1, 0–1) * stone Books.
* After extra-time play Trecker, J., Miers, C., Whitesell, B., the United States Soccer Federation,
** After extra-time play then decided by penalty kicks & Federation Internationale De Football Association. (2000).
Women’s soccer: The game and the 1999 FIFA Women’s World Cup.
New York: Universe Publishing.
Although the number of teams, players, and fans re-

mains far below the equivalent in men’s events, after sev-
eral more Women’s World Cup championships, this gap
may narrow.
Worker Sport
As journalists and academics reflect on the status of
women’s sports, the Women’s World Cup can be seen as
either a watershed in the fight for women’s equality in in-
I n 1925, a year after the Paris Olympic Games, as
many as 150,000 workers attended the first Worker
Olympics at Frankfurt am Main, Germany. In 1931, one
ternational sports or as a blip in the slow but relatively year before the Los Angeles “official” Olympic Games at
stagnant growth of women’s participation in professional which 1,408 athletes competed, over 100,000 workers
sports. Undoubtedly the 1999 championship game was from twenty-six countries took part in the second Worker
unique in its popularity, and it created a buzz about Olympics in Vienna, Austria. More than a quarter of a
women’s professional soccer leagues and prompted girls million spectators attended the Vienna Games. Five years
and boys to look up to increasing numbers of female ath- later, in opposition to the 1936 “Nazi Olympics” in
letes such as Mia Hamm and Julie Foudy as sports idols. Berlin, Germany, an even grander Worker Olympics was
However, with the folding of the American profes- planned for Barcelona, Spain. However, it never took
sional soccer league for women—the Women’s United place, since the Spanish Civil War erupted on the day
Soccer Association (FIFA)—just five days before the start scheduled for the opening ceremony (and its organizers
of the 2003 Women’s World Cup, it is difficult to argue were later shot by Franco’s fascists).
that that buzz has remained as strong as it was in 1999. The Worker Olympics easily surpassed their rival,
Either way, the Women’s World Cup remains the most the “bourgeois” Olympic Games, in number of com-
visible venue in which professional female athletes from petitors and spectators, and in pageant, culture, and
around the world compete for the most coveted cham- even sporting records. Yet today, it is only the official
pionship in soccer. And the event itself signifies a mile- Olympic Games that are commemorated in books, tel-
stone for women’s sports that did not exist before 1991. evision, and films. The Worker Olympics and the worker
sport movement are all but forgotten. However, for mil-
Michelle Janning
lions of workers between World War I and World War
II, sport was an integral part of the labor movement,
Further Reading and worker sport clubs or associations existed in almost
Christopherson, N., Janning, M., & McConnell, E. D. (2002). Two
every country of Europe, in the United States and
kicks forward, one kick back: A content analysis of media discourses Canada, and in South America and Asia (e.g., Japan
and India). By 1930 worker sport united well over 4 emerged in the 1890s in conscious opposition to the
million people, making it by far the largest working- nationalistic German Gymnastics Society (Turnen) that
class cultural movement. At the zenith of its existence, was to spread its considerable influence to North Amer-
worker “oppositional” sport combined sporting activi- ica with the migration of entire German communities.
ties with socialist fellowship, solidarity, and working- The WGA was followed by the Solidarity Worker Cy-
class culture. cling Club and the Friends of Nature Rambling Asso-
ciation in 1895, the Worker Swimming Association in
Aims of Worker Sport 1897, the Free Sailing Association in 1901, the Worker
The aims of the worker sport movement differed from Athletics Association in 1906, the Worker Chess Asso-
country to country. All countries agreed, however, that ciation in 1912, and the Free Shooting Association in
worker sport should give working people the chance to 1926. With over 350,000 worker-athletes in various
take part in healthy recreation and to do so in a social- clubs even before World War I, Germany became the
ist atmosphere. Worker sport differed from bourgeois hub of the worker sport movement.
sport in that the former was open to all workers,
women as well as men, and black as well as white (this
at a time when many workers, women, and blacks were
Olympic Games
While the worker sport movement did not take issue
excluded from bourgeois clubs). It provided a socialist
with much of the Baron de Coubertin idealism con-
alternative to bourgeois competitive sport, to commer-
cerning the modern Olympic Games, it did oppose the
cialism, chauvinism, and the obsession with stars and
games themselves and counterposed them with its own
records. It replaced capitalist with socialist values and
Olympiads, on the following grounds:
set the foundation for true working-class culture. Worker
sport, therefore, initially emphasized less competitive ■ The bourgeois Olympics encouraged competition
physical activities, such as gymnastics, acrobatics, tum- along national lines, whereas the Worker Olympics
bling, pyramid forming, mass artistic displays, hiking, stressed internationalism, worker solidarity, and
cycling, and swimming. peace. While the International Olympic Committee
The founders of the worker sport movement believed (IOC) barred German and Austrian athletes from the
that sport could be revolutionary, that the movement 1920 Games, and German athletes from the 1924
was no less significant to workers than their political, Games, the 1925 Worker Olympics were held in Ger-
trade union, and cooperative movements. Sport played many under the slogan “No More War.”
a paramount role in the struggle against capitalist na- ■ While the IOC Games restricted entry on the
tionalism and militarism that pervaded the so-called grounds of sporting ability, the worker games invited
politically neutral bourgeois sport organizations and, all athletes, stressing mass participation as well as ex-
through them, corrupted young working people. The panding events to include poetry and song, plays,
formation of separate worker sport organizations artistic displays, political lectures, and pageantry.
shielded youths from bourgeois values. While capital- ■ The IOC Games were criticized for being confined
ism fostered mistrust among workers of different na- chiefly to the sons of the rich and privileged because
tions, the worker sport organizations banded together of their “amateur” rules and aristocratic, bourgeois-
internationally to create peace and international soli- dominated Olympic committees. Coubertin himself
darity. They turned physical culture into a new interna- always opposed women’s participation and readily
tional language capable of breaking down all barriers. accepted the cultural superiority of whites over
In Germany, for example, a worker sport organiza- blacks; the longest serving IOC presidents, Baillet-
tion, the Worker Gymnastics Association (WGA), Latour and Avery Brundage, both collaborated with
WORKER SPORT 1705
Hitler’s Nazi regime and were unabashedly anti- everywhere almost simultaneously, reaching a peak in
Semitic. By contrast, the Worker Olympics were ex- the 1920s and a trough in the late 1930s, and nearly
plicitly against all chauvinism, racism, sexism, and fading away after World War II. National peculiarities
social exclusivity. They were truly amateur, organ- invariably added brakes and accelerators, as the Ger-
ized for the edification and enjoyment of working- man and Austrian tragedies under Hitler; the peaceful
women and workingmen, and they illustrated the demise of worker sport in the United Kingdom, North
fundamental unity of all working people irrespective America, and Scandinavia; and the persistence of
of color, creed, sex, or national origin. worker sport in Israel and Finland all illustrate.
■ The labor movement did not believe that the
Olympic spirit of true amateurism and international Worker Sport after World War II
understanding could be attained in a movement World War II weakened, but did not defeat, the worker
dominated by an aristocratic, bourgeois leadership. It sport movement. It continues today, although the radi-
was, therefore, determined that the labor movement cally changed circumstances of the postwar world in-
should retain its cultural and political integrity within evitably transformed the movement. In contrast with its
the workers’ Olympic movement. prewar development, the movement’s new role called
upon its member organizations to cooperate selectively
Problems of Worker Sport with national sports federations and clubs.
Bourgeois society excluded workers from public life as A number of factors caused this new situation. First,
well as from amateur sports clubs and competitions. the Soviet Union had broken its isolation. It emerged
Consequently, if workers were to compete locally, na- from the war a victor, and the Soviet Union’s military
tionally, or internationally, they had to establish their and political power penetrated into Central and Eastern
own sports associations and contests. Such organiza- Europe. With the resulting international friction—Cold
tions were part of a far-reaching political, trade union, War—in which two rival blocs confronted one another
and cultural movement; they formed a network of in a divided Europe, sport became an obvious arena for
worker-based organizations that could represent work- international (peaceful) competition. In the Soviet
ers throughout their lives. The bourgeois state did all it Union, domestic sport was now thought potent enough
could to obstruct this movement by introducing new to take on the world, and victories over bourgeois
laws, constantly moving the bureaucratic and adminis- states, especially the United States, would evidently
trative “goalposts,” and at times resorting to brute force. demonstrate the Soviet system’s vitality (apart from
The state, however, could not destroy the rapidly grow- space pioneering, sport was the only area in which the
ing worker movement until Mussolini came to power in USSR could demonstrate superiority).
Italy in 1922 and Adolf Hitler rose to power in Ger- Second, worker sport encouraged both the Olympic
many after 1933. movement and bourgeois sport in general to democra-
Worker sport did not take place in a vacuum. The tize their memberships. Fewer sports and clubs were
problems that other branches of the labor movement confined to middle-class white males, and the belief
faced (especially the party struggle—social democratic grew that international sport, particularly the Olympic
versus communist—struggle for influence) also affected Games, could be used for peace, democracy, and the
worker sport. And like these other branches of the labor isolation of racist regimes, such as South Africa and
movement—including trade unions, socialist or labor Rhodesia.
parties, the cooperative movement, and youth organi- Third, worker sport switched its emphasis to cam-
zations like the Woodcraft Folk, Young Pioneers, and paigning within bourgeois organizations against com-
Young Communist League—worker sport rose and fell mercialism and chauvinism to sport for all—funds,
Chinese workers
playing basketball
before a large crowd.
playgrounds, open spaces,

and facilities; for working peo-
ple; for promoting a sport that
was profoundly humanistic
and free; and for women’s
sport. As the development of
worker sport in France
showed, the new goal was no
longer to replace bourgeois
sport but, instead, to take part
in building a national sports
system founded on the needs
of all.
A separate worker sport
movement, however, man-
aged to survive. In 1946, im-
mediately after the war, the
Socialist Worker sport associ-
ation in Western Europe set up the International ticipated in the 1980s. The Austrian worker sport As-
worker sport Committee (IWSC) in London. Despite a sociation (ASKO) similarly retained its identity and
peak of 2.2 million members in fourteen countries, played an important part in Austrian sport. In Israel,
the IWSC never attained the importance of its prewar Hapoel (“The Worker”) is still Israel’s largest and
counterpart—the committee of the same name— strongest sports organization. It is one of the few ex-
because, with the exception of Finland, France, Austria, ceptions where a worker sport organization controls its
and Israel, individual member associations were weak. country’s sport.
For example, the Finnish Gymnastics and Sports Fed-
eration (TUL), while cooperating with the national Reasons for Today’s Weakness
sports association (SVUL), retained its own identity; it There are several reasons why the worker sport move-
had a membership of 450,000 (one-half the SVUL ment is relatively weak today (or has faded away com-
membership) in 1990; and it promoted mass gymnas- pletely) and why it never captured the majority of the
tics and artistic displays, family exercise programs, cul- working class within its membership. Worker sport al-
tural events, and, particularly, women’s sporting most always duplicated bourgeois sports, clubs, federa-
activities. Its worker sport festivals held in Helsinki’s tions, and Olympics. This was not significant as long as
Olympic Stadium attracted as many as 50,000 specta- the older organizations remained socially exclusive pre-
tors. The French Worker Sport and Gymnastics Feder- serves of the bourgeoisie. But once the workers suc-
ation (FSGT) had over 100,000 members at the end of ceeded in democratizing sport and once industrial firms,
the 1990s, coordinated the activities of worker sport the church, and governments came to realize the poten-
clubs throughout the country, organized conferences, tial of sport for social control, the duplication became
and sponsored worker sport events, such as the annual problematic. Worker sport societies rarely had the pres-
cross-country and cycling contests associated with the tige, facilities, or funds to compete with bourgeois teams,
Communist newspaper L’Humanite, as well as the an- and they were often denied access to public funds and
nual Fete de l’Humanite in which 6,000 people par- amenities. Similarly, media coverage of worker sport was
WORKER SPORT 1707
usually confined to the socialist-communist press and 1920s and 1930s wore on, the bourgeois obsession
was ignored by the bourgeois media. Insofar as only a with records, spectators, and victory infiltrated worker
minority of workers read the socialist-communist party sport and caused the activities to adopt the elements of
press, it is not surprising that only a minority of work- more organized competitions. It was not uncommon
ers joined the worker sport movement or were prepared for socialist and communist newspapers, for example,
to turn their backs on the glamorous bourgeois clubs for to devote the bulk of their sports coverage to horse rac-
the low-status worker sport organizations. It was ing and winning forecasts.
common for bourgeois clubs to recruit the best worker
athletes—just as they recruited the best athletes from What Did Worker Sport
Africa, Asia, and Latin America—by offering athletes Accomplish?
attractive financial inducements. Developments in the latter part of the twentieth cen-
A number of problems hampered efforts to enhance tury opened up a number of possibilities for certain
the attractiveness of worker sport. These problems in- sports. There were far more opportunities for organized
cluded the explicitly political nature of worker sport, sports participation than before the Second World War;
the uncertain—and at times insensitive—attitudes of the best athletes were more highly skilled and had a
labor leaders toward organized sport and competition, better chance to nurture their talent to the fullest for
and the tactical differences over the role of sport in the benefit of the individual and the community. Gifted
society—not to mention the socialist versus communist working-class, nonwhite, and women athletes could,
wrangling. Apparently, many worker sport leaders failed with dedication, reach the top of their sport. There
to understand that a sports organization might be more were now sporting spectacles of unprecedented scale,
politically effective by being less explicitly political. grandeur, and public exposure from which working
The theoretical argument over the role of sport in so- people could gain considerable enjoyment—even if
ciety presented an obstacle to the development of worker they were subjected to society’s dominant sports values
sport. At one extreme were the proletarian culture ad- and presented a sport that workers themselves could
vocates (and their supporters in the Soviet Union in the not control.
1920s, and parts of Scandinavia) who saw bourgeois The worker sport movement needed to expand if it
sport as a reflection of a degenerate bourgeois culture was to fulfill its cultural and political mission, but this
that had to be thrown out because it was permeated by growth presented complex problems. Organized sport,
chauvinism, exploitation, and militarism. What was like the working class itself, is a product of modern in-
needed, they asserted, was a new proletarian system of dustrial society, and in a bourgeois world, a large pro-
physical culture based on personal fulfillment, mutual re- portion of workingmen and workingwomen are steeped
spect, and solidarity. At the other extreme were those, in society’s dominant values. Nonetheless, the worker
like many North American and British socialists, who re- sport movement did try to provide an alternative expe-
garded sport as one’s personal affair, on the periphery rience based on workers’ own culture, and it did inspire
of superstructural phenomena and therefore relatively visions of a new socialist culture. To this end, it organ-
apolitical—not something on which the labor move- ized the best sporting programs it could for all athletes,
ment should waste its scarce resources. Typically, both whether a Sunday bike ride or a Worker Olympic festi-
extremes resulted in the feeblest of all the worker sport val founded on genuinely socialist values.
movements in the industrial world. Its story is as much a part of the history of sport and
Where the worker sport movement did flourish, it the labor movement as Coubertin’s Olympics or trade
often suffered from internal problems. In the early years, unionism.
it emphasized noncompetitive participation, but as the James Riordan
Further Reading American country that had captured both the 1924 and
Arnaud, P. (Ed.). (1994). Les origines du sport ourvrier en Europe. 1928 Olympic titles. To ensure success of the champi-
Paris: l’Harmatan.
Jones, S. (1982). The British Workers’ Sports Federation: 1923–1935.
onship, Uruguay built a brand new 100,000-seat
Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. stadium in the capital, Montevideo, and promised com-
Kruger, A., & Riordan, J. (Eds.). (1996). The story of worker sport. pensation for traveling and accommodation expenses for
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Riordan, J. (1977). Sport in Soviet society. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge all participating teams. The host’s effort, however, was
University Press. not enough to entice most European teams to make the
Ueberhorst, H., Frisch, Frei, Stark, and Treu. (1973). Die Arbeitersport-
bewegung in Deustschland, 1893–1933. Dusseldorf, FRG: Droste.
weeks-long ocean voyage to South America. Only thir-
teen teams, instead of the anticipated sixteen, competed
for championship and its gold trophy (named the Jules
Rimet Cup in 1950 for the Frenchman who conceived
the World Cup event). Uruguay defeated Argentina in
World Cup the final and became the first World Cup champion.
The 1934 World Cup in Italy was essentially a Eu-
B y far the most popular single sporting event of the

modern world is the World Cup, officially known as
the FIFA World Cup, which is the quadrennial interna-
ropean affair with all eight quarter-finalists coming from
the continent.
■ Uruguay declined to defend its title in retaliation for

tional championship for association football (soccer).
the widespread European absenteeism in Montevideo.
Established by the Fédération Internationale de Football
■ Argentina deliberately sent a weakened team to
Association (FIFA) in 1928, the first World Cup was
Rome as revenge for losing its best players to Italy
held in Uruguay in 1930. Since then, the world has cel-
after the 1930 World Cup.
ebrated the event seventeen times; it was cancelled be-
■ The British teams from England, Scotland, Wales,
cause of World War II in 1942 and 1946. The FIFA
and Northern Ireland remained outside the event
Women’s World Cup was launched in China in 1991.
since their withdrawal from FIFA in 1928.
Although still in its infancy, the event has enjoyed sig-
nificant growth and success in its first decade. In the final, host Italy defeated Czechoslovakia 2–1
in extra-time play. Italy also captured its second World
Humble Beginning Cup four years later with a more convincing 4–2 vic-
FIFA was founded in Paris, France, in May 1904, to rep- tory over Hungary in Paris, France.
resent seven European nations: Belgium, Denmark,
France, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the Nether- Postwar Era
lands. FIFA became truly international a decade later The first postwar World Cup was held in Brazil in
with membership including Argentina, Chile, the United 1950. By then, the British football associations had re-
States, and South Africa. For nearly a quarter century, the joined FIFA. Fourteen teams competed in the three-
Olympic Games soccer tournaments were regarded as week long finals. The United States, against all odds,
the world’s championship games. Countries tried to use defeated England 1–0 and virtually sent the “masters”
the Olympics to establish their own football supremacy of soccer packing. In the championship match, Uruguay
in the world, but the strict amateur code of the Games defeated host Brazil in front of nearly 200,000 specta-
banned “paid” athletes, often the best, from Olympic tors in the brand-new Maracana Stadium, the largest
competition. Consequently, FIFA established its own in- crowd in soccer history.
ternational championship and awarded the honor of The 1954 World Cup in Switzerland included the
hosting the first World Cup to Uruguay, a small South superb performance of a Hungarian team that demol-
WORLD CUP 1709
World Cup
Keys Facts of the World Cup
Year Host Winner/Runner-up Score
its own soil, defeated West Germany
1930 Uruguay Uruguay/Argentina 4–2 (1–2) 4–2 in the final, and won the 1966
1934 Italy Italy/Czechoslovakia 2–1 a.e.t. World Cup. Yet, the 1966 champion-
(1–1, 0–0)*
ship was not spectacular football—
1938 France Italy/Hungary 4–2 (3–1)
physical and defense-oriented play over-
1942 cancelled
shadowed the artistry and spontaneity
1946 cancelled
of individual talents. That defensive
1950 Brazil Uruguay/Brazil 2–1 (0–0)
style of football, however, was short-
1954 Switzerland West Germany/Hungary 3–2 (2–2)
lived. The era belonged to Pelé and his
1958 Sweden Brazil/Sweden 5–2 (2–1)
brilliant Brazilian squad. Their magnif-
1962 Chile Brazil/Czechoslovakia 3–1 (1–1)
icent offense-oriented attacking football
1966 England England/West Germany 4–2 a.e.t.
(2–2,1–1)*
mesmerized millions of spectators as
1970 Mexico Brazil/Italy 4–1 (1–1)
well as many of their opponents. By the
1974 West Germany West Germany/Netherlands 2–1 (2–1)
time Brazil captured its third World Cup
1978 Argentina Argentina/Netherlands 3–1 a.e.t.
—after defeating Italy 4–1 in front of
(1–1, 1–0)* 100,000 fans in Mexico City’s Aztec
1982 Spain Italy/West Germany 3–1 (0–0) Stadium in 1970—soccer, with its in-
1986 Mexico Argentina/West Germany 3–2 (1–0) comparable popularity, had established
1990 Italy West Germany/Argentina 1–0 (0–0) itself as the king of sports.
1994 USA Brazil/Italy 0–0 a.e.t.
(0–0) 3–2 p.** Total Football
1998 France France/Brazil 3–0 (2–0) Pelé retired from the World Cup after
2002 Korea/Japan Brazil/Germany 2–0 (0–0) 1970, as did the Jules Rimet trophy, re-
* After extra-time play tained by Brazil after winning it three
**Ater extra-time play then decided by penalty kicks
times. But the impact of Brazilian foot-
ball was profound. The last quarter of
the twentieth century saw the rise and
ished its opponents with a total score of 25–7, in- dominance of “total football,” in which the traditional
cluding a 8–3 thumping of West Germany in the first distinction between offense and defense blurred and
round. The Germans, however, got their revenge in the players became more versatile and involved in the total
final with a 3–2 victory over Hungary, becoming only operation of the team. The Dutch team at the 1974
the third country to capture a World Cup. World Cup epitomized the quality of total football.
Although the Dutch lost to West Germany in the final,
Pelé and Brazilian Dominance the team’s dazzling performance with superstar Johan
A record fifty-five countries participated in the 1958 Cruyff (b. 1947) won millions of fans around the world.
World Cup in Sweden. For the first time, the event re- By the 1982 World Cup in Spain, FIFA had increased
ceived international television coverage, so much of the the number of qualifiers from sixteen to twenty-four. In
world witnessed the Brazilian dominance and the rise 1986, Mexico became the first country to host two
of Pelé (b. 1940), the king of soccer. Between 1958 and World Cups. Argentina, led by the masterful and un-
1970, Brazil won three of four World Cups, losing only stoppable Diego Maradona (b. 1960), defeated West
the one held in England.The English team, energized by Germany 3–2 in the final and captured its second World
an enthusiastic home crowd, took every advantage on Cup in eight years.The French team, with its near flawless
Baseball is ninety percent mental. The

other half if physical ■ YOGI BERRA
midfield trio of Michel Platini, Alain Giresse, and Jean Micallef, P. (1994). The World Cup story: An Australian view. Caring-
Tigana, fascinated the world with its artistry. ban, Australia: Philip Micallef Publishing.
Murray, W. J. (1996). The world’s game: A history of soccer. Urbana:
Soccer’s popularity surged in the 1990s: University of Illinois Press.
Rollin, J. (1990). The World Cup, 1930–1990: Sixty glorious years of
■ A record 147 countries competed for the twenty-four soccer’s premier event. New York: Facts on File.
final seats in the 1994 World Cup held in the United Robinson, J. (1990). Soccer: The World Cup, 1930–1990. Cleethorpes,
UK: Soccer Book Publishing.
States.
■ By the 1998 World Cup in France, FIFA had
increased the number of qualifiers to thirty-two to
accommodate a more diverse representation of non-
European countries.
World Series
In 1998, the French team defeated the 1994-cham-
pion Brazilians in the final to finally win the event that
was conceived on French soil seven decades earlier.
E ach October, American attention focuses on the
championship of Major League Baseball, the World
Series. The phrase itself conjures images: Babe Ruth
“calling his shot” in 1932; Willie Mays in 1954, racing
The Future to the outfield wall and making a breathtaking over-the-
The first World Cup in the twenty-first century was co- shoulder catch, then hurling the ball back toward the in-
hosted by Korea and Japan in 2002. When the month- field, his hat flying off in the effort; Carlton Fisk in 1975,
long event concluded, it became clear that a new era of skipping toward first base, willing the ball out of Fenway
soccer had arrived. Teams from Asia, Africa, and North Park to force game seven against Cincinnati’s “Big Red
America had successfully challenged the traditional Machine”; a hobbled Dodger, Kirk Gibson, bravely cir-
powers from Europe and South America. Korea and cling the bases after his game-winning home run against
Turkey fought all the way into the semi-finals, only to Oakland in 1988. It causes fans, both young and old, to
lose to Brazil and Germany, two teams with combined remember the Sultan of Swat, Mr. October, and even
wins of eight World Cups. Nevertheless, as the game’s poor Billy Buckner, who booted an easy ground ball and
popularity continues to grow and the structure of the cost the Boston Red Sox a Series victory, forcing a Game
World Cup becomes more diverse, soccer’s traditional 7, which the Red Sox lost, in 1986. For the baseball his-
dominance by Europe and South America will soon torian, it brings to mind Tinker to Evers to Chance, the
become the past. Black Sox, or “Wait ‘til next year!” Such moments and
Ying Wushanley heroes are a part of the shared culture of the United
States, the Western Hemisphere, and beyond.
Further Reading The Early Years

Dauncey, H., & Hare, G., (Eds.). (1999). France and the 1998 World Cup: The Fall Classic began when the National League cham-
The national impact of a world sporting event. London: Frank Cass. pion, the Pittsburgh Pirates, challenged the American
FIFA.com History. The official website of the Fédération Internationale
de Football Association, retrieved November 10, 2004, from http:// Association champion Boston Pilgrims to a best-of-nine
www.fifa.com/en/history/history/0,1283,5,00.html series to determine baseball’s world champion in 1903.
Glanville, B. (1993). The story of the World Cup. London: Faber and
The series was due in part to a new “National Agree-
Faber.
Horne, J., & Manzenreiter, W. (2002). Japan, Korea, and the 2002 ment” that settled the dispute between the established
World Cup. New York: Routledge. National League and the upstart American Association,
Lewis, M. (1994). World Cup soccer. Wakefield, RI: Moyer Bell.
Lewis, M. (2002). World Cup soccer: Korea/Japan, 2002. Wakefield, RI:
ending cutthroat competition for players and fans at the
Moyer Bell. turn of the century. The Pilgrim’s victory five games to
WORLD SERIES 1711
Whoever wants to know the heart and mind of

America had better learn baseball, the rules
World Series and realities of the game. ■ JACQUES BARZUN
Winners of the World Series
Team # of Series Won
Boston Red Sox defeated the St. Louis Cardinals four
New York Yankees 26 games to none, only one other series has been called
St. Louis Cardinals 9 off, that being in 1994 when the Major League Baseball
Boston Red Sox 5 Players Association strike against the owners canceled
Cincinnati Reds 5 the autumnal rite.
Los Angeles Dodgers 5
New York Giants 5 War, Scandal, and
Philadelphia Athletics 5 Natural Disaster
Pittsburgh Pirates 5 During World War I, Major League Baseball shortened
Detroit Tigers 4 the regular season, played the World Series in Septem-
Oakland Athletics 4 ber, and entertained the thought of canceling the 1919
Baltimore Orioles 3 season altogether. During the war service teams held
Chicago White Sox 2 their own service World Series, with teams gleaned from
Chicago Cubs 2 drafted professionals. The scandal that erupted after the
Cleveland Indians 2 Chicago White Sox conspired with gamblers to throw
Florida Marlins 2 the first postwar series in 1919 also threatened its con-
Minnesota Twins 2 tinuation, but firm action by newly installed commis-
New York Mets 2 sioner Judge Kennesaw Mountain Landis saved the day.
Toronto Blue Jays 2 In the midst of the Great Depression, popular heroes
Anaheim Angels 1 such as Ruth, DiMaggio, and St. Louis’s Gas House
Arizona Diamondbacks 1 Gang provided some comfort in the midst of economic
Atlanta Braves 1 chaos. During World War II, the championship contin-
Boston Americas 1 ued, minus most of the able-bodied players, as an im-
Boston Braves 1 portant factor in boosting morale on the home front. In
Brooklyn Dodgers 1 1989, just before players from San Francisco and Oak-
Kansas City Royals 1 land were to be introduced, an earthquake shook San
Milwaukee Braves 1 Francisco’s Candlestick Park. The disaster killed sixty-
Philadelphia Phillies 1 seven people in the Bay Area and forced postponement
Washington Senators 1 of Game 3. Some called for the cancellation of the se-
ries, but the games went on, providing normalcy and of-
fering Bay Area residents a chance to heal. The 2001
Series, between the Yankees and Arizona Diamond-
three, with one tie, generated terrific popular support, backs, was played while rubble was being removed from
and legitimized the American Association’s claim as a the site where the World Trade Center once stood, for
coequal league. the same reasons.
Since the 1880s, there had been other so-called
world championship series played as exhibitions, but Technology and the
when the New York Giants, the NL champions, refused World Series
to play the series against the Pilgrims in 1904, the pub- Over the course of the century of World Series history,
lic outcry forced the National Commission to regularize technology transformed it from an event that relatively
the series, with a best-of-seven format. From 1905, few fans witnessed to a worldwide spectacle beamed
when the World Series resumed, to 2004 when the globally via television. In the early decades, urban fans
World Series
Sandy Koufax and Yom Kippur
Sandy Koufax’s decision not to pitch the opening game playing field. Koufax’s refusal to play on Yom Kippur
of the 1965 World Series had a strong impact on Jews filled me with pride. I realized that day that no one
in the United States. In the extract below, Rabbi Lee should ever be embarrassed when practicing one’s re-
Bycel recalls that memorable day. ligion or identifying with one’s ancestral culture. Eth-
nic and religious identity should engender fulfillment
I remember it as if it were yesterday.
and hope.
It was Oct. 6—the opening day of the 1965 World
It was a courageous act for Koufax to abstain from
Series. The Dodgers, behind the great pitching of
playing in an era that preferred to sanitize difference.
Sandy Koufax, had won the National League pen-
His decision not to pitch that Yom Kippur served as
nant and advanced to the Series. But Koufax, who
an important reminder that America shelters many
was slated to start the first game, was not on the
different faiths and religious practices. Koufax taught
mound. He was not even in the stadium.
me that I could hope to take an active part in Amer-
He was not there because it was Yom Kippur, the
ican life without compromising my religious convic-
Day of Atonement, the holiest day of the Jewish year.
tions. This lesson has remained, and has solidified my
[...]
commitment to make it accessible to all people.
As a Jewish boy and an ardent baseball fan, I had
Source: Bycel, L. (1996, September 20). Sandy Koufax taught pride to generation of
a great need for Jewish heroes — especially on the young Jews. Jewish News Weekly of Northern California.
congregated around telegraph offices to follow the their miracle season with a championship in 1969, and
game, and when radio became widespread, businesses they won again in 1986. In total New York teams have
used displays, some featuring model fields and movable won thirty-three of ninety-eight World Series. New York
players, to attract trade. Graham McNamee became a teams have appeared in 66 percent of the series played,
household name when he became the first play-by-play and there have been fourteen “subway series” between
announcer to describe the action of a baseball game live New York teams, the last in 2000, between the Yankees
during the 1923 World Series between the Yankees and and Mets.
New York Giants. In modern times the Series reaches a
worldwide audience boosted by the increasing pres- Series Mythology
ence of international players. The World Series has such importance in American
culture that a mythology has formed around it. Ac-
New York Domination cording to legend, both the Red Sox and the Chicago
In 1992 the World Series became a “world” series in Cubs suffer from curses that doom them to postseason
more than name only when the Toronto Blue Jays won futility. The Sox were cursed when the team sold Ruth
the first of two consecutive championships, and in to the New York Yankees in 1919, but finally disposed
1997, the Florida Marlins became the first “Wild Card” of the “Curse of the Bambino” in 2004, beating the
(nondivision champion) team to win it all. Despite new St. Louis Cardinals handily. In 1945 Sam “Billy Goat”
faces in the nineties, New York teams have dominated Sianis, a local tavern owner, and his pet goat were de-
the World Series. The Yankees have won twenty-six; the nied entrance into Wrigley Field for Game 4 of the
Giants, before moving to San Francisco in 1958, won Series against the Detroit Tigers, causing him to curse
five; and “next year” finally came for the Brooklyn the Cubs, and his “curse” has kept the team out of the
Dodgers in 1955, when they defeated the Yankees for series ever since. (The Cubs have not won a World
their only championship in Brooklyn. The Mets finished Series since 1908!)
WORLD UNIVERSITY GAMES 1713
Fans outside Fenway Park

in September 2004, the year
the Boston Red Sox won the
World Series.
lic schools in Great Britain in the

nineteenth century and spread to the
universities. This was the heyday of
elite athleticism and amateurism,
which inspired Pierre de Coubertin
to found the modern Olympic
games. The third wave started after
World War I and led university sports
into the turmoil of international
sport contests and international pol-
itics. The University Games of 1959
in Turin, Italy, marked the beginning
of yet another wave. From then on
Although some will argue that baseball is no longer there has been a gradual evolution of “amateur” student
the most popular sport in the United States, each Oc- sportsmen and women competing with “professional”
tober the World Series occupies a significant place in athletes in games with sometimes dubious university
the American psyche and continues to provide cher- affiliations.
ished moments and heroes for a worldwide audience.
Russ Crawford
Founding Fathers of the Games
The first person to think of organizing international
student sports was the English peace activist Hodgson
Further Reading Pratt (1824–1907), who founded the International Ar-
Morgan, J. (2000). Baseball for dummies. New York: IDG Books Worldwide. bitration and Peace Association (IAPA) and chaired the
Rader, B. (1983). American sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Universal Peace Congress of 1890 in London. When
Age of Televised Sports. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Rader, B. (1984). In its own image: How television has transformed
Pierre de Coubertin (1863–1937) organized the 1894
sports. New York: The Free Press. congress in Paris that led to the founding of the Inter-
Rader, B. (1994). Baseball: A history of America’s game. Urbana: Uni- national Olympic Committee, he invited Pratt to at-
Reichler, J. L. (Ed.). (1978). The World Series: A 75th anniversary. New tend as an honorary member. Unable to be there, Pratt
York: Simon & Schuster. wrote to Coubertin and reminded him that he had pro-
Tygiel, J. (2000). Past time: Baseball as history. Oxford, UK, New York:
Oxford University Press.
posed the idea of international student festivals, com-
Will, G. (1998). Bunts: Curt Flood, Camden Yards, Pete Rose, and other bining both sport and arts, at the Rome Peace Congress
reflections on baseball. New York: Scribner. in 1891. The minutes of this congress describe Pratt’s
proposal in this way: “That an annual conference and
university fete of international fraternity be held suc-
cessively at the seats of the great universities, including
World University Games an international contest via gymnastics and similar ex-
ercises, and in contests of merit in poetry and prose on
T he history of university sport can be visualized as

three consecutive waves. The first wave originated
with universities in the thirteenth century; the second
subjects relating to international concord and coopera-
tion” (Anthony 1998).
In his educational zeal, Pierre de Coubertin tried to
wave coincided with the rise of the games ethic in pub- convince the leading circles of the European universities
It’s never too late to become what

you might have been. ■ GEORGE ELLIOT
to promote sport and physical education among their athlete Charlie Paddock. During these 1923 Games, an
students as American universities were doing. During International Congress of University Sports was or-
the IOC international congress on Sport and Physical ganized, which recommended the creation of an Inter-
Education in 1905 in Brussels, the following was pro- national University Sports Federation. The next year, the
posed as recommendation 14: “The university should International Students Confederation (CIE) backed this
urge the students to join physical education societies idea and several important sport meets were organized
and encourage such associations” (Comité International between 1924 and 1939. After the competition in Paris
Olympique 1905, 187). However, a completely diluted in 1923, International University Games were staged in
version of the original recommendation was finally Warsaw in 1924, in Rome in 1927, in Paris in 1928,
adopted: “The University should not ignore the physi- in Darmstadt in 1930, in Turin in 1933, in Budapest in
cal activity of its students; but on the other hand it 1935, in Paris in 1937, and in Monaco in 1939.
should not make it obligatory for them to frequent the The first University Winter Games were organized in
gymnasium or the playing field” (Comite 1905, 233). 1928 in Cortina d’Ampezzo, Italy. The three sports on
This weak statement might have been thought up by the program were speed skating, figure skating, and
the university rectors of Brussels, Ghent, Liège, and cross country skiing. The 8th International University
Louvain, members of the honorary committee of the Games of 1939 in Monaco were interrupted by the
congress who probably did not want to be forced to start of the World War II. The participating students
change by congress recommendations. Before World headed back home, where many of them became in-
War I, the majority of Louvain students preferred the volved in the cruel war game.
playful atmosphere of traditional folk games such as
popinjay shooting, curl bowls, jay bowls, or nine pins The Cold War Split 1945–1959
to more athletic efforts. One year after the end of the war, the International
“Then came Jean Petitjean” is the opening line of Union of Students (IUS) was founded in Prague to re-
Claude-Louis Gallien’s 1999 biographical contribution store the tradition of the former International Students
to the history of university sport, and Jean Petitjean Confederation (CIE). Although during its very first
(1889–1969), a French chemist, is generally consid- meeting in 1946, some fundamental differences of opin-
ered the father of the world university sports move- ion appeared among student leaders, particularly be-
ment. At the first Student Congress of the postwar tween the Marxist and the free unionist factions, the
period, in 1921 in Strasbourg, he proposed the cre- Physical Education and Sports Department of the IUS
ation of a General Committee for Sports within the managed to organize the 9th World University Games
National Union of General Students Associations of in 1947 in Paris. Jean Petitjean was one of the initiators
France. It was under the aegis of this National Union of these “reconciliation games,” which were attended by
that he organized the first International University about eight hundred students from seventeen countries.
Games in Paris in 1923. (See table 1 for a list of Sum- However, in January of the same year, during the 7th
mer and Winter World University Games from 1923 to University Winter Games in Davos, political incidents
2005.) Petitjean wanted to call the first games “Univer- between students from both sides of the Iron Curtain
sity Olympic Games,” but Coubertin convinced him to disturbed the festive atmosphere. The increasingly overt
change the name in order to reserve the term “olympic” leftist orientation of the IUS eventually evoked a reac-
for “his” Olympic Games. tion from the West and a dissident preparatory com-
Ten countries participated in the competitions, which mittee was created in Zurich. In December of 1948 in
included only track and field events, and Petitjean also Luxemburg, seven Western countries (Belgium, France,
invited “the world’s fastest human,” the American star Italy, Luxemburg, Monaco, The Netherlands, and
Switzerland) decided that they would create an inde- aged to bring both sides back together. Except for the
pendent Fédération Internationale du Sport Universi- virulent Asiatic flu epidemic, which scourged the Cité
taire (FISU) if IUS would not change its Marxist course. Universitiare, Petitjean’s reconciliation campaign was a
The situation worsened, and only one Western block success and the foundations were laid for the reunifi-
country, France, participated in the 1949 Winter Games cation of student sport
in Splinderuv Mlyn, Czechoslovakia. And when the
10th World University Games were held in Budapest in The Universiades and
connection with the Youth Congress for Peace of the Primo Nebiolo, 1959–1999
communist World Federation of Democratic Youth, only “And then came Primo Nebiolo” could be the opening
Belgium and France attended. However, because the words of this section. During the first Universiade of the
IUS did not react to the 1948 Luxemburg motion, FISU reunited FISU, Primo Nebiolo (1923–1999) from Turin
considered itself legitimately established and organized had already revealed himself as the dynamic thriving
rival Games in 1949 in Merano, Italy, the “International force behind the local organizing committee. A few
University Sports Week.” months before the Turin Univer-
After this, the split between siade, the former member coun-
East and West was considered a tries of the IUS joined the FISU
fact and FISU and the Physical after several secret meetings,
Education and Sports Depart- which had been planned by
ment of IUS organized their Jacques Flouret of France and
Summer and Winter University Georges Oosterlynck of Bel-
Games and Sport Weeks sepa- gium. It was the first time that
rately. Yugoslavia was expelled the term Universiade was used,
from the Kominform in 1948, that the “starred U” flag was in-
and the IUS did the same with troduced, and that national an-
the Yugoslavian students in thems were replaced by the
1949. FISU was of course more medieval student song Gaudea-
than ready to offer the Yugosla- mus igitur during award
vian sporting students a warm ceremonies.
welcome: In the middle of the Although the new FISU was
Cold War, FISU organized its characterized by the peaceful co-
1955 Winter Sport Week in Ja- existence of the former rival
horina, Yugoslavia, while the blocks, new difficulties loomed
Summer Sport Week took place at the horizon. There were the
in San Sebastian, Spain. “nostalgics,” who wanted to keep
At last, in 1957, on the 50th university sport small and cozy
anniversary of the “neutral” Poster of the 8th International and far from the Olympic circuit
French University Students Fed- University Games of Monaco in and its ever-increasing profes-
eration (UNEF), both FISU and 1939. The events were inter- sionalism. Flouret, for instance,
IUS were invited to participate rupted by the beginning of organized the 1960 Winter
in the World University Games World War I and the participants Universiade in Chamonix at the
in Paris. Jean Petitjean was the had to return home. very same time as the Winter
travelling diplomat who man- Source: FISU magazine, June 1999. Olympics were being held in
Table 1.
Summer and Winter World University Games from 1923 to 2005
Summer University Games Winter University Games
1923 Paris, France

1924 Warsaw, Poland
1927 Rome, Italy
1928 Paris, France
1930 Darmstadt, Germany
1933 Turin, Italy
1935 Budapest, Hungary
1937 Paris, France
1939 Monte Carlo, Monaco
1947 Paris, France
1953 Dortmund, West Germany
1957 Paris, France
1959 Turin, Italy
1961 Sofia, Bulgaria 1960 Chamonix, France
1963 Porto Allegre, Brazil 1962 Villars, Switzerland
1965 Budapest, Hungary 1964 Spindleruv Mlyn, Czechoslovakia
1967 Tokyo, Japan 1966 Sestriere, Italy
1970 Turin, Italy 1968 Innsbruck, Austria
1973 Moscow, Russia 1970 Rovanieme, Finland
1975 Rome, Italy 1972 Lake Placid, USA
1977 Sofia, Bulgary 1975 Livigno, Italy
1979 Mexico City, Mexico 1978 Spindleruv Mlyn, Czechoslovakia
1981 Bucharest, Romania 1981 Jaca, Spain
1983 Edmonton, Canada 1983 Sofia, Bulgaria
1985 Kobe, Japan 1985 Belluno, Italy
1987 Zagreb, Yugoslavia 1987 Strbske Plesso, Czechoslovakia
1989 Duisburg, Germany 1989 Sofia, Bulgaria
1991 Sheffield, England 1991 Sapporo, Japan
1993 Buffalo, USA 1993 Zakopane, Poland
1995 Fukuoka, Japan 1995 Jaca, Spain
1997 Sicily, Italy 1997 Chonju Moju, S. Korea
1999 Palma de Mallorca, Spain 1999 Poprad, Slovakia
2001 Beijing, China 2001 Zakopane, Poland
2003 Daegu, S. Korea 2003 Tarvisio, Italy
2005 Izmir, Turkey 2005 Innsbruck, Austria
Squaw Valley, California. Other leaders wanted the Uni- (Universiade of Turin) and 1996 (Atlanta Olympics)
versiades to become as grandiose and philistine as the shows that the Universiades have gradually become “in-
Olympic Games. During the Universiade in Sofia, Bul- terolympics” in which top athletes meet and test each
garia, in 1961, FISU’s founding president Paul other in student camouflage. This analysis matched the
Schleimer was replaced by the flamboyant and auto- names of the student athletes who were among the five
cratic Primo Nebiolo. A comparative analysis of the best in their discipline at the Universiades against the
Universiades and the Olympic Games between 1959 names of the three medal winners in consecutive
Olympics. For instance, when the 1959 Turin Universi-

ade was compared with the 1960 Olympic Games for
track and field events, eight names reappeared: three
men and five women. From 1959 to 1996, Eastern
block countries outdid Western block countries with a
success rate of, respectively, 241 versus 172 two-time-
winners. The Eastern block countries dominated in track
and field, gymnastics, fencing, and wrestling, whereas
the Western countries were more successful in fancy
diving, judo, and swimming.
When the number of two-time-winners was weighed in
relation to the number of participants in the Universi-
ades, the success rate varied between 0.65 (Sheffield
1991–Barcelona 1992) and 3.20 (Tokyo 1967–Mexico IOC President Juan Antonio
1968). After Kobe 1985–Seoul 1988, the relative success Samaranch with FISU and IAAF
rate of Universiade athletes in the Olympics dropped, President Primo Nebiolo attend-
probably due to the overt acceptance of professional ing the official inauguration of
athletes after the 1988 Olympics. the General Secretariat of FISU
in Brussels, 1992.
George E. Killian and International Source: FISU magazine, June 1999.
University Sports 1999–2005

When Primo Nebiolo died in 1999, he was succeeded
by George E. Killian, an Amercian who had served as competitions. The following new sports were intro-
president of the International Basketball Federation duced: shooting, floorball, matchracing (sailing), beach
(FIBA) from 1990 to 1998 and who had been FISU volleyball, and bridge.
First Vice President since 1995 and Vice President since For the Summer Universiade in Daegu, South Korea,
1987. Some old-timers thought that under the new in 2003, it was decided to include judo, archery, and
leadership university sport would opt for less grandios- taekwondo, three disciplines that were already regularly
ity and switch back to its origins in which there were organized as WUCs. In 2004 twenty-seven World Uni-
real university games for real students. However, the versity Championships were scheduled in all parts of the
new scenario turned out to be one of further differenti- world.The program now also included woodball (a kind
ation, magnification, and professionalization. of pall-mall), softball, rugby sevens, and water skiing. At
Apart from the biannual Winter and Summer Uni- the 22nd Winter Universiade in Innsbruck/Seefeld, Aus-
versiades, more and more emphasis was now laid on the tria, in 2005, medals were for the first time awarded in
so-called World University Championships (WUCs). ski cross. The Summer Universiade of 2005 in Izmir,
Student athletes met for the first time in a single World Turkey, is proposing sailing, wrestling, taekwondo, and
University Championship in 1962, and since then there archery as optional sports. In 2007, the 23rd Winter
have been 173 WUCs.These events are organized to en- Universiade will be hosted by Torino, Italy, and the 24th
sure “continuity in our competition programme, since Summer Universiade by Bangkok, Thailand.
the Universiades take place in odd years” (New Identity During a press conference in Zakopane at the 20th
2004, 6). In 2002 eighty-three countries sent delegations Winter Universiade in 2001, FISU President Killian said,
and 4,228 students participated in 24 different WUC “We can’t try to copy the Olympic Games programmes.
Wrestling is ballet with violence. ■ JESSE VENTURA
The most important factor for us is if students really Renson, R. (1999). Anticipating the fourth wave: History and future of
practise a particular sport. Because Universiades are for university sport. In The conference on the study of university sport
(pp. 41–49). Palma de Mallorca: Universiada Palma.
students-sportsmen, not for professionals” (FISU 2001). Renson, R., & Vanleeuwe, T. (1983). Sport and the Flemish movement
This sounds anachronistic, since today most top athletes at Louvain University between 1835 and 1914. In S. Kereliuk (Ed.),
The university’s role in the development of modern sport: past, pres-
at the Universiades or World University Championships ent and future. Proceedings of the FISU conference—Universiade
are professional athletes who happen to study or who are ’83 in association with the 10th HISPA congress, Edmonton,
registered as students, and not university students who Canada, 90–101.
Renson, R., & Verbeke, L. (1998). Universiades 1959–1996: Univer-
happen to practise a sport. At the 2003 Tarvisio Winter sity Games or Interolympics? In J. Tolleneer & R. Renson (Eds.), Old
Universiade, a female Russian cross-country skier was borders, new borders, no borders. 11th conference International So-
ciety for Comparative Physical Education and Sport, 22–232.
disqualified because she had a positive drug test for
norandrosterone.
In imitation of the IOC, FISU President Killian now
also speaks of the FISU “family,” whereas the term “en-
terprise” might be more accurate. All in all, because of
the democratization of higher education on the one
Wrestling
hand and the increasing professionalization and inter-
nationalization (globalization) of sport on the other
hand, more and more Universiade athletes and their
W restling is a contact sport in which the objective
of participants is to take down their opponent by
using holds that involve placing both of the opponent’s
coaches have not the slightest idea what the Latin me- shoulders in contact with the mat (called a “pin” or
dieval song Gaudeamus igitur, which replaces the na- “fall”). Although the objective may seem simple, ac-
tional anthems at the Universiades, might mean. complishing it requires effort and skill.
Roland Renson
Origins
Wrestling is one of the world’s oldest sports. Its history
Further Reading extends back thousands of years to the development of
Anthony, D. (1998). Hodgson Pratt: Nineteenth century leader for in-
ternational understanding through sports. Journal of Olympic His-
the first great empires around the Mediterranean Sea, in
tory, 6(3), 44. the valleys of the Nile and Euphrates Rivers, and in India
Campana, R. (1994). World university sport: From the beginning to and China. Scholars believe paintings from Egypt from
contemporary times, F.I.S.U. Forum ’94, Catania, 25–28.
Comité International Olympique. (1905). Congrès international de about 3000 BCE to be the oldest evidence of the sport.
sport et d’éducation physique. Auxerre, France: Albert Lamier. Stories and legends handed down by the early poets and
FISU. (1993, 1923–1993). The world university games celebrate their
70th anniversary. FISU magazine (25): 17–21.
storytellers tell of wrestling in ancient Greece. In the
FISU. (2001). FISU President George E. Killian says: This Universiade Odyssey the ancient Greek poet Homer gives accounts of
already is a huge success! In Winter Universiade Zakopane 2001. wrestling matches back to the eighth century BCE, in-
Retrieved from http://www.universiade2001.Zakopane.
Gallien, C.-L. (1999). Jean Petitjean et les premiers Jeux Mondiaux Uni- cluding a story of a wrestling combat between Odysseus
versitaires de Paris. In The conference on the study of university and Ajax with Achilles as referee. From the Roman em-
sport, Palma de Mallorca, 7–19.
Killian, G. E. (2004). The President’s message. University Sports Mag-
pire the oldest evidence of wrestling is found in wall
azine (59), 4. paintings that date from the fifth century BCE.
New Identity. (2004). New Identity: World University Championships.
University Sports Magazine (59) April: 6–21.
Oosterlynck, G. (1960). Geschiedenis van de internationale universi- Rules and Play
taire sport van 1945 tot 1960. Sport, 3(10), 27–32. Wrestlers are divided into classes based on gender, age,
Ostyn, M. (1980). ‘Politiek versus sport’ in de geschiedenis van de in-
ternationale universitaire sport: deel I. Hermes (Leuven) 14: 115– and weight. Wrestlers weigh in the day before a com-
125; 337–350. petition. Three referees are needed, each having their
WRESTLING 1719
Wrestling
“Wrestling Holds”
By Grantland Rice
Some wrestlers also use a mouth guard, knee pads, or
The Headlock is no way I’d choose headgear.
To try to chase away the blues; About two hundred forms of wrestling exist. The
If I was quite depressed and flat freestyle and Greco-Roman forms have been dominant
I hardly think I’d seek a mat in Europe, and freestyle is the most common in the
And hire some human bracing-bit United States. Greco-Roman and freestyle dominate
To squeeze my skull until it split. amateur competition.
The Toehold, with its warping trend,
Is not the way I’d pick to spend Freestyle
A happy, cheerful afternoon In freestyle wrestling competitors use a wide variety of
In January or in June. holds on the upper body and legs; competitors cannot
While twisted toes may cop the pelf, grasp the opponent’s clothing to secure a hold. The
I’d rather wiggle mine myself. modern sport, which is practiced in the Olympic
Games, the World Games, and competitions of the Na-
The Scissors may be worth a run,
But I can think of better fun
tional Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and Am-
Than letting Stecher play the snake ateur Athletic Union (AAU), represents a tradition
Unto my abdomenic ache, thousands of years old and manifested worldwide. The
The while he wraps his legs around tactics, heroes, and lore of freestyle wrestling have had
My cracking ribs on mat or ground. considerable impact on literature, art, and history.
Some types of freestyle wrestling practiced today ap-
Though here and there I strike a scale,
pear to be descendants of ancient forms. The Nuba of
I do not get the wrestler’s kale;
But I had rather keep instead
the lower Sudan have held wrestling festivals for cen-
My uncracked toes and ribs and head; turies, if not for millennia, and continuity seems to exist
For when through working I prefer between the costumes of the Nubian wrestlers seen in
To have my bones just where they were. Egyptian sculpture and the gourd-strung skirts that Nuba
Source: Rice, G. (1924). Wresting holds. Badminton, p. 130–131. wrestlers still wear. A popular folk wrestling of India per-
formed on a mud surface also continues an ancient tra-
dition. Freestyle wrestling has been popular in Great
Britain for centuries, and the Lancashire style in partic-
own tasks. According to the standardized value system, ular has had a great influence on modern wrestling. In
wrestlers are rewarded for the holds they use to take this style, often called “catch as catch can,” contestants
down their opponent. The holds are rated as more or begin standing and continue the bout on the ground if
less difficult and also are rewarded differently. Points are neither contestant scores a fall from standing.
awarded for each rewarded hold. A match is terminated In the United States after the Civil War freestyle
when one wrestler is ten points ahead or when time wrestling spread quickly, and by the 1880s its tourna-
runs out. The wrestler with the most points wins and ments drew hundreds of contestants. Urbanization, in-
must have at least three points to win a match. The In- dustrialization, and the closing of the Western frontier
ternational Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles formed the context in which this combat sport—along
(FILA, www.fila-wrestling.com), the governing body, with boxing—became popular. A professional circuit,
continually revises the rules. not corrupted by the theatrics of later years, emerged
A wrestler needs minimal equipment: light, soft-soled during this era, as did amateur organizations: About
boots and a wrestling costume, generally a singlet. the time of the first New York Athletic Club wrestling
A wrestling match at the

Pan American Games.
tournament in 1878, professional

championship bouts offered purses
of up to $1,000.
From the earliest years FILA and
intercollegiate rules stressed the safety
of competitors.Tactics and holds that
jeopardize life or limb or that punish
the opponent, rather than gain lever-
age, have been consistently illegal.
These tactics and holds include stran-
gleholds, the full nelson, twisting
hammerlocks, the flying mare with
the opponent’s arm locked, and slam-
ming the opponent to the mat. Modern rules have gone nineteenth-century Europe, where it achieved popular-
further in banning virtually any hold that pressures a ity as an amateur and professional sport and appeared
joint in a direction contrary to its natural movement. in the first modern Olympics in 1896 in Athens,
Greece. It maintains its popularity today, especially
Greco-Roman among wrestlers in Europe and the Far East.
Greco-Roman wrestling is governed by all the rules and The formalization of the elements of Greco-Roman
procedures of freestyle wrestling, but contestants may wrestling into today’s sport is a recent phenomenon.
not take holds below the waist or even use their legs ac- Sixteenth-century drawings of wrestling ascribed
tively in holds; thus, the leg takedowns and trips funda- to Albrecht Durer and Fabian von Auerswald’s
mental to freestyle wrestling are prohibited. The arm Wrestler’s Art depict leg holds inadmissible in Greco-
drags, bear hugs, and headlocks of freestyle wrestling, on Roman wrestling today, suggesting that freestyle,
the other hand, are a central part of Greco-Roman rather than Greco-Roman, was the main form of
wrestling. Far from creating a dull contest, the restriction wrestling of that era.
of holds to the upper body has encouraged the use of a Despite the similarities of Greco-Roman to several
spectacular series of throws called “souples,” in which the British forms of wrestling and its promotion by William
offensive wrestler lifts the opponent in a high arch while Muldoon in the United States after the Civil War, the
falling backward to a bridge on his or her own neck and sport never achieved lasting popularity in the English-
bringing the opponent’s shoulders into contact with the speaking world, yielding to the more unstructured
mat. Even in wrestling on the mat (par terre), the Greco- freestyle form. Greco-Roman wrestling appeared at the
Roman wrestler must seek body-lock and gut-wrench first modern Olympics, where three contestants com-
holds to turn the opponent for a fall. The ability to arch peted in the heavyweight class, with Karl Schuhman of
backward from a standing position onto one’s own neck Germany winning first place over Georgios Tsitas of
confidently and safely while lifting and turning the op- Greece. Freestyle wrestling, by comparison, did not ap-
ponent to the mat is crucial. Rules prohibit stalling, and pear in the Olympics until the 1904 games in St. Louis,
after fifteen seconds of inconclusive action, a bout must Missouri.
resume with both wrestlers standing in a neutral posi-
tion and working toward a throw. Women on the Mat
Despite its name, Greco-Roman is not an ancient Wrestling traditionally has been a male domain from
form of wrestling but rather is mainly a development of which women largely have been excluded. Only
WRESTLING 1721
Wrestling
Wrestling in an Asian Indian Folktale
In an ancient village by the Simsang River Chela so immovable they stood, though at such moments
Asanpa came across a very strong man who was sit- they were utilizing their full physical capacity to cause
ting in an open courtyard of his house making each other to give way. They sank deep into the
bamboo-threads out of big wahnok bamboos by loamy soil in the midst of their tremendous struggle.
splitting open the thick stiff nodes with his mere All about the ground was drenched with their per-
hands. The strong man welcomed Chela Asanpa cor- spiration. Hour followed hour. The sun stood on the
dially, killed a fatling bull for him and entertained western horizon, and the two mighty giants wres-
him with food and drink. After he had dined Chela tled on continously without one being able to floor
Asanpa said to his host: the other. Both were by now almost utterly ex-
hausted. Finally, exerting all his strength Chela
I have heard much about you and so have come to
Asanpa made one last vigorously desperate attempt
wrestle with you. If you defeat me in a wrestling
to hurl his opponent down on the ground and suc-
bout, you will have to come over to my village with
ceeded. The colossal contest was over.
your milam and spi for a duel. First, I shall entertain
The victor and the vanquished praised each other’s
you with a grand feast in my house. Then we shall go
performance. Hand in hand they went down to the
to the village proper where we shall fight our duel
river to bathe. After that the strong man of the an-
with our milams and spis. If you are defeated you
cient village killed a seven-year old castrated pig for
must leave your head with me. If I lose, you shall
Chela Asanpa, procured a good deal of rice-beer, and
have my head to bring home here as a trophy. How-
dined with his conqueror until late at night. In the
ever, if you are defeated in our wrestling bout to-
morning the host killed thirty-two cocks and twelve
morrow, I shall leave you in peace as a man of no
hens in the name of Chela Asanpa for the purpose of
account to me. Do you agree?
divining the future of his guest. After examining the
The strong burly man of the ancient village readily
entrails of the cocks and hens he said to Chela
agreed. The next day the two contestants cleared a
Asanpa:
site on the plain, loamy soil near the bank of the Sim-
sang River. They together bathed and ate their meal. My divination indicates that you will go on van-
Then they began their wrestling contest in the clear- quishing all whom you encounter and that you will
ing which they had earlier prepared. It was a titanic never allow your head to fall into the hands of an
struggle, each holding the other in deadly grips, and enemy. However, you will die a natural death at a
trying his utmost to hurl the other down. What a ripe age, full of honour and fame. Your name and
spectacle they presented, these two enormously fame will remain in the mouths of our descendants
strong men clenched in each other’s ironlike arms, for generations to come. Now, friend, take your full
straining their immense muscles, bending their huge share of our customary Achik hospitality.
bodies in an effort to fling and floor each other! At Source: Rongmuthu, D. W. (Comp.). (1960). The folk-tales of the Garos (p. 20–22).
Gauhati, India. University of Gauhati.
times they appeared like lifeless statues on pedestal,
recently have women been welcomed by the interna- The history of women’s wrestling in ancient times
tional wrestling community and by the sport in gen- is largely unrecorded, but some documentation ex-
eral but still not on equal terms with men. That ists. This documentation suggests that wrestling be-
competitions are being organized for women and tween virgins of noble heritage was related to religious
men together is a sign of progress in women’s ceremonies. From Greek myths the legend of Atalanta
wrestling. is the best known through a vase painting from the
Wrestling
Wrestling in Hawaii
Wrestling was also practised by the more athletic develop on other continents. FILA established the first
youth, as a preparation to the single combats commission for women’s wrestling in 1983.
usual in almost every battle. Sometimes they had
sham fights, when large numbers engaged, and Effects
each party advanced and retreated, attacked and Advocates of wrestling emphasize that it offers whole-
defended, and exercised all the maneuvres em- some physical and mental exercise and is one of the best
ployed in actual engagement. Admirably consti- sports for developing physical fitness: It improves bal-
tuted by nature with fine-formed bodies, supple ance, builds muscle tone, and develops agility, quickness,
joints, strong and active limbs, accustomed also flexibility, and power. It also may develop positive per-
to a light and cumberless dress, they took great sonality characteristics such as determination, courage,
delight in these gymnastic and warlike exercises, self-confidence, and self-reliance.
and in the practice of them spent no inconsider- Injuries are common, but they are seldom serious.
able portion of their time. Use of protective equipment can reduce some injuries;
Source: Ellis, W. (1917). Narrative of a tour through Hawaii, or Owhyhee: with for example, head gear protects against cauliflower ear,
observations on the natural history of the Sandwich Islands, and remarks on the
manners, customs, traditions, history, and language of their inhabitants (pp. 278). which is an ear that, after many falls, becomes deformed
Honolulu: Hawaiian Gazette Co. Ltd.
by fluid accumulation under the skin that has calcified.
Competition at the Top

In the 2004 Olympics at Athens, women gold medal win-
fifth or sixth century BCE, illustrating her grappling ners were: freestyle, 48 kilograms, Irini Merleni, Ukraine;
with Peleus. 55 kilograms, Saori Yoshida, Japan; 63 kilograms, Kaori
As wrestling developed during the twentieth century, Icho, Japan; and 72 kilograms, Xu Wang, China. Men
contests were organized professionally and held in cir- gold medal winners were: men’s freestyle, 55 kilograms,
cuses or in traveling booths, both in the United States Mavlet Batirov, Russia; 60 kilograms, Yandro Miguel
and Europe. Most participants were men, but women Quintana, Cuba; 66 kilograms, Elbrus Tedeyev, Ukraine;
were also allowed to perform. Between World War I and 74 kilograms, Buvaysa Saytiev, Russia; 84 kilograms, Cael
World War II women wrestlers became popular in sev- Sanderson, United States; 96 kilograms, Khadjimourat
eral countries, but most women wrestlers were aware Gatsalov, Russia; 120 kilograms, Artur Taymazov, Uzbek-
that the crowds came for the novelty: to see women istan; men’s Greco-Roman, 55 kilograms, Istvan Majoros,
wrestle. The matches. including mud wrestling, were Hungary; 60 kilograms, Ji Hyun Jung, South Korea;
mostly gimmicks. 66 kilograms, Farid Mansurov, Azerbaijan; 74 kilograms,
Although participation by women has increased, Alexandr Dokturishivili, Uzbekistan; 84 kilograms, Alexei
women’s wrestling remains controversial. The sport’s Michine, Russia; 96 kilograms, Karam Ibrahim, Egypt;
physical requirements and great degree of body contact and 120 kilograms, Khasan Baroev, Russia.
link it with masculinity; thus, many people still consider
Mari-Kristin Sisjord and
wrestling to be inappropriate for women. Therefore, as
Michael B. Poliakoff
women’s wrestling developed during the 1970s, 1980s,
and 1990s, the athletes experienced barriers both in the See also Arm Wrestling; Sumo
sport and in daily life.
During the 1970s women’s wrestling was largely prac- Further Reading
ticed in European countries such as Belgium, France, and Alter, J. S. (1992). The wrestler’s body. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Uni-
Norway. However, during the 1980s the sport began to versity of California Press.
WRIGLEY FIELD 1723
Armstrong, W. (1893). Wrestling. London: Longmans, Green. capacity of 38,902 in 1998, small by current stadium
Camaione, D. N., & Tillman, K. G. (1980). Teaching and coaching
standards. The field is also relatively small and play is
wrestling: A scientific approach. New York: John Wiley.
Caroll, S. T. (1988). Wrestling in ancient Nubia. The Journal of Sport affected by onshore or offshore Lake Michigan winds,
History, 15(2), 121–137. favoring either the hitter or pitcher, respectively.
Hackenschmidt, G. (1909). The complete science of wrestling. London:
Athletic Publications.
In 1937 outfield bleachers were added as was the score-
Keen, C., Speidel, C., & Swartz, R. (1964). Championship wrestling board, which continues to be manually operated and has
(4th ed.). New York: Arco Publishing.
yet to be hit by batted ball. Both were added by baseball
Kent, G. (1968). A pictorial history of wrestling. London: Spring Books.
Martell, W. A. (1973). Greco-Roman wrestling. Champaign, IL: Human executive and innovator Bill Veeck. He also had Japanese
Kinetics. and Boston ivy planted along the centerfield wall.The ivy
Morton, G. W. (1985). Wrestling to rasslin: Ancient sport to American
spectacle. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Press. thrived, giving the wall a unique appearance among major
Niebel, B. W., & Niebel, D. A. (1982). Modern wrestling: A primer for league stadiums. Among other Wrigley Field firsts were
wrestlers, parents, and fans. University Park: Pennsylvania State the first permanent concession in a baseball stadium
University Press.
Petrov, R. (1986). Freestyle and Greco-Roman wrestling. Lausanne, (1914), allowing fans to keep foul balls, and throwing op-
Switzerland: Federation Internationale des Luttes Amateurs. posing team home run balls back on to the field. At the
Poliakoff, M. B. (1987). Combat sports in the ancient world: Competi-
tion, violence, and culture. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
end of each game, a flag signifying a win or lose is flown
Wilson, C. M. (1959). The magnificent scufflers: Revealing the great from a center field flag pole—either a white flag with a
days when America wrestled the world. Brattleboro, VT: Stephen blue W or a blue flag with a white L. Another feature is
Greene Press.
the custom of fans watching the game from the rooftops
of houses on Waveland and Sheffield avenues.
Let There Be Lights

Wrigley Field Until August 8 1988, Wrigley Field did not have lights
and 5,687 consecutive day games had been played there.
W rigley Field is the home of the Chicago Cubs

baseball team and is the second-oldest ballpark
in the majors. Only Boston’s Fenway Park, opened in
Wrigley had planned to install lights for the 1941 season
but instead donated them to the government for use dur-
ing World War II. Lights were finally installed over the ob-
1912, is older. It was built as the home of the Chicago jection of some residents in the Wrigleyville neighborhood
Federals, later Whales, of the just-established Federal under pressure from Major League Baseball and the Cubs
League by team owner Charlie Weeghman, at the cost management, who threatened to leave the stadium. The
of an estimated $250,000. It opened on April 23, Cubs have played in six World Series at the field, but lost
1914, as Weeghman Park and was also known as the all six. The most famous event associated with Wrigley
North Side Ball Park, as the first ball bark built on Field is Babe Ruth’s “called shot” home run off of Charlie
Chicago’s North Side. When the Federal League folded Root in the 1932 World Series. Ruth did make a hand
two years later, Weeghman and his ten partners bought gesture to the outfield before hitting Root’s pitch into the
the Chicago Cubs of the National League and moved bleachers, although it is not clear what he meant by the
them to Weeghman Park. One of Weeghman’s partners gesture. Among the great players who performed at
was the chewing gum king, William Wrigley Jr., and by Wrigley Field are Cubs shortstop Ernie Banks, third base-
1919 Wrigley had bought out the other partners, in- man Ron Santo, and outfielder Billy Williams. All three
cluding Weeghman. In 1920 the field was renamed are honored by flags that hang from the foul poles dis-
Cubs Park and then in 1926 renamed Wrigley Field in playing their uniform numbers, 14, 10, and 26.
honor of the owner. In 1914 the park had a capacity of Wrigley is also associated with a unique cast of off-the
14,000 that was expanded over the years to its current field characters, including a group of regulars in the
Panoramic view of the stands at Wrigley Field in Chicago.

Source: istockphoto.com/fig.
bleachers about whose antics the play Bleacher Bums Further Reading
was written; William “Billy Goat” Sianis, a Chicago Jacob, M., Green, S., & Banks, E. (2003). Wrigley Field: A celebration
of the friendly confines. Chicago: Contemporary Books.
restaurant owner who put a “curse” on the Cubs when he Pahigan, J., & O’Connell, K. (2004). The ultimate baseball road trip: A
and his goat were asked to leave a 1945 World Series fan’s guide to major league stadiums. Guilford, CT: Lyons Press.
game; and popular play-by-play announcer Harry Carey. Sandalow, M., & Sutton, J. (2004). Ballparks: A panoramic history. Edi-
son, NJ: Chartwell.
The Future
Like the other old ballpark, Fenway Park in Boston,
Wrigley Field retains its appeal as a stadium that reflects
an earlier era of baseball that has resisted destruction Wushu
and desertion. Cubs fans are hopeful that the Red Sox’
winning the World Series in 2004 is a sign that their
long World Series drought—dating back to 1908—
will end soon as well.
W ushu is the Chinese martial arts, ranging from
their origins in early Stone Age cultures to the
martially inspired arts practiced today. The word wushu
David Levinson is composed of two characters: Wu is associated with
WUSHU 1725
military and warfare; shu with the skill or methods of dicate a strong Chinese influence. For example, Oki-
performing an activity. nawan karate developed from China’s Fujian Province,
The word gongfu, or kung-fu, often used in the West and the founder of Korean taekwondo studied wushu
to refer to Chinese martial arts, is actually composed of while serving in the military in Manchuria. The martial
two Chinese characters that refer to the time and effort arts in Japan, Korea, and Indonesia were influenced by
required to accomplish any human activity. encounters with Chinese people during trade, immi-
gration, and war. Knowledge of Asian martial arts like-
Development wise spread to the rest of the world, the movie industry
Chinese martial traditions evolved with social and being the most significant popularizer.
technological changes during China’s history. Martial Basic forms of Chinese martial arts developed during
arts required a variety of defensive and offensive spe- early Neolithic (relating to the latest period of the Stone
cializations, from basic hand-to-hand combat to com- Age characterized by polished stone implements) times
plex techniques of large-scale warfare. Although as products of a survival instinct. They also provided en-
composed primarily of martial arts, wushu has long tertainment, as in games of “head butting” in which
been associated with meditative exercise, physical contestants wore animal horns. By the Zhou dynasty
conditioning, dance, drama, and competitive exhibi- (1045–256 BCE), wushu had reached an advanced
tion. Wushu developed as an important element of level. Excavations of the period have uncovered arms
China’s culture and influenced the martial traditions and armor, including halberds, spears, chariots, bows,
of neighboring countries and eventually the rest of arrows, swords, helmets, and knives. Other artifacts in-
the world. dicate not only sophisticated military organization, but
The Chinese martial arts grew out of people’s need also a culture in which martial arts were valued for
for protection against other people and dangerous an- their role in securing or maintaining political stability.
imals. As Chinese society became more complex, so The crossbow and iron weapons came into use during
did its martial systems. The first martial systems used the fifth century BCE, ushering in new forms of martial
the body parts most appropriate for the task: feet, arts. Military treatises, such as Sun Tsu’s The Art of War,
hands, knees, elbows, and head. Rudimentary skills detailed military tactics and maneuvers that people still
were supplemented by the use of farming and hunting study today.
tools made of wood and stone, including the spear, During later centuries China remained the apex of
club, and knife. As people developed the basic tech- refined culture, and surrounding countries looked to it
nology and began to use metals, a range of weaponry for inspiration and knowledge. However, with China’s
became available. Chinese society came to place more cultural advances came threats of invasion by people
emphasis on warfare, and the martial arts became a seeking its riches. Likewise, internal conflicts erupted
specialized profession for many people. However, with because of inevitable social inequities that developed
the advent of modern firearms in China, people began among economic groups. China’s history flows
to practice traditional martial arts more as forms of through dynastic cycles during which imperial armies
sport and exercise. fought invading barbarians and/or native rebels. Such
Today such martial arts enjoy a growing popularity turmoil taught the Chinese to rely on martial arts as a
throughout the world. Although people practice them in security measure. Those people who possessed the
all cultures, martial arts of Asian origin are the better most advanced systems felt that they had an advantage
known because of their sophisticated repertoire of tech- in protecting their empire, clan, or family. Therefore,
niques coupled with philosophies of self-cultivation. martial arts systems were highly secretive and taught
The histories of the most popular Asian martial arts in- only to selected people.
Winners never quit and

quitters never win. ■ UNKNOWN
Effective Systems martial arts remain popular in China because, in part,

The martial arts systems reflected the social positions of their pervasive presence in Chinese culture. Their his-
and concerns of their creators. For instance, the im- torical importance has been the subject of many literary
perial army developed martial arts for large-scale mil- endeavors, including a martial arts genre. As moving art
itary engagements. Such arts often focused on forms, the martial arts are living expressions of their de-
long-range weapons, such as the crossbow. Their ma- velopers’ creativity. People also value martial arts forms
neuvers usually required a fast cavalry to execute their for their therapeutic benefits. In China the majority of
objectives. However, sometimes the imperial political- people who practice martial arts do so primarily for
military structure collapsed, leaving the commoners such benefits. However, people also practice martial
to fend for themselves. Other groups developed their arts in theatrical productions, self-defense classes, en-
own martial arts systems, often organizing themselves tertainment industries, meditative practices, military
around a common bond, be it social, linguistic, or training programs, and sporting events.
philosophical. In China today modern forms of entertainment are
Because talented people were credited with creating relatively limited. Computers, televisions, and electronic
specific martial arts systems, their families often re- games, for instance, are luxuries that relatively few peo-
tained control of such knowledge by passing it down ple can afford. Modern health care is also limited be-
from generation to generation. Their concerns were pri- cause of high costs. Wushu, as a form of sport and
marily for the security of family and clan. Their limited exercise, is an attractive alternative. Martial arts exhibi-
resources kept their focus on developing skills that a tions have a long tradition in China. Competitions are
fighter could use, including in the use of weapons such featured at the national level. International teams also
as spear, sword, and knife. They often fought against in- have been formed. Routines standardized by govern-
dividuals or small groups, so open-hand boxing skills ment regulations are taught in martial arts schools and
were also important. in colleges that have wushu departments.
Martial arts styles were usually named for the people, Competitive martial arts exhibitions have trans-
places, or philosophical ideas associated with them. A formed traditional solo routines by incorporating gym-
few hundred Chinese styles exist, but many more styles nastic elements to achieve greater visual effects. Matches
and substyles have yet to be categorized. For the sake of between individuals, usually judged on a point system,
simplicity, experts sometimes place martial arts styles limit the type of techniques used. Overall, martial arts
into general categories, such as northern-southern, sports have adapted elements from traditional systems,
internal-external, or Taoist-Buddhist, and sometimes ac- thus presenting only one aspect of what martial arts en-
cording to their place of origin. tail. Financial and political concerns increasingly play a
The association of some Chinese martial arts with role in martial arts as world participation in Asian mar-
temples is of special importance. During times of tur- tial arts increases.
moil, people often used temples as places of refuge.
Such temples attracted people from all segments of Chi- The Future
nese society, including martial arts experts who came to Today people practice wushu for a variety of reasons in
live together, often comparing their knowledge. Some all parts of the world. Some people see wushu as a vi-
temples, such as Shaolin, became “universities” where olent activity and thus are either attracted to it or seek
experts contributed to the evolution and preservation of to suppress it. Martial arts sports are popular with peo-
martial arts. ple who enjoy competition. Such competition ranges
The rise of modern weaponry has led to the extinc- from full-contact bouts with no rules to no-contact tour-
tion of some martial arts traditions. Nonetheless, many naments with rules to prevent injures and ensure fair-
WUSHU 1727
ness in judging. However, problems continue to plague Dreager, D., & Smith, R. (1969). Comprehensive Asian martial arts.
martial arts sports because no one internationally rec- Tokyo: Kodansha International.
Donohue, J. (1991). The forge of the spirit: Structure, motion, and mean-
ognized system for teaching, ranking, or judging exists. ing in the Japanese martial tradition. New York: Garland Publishing.
Still other people desire to learn martial arts for the Donohue, J. (1992). Dancing in the danger zone: The martial arts in
America. Journal of Asian Martial Arts, 1(1), 86–99.
physical and psychological benefits. More than ever Donohue, J. (1994). Warrior dreams: The martial arts and the Ameri-
people are attracted to wushu not simply as a physical can imagination. Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey.
activity but as a way of self-discovery. Therefore, de- Haines, B. (1995). Karate’s history and traditions (Rev. ed.). Tokyo:
Charles E. Tuttle.
spite its organizational disarray as a sport, wushu will Holcombe, C. (1992). Theater of combat: A critical look at the Chinese
increase in popularity. martial arts. Journal of Asian Martial Arts, 1(4), 64–79.
Kauz, H. (1992). A path to liberation: A spiritual and philosophical ap-
Michael A. DeMarco proach to the martial arts. New York: Overlook Press.
Pieter, W. (1994). Research in martial sports: A review. Journal of Asian
See also Mixed Martial Arts Martial Arts, 3(2), 10–47.
Reid, H., & Croucher, M. (1983). The way of the warrior: The paradox
of the martial arts. Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press.
Rosenberg, D. (1995). Paradox and dilemma: The martial arts and
Further Reading American violence. Journal of Asian Martial Arts, 4(2), 10–33.
Boudreau, F., Folman, R., & Konzak, B. (1995). Psychological and Sutton, N. (1993). Gongfu, guoshu and wushu: State appropriation of
physical changes in school-age karate participants: Parental obser- the martial arts in modern China. Journal of Asian Martial Arts,
vations. Journal of Asian Martial Arts, 4(4), 50–69. 2(3), 102–114.
X Games
X Games
T he concept of competition, whether athletic or oth-
erwise, is universal; it crosses all language and cul-
tural boundaries and can serve to unite an entire
country, as it often does with the Olympic games.
There exists, however, an even greater desire to test the
human spirit, to push farther and expand the bound-
aries of athletics. Conventional sports are giving way to
a new breed where adrenaline runs freely and the more
extreme athlete goes home with the gold medal. The
venue for this risk-taking, thrill-seeking, extreme athlete
is the X Games.
History of the X Games

In 1993, Entertainment Sports Network Programming
Director Ron Semiao envisioned a competition for
extreme-sports athletes. Prior to this, organized athletic
events were limited to traditional sports. With the
growth of extreme sports in the last two decades of the
twentieth century, the opportunity existed to create an
outlet for the extreme and alternative athlete. After two
years of preparation, ESPN successfully staged the first
Extreme Games in Newport, Providence, and Middle-
town, Rhode Island, and in Mount Snow, Vermont,
from 24 June through 1 July of 1995; 198,000 specta-
tors attended. Nine sport categories were included, with
such events as BMX/stunt bike, barefoot water-ski jump-
ing, bungee jumping, in-line skating, kite skiing, moun-
tain biking, skateboarding, sky surfing, sport climbing,
street luge, windsurfing, and X Venture Race.
The success of the first Extreme Games and an en-
thusiastic response by the athletes, sponsors, and spec-
tators encouraged ESPN to organize a second Extreme
X
1996 saw the beginning of international exposure and
eventual participation in the X Games themselves. In
1997 the annual tradition of both winter and summer
Games in 1996. X Games began. In April of 1998, the first interna-
In January of 1996, the name Extreme Games was of- tional X Games, the Asian X Games, were held in
ficially changed to X Games. Altering the name gave Phuket, Thailand, and featured two hundred athletes
ESPN the ability to more easily market the games to in- competing for spots in X Games IV in San Diego. X
ternational viewers and allowed for better branding op- Games IV attracted 233,000 spectators, and there were
portunities. In April of 1996, the first X Games Road nearly 275,000 spectators at X Games V.
Show traveled throughout the United States, bringing a The popularity of the games continued to increase,
two-day interactive expo to twelve cities, including both within the United States and across the globe. In
Boston, San Francisco, and Miami. In June of the same November of 1999, the first Junior X Games were held
year, beneath the shadows of ancient temples, the first in Phuket, Thailand, attracting action-sports athletes be-
international exhibit took place in Shanghai. Spectators tween the ages of eight and fourteen. Within four years,
were treated to demonstrations of bicycle stunts, in-line the Asian X Games led to the development of the Junior
skating and skateboarding. These demonstrations shad- X Games and, in March of 2002, the beginning of the
owed X Games II, held in late June before 200,000 Latin X Games. In July of 2002, the European X Games
spectators. were held.
The global expansion of the X Games continued
Winter X Games in May of 2002 with a new event, the X Games
The growing popularity of the X Games encouraged Global Championship. The premise of the Global
ESPN to organize the first Winter X Games. From Championship is that six world teams will compete
30 January through 2 February 1997, at the Snow against each other in a four-day competition, with
Summit Mountain Resort in Big Bear Lake, California, both winter and summer X Games events. The events
spectators had the opportunity to watch extreme ath- included are skateboard, bicycle stunt, Moto X,
letes compete in ice climbing, shovel racing, snow- aggressive in-line skate, snowboard, and ski. Team
boarding, snow mountain bike racing, and a multisport USA edged out Team Europe to win the inaug-
crossover event. ural X Games Global Championship. Since 2002,
the X Games have continued to grow in popularity.
Growing Popularity These extreme sports, once on the fringe, are finding
Since the inception of the X Games in 1995, both men their way into mainstream sport entertainment and
and women have had the opportunity to compete, and international competition.
1729
X Games
X Games Journalism
Just like the Games themselves, X Games journalism is The big lady featured a choose-your-own-adven-
breathless, exciting, and over the top. The extract ture: a 50- or 70-foot roll-in that launched you over
below is part of an EXPN.com recap of the top ten mo- either a 50-foot gap or a 70-foot gap for he with
ments of the 10th X Games, held in Los Angeles from stones. If you landed it, you were launched NOT-
5–8 August 2004. ever-so-gently into the 27-foot quarterpipe.
This is NOT for the faint of heart. Although the
The first stop on the X Games X recap tour is the
master of this monster—Mr. Danny Way—has a se-
mammoth, monster, mother-of-all, behemoth drop-
rious heart condition . . . an abnormal excess of heart.
in, take your pick, shoot the gap, then trick-it-up-on-
The 30-year-old vet from Encinitas, CA, was the only
the-pipe mega ramp. The X gods pulled out all the
guy who dared drop in from the tipity top and he
stops for the 10th-anniversary edition and con-
landed it Christ-air style.
structed the ultimate playground for six skateboard
Source: Burkheit, M. (2004, August 10). Top 10 of X Games X. Retrieved April 12, 2005,
crazies. from http://expn.go.com/expn/summerx/2004/story?pageName=040809_bestof_XGX2
Significance of the X Games before-seen tricks such as Tony Hawk’s “900 degree
Extreme sports were neither developed for the purpose turn” in skateboarding or for the “Body Varial” in Moto
of entertainment nor for competition. The athletes that X. The X Games encourage the development of and in-
chose to participate in extreme sports did so for their creased participation in extreme sports.
own pleasure. Competition was not a prime motivator. In August of 2001, ESPN helped to create skate parks
Individual style was encouraged. Setting personal designed to give an authentic X Games experience to
records was desired. These athletes were thrill seekers anyone using it. Designed by the industry’s top course
looking to push the limits of their own bodies and the designers, these public facilities offer skateboarding,
boundaries of their sports. bike stunt riding (BMX), and in-line skating ramps and
The athletes who pursue extreme sports are men and props. These parks are currently located in five major
women, adults and youth, who live in different coun- metropolitan markets: Atlanta, Dallas, Denver, Philadel-
tries throughout the world. The adrenaline rush and phia, and St. Louis.
high risk of their event is what brings these athletes to-
gether. The development of the X Games gives these The Future
athletes a stage and a greater chance to improve them- Since the X Games were first introduced in 1995, the
selves and push these extreme sports further than ever growth of extreme sports has been incredible. Athletes
imagined. The X Games are the showcase for broken across the United States, Asia, South America, and be-
records and sometimes broken bones but also for never- yond have taken sports originally considered to be too
X GAMES 1731
dangerous and helped them to become a source of en- Further Reading

tertainment and an important part of the sport culture Asian X Games. (2005). Retrieved February 16, 2005, from http://
www.asianxgames.com
of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. EXPN. (2005). Retrieved February 16, 2005, from http://www.expn.com
With the help of its athletes and its fans, the X Games Kay, J. (2000). Extreme sports. In K. Christensen, A. Guttmann, &
will continue to grow and expand as the sports become G. Pfister (Eds.), International encyclopedia of women and sports
(pp. 377–381). New York: Macmillan.
more extreme and as its athletes remain determined to McMillen, R. (1998). Xtreme sports. Houston, TX: Gulf.
push their limits. Tomlinson, J. (1996). Extreme sports, The illustrated guide to maximum
adrenaline thrills. New York: Carlton Books Unlimited.
Annette C. Nack Youngblut, S. (1998). Way inside ESPN’s X Games. New York: ESPN
Hyperion.
Yankee Stadium
Yoga
Youth Culture and Sport
Youth Sports
Yankee Stadium
S
“ ome ballpark!” That was George Herman (Babe)
Ruth’s verdict on 18 April 1923, when he and his
baseball team, the New York Yankees, moved into their
new home in the Bronx borough of New York City.
Since then, Yankee Stadium, also known as “the house
that Ruth built,” has witnessed many landmark mo-
ments in the sporting and cultural history of the United
States, becoming one of the most recognizable sport
venues in the world.
Construction
The Yankees required a new home after the New York
Giants baseball team (now the San Francisco Giants) in-
formed co-owners Jacob Ruppert and Tillinghast Hus-
ton that they must vacate the Polo Grounds, which the
two teams shared, as soon as possible. The eviction no-
tice arrived in 1921, shortly after the Yankees, capital-
izing on Ruth’s immense popularity, outdrew the
Giants by more than 100,000 fans. Construction began
on the new structure on 5 May 1922, on land pur-
chased from the heirs of William Waldorf Astor. White
Construction Company completed construction of the
design by Osborn Engineering 284 days later, in time
for Opening Day 1923, at a cost of $2.5 million dol-
lars. The structure, which included three tiers of seating,
and a distinctive fifteen-foot deep copper façade that
covered much of the stadium’s upper deck, originally
seated 70,000 fans. After the opening ceremonies,
which included John Phillip Sousa leading the U.S.
Army’s Seventh Regiment band, 74,200 fans watched
Ruth hit a three-run homer to defeat his old team, the
Boston Red Sox, 4–1.
Y
Sports Milestones and Other Events
No other venue has been the scene for as many World
Series (thirty-nine) as Yankee Stadium, which has been
the site of many other memorable moments in baseball
Innovation and Renovation history:
Many innovations baseball fans take for granted origi-
nated at Yankee Stadium: ■ Babe Ruth hit his sixtieth homerun during the 1927
season, the Major League Baseball record until Roger
■ Yankee business manager Edward Barrow marked Maris broke it there with his sixty-first homer in 1961.
the distances from home plate on the outfield walls, ■ The Yankee’s dominance of professional baseball that
which under the original design measured 281 feet in began with Ruth’s acquisition included a World
left, 295 feet in right, and 487 feet in center field. Series victory in their first season in their new home,
■ In 1946, Yankees president Larry McPhail installed a feat repeated twenty-five times since.
lights so the Yankees began playing night baseball. ■ Don Larsen pitched the only perfect game in World
■ The first electronic message board was installed in Series history there in 1956.
1959. ■ Yankee Reggie Jackson added to the lore that joins
■ In 1976, after a complete renovation, the scoreboard Yankee Stadium and the World Series by hitting three
featured baseball’s first telescreen, which displayed consecutive pitches for homeruns in 1977.
slow-motion replays.
Yankee Stadium has also served as the venue for nu-
The renovation carried out by new owner New York merous other sporting spectacles, including some leg-
City during the 1974 and 1975 seasons totally remod- endary contests in American sports history:
eled the aging structure. The new stadium had a capac-
ity of 57,145 fans, fewer than the original design, but ■ Thirty championship-boxing matches took place
eliminated seats with obstructed views from the old there, including the 1936 and 1938 fights between
stadium. The new dimensions included 318 feet to left, the German Max Schmeling and American Joe Lewis.
314 to right, and 408 to the center field wall. Esti- Lewis gained revenge and salvaged American pride in
mated at $24 million, the actual cost to the city was the rematch when he knocked out the German in
nearly $100 million during a time when the city de- the first round.
faulted on loans and faced bankruptcy. Despite the ■ “The Greatest,” Muhammad Ali, defeated Ken Norton
city’s financial difficulties, its purchase of the stadium in 1976 in a championship boxing match.
saved the Yankees for New York after the two parties ■ On 12 November 1928, one of the most storied col-
signed a thirty-year lease in 1972. lege football games of all time took place in Yankee
1733
Stadium when the Fighting Irish of Notre Dame Further Reading:

faced the Golden Knights of Army. At halftime of a Bale, J., & Moen, O. (Eds.). (1995). The stadium and the city. Stafford-
shire, UK: Keele University Press.
scoreless tie, Notre Dame coach Knute Rockne made Rader, B. (1983). American sports: From the age of folk games to the age
his legendary plea to “win one for the Gipper,” and of televised sports. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Notre Dame responded by winning 12–6. Rader, B. (1994). Baseball: A history of America’s game. Urbana: Uni-
■ On 28 December 1958, the National Football League’s Robinson, R., & Jennison, C. (1998). Yankee Stadium: 75 years of
New York Giants and the Baltimore Colts played to drama, glamour, and glory. New York: Penguin Books.
Sullivan, N. J. (2001). The diamond in the Bronx: Yankee Stadium and
a 17–17 tie at the end of regulation in the NFL the politics of New York. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Championship Game, and in the first “sudden death” Will, George. (1998). Bunts: Curt Flood, Camden Yards, Pete Rose, and
overtime game, Alan Ameche scored the winning other reflections on baseball. New York: Scribner.
Yankee History. Retrieved August 9, 2004, from http://newyork.
touchdown, giving Baltimore the win. The game, still yankees.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/nyy/history/index.jsp
considered one of the greatest in NFL history, helped Yankee Stadium. Retrieved August 9, 2004, from http://www.ballparks.
com/baseball/american/yankee.htm
cement professional football’s popularity with the Yankee Stadium Photo Tour. Retrieved August 9, 2004, from http://
American public. www.nyctourist.com/yankees.htm
Yankee Stadium has also been the site for historic

non-sporting events, with the largest crowd of 123,707
gathering for a Jehovah’s Witnesses convention. On 4
October 1965, in the first visit of a pontiff to North Yoga
America, Pope Paul VI celebrated mass before 80,000
fans, and Pope John Paul II did the same in 1979. In
commemoration, plaques of the two popes were added
to the monuments that adorn the area behind the cen-
Y oga is an ancient Indian spiritual philosophy that
focuses on achieving deeper awareness of the body
and mind through disciplined, dedicated practice.Yogic
terfield wall, joining such Yankee legends as Babe Ruth, practice usually involves asanas, which are postures or
Lou Gehrig, Joe DiMaggio, and Mickey Mantle. The sequences of postures; pranayama, or breathing modi-
area, which includes a memorial to the victims of the fication and exercises; and meditation and sometimes
September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, is open to fans chanting. Yoga is not a religion. To practice it, one need
before and after games. not sacrifice one’s own faith or beliefs.
The Future Types of Yoga

One of the most recognizable landmarks in professional Yoga is divided into six main types or branches:
sports, and the first structure to be titled “stadium,” Yan-
■ Raja yoga follows the strict form outlined by Patan-
kee Stadium joins Chicago’s Wrigley Field and Boston’s
jali in the Yoga Sutras, with emphasis on meditation,
Fenway Park as the oldest and most venerated baseball
and is the preferred type of yoga for monastic prac-
stadiums; collectively, they served as models for retro-style
titioners, although monastic life is not required to
baseball stadiums constructed in the 1990s.The future re-
practice it.
mains uncertain for the only stadium used as a regular
■ Karma yoga, an ancient Vedic type of yoga, applies to
backdrop for an American television situation comedy
a more spiritual practice of yoga and is focused on
(Seinfeld), and the scene for so many memorable mo-
the yogic principle of ahimsa, that is, the avoidance
ments, but tentative plans call for a new Yankee Stadium
of accumulating karma.
to be constructed across the street from the old site.
■ Bhakti yoga is a devotional type of yoga. Within the
Russ Crawford Mahabharata, which is one of the most important
YOGA 1735
Indian religious epics, is the critical text, the Bha- the more advanced postures easily, and may serve as
gavad Gita, which contains the seed teachings of the a teacher of yoga.
Mahabharata, particularly the devotional bhakti ■ Hatha yoga, which first appeared in the ninth or tenth
yoga. Bhakti yoga was first presented in the Bha- century CE, uses asanas, postures, or sequences of
gavad Gita through a conversation between the epic’s postures to purify the body and eventually the mind.
hero Arjuna and the deity Krishna, who describes Hatha yoga’s focus, therefore, is more on the physical
bhakti as full devotion of the practitioner to the deity. body than are some of the more cerebral yogas.
Thus, this type of yoga is more emotionally centered
than are the older types of Vedic yogas. STYLES OF HATHA YOGA
■ Jnana yoga, an older, more scholarly type of yoga Hatha is the most widely practiced form of yoga in the
than bhakti yoga, focuses on the yogic texts and West. Within hatha yoga, several styles exist that in-
scriptures, following a more direct path to realiza- clude, but are not limited to, ashtanga, iyengar, bikram,
tion. Realization, in this sense, is an extension of a kundalini, Kripalu, and Tibetan. These styles represent
person’s consciousness that remains constant in all different schools of thought, or emphasize the ideas of
life activities—a state akin to the deep, peaceful specific masters, and are likely to be present in either full
awareness achieved through meditation. form or in varying degrees or combinations in a yoga
■ Tantra yoga, perhaps the most misunderstood form class, as decided by the individual instructor.
of yoga, and the most esoteric, is associated with
finding the sacred in the mundane, and is closely ■ Ashtanga yoga was popularized by K. Pattabhi Jois,
linked with rituals. Interestingly, most Tantra yogis from Mysore, India, and is based on six series of
are celibate, contrary to popular Western ideas about asanas that increase in difficulty as the yoga student
Tantric sexual rituals. A yogi is an advanced practi- acquires more skill. During a yoga session, each set
tioner of yoga. Often such a practitioner is able to use of asanas flows into the next. Ashtanga yoga allows
yoga to achieve a deep meditative state and perform students to use the asanas best suited to their own
■ abilities and encourages students to
increase difficulty only when they
feel ready to do so.
■ Iyengar yoga, which was founded
by B. K. S. Iyengar in Pune, India,
focuses on proper muscular and
skeletal alignment, and the asanas
are held much longer than in other
styles.
■ Bikram yoga, founded by Bikram
Choudhury in the latter part of the

twentieth century, is practiced in a
very hot room, often exceeding
100° F (38° C). Bikram yoga is a
Yoga teacher Mark Gerow

demonstrates the bound
triangle posture.
If you can believe it, the mind

can achieve it. ■ RONNIE LOTT
favorite style of Hollywood stars because it induces first texts to systematically present yogic practice. Dif-
a high degree of perspiration, promoting both phys- fering styles, including Hatha, developed during the
ical fitness and cleansing the body of toxins. subsequent Postclassical period, which began about
■ Kundalini yoga, founded by Yogi Bhajan in the late 1600 years ago and continues. The Yoga Upanishads,
1960s, focuses on a Tantric path, using the kundalini written during this time by the unknown authors, pro-
energy that is centered at the base of the spine. vide clear instruction in pranayama, chanting, and the
■ Kripalu yoga was developed in the 1970s by Amrit use of inner sound.
Desai, who founded the Kripalu Center in the Berk- Around 1785, fifty years before yoga was introduced
shires of Massachusetts. Kripalu yoga uses three in the United States, English scholars began to study a
major stages: willful practice, willful surrender, and variety of yogic texts. They, and later American scholars
meditation in motion. Practice of the Kripalu style such as Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) and Ralph
leads to a personal sense of harmony and trust in the Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), drew from these texts to
body’s own wisdom. produce philosophical writings. Yoga was not publicly
■ Tibetan yoga, practiced in Tibet but virtually un- discussed or practiced until Swami Vivekananda (1863–
known outside Tibet until the twentieth century, com- 1902) arrived in the United States in 1893. In 1899,
bines asanas, Tantric meditation, and pranayama. Vivekananda established the New York Vedanta Society,
Five continuous asanas are repeated and increased the first yoga school in the United States, which still ex-
until practitioners can perform the twenty-one repe- ists. The Vedanta Society remains focused on four of the
titions of the full practice. yoga branches: raja, karma, jnana, and bhakti.
Thereafter, many yogis traveled to the United States
Ancient Practices Continue until the 1920s, when the United States government
The history of yoga begins in the Vedic period, approx- placed a quota on Indian immigration. This led many
imately 3,500 years ago. The origins of yogic practice people, such as Paul Brunton (1898–1991), to travel to
were brought to India with invading Aryans’ Brah- India in search of yogic instruction. Later Brunton es-
manism. The Aryans, from west of India, had a sacred tablished a yoga center in the United States, which is
language called Sanskrit, from which the term “yoga” named for him. In 1934, Brunton authored A Search in
originates. Yoga means “to yoke.” As oxen are yoked to Secret India after meeting Ramana Maharishi (1879–
haul a heavy load, a yogi is yoked to self-discipline.Yoga 1950), one of yoga’s greatest teachers. Brunton’s foun-
was mentioned in the Vedas, which were memorized dation remains devoted to transmitting ideas between
during the Vedic period because the Aryans did not yet Eastern and Western philosophies. Richard Hittleman
have a written language. A good deal of evidence sug- (1927–1991), another spiritual disciple of Maharishi,
gests that yoga was already present in the Vedic practice began teaching only the physical benefits of yoga to his
of the Aryans, so yoga may be 5,000 years old. students in New York City, later had a television pro-
During the Preclassical period at the end of the Brah- gram with the same approach, and founded the Yoga
manical era or Vedic period, texts called the Upanishads Universal Foundation, which educates its students on
became prevalent. Although the Upanishads do not yogic philosophy.
specifically target yogic asana practice, they stress the
importance of a sincere commitment to the practice of Western Yoga in the
yoga and meditation. Patanjali composed the 195 Yoga Twenty-first Century
Sutras during the Classical period, which began about Presently, yoga is experiencing a revival in the United
1800 years ago. The Yoga Sutras and the eight-limbed States; it seems to be everywhere. From pop music
path they delineate are important because these are the “gurus” to classes offered at corporately owned health
YOGA 1737
The forward bend is a classic

yoga asana, practiced here
by a class at the Berkshire
Mountain Yoga studio.
HOLISTIC YOGIC HEALTH

Yogis believe health is a balanced
state of the anatomical and physio-
logical bodily functioning united
with mental and emotional stabil-
ity. Yoga emphasizes mind-body
unity, focusing on a person as a
whole being. In yoga, asana prac-
tice includes both physical and
psychological processes. Asanas
lengthen and strengthen the mus-
cles and joints, improve balance,
clubs, public exposure and access to yoga has never and affect mental states. Another aspect of yoga that has
been so prevalent. For most people interested in learn- impressive effects on health is pranayama, the art of
ing the basics of yoga, three approaches are available: breath control. Essentially, yogis believe that the body
itself is a powerful remedy for health problems.
■ From books or videotapes. Although books and videos
are excellent teaching aids, they can hardly substitute WESTERN HEALTH AND YOGA
for the benefit of having the experience and guidance Medical research suggests that conditions such as
of a trained yoga teacher. asthma, back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, cardiovas-
■ In a basic class at a fitness center. Although beginners cular diseases, epileptic seizure, obsessive compulsive
will have the benefit of a yoga teacher, a growing disorder, and depression can be alleviated with a doctor-
trend among gyms is to hire yoga teachers who have supervised regimen of yoga. For example, Journal of
undergone rapid training that does not allow them Asthma has reported that 74 percent of 255 asthma pa-
time to become familiar with the deep history and tients who participated in a 1986 medical study sus-
Sanskrit origin of yoga, nor with the deepened aware- tained significant improvement. The New England
ness of meditation. This rapid process does little to Journal of Medicine has further discussed the effects of
honor the rich tradition of yoga, and problems may yoga on carpal tunnel syndrome indicating that an
arise if the teacher lacks enough experience to handle eleven-asana-series that focuses on a full range of motion
more nuanced aspects of yoga practice, such as a for most joints in the upper body is more effective than
person’s emotional response to an asana. conventional treatments, including drugs and surgery,
■ From a teacher trained in one of the formal traditions of for sufferers of carpal tunnel.
yoga. Trying a couple of classes in different styles to find Dr. Dean Ornish is a well-known medical doctor
one that feels right is a good idea.The benefit of taking who has incorporated yoga in his therapy to reverse
a class in a yoga center is twofold: having the dedicated various heart diseases. Regular asana practice and
but gentle guidance of the instructor and having a car- meditation improve circulation of the blood to the
ing, supportive class environment.Yoga students should heart and increases oxygen levels, so Dr. Ornish uses
feel safe to share the experiences they have during a ses- yoga to help his patients reduce low-density lipopro-
sion with one another. This is especially important for tein levels (LDL cholesterol) and blood pressure. The
beginners, who may experience emotional or physical pranayama exercises calm the central nervous system,
discomfort and find it helpful to speak with others who which frequently becomes overtaxed in “Type A” indi-
may be experiencing similar feelings. viduals prone to cardiovascular diseases. Dr. Ornish’s
therapy is widely commended and used by doctors cine with great success, specifically for preventing ill-
around the world. ness. Illness prevention, which is more cost effective, has
been important to achieving the health standards of
Yoga and Sport the World Heath Organization. This is especially true
Yoga is now becoming a more important component for impoverished areas, where physicians often com-
of training for athletes. One pioneer, Kareem Abdul- bine preventative medicine with the limited Western
Jabbar, began to practice yoga early in his basketball medicine available. Although preventative medicine has
career, in high school. The aspects of limberness, con- not been as widely accepted in the United States as it
centration, and breath control drew him to yoga. By has even in Europe, the Caribbean, and Asia, various ac-
1984, Abdul-Jabbar was studying with Bikram Choud- ademic disciplines have held discourses about the effi-
hury. Abdul-Jabbar believes that yoga was instrumental cacy of preventative medicine. Yoga, with asanas that
to the longevity of his career, which spanned more stimulate immune and healthy organ function, is par-
than two decades. He avoided injuries that his fellow ticularly well suited for such a practice and is becoming
players endured and feels that he gained a deeper unemployed in Western nations outside the United States
derstanding of his body that allowed him to remain for preventing disease. U.S. doctors are now beginning
strong and healthy. to look at the numerous studies from these countries
Phil Jackson, a leading basketball coach formerly for ways to incorporate yoga into Western medical
with the Chicago Bulls and Los Angeles Lakers, has rou- treatments.
tinely employed contemplative practices and medita- Despite yoga’s great antiquity, it is proving to be
tion to help his players succeed on the court. Jackson beneficial for diverse populations. Its holistic, harmo-
advocates that his players create a calm, serene place nizing approach to whole body health and vitality
within themselves, even amidst the chaos of the game often succeeds where other methods fail. Yoga’s ver-
and the fans, to facilitate deeper concentration. He also satility, wide scope, and focus on healthy living ensure
feels that this contemplation helps him to feel more its vitality and continued practice in the West. Yoga
balanced, regardless of the outcome of the game. just may be one of the East’s greatest contributions to
Many other professional athletes use yoga to help the West.
them train. They come from the full spectrum of sports,
Sarah E. Page and
including Evander Holyfield, Pete Sampras, Venus and
Tatiana V. Ryba
Serena Williams, and Dan Marino. Judging by the suc-
cess of these athletes, yoga has a potential to tap into
the hidden body resources and enhance athletic Further Reading
performance. Brunton, P. (1990). A search in secret India. Boston: Weiser Books.
Desikachar, T. K. V. (1995). The heart of Yoga: Developing a personal
practice. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions International.
The Future of Yoga in the West Donato, M. (Ed.). Phil Jackson on meditation. Conscious Choice. Re-
Yoga has potential to aid healing in a variety of health trieved July 2, 2004, from http://www.consciouschoice.com/issues/
cc1704/ch _ philjackson1704.html
conditions. As with any form of physical activity, how- Embree, A. T., Hay, S., Hay, S. N., & De Bary, W. T. (1988). Sources of
ever, practitioners should consult a physician before be- Indian tradition (2nd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press.
ginning a yoga regimen, particularly if they suffer from Mehta, S., Mehta, M., & Mehta, S. (2003). Yoga the Iyengar way. New
York: Knopf.
health problems. Western doctors who want to employ Muskin, P. (Ed.). (2000). Complementary and alternative medicine and
yoga already have a model for the fusion of yoga with psychiatry. Review of Psychiatry Series. Washington DC: American
Psychiatric Press.
Western medicine. In India, during the past forty years, Satchidananda, Swami Sri. (1990). The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Buck-
yoga has been increasingly included in Western medi- ingham, VA: Integral Yoga Publications.
YOUTH CULTURE AND SPORT 1739
It’s really impossible for athletes to grow up. On the one hand,
you’re a child, still playing a game. But on the other hand, you’re a
superhuman hero that everyone dreams of being. No wonder we have
such a hard time understanding who we are. ■ BILLIE JEAN KING
Trivieri, L. (2001). The American Holistic Medical Association guide to ho- schools, clubs, private organizations, and governmental
listic health: Healing therapies for optimal wellness. New York: Wiley.
agencies grew rapidly during the twentieth century to
van Buitenen, J. A. B. (Ed.). (1981). The Bhagavadgita in the Mahab-
harata. Chicago: Chicago University Press. the point where, in some societies, participation is now
Yee, R., & Zolotow, N. (2002). Yoga: the poetry of the body. New York: an assumed rite of childhood. Around the world, or-
Thomas Dunne Books.
ganized sports continue to be used to target social prob-
lems of youth, including crime, violence, drug use, racial
and ethnic tension, the loss of cultural heritage, child
labor, and AIDS awareness. Many youth sports pro-
Youth Culture grams around the world are also linked to, if not inte-
gral parts of, elite sport systems and the production of
and Sport professional athletes.
Growing Popularity of Sports

T he term youth has historically been used to identify
people in the transitional period between early
childhood and adulthood, including puberty and ado-
The tremendous variety of sports among cultures around
the world, in addition to varying ways of collecting in-
lescence. The role of sport in the values, beliefs, and formation about them, make comparisons of various
ways of life of young people has long been researched countries difficult. Unfortunately, little systematic infor-
and publicly debated. Indeed, few issues provoke mation exists about sport for youth in developing coun-
sharper disagreements than whether sports provide con- tries; most research focuses on Europe, North America,
structive experiences and contribute positively to young and Oceana. In these regions of the world, sports par-
people’s development. Complicating these discussions ticipation and interest among youth increased substan-
is the changing nature of sport itself. Sport is now ex- tially through the last quarter of the twentieth century. In
perienced by many youth within a web of both live and the United States, the overwhelming majority of Ameri-
virtual media experiences, including television and com- can youth, both boys and girls, now spend time with
puter games, rather than simply as participating in ac- sports via television, movies, video games, magazines,
tual organized programs. For some youth, sports books, newspapers, the Internet, and radio. U.S. boys
options have expanded to include alternative as well as and girls differ significantly, however, in the sports they
traditional sports. Traditional youth sport involves adult follow most closely, with boys preferring, in order, Na-
leadership, structured competition, and sponsorship by tional Football League (NFL) football, National Basket-
public or nonprofit agencies. Alternative sports more re- ball Association (NBA) basketball, and the Olympics
semble informal play and feature less adult involve- and baseball (tied for third). Among girls, most popular
ment, less structure, deemphasized competition, and are the Olympics, gymnastics, and figure skating, fol-
privatization. lowed by NBA basketball. Boys are also twice as likely
Organized youth sports programs developed in Eu- as girls to watch extreme sports, motor sports, National
rope and North America in the late 1800s attempted to Hockey League (NHL) hockey, and boxing. Nearly equal
prepare children, mostly boys, for industrialization and percentages of girls and boys watch the most popular
an increasingly competitive society. Boys were targeted to sports among boys, but boys are half as likely to watch
counteract what were seen as “feminizing” forces in their the most popular sports among girls. This reflects a pat-
social environments. The few programs developed for tern in which women’s sports receive a small fraction of
girls were much less vigorous and competitive because of the media coverage of men’s sports.
beliefs that girls were frail and needed to prepare for Figures for actual sports participation around the
child rearing and domestic lives. Sports sponsored by world suggest strongly that sports participation is the
most popular leisure time activity of youth. In the terests of youth above those of the adults who lead
United States, 74 percent of youth ages six to seventeen, them and the organizations that sponsor them. They
or about 26 million youth, participate in one of eight- also benefit from adults who are educated about the de-
een sports offered by clubs, leagues, or schools. Of velopmental characteristics of youth, effective at in-
these, 11 million are girls and 15 million are boys. The struction in the skills of their sports, and genuinely
team sports with the overall highest rate of participation concerned about the welfare of their athletes.
for both boys and girls in the United States are basket-
ball, followed closely by soccer. From there, participa- Current Issues
tion figures among U.S youth show boys preferring, in The composition, incomes, and other circumstances of
order, baseball and tackle football, and girls choosing the households and larger societies in which youth live
softball, volleyball, and cheerleading. On a worldwide are changing rapidly, and the role of sports in their
basis, soccer is the number one participation sport lives is changing accordingly:
among boys, and among both boys and girls in
1. Among the most important demographic changes of
Canada. Among all team sports in the United States,
the last twenty years have been the increase of sin-
soccer has grown the fastest in recent years and is the
gle parent households, the need for both parents to
only sport where numbers of girls and boys participat-
work outside the home, and the “aging” of popula-
ing is nearly equal.
tions, particularly in North America and Europe.
Youth now compose smaller percentages of their
Outcomes of Participation societies than in past years, and the cultures in
There is plenty of debate about the relative merits of or-
which they live are increasingly focused on accom-
ganized youth sports programs, but little evidence sup-
modating the needs and interests of adults.
ports the many platitudes about them. Adult-led,
2. Migration patterns from lesser- to more-developed
community-sponsored sports may create occasions for
countries have changed the composition and eco-
youth and families to join forces; establish achievement
nomic circumstances of youth, exacerbating differ-
arenas for children; provide early experiences of lead-
ences between the rich and poor.
ership, discipline, and competition; and enhance health
3. The expansion of global media, as parts of larger
and fitness. Those same programs can also create ten-
globalization patterns, has significantly influenced
sions, conflict, and hostility among adults; create work-
how youth spend their time and how they include
like pressures on youth to please their parents and
sports in their lives.
coaches; foster inappropriate expectations about their
4. There is an increasing shift in sponsorship and pro-
performances; and actually do more harm than good to
vision of youth sports away from the public and non-
their health and well-being. Under the right conditions,
profit sectors to the private and corporate sectors.
youth who participate in school-sponsored sports may
have higher academic performance, educational aspira- These four factors working together, in addition to
tions, and enhanced career options than do those who the sex-segregated history of youth sport, are essential
do not, but ample evidence indicates that sports pro- in understanding the role of sport in contemporary
grams may subvert the educational mission of their youth culture.
sponsoring schools, sidetrack students into focusing
exclusively on sports, and bestow disproportionate and GLOBAL BUT NOT UNIVERSAL
inappropriate privileges to young, usually male, ath- Although we know that youth sports are a growing
letes. In general, organized youth sports are successful world phenomenon, a number of youth in the world
and constructive to the degree that they place the in- have little or no access to them. Organized sports in-
Youth Culture and Sport

Youth Sports in Korea
The smallest schoolboys began the wrestling—little occasion wore handsome national costumes. The
fellows of six and seven stepping forth into the arena women spectators secured places for themselves quite
and wrestling away until one of them threw the other near the swings at the start of the competition but all
amid universal applause. Older boys then had their drew close while it was in progress.
turn and when one or other of them distinguished The competition seemed to be restricted to girls of
himself by defeating several competitors in succession marriageable age. I expected that they would sit on
the applause became wild and he had to go up and the seat but they all stood on it. The first competitor
receive a prize, which consisted generally of a lead- was a really handsome girl and in due course we
pencil, a block of writing-paper, a couple of spools of were to see what Engan could show in the matter of
cotton or some other useful object. Then came female charms. Some of the competitors swung up to
wrestlers of still larger size and finally fully grown an astonishing height, winning loud applause as well
men. Now the contests became more exciting than as the allotted prizes. To prevent their skirts from fly-
ever, the spectators shouting and yelling for all they ing up into their faces they all made a kind of jerk
were worth. with their knees at the right moment. A great number
After the wrestling came the swinging. A big swing of the women looking on carried babies on their
had been erected. Whoever swung highest won the backs and these babies were duly fed in the course of
prize. The heights attained were marked by a string the festival. Many of the intending competitors were
which had to be touched. Swinging would seem to be still a-waiting their turn when the rain began to pelt
the favourite exercise for girls in Korea. I have seen down on us once more, dispersing the whole joyous
very large swings of this kind in many Korean villages crowd in their brightly-coloured clothes.
and they are used by girls only. All the girls on this Source: Bergman, S. (1938). In Korean wilds and villages (p. 60–62). London: John Gifford.
volvement for children requires time, resources, facilities, in the United States were living below the poverty line
and at least some adult and social support. Accordingly, in 2002, with the number of African-American children
youth living in conditions where any of these things are living in extreme poverty increasing by 1 million in
lacking may have diminished chances of accessing the 2003. Seventy-five percent of the children of migrant
array of well-organized and high-quality sports programs farm workers in the United States live below the
available to more fortunate children. Research in national poverty line. About 5 million children in
Canada strongly suggests that household income levels the United States spend time outside of school with no
have a dramatic impact on youth involvement in sports. adult supervision.
Three-quarters of children from households earning
$80,000 (Canadian) per year are active in sports, but SEDENTARY LIVES AND OBESITY
less than 50 percent of children whose parents earn less A study of youth sports across twenty different countries
than $40,000 were active in sports. Data on changes to in the mid-1990s revealed a worldwide trend toward
families and levels of poverty in the United States show the formation of two groups of youth: one intensely in-
that minority children are more likely to live in these volved in organized sports, the other quite inactive. In
diminished conditions. Before they reach age six, more the United States, 20 percent of children ages eight to
than a quarter of U.S. children will already have lived sixteen engage in two or fewer stints of activity per
with only one parent, including two-thirds of African- week, and 25 percent watch four or more hours of tele-
American children. More than 12 million children vision per day. Evidence also suggests that school-based
27 percent of African American teen girls. These figures

represent a fourfold increase since the early 1970s.
The involvement of parents has been shown to be a
key factor in their children’s activities. A Canadian study
found that interest and participation among youth in-
creases if their parents are physically active and if they
volunteer to be part of their children’s programs. How-
ever, two-thirds of U.S. parents surveyed about the prob-
lem of inactivity among their children state that,
although they realize participation in activity with their
children is important, they have little time to do so.
Forty percent of these surveyed parents also said they
have little or no access to community playgrounds,
parks, or other facilities in which to play with their chil-
dren, with this barrier being more difficult for African-
Americans and Latinos. Illustrative of the worldwide
pattern, however, evidence shows that parents of chil-
dren with the time and wherewithal have increasingly
chosen structured, rather than “free time,” activities for
their children. In general, when left on their own, youth
appear to be increasingly more interested in sedentary
pursuits than active ones.
Youth with a skateboard depicted in an
urban grunge area. Source: istockphoto/lovleah.
GENDER , RACE, AND CLASS
CONTINUE TO DIVIDE
physical education programs are not providing an ade- The high participation rate for boys in sports reflects a
quate amount of time for children to be active. One worldwide pattern in which boys remain more active in
study found third-grade children were involved an av- sports than girls. In the United States, even though par-
erage of twenty-five minutes per week in moderate to ticipation numbers for youth reflect considerable in-
vigorous activity, despite recommendations that chil- creases among girls during the past thirty years, some
dren participate in thirty to sixty minutes per day. studies show that boys spend twice as much time in-
Not surprisingly, inactivity is related to the increasing volved in sports as girls do. The increasing numbers of
numbers of youth who are obese. The World Health Or- girls participating also needs to be qualified by race
ganization (WHO) lists obesity as among the ten most and class differences. Nearly 90 percent of U.S. girl par-
significant health problems in the world, although obe- ticipants are those who live in suburban areas, com-
sity is a problem characteristic of a few wealthy coun- pared with only 15 percent of urban girls. African-
tries. Indeed, the WHO lists the number one health American girls have one-third as many participation
problem in the world as child and maternal under- opportunities as their white counterparts do.
weight. On the other hand, young teens in the United The differences between boys and girls reflect the
States are heavier than those of fourteen other industri- sex-segregated and mostly unequal sports programs of
alized countries. For African-American and Latino chil- the past. Girls also continue to receive mixed messages
dren, particularly girls, these figures are higher, including from the culture at large about their places in the sport
Youths playing a variety of games and sports.
world. Although they are often encouraged and wel- jumping, rock or artificial wall climbing, paintball, and
comed into sports at early ages, girls continue to see an whitewater kayaking or canoeing, have all increased in
overwhelming emphasis on male sports in the media popularity.
and learn that participation in traditionally masculine The implications of these changes are noteworthy:
sports may entail risks to their gender and sexual iden-
tities. Predictably, even though both boys and girls have 1. Far fewer alternative sports are sponsored by public
historically shown decreases in participation in sports institutions, such as schools, recreation departments,
during early adolescence, these figures are consistently and nonprofit leagues; instead, alternative sports
higher for girls than for boys. In general, the most pop- tend to be offered by commercial, for-profit firms or
ular sports in the world have been built on male values corporations. Consequently, participation in alter-
and interests, and girls have simply been asked to fit native sports depends more heavily than traditional
into those programs. sports on the resources of youth and their families.
As with traditional sports, such costs present con-
An Alternative Future? siderable obstacles for youth from poor families,
Traditional team sports participation appears to be on given the often expensive and specialized equip-
the decline in the United States, with just over half of all ment, facilities, and instruction some alternative
youth participating in these activities. On the other sports require.
hand, the popularity of extreme or alternative sports has 2. The commercial status of providers of these activities
increased dramatically. Indeed, the fastest growing sport means that, as youth participate, they are now also
in the United States is in-line skating, with 29 million cultivated as potential consumers of products, both
participants, nearly double the number of soccer par- related and unrelated to participation in sports.
ticipants. Other alternative sports, including skate- 3. Although there are competitions in alternative sports
boarding, mountain biking, snowboarding, bungee such as skateboarding, bicycle motocross (BMX), and
mountain biking, unlike traditional sports, most par- Statistics Canada, Health Statistics Division. (2003). Health reports,
ticipants focus on their own enjoyment rather than on Special Issue, Supplement to Volume 14, 2003. Statistics Canada,
Health Statistics Division.
a team or school’s tradition or won/lost record. Taylor Research and Consulting Group. (2001). Generation next is
4. Although specialized training may be involved in generation now: Kids, sports, media & technology. Taylor Research
and Consulting Group.
learning the skills of these sports, the traditional Wilson, W. (Ed.) (1999). The children and sports media study. Los An-
roles of adult figures, including coaches and par- geles, CA: Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles.
ents, is significantly altered or absent altogether in World Health Organization. (2002). The World Health Report 2002. Re-
ducing risks, promoting healthy life. World Health Organization.
alternative sports. The diminished adult involvement
may foster creativity and increased enjoyment, but it
may also mean activities that are less safe and
mostly guided by values fostered in media.
5. To the degree that alternative sports are built on the
values and interests of males, and male participants in
Youth Sports
them are the primary focus of alternative sport media
coverage, they will attract more boys than girls. C hildren around the world play a wide range of
physical activities and informal games native to
their cultures. Youth sports, or formally organized games
Stephan Walk
and physical challenges designed for children and ado-
lescents, are relatively new activities in human history,
Further Reading because they depend on human and material resources
Coakley, J. J. (2004). Sports in society: Issues and controversies (8th ed.). and the existence of particular ideas about childhood
Boston: McGraw-Hill.
DeKnop, P. B., Engstrom, L.-M., Skirstad, L., & Weiss, M. R. (Eds.).
and adolescence.
(1996). Worldwide trends in youth sports. Champaign, IL: Human Youth sports require resources in the form of adults
Kinetics. who have the time, money, and skills needed to organ-
Henkel, J. (2002, May–June). Finding activities for kids after school.
FDA Consumer, 36(3), 33. ize and manage programs. They also require a critical
Hofferth, S. L., & Sandberg. J. F. (2001). Changes in American chil- mass of children with discretionary time and access to fa-
dren’s use of time, 1981–1997. In T. Owens and S. Hofferth (Eds.),
Children at the millennium: Where have we come from, where are we
cilities and spaces designed for their organized games or
going? Advances in Life Course Research Series (pp. 193–229). New physical challenges. In nations and regions where fam-
York: Elsevier Science. ily income is very low, there are few, if any, youth sports.
Lissau, I., Overpeck, M. D., Ruan, J. W., Due, P., Holstein, B. E., &
Hediger, M. L. (2004). Body mass index and overweight in adoles- Adults in these settings lack resources to initiate and
cents in 13 European countries, Israel, and the United States. manage formally organized games and challenges, chil-
Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 158(1):27–33.
National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and
dren lack free time to play in scheduled activities, and
Prevention. (2000). 1999–2000 National Health and Nutrition Ex- there are no playing fields and facilities to accommodate
amination Survey. National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for youth sports. In a material sense, youth sports are a lux-
Disease Control and Prevention.
Platt, T. (2003). The state of welfare: United States 2003. Monthly Re- ury that many people in the world cannot afford.
view, 55(5),13–27. Youth sports also require particular cultural ideas.
Proctor, B. D., & Dalaker, J. (2003). U.S. Census Bureau, Current pop-
ulation reports, P60-P222, Poverty in the United States 2002. Wash-
People organize youth sports when they define child-
ington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. hood and adolescence as identifiable periods of the life
Romanowski, M.H. (2003). Meeting the unique needs of the children course during which social, psychological, and cognitive
of migrant farm workers. Clearing House, 77(1),27–33.
Ruggles, S., & Brower, S. (2000). Measurement of household and fam- development occurs in connection with personal expe-
ily composition in the United States, 1850–2000. Population and riences. This definition provides an incentive for organ-
Development Review, 29(1),73–101.
Schmidt, C.W. (2003). Environews: Focus: Obesity: A weighty issue for
izing games and challenges designed specifically for
children. Environmental Health Perspectives, 111(13), A700–A707. children. Family and community resources are dedicated
YOUTH SPORTS 1745
French girls in a playground race in 1913.
to youth sports only when there are widespread beliefs England. Playing sports, thought the headmasters at
that childhood and adolescence are times during which these schools, would help the sons of wealthy and pow-
fun and developmental experiences are important. erful people in British society become future leaders in
business, government, and the military.
The Emergence of Youth Sports Reform-oriented adults in the United States took the
Playing youth sports is a taken-for-granted experience notion that sports built character and used it as a basis
among many young people in wealthy, postindustrial for organizing youth sports, especially team sports for
societies. This is especially true when families have boys, in schools, on playgrounds, and in church groups.
enough money to pay for equipment, program fees, The hope was that team sports would teach boys from
and transportation to practices, games, and events. working-class and immigrant families values about
However, youth sports are a creation of the twentieth work, cooperation, productivity, and obedience to au-
century, and they have become widely popular only thority in the pursuit of competitive success. It was also
since the 1950s. hoped that sports would help boys from middle- and
It was not until the early 1900s that many people in upper-class families become strong, assertive, competi-
England and North America began to realize that the tive men who would eventually become the captains of
behavior and character of children were strongly influ- industry, government, and the military. Teaching privi-
enced by their social environment and everyday expe- leged boys to be tough, competitive men was important
riences. This belief that the environment influenced a to many reformers because they worried that these boys
person’s overall development was encouraging to peo- were learning too many feminine values because they
ple interested in progress and reform. It caused them to were raised exclusively by their mothers. Fathers worked
think about how they might control the experiences of long hours and were seldom at home, so there was a
children so that they would grow up to be responsible fear that boys had few chances to learn about man-
and productive adults in societies where citizenship and hood. Sports were seen as activities that would turn
work were highly valued. They knew that democracy de- boys into men.
pended on responsibility, and a growing capitalist econ- At the same time that youth sports were organized
omy depended on productivity. for boys, other activities were organized to help girls
Progressive reformers in the United States during the learn about motherhood and homemaking. Most peo-
early twentieth century were influenced by educators in ple during the early twentieth century, even progressive
England who saw sports as ideal activities for molding reformers, believed that it was more important for girls
the characters of young boys. In fact the very first youth to learn domestic skills than sport skills. School cur-
sports were developed in exclusive private schools in riculum and playground activities were organized to
In the late twentieth

century basketball be-
came one of the most
popular sports around
the world. Here, young
men in Shanghai, China,
in 2003 play in a
basketball tournament.
reflect this belief. According to

ideas held by most people
through the 1950s, girls were
naturally suited to be wives
and mothers, not athletes or
leaders in society. Many physi-
cians promoted the idea that
playing vigorous physical
activities were dangerous to
the overall health and well-
being of girls and women. Therefore, girls only needed public, private, and commercial sponsors. Local park and
to know about sports so they could raise their sons recreation departments sponsored programs.The YMCA,
properly. YWCA, Boys and Girls Clubs, and many religious or-
Until the 1970s there were few youth sports for girls ganizations and churches added programs of their own.
apart from those that occurred in connection with the Entrepreneurs developed commercial clubs for children
lifestyles of relatively wealthy families. When girls did whose parents could afford to pay for private lessons
participate, their sports were designed to enhance phys- and exclusive sport participation opportunities.
ical poise, coordination, and general health. Gender- Parents also entered the scene as active promoters of
mixed participation in youth sports was rare; if girls youth sports. They were eager to have the characters of
played sports and games with boys, it was done infor- their sons built through organized, competitive sports.
mally by girls who were identified as “tomboys.” Fathers became coaches, managers, and league admin-
Although there were exceptions to these patterns, or- istrators. Mothers did laundry and became chauffeurs
ganized youth sports through most of the twentieth and short-order cooks so their sons were always ready
century were developed around prevailing cultural ideas and properly suited up for practices and games.
about how boys and girls should grow up and what Most organized youth sports through the mid-1970s
they were supposed to learn in the process of becoming were for boys eight to fourteen years old. The programs
productive adults. usually emphasized a combination of fun and compe-
tition as preparation for future occupational success.
Organized Youth Sports Girls’ interests in sports were largely ignored, and few
Since the 1950s girls had opportunities to play on organized youth
As the first wave of the Baby Boom generation (that is, teams or varsity sports in schools.
children born between 1946 and 1964) moved through It was not until the mid-1970s that the women’s
childhood during the 1950s and 1960s, youth sports be- movement, the health and fitness movement, and gov-
came increasingly popular in Europe and North Ameri- ernment legislation (Title IX in the United States) pro-
can. Growth was especially dramatic in the United States, hibiting sex discrimination in public school programs
where youth sports were funded by a combination of all came together to stimulate the development of sport
YOUTH SPORTS 1747
Youth Sports
Ritual Fighting among Dogon Boys in West Africa
During the four months following the harvests, the When a child refuses to come and prepare the
boys of the two Ogols [villages] meet on prepared space on which one fights, his comrades insult him
ground, as soon as the night falls and when the and forbid him to enter the circle on the first day of
moon lights the countryside sufficiently. They place the competitions, but on that day only: u y minne
themselves in a circle unu gonawe; literally children buburu üw bunno beg wr ngalu. One said to you yes-
in a circle; those of Ogolda occupy the half circle on terday: “come and beat the earth into dust!” You re-
the side of their village; those of Ogoldognou face sponded: “I will not come.”
them. A boy steps out from one of the sides, places When a boy refuses to take part in the fights, he is
himself in the middle of the circle and makes a defi- mocked and accused of cowardice or weakness: u y
ant gesture towards the adversary side: he raises to a[caron jjori üw amuga omuode wrngalu.
his side his bent right leg, extends his right arm while One said to you yesterday: “Come to the fight.” You,
holding his forearm vertically. A boy of the other weak child, you have answered: “I am not coming!”
side comes and places himself before him and the One can, without ridicule, refuse to fight with a
two seize each other by the waist, passing their right comrade wearing a bracelet of iron señe. In effect,
arm under the left arm of the other. The hands are while holding upon the loins with the iron, one causes
crossed behind the back, without gripping each such a pain to the adversary that he immediately falls
other. They try to unbalance each other by side to on his back.
side twisting of the trunk, or by taking hold of the ad- These fights are organized generally between quar-
versary’s thigh. Each one tries equally to turn the ters or between villages. For the region of Sanga,
other upside down while pressing the upper part of Ogolda fights against Ogoldognou, Sangui against
their body against the chest of the adversary and by Enguel, Bongo against Gogoli: the two Diaméni like
seizing him by the loins. In order to avoid being the Dini, both fight against Tabda; Doziou and Tabda
taken by these different methods, the two fighters, at unite against Guinna, etc. If a quarter finds itself
the beginning, stoop toward one another, with their alone, it divides into two sides.
feet very far apart. Formerly, before the arrival of the French, all of the
He who falls under the other is beaten and hooted boys of the region of Upper Sanga would gather to-
at by the opposing side. The vanquished is seized by gether in order to witness the fights between the two
one of his comrades and carried to the place where Ogols. Nowadays the nocturnal games are forbid-
he was before the challenge took place. Two other den on the grounds that they are too noisy.
boys take their turn in the contest. Source: Griaule, M. (1938). Dogon games (p. 119–121). Paris: Institut d’Ethnologie.
programs for girls. These programs grew rapidly during as good as boys” in sports and that being successful as
the 1970s and early 1980s, and now most girls in an athlete in certain sports will cause others to question
North America have opportunities to participate in their femininity.
youth sports. However, participation rates among girls Even though traditional ideas about masculinity and
remain lower than rates among boys because playing femininity still influence participation in youth sports,
sports continues to be connected more strongly with playing sports is now an accepted part of the process of
masculinity than femininity. Furthermore, some girls growing up in most postindustrial nations. Parents en-
continue to be discouraged by beliefs that “girls are not courage sons and daughters to play youth sports. Some
For truly it is to be noted, that children’s plays are

not sports, and should be deemed as their most
serious actions. ■ MICHEL EYQUEM DE MONTAIGNE
parents wonder if their children should play in programs ing about one’s body, and developing physical compe-
where winning is emphasized more than overall child de- tence, self-esteem, social skills, and the ability to make
velopment, but many parents seek out the win-oriented moral decisions (Ewing et al. 2002). However, studies
programs, hoping their children will become the winners. of the effects of participating in youth sports have pro-
duced mixed findings because the experiences of young
Current Trends in Youth Sports people vary across programs, teams, and situations.
In addition to increased popularity, recent trends in Furthermore, the meanings given to sport experiences
youth sports include the following: and the ways that they are integrated into the lives of
young people vary from one participant to the next.
1. Youth sports have become increasingly privatized in
A review of the research indicates that positive devel-
that they are more often sponsored by private and
opmental outcomes are most likely when youth sports
commercial organizations and less often sponsored
provide young people with opportunities to expand their
by public, tax-supported organizations.
identities, experiences, and relationships under the guid-
2. Youth sports increasingly emphasize a “performance
ance of adults concerned with and knowledgeable about
ethic” in that participants, even in recreational pro-
developmental issues. Negative outcomes are most likely
grams, are encouraged to evaluate their experiences
when participation constrains identity development, lim-
in terms of developing technical skills and pro-
its the diversity of a young person’s experiences and re-
gressing to higher levels of achievement.
lationships, and occurs under the guidance of adults
3. There is an increase in elite sport training facilities
who focus on competitive success without explicit strate-
dedicated to producing highly skilled, specialized
gies for fostering general development (Coakley 2004).
athletes who progress through increasingly difficult
Research also indicates that young people are most
levels of competition.
likely to have fun in youth sports when programs are or-
4. Parents have become more involved in and con-
ganized to maximize action, personal involvement in
cerned about the participation and success of their
the action, and the formation and reaffirmation of
children in youth sports because they see sports as
friendships among participants (Coakley 2004). How-
socially and developmentally important activities
ever, definitions of fun change as children develop, as
for young people.
their goals related to sports change, and as they see
5. Participation in alternative or “action” sports has in-
their connections with the rest of the world in new
creased because some young people prefer unstruc-
ways. Although most young people define fun in terms
tured, participant-controlled physical challenges such
of opportunities to develop and display physical com-
as those encountered in BMX biking, skateboarding,
petence across a range of activities and challenges, com-
in-line skating, and snowboarding, among others.
petitive success becomes a requirement for fun among
These five trends have an impact on who participates many young people who participate in programs that
in organized youth sports, the conditions of their par- have a strong emphasis on winning and moving up to
ticipation, the types of experiences they have, and the higher levels of competition. A sense of fun is generally
meanings that they give to those experiences. related to perceived competence, but ideas about com-
petence vary with young people’s ideas about what is
The Effects of Participation in important in their lives. When success in a single sport
Youth Sport becomes a primary focus, satisfaction and self-esteem
Youth sports provide a dynamic context in which young among young people are likely to swing back and forth
people can experience many positive outcomes. These from one extreme to another depending on recent and
outcomes include becoming more physically fit, learn- anticipated competitive outcomes.
YOUTH SPORTS 1749
Problems in Youth Sports As the stakes associated with youth sports have in-
Youth sports are not without problems. Some programs creased, so have the numbers of problem parents. At the
have become so costly that many young people are ex- same time, media accounts have publicized the actions
cluded. At the same time, many communities have cut of obnoxious and sometimes violent parents to the
publicly funded programs due to budget crises. Instead of point that such characters have become the stuff of
sponsoring programs as they have done in the past, many urban legends. Problem parents not only create chal-
publicly funded park and recreation programs now issue lenges for coaches and program administrators, they
permits to club-based youth sport organizations that use also create challenges for young athletes who seek con-
fields and facilities.The cost of club-based programs often trol of their sport experiences.
discourages participation by children from low-income These and other problems have created challenges re-
families, which intensifies existing forms of socioeco- lated to youth sports. Although the goal of many peo-
nomic segregation in many communities. Furthermore, ple is to ensure that all children have opportunities to
the widespread notion that sports exemplify ideals of play sports and develop and display physical skills in
bodily perfection has limited the provision of youth contexts that are safe and fun, there are others who have
sports for young people with disabilities. a goal of producing elite sport performers. Achieving
Some youth sports programs are now organized so both of these goals simultaneously is difficult when re-
that young people are expected or required to participate sources are limited. In the meantime increasing rates of
year-round. In the case of children younger than fourteen childhood obesity in many postindustrial societies have
years old, this specialization often restricts overall phys- raised questions about how to organize youth sports in
ical and social development, undermines motivation, ways that maximize health through the life course.
and creates burnout. Burnout occurs primarily during
Jay Coakley
early adolescence when young people feel that they have
lost personal control over the conditions of their sport
participation. This causes stress, and when stress be- Further Reading
comes excessive, burnout becomes common. Coakley, J. (2004). Sports in society: Issues and controversies. New
The seriousness and demands of youth sports have York: McGraw-Hill.
De Knop, P., et al. (Eds.). (1994). Youth-friendly sport clubs: Develop-
also created problems for parents and problem par- ing an effective youth sport policy. Brussels, Belgium: VUB Press.
ents. Many parents today feel it is their moral obliga- De Knop, P., et al. (Eds.). (1996). Worldwide trends in youth sport.
tion to find the best programs for their children and Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics..
Ewing, M., et al. (2002).The role of sports in youth development. In Gatz,
ensure that their children experience success in those M., Messner, M. A., & Ball-Rokeach, S. J. (Eds.), Paradoxes of youth and
programs. These parents often believe that if they do sport (pp. 31–48). Albany: State University of New York Press,.
Kremer, J., Trew, K., & Ogle, S. (Eds.). (1997). Young people’s involve-
things correctly their children will reap rewards such as ment in sport. London and New York: Routledge.
college scholarships and even professional contracts
and prize money in their sports. Under these condi-
tions their children’s accomplishments become evi-
dence for their own moral worth as parents. These
expectations put significant pressure on children to
perform well and to continue playing a sport even
when they would like to expand their interests and
participate in other activities. It also creates pressure
for coaches who may not always do what parents ex-
pect of them or think is appropriate.
Index
Notes: 1) Bold entries and page numbers denote encyclopedia Adolescents. See Youth sports
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers ADR (Alternative dispute resolution), 3:919
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found.
“Adrenalin sports,” 2:539
Adu, Freddie, 2:510
A
Adults, older. See Senior sport
AAASP (Association for the Advancement of Applied
Adventure education, 1:9–11
Sport Psychology), 3:999, 3:1225
Adventure racing, 2:541
Aaron, Hank, 1:149
Advertising. See Marketing
Aarons, Ruth, 4:1590
Aeneid, 3:935
AAU. See Amateur Athletic Union (AAU)
Aerial skiing, 4:1410
ABA (American Basketball Association), 3:1245,
Aerobics, 1:12–15, 2:607–608, 4:1511. See also
4:1650
Endurance; Fitness
ABC. See Walt Disney/ABC/Capital Cities
Aesthetics, 1:15–20. See also Art; Beauty
Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem, 1:173, 1:175, 3:1255, 4:1738
Affective aspects, spectator sports consumptions,
Abera, Gezsaahegne, 3:967
4:1471–1473
Aboriginal Sport Circle, 3:1063–1064
African Games, 1:20–25, 3:1337
Abraham, Fritz, 3:944–945
African-American scholar-athletes, 2:812, 3:1323–1328
Abramovich, Roman, 3:1134
Agents, 1:25–29, 3:922. See also Free agency
Abstracts, periodical, 3:952
Aggassi, Andre, 4:1606, 4:1608, 4:1609
Academic sport and physical education periodicals,
Agostini, Giacomo, 2:854
3:949–951, 3:959, 3:1175–1176, 3:1223
Ahlqvist, Carl, 2:609
Academies and camps, sport, 1:3–4, 1:306,
AIDS and HIV, 1:30–35, 4:1667. See also
1:308, 2:817–820. See also Youth sports
Homophobia
Acordeon, Mestre, 1:44
Aikido, 1:35–38
Acro skiing, 4:1410
Aikman, Troy, 4:1670
Actualization. See Self-determination, athlete’s
Ailey, Alvin, 1:440
Adapted physical education, 1:5–9. See also
Aján, Tamán, 4:1688
Disability sport
AJS motorcycles, 3:1021
Addie, Pauline May Betz, 4:1606
Alaska, 2:788, 2:790
Adidas, 3:974, 3:975, 4:1491
Alaska International Senior Games, 3:1342
Adkison, Andrew, 4:1685
Albertville Olympics (1992), 3:1122, 3:1349
Adler, Friedrich, 3:1104
1751
1752 INDEX
Albright, Frankee, 2:598 Amateur Softball Association (ASA), 4:1449–1451,

A Alcindor, Lew. See Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem 4:1454
Alcott, Louisa May, 4:1489 Amateur sport clubs, 1:315–318
Alexander, Grover Cleveland, 1:149 Amateur vs. professional debate, 1:44–49,
Alexander, Pete, 1:149 3:1218–1221
Alexeev, Vasily, 4:1687, 4:1689 college athletics, 1:45–49, 1:339, 1:348, 2:477–
Algeria, 3:1237, 4:1446–1447 479
Ali, Muhammad, 1:243, 3:1236, 3:1255 Olympics, 3:1107, 3:1113, 3:1120, 3:1219–
in art, 1:96 1221, 4:1604, 4:1705
as athlete celebrity, 1:109 tennis, 4:1604, 4:1606–1607, 4:1693
health issues, 1:246 track and field, 4:1623
Norton match, 4:1733 United Kingdom, amateurism in, 3:1220, 4:1654–
title loss, 1:247 1655, 4:1658
All Blacks, 3:1072–1073, 3:1077, 3:1270, 4:1487, Ameche, Alan, 4:1734
4:1491 Amenorrhea, 1:33, 1:197
All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, American Alpine Club, 3:1046
1:38–40. See also Wimbledon American Basketball Association (ABA), 3:1245,
All Indian Rodeo Cowboys Association, 3:1062 4:1650
All Whites, 3:1077 American Football League (AFL), 3:921
Allen, Marcus, 3:1192 American League (AL), 1:145, 1:150
Allen, Mark, 1:192 American Power Boat Association (APBA), 3:1018,
Allen, Mel, 3:1245 3:1019
Allin, Ching, 3:1198 American sports exceptionalism, 1:49–52
Allison, Jim, 2:793 American Youth Soccer Organization (AYSO),
Allison, Stacy, 3:1030 1:52–53
Alpine Club, 3:1040, 3:1046 Americans with Disabilities Act (1990), 1:7, 1:34,
Alpine skiing. See Skiing, Alpine 2:465
Alpine style mountaineering, 3:1045–1046 America’s Cup, 1:54–56, 3:1077, 3:1315, 3:1321
Alps, 3:1039–1041, 4:1582 Amherst College, 3:1324
Alternative dispute resolution (ADR), 3:919, 3:923 Amish, inline skates used by, 4:1392
Alternative sports, 1:40–44, 4:1739, 4:1743– Ammann, Simon, 3:1123
1744, 4:1748. See also specific sports Amphetamines, 3:1165, 4:1531
Alvarez, Lili, 4:1465 Amundsen, Roald, 4:1415
Alzado, Lyle, 4:1552 Anabolic steroids. See Steroids
Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) Anaheim Mighty Ducks, 3:995, 3:1134
Boston Marathon, 3:968 Anders, Beth, 2:738
Mr. America contest, 3:1211 Anderson, Benedict, 4:1446
powerlifting supported by, 3:1211–1212 Anderson, Paul, 3:1211, 4:1687
taekwando accepted into, 4:1592 Ando, Miki, 4:1387
track and field, 2:873–874, 4:1624, 4:1630, Andretti, Mario, 2:795
4:1632 Andretti, Michael, 2:795
women’s basketball championship, first, 1:174 Androstenedione, 3:1166
wrestling, 4:1719 Anemia, 1:57–59
Amateur Rowing Association, 4:1655 Angel, Jose, 2:544
Angelopoulos-Daskalki, Gianna, 3:1108
Notes: 1) Bold entries and page numbers denote encyclopedia
Angerer, Willy, 2:500
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers Angling. See Fishing
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Anheuser Busch (company), 2:523
INDEX 1753
Animal rights, 1:60–68. See also Bullfighting; Arledge, Roone, 2:629, 3:1191
Foxhunting; Horse racing Arlin, Harold, 3:1243
A
feminism and, 1:64–65 Arlington, Lizzie, 1:153
historical aspects, 1:62 Arm wrestling, 1:90–92
movement, 1:63–67 Armstrong, Debbie, 4:1403
origins, 1:60–61 Armstrong, Lance, 1:426, 2:603, 4:1616
philosophies, 1:61, 1:63 as athlete hero, 1:115
rodeo, 3:1277 endorsements and, 1:354, 2:507, 2:508
Anorexia nervosa, 2:458. See also Disordered Arousal, role in sports performance of, 3:1001–1002
eating Arrayoz, Bautista de, 3:1157
Anson, Adrian “Cap,” 1:147, 1:148 “Arrows.” See Darts
Antarctic exploration, 4:1415 Art, 1:92–97. See also Beauty
Anthropology Days, 1:68–70, 1:81 abstract, 1:95–96
Anti-competition movement, 1:377–378 aesthetics and, 1:15–20
Anti-jock movement, 1:70–72 ancient sports images, 1:92–93
Antwerp Olympics (1920), 1:187, 1:189, 3:1118 human body and, 1:96
Anxiety, role in sports performance of, 3:1001–1002 mechanized motion and, 1:96–97
Any Given Sunday, 3:1050 modern sports images, 1:93–95
AOL Time-Warner, 3:992, 3:994 realism, 1:95–96
Apartheid. See South Africa As You Like It, 3:936
APBA (American Power Boat Association), 3:1018– ASA (Amateur Softball Association), 4:1449–1452,
1019 4:1454
Apnea free diving, 4:1646 Ascot, 1:97–99
Apparatus, gymnastics. See Gymnastics, apparatus Ashe, Arthur, 1:31, 1:32, 4:1605, 4:1608
Apparel. See Athletic equipment and apparel; Ashe, Thomas, 1:278
Sporting goods industry Ashes, the, 1:99–101
Applebee, Constance M. K., 2:735, 3:914–915 Ashford, Evelyn, 3:1144
Aqua-Lung, 4:1645, 4:1646 Ashtanga yoga, 4:1735
Aquatic exercise, 2:602 Asian Conference on Women and Sports, 2:867
Arab Games, 1:72–74 Asian Games, 1:101–106, 4:1376. See also South
Arad, Yael, 2:847, 2:849 East Asian Games
Arai, Junko, 2:889–890 China, 1:104–105, 1:312
Arcari, Bruno, 2:854 future aspects, 1:106
Archery, 1:74–84, 3:935. See also Kyudo history, 1:101–102, 3:1299, 3:1303–1304
in art, 1:77, 1:93–1:95 India, 1:102, 1:104
China, 1:309 Indonesia, 1:102–103
English longbow and, 1:77–78 Iran, 1:103–104
in Europe, 1:78–79 Japan, 1:102, 1:105
forms of, 1:82–83 locations, 1:104
historical aspects, 1:74–76 Philippines, 1:102
international aspects, 1:76–77 sepak takraw, 3:1347
Toxophilites and, 1:79–80 South Korea, 1:104, 1:106
Argentina, 1:84–89, 3:1143, 3:1146, 4:1429, Thailand, 1:103–106
4:1709 Asian South Pacific Association of Sport Psychology
Arizona Diamondbacks, 4:1711 (ASPASP), 3:1225
Arizona State University scholar-athlete case study, Askin, Bob, 3:1274
3:1326–1327 ASPASP (Asian South Pacific Association of Sport
Arlberg-Kandahar ski race, 4:1400 Psychology), 3:1225
1754 INDEX
Association football. See Soccer ATV racing, 2:541

Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Auction houses, memorabilia sold by, 3:997
B Psychology (AAASP), 3:999, 3:1225
Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP), 4:1604,
Auerbach, Red, 1:173
Auffermann, Uli, 2:501
4:1606, 4:1607 Augusta National Golf Club, 3:988–990
Asthma, 2:536 Austin, Tex, 3:1274, 3:1277
Astrodome, 1:106–108 Australia, 1:123–128, 1:231, 1:357, 4:1446.
Astroturf, 2:520 See also Commonwealth Games
Atarashii Naginata, 2:869, 2:871–872, 3:1054– beach volleyball, 4:1683
1056 Bondi Beach, 1:228–231
Athens Olympics lifeguarding, 3:934, 4:1564–1565
1896 (See Olympics, Summer) newspaper sports pages, 3:1079, 3:1080
2004 (See Olympics, 2004) parachuting in, 3:1150
Athlete rights, 3:920 radio broadcasts, 3:1189–1190, 3:1192
Athletes as celebrities, 1:108–113, 1:371, 2:506– rodeos, 3:1273, 3:1278
511 rugby, 1:125, 3:1299–1301
Athletes as heroes, 1:114–116 surfing, 4:1568–1569
Athletic equipment and apparel, 3:955. See also Sydney and Melbourne Olympics, 1:125, 3:1115,
Sponsorship; Sporting goods industry 4:1483, 4:1501
billiards, 1:193–194 televised sports in, 3:993, 3:995
biomechanics and, 1:199 tennis, 4:1693
fashion and, 2:568–572, 4:1567 Australian Open Tennis Championship, 4:1605–
mountain bikes, 3:1031–1032 1607
powerlifting equipment, 3:1211, 3:1213, 3:1214 Australian Rugby League (ARL), 3:995
running, 3:970 Australian rules football, 1:128–130, 1:317
surfboards, 4:1567 Austria, 1:131–133, 3:1120–1121, 4:1706
table tennis equipment, 4:1588 Auto racing, 1:133–137, 3:1338. See also
tennis, 4:1598–1601, 4:1604 Indianapolis 500; Karting
wakeboard, 4:1684 broadcasting of, 3:1191
Athletic talent migration, 1:116–120, 4:1491. Le Mans, 1:133, 3:924–925
See also Globalization New Zealand, 3:1073–1074
Athletic training, 1:120–123. See also Fitness; Nextel (Winston Cup), 1:136, 3:1083–1085
Strength training sponsorship of, 3:978
biotechnology and, 1:201–202 Autry, Gene, 3:1275
burnout and, 1:268–270 Avellán, Isabel, 1:88
Atienza, Maribel, 1:266 AYSO (American Youth Soccer Organization),
Atlanta Braves, 3:995, 4:1474, 4:1667 1:52–53
Atlanta Hawks, 3:995 Aztecs, 3:1003–1005
Atlanta Olympics (1996), 4:1532–1533
Atlanta Thrashers, 3:995 B
Atlas, Charles, 1:220, 2:606, 3:988 Backstroke, swimming, 4:1575
ATP. See Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) Bad News Bears, The, 3:1049
AT&T Pebble Beach National Pro-Am, 3:1154 Baden-Powell, Worrington, 1:289
AT&T radio stations, 3:1244 Badminton, 1:138–142, 2:863, 4:1376
Bahktin, Mikhail, 3:1056
Baillet-Latour, Henri de, 1:187–189, 3:1117,
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers 4:1704–1705
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Bait fishing, 2:595
INDEX 1755
Baker, Cindy, 1:91 facilities, 1:153

Baker, Josephine, 1:439 franchise relocation, 2:649–653
Baker, Moe, 1:90
Bakoyannis, Dora, 3:1108
global aspects, 1:154–155
governing body, 1:156
B
Balance beam, 2:717 history, 1:144–147
Balas, Iolanda, 3:1279 Japan, 1:154, 1:156, 2:860–861, 2:867
Balck, Victor, 3:1117 leagues, 1:145–146, 1:150
BALCO (Bay Area Laboratories Co-operative), memorabilia, 3:997
3:1167, 4:1665 Mexico, 3:1006, 3:1009
Baldini, Stefano, 3:1110 movies, 3:1047–1051
Baldwin, Tom, 3:1148 nature of the sport, 1:151–153
Baliko, Chris, 1:91 organization of, 1:145–146
Ballesteros, Seve, 1:258, 3:989 periodicals, 3:952–953
Ballet, 1:436–438 racial issues, 1:115, 1:146–147, 1:153
Ballooning, 1:142–144 scandals in, 1:150–151
Ballparks. See Baseball stadium life; Stadiums technology, equipment changes due to, 4:1597,
Ballroom dancing, 2:443 4:1600
Balmat, Jacques, 3:1040 women and, 1:153–154
Baltimore Colts, 4:1479, 4:1564, 4:1734 Yankee Stadium, 1:159, 4:1732–1734
Baltimore Orioles, 3:1168 Baseball Index, 3:952
Bankier, William “Apollo,” 2:880, 2:884 Baseball nicknames, 1:157–158
Barbells, 3:1210, 3:1211, 3:1213, 4:1686, Baseball stadium life, 1:159–165
4:1690 ballpark spectators, 1:159–160
Barcelona Olympics (1992), 3:1115 ballparks, 1:153, 1:159
Barclay, Robert, 3:1232–1234 field, 1:160–161
Barna, Victor, 4:1588–1589 front office, 1:164–165
Barrilleaux, Doris, 1:222 pressbox, 1:163–164
Barrow, Edward, 4:1733 stands, 1:161–163
Barry, Brent, 3:1237 Baseball wives, 1:165–168
Bartali, Gino, 1:426, 2:853, 4:1552 Basedow, Johann, 3:1178
Bartholomew, Joseph M., 2:694 Basketball, 1:168–176, 3:938
Baryshnikov, Alexander, 4:1621 athletic talent migration in, 1:119
Baryshnikov, Mikhail, 1:440 competition at the top, 1:174–175
Basden, George, 3:1086 current game, 1:173–174
BASE jumping, 2:541 governing bodies, 1:176
Baseball, 1:144–157, 3:936, 3:938, 3:1188. history, 1:168–170, 1:172, 3:1254
See also Baseball stadium life; Fenway Park; Japan, 2:863
Major League Baseball (MLB); World Series; leagues, professional, 1:170–171
Wrigley Field memorabilia, 3:997
in art, 1:95 movies, 3:1047, 3:1050
Astrodome, 1:106–108 nature of the sport, 1:174–175
athletic talent migration in, 1:117–118 in Olympics, 1:175–176, 3:1109, 3:1113
Canada, 1:283 professional, 3:923
in Central America, 1:155 racial issues, 1:171–172
church leagues, 3:1254 rules, new, 1:172–173
competition at the top, 1:155–156 social class and, 4:1438
development of, 1:147–151 television and, 1:174–175, 3:992, 4:1500
equipment, 1:153 women in, 1:174, 2:812, 4:1358
1756 INDEX
Basques Berlin Olympic Stadium, 3:1105–1107

pelota played by, 3:1155–1157 Berlin Olympics (1936), 1:109, 2:678, 2:821, 2:823,
B strength competitions, 4:1551
Bates, Robert H., 3:1045–1046
2:852–853, 3:991, 3:1105–1107, 3:1116,
4:1504, 4:1703
Baton twirling, 1:176–179 Berman, Chris, 2:525
Baudrillard, Jean, 3:1208–1209 Berry, Joyce Cran, 3:914–915
Bay Area Laboratories Co-operative (BALCO), Bert, Paul, 4:1645–1646
3:1167, 4:1665 Berterelli, Ernesto, 1:54
Baylor University, 4:1672 Bertrand, John, 1:54
Beamon, Bob, 4:1618, 4:1623 Berwanger, Jay, 2:626
Beauclerk, Frederick, 3:940 Betjeman, John, 3:939
Beauty, 1:15–20, 1:179–184, 4:1360–1361. Beyer, Henry, 3:1180
See also Art Beyond the Boundaries, 3:1235
Bechler, Steve, 3:1168 Beyus, Bob, 2:522
Becker, Boris, 1:39, 4:1605, 4:1693 Bezdek, Hugo, 2:626
Beckham, David, 4:1501 Bhakti yoga, 4:1734
as athlete celebrity, 1:110, 1:112–113, 1:184, Biathlon and triathlon, 1:189–193, 2:480,
4:1659 3:1120, 3:1123, 3:1159, 4:1405
brand management and, 1:250 Bibbia, Nino, 4:1418
endorsements and, 2:507, 4:1659 Bicarbonate, 3:1093–1094
Bee, Clair, 1:175 Bicycle polo, 3:1198–1199
Beers, William George, 3:913–914 Bicycling. See Cycling; Mountain biking
Beeston, Paul, 4:1649 Bier, August, 3:1181
Behavioral intention, athlete’s, 3:1012–1013 Bierhoff, Oliver, 2:529
Belbin, Tracey, 2:736 Bierma, Nathan, 3:1206
Belgium, 1:184–189, 3:1118, 3:1271, Big-game fishing, 2:597
4:1516 Bikila, Abebe, 1:234, 3:967
Bell, James “Cool Papa,” 1:147 Bikram yoga, 4:1735
Bell, Judy, 2:695 Billiards, 1:193–195, 4:1656
Bellutti, Antonella, 2:854 Bilson, Frank L., 1:82
Belman, Dottie and Donald, 4:1671 Bing Crosby National Pro-Am, 3:1154
Belmondo, Stefania, 2:854 Binging behavior. See Disordered eating
Bench, Johnny, 1:150 Biomechanics, 1:195–199, 2:900–902. See also
Bends, the, 4:1645–1646 Physical education; Sport science
Benjedid, Chadli, 3:1237 Biotechnology, 1:199–204, 4:1601–1602. See also
Bennett, James Gordon, 3:1197 Technology
Bennett, James Gordon, Jr., 4:1535–1536 Bird, Larry
Benvenuti, Nino, 2:854 as athlete celebrity, 1:111
Beracasa, José, 3:1143 as college athlete, 2:810
Berenson, Senda, 3:908, 4:1358 ranking, 1:50, 1:173, 1:175
Berezhnaya, Elena, 3:1123, 4:1385 salary issue, 2:493, 3:1322, 4:1650
Bergmann, Juliette, 1:225 Birkenhead Bowls Club, 1:318
Bergmann, Richard, 4:1590 Bisexuality, defined, 2:753
Bergman-Österberg, Martina, 3:1178 Bislett Stadium, 1:204–205
Bjoerndalen, Ole Einar, 3:1123
Björkstén, Elli, 2:588
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers Blackman, Marty, 1:26
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Blackmur, R. P., 3:1056–1057
INDEX 1757
Blair, Bonnie, 3:1123, 4:1390 Boston Celtics, 1:173, 3:1322

Blake, Sir Peter, 1:54 Boston Marathon, 1:7, 1:233–235, 3:967, 3:970,
Blanchard, J. P., 3:1148
Blanchard’s balloons, 1:143
3:1075
Kenyan participation, 2:899
B
Blanco, Ramon, 3:1030 women, 1:234, 3:968
Blankers-Koen, Francina “Fanny,” 1:17, 2:730 Boston Red Sox, 1:249, 2:584, 4:1710–4:1712
Blatter, Silvio, 3:938 Botha, Frans, 1:247
Bleibtrey, Esthelda, 4:1578 Boucher v. Syracuse University, 4:1612
Blériot, Louis, 2:611 Boule, 1:235, 1:236
Blind athletes. See Disability sport Boulmerka, Hassiba, 1:23, 3:1237
Bliss, Dave, 4:1672 Bourdillon, Tom, 3:1029
Blood doping. See Performance enhancement Bouton, Bobbie, 1:168
Blue Chips, 3:1050 Bowden, Bobby, 4:1673
Boas, Franz, 3:1179 Bowerman, Bill, 1:402, 3:970
Boat race (Cambridge vs. Oxford), 1:206–208, Bowls and bowling, 1:235–241, 3:1342
2:727 bocce and petanque, 1:235–237
Boating, ice, 1:208–210, 3:1311–1314 future aspects, 1:241
Bobsledding, 1:210–214, 2:856, 3:941, 3:1050, history, 1:235–236, 3:1252
3:1118 indoor variants, 1:238
Bocce and petanque, 1:235–237 international play, 1:238–239
Body image, 1:16–17, 1:214–218, 2:457. See also in North America, 1:239–241
Feminist perspective participation in, 1:237–238
Body mass index (BMI), 2:458 rules and play, 1:236–237
Bodybuilding, 1:218–228. See also Venice Beach Boxer Rebellion, 2:880, 2:884
fitness and, 2:601–602, 2:605–607 “Boxercise” classes, 1:245
history, 1:218–222 Boxing, 1:241–247, 2:701, 3:1081
men’s, 1:219–220 amateur, 1:243–244
muscularity/femininity debate, 1:223–225 in art, 1:96
organizations, 1:222–223 corruption in, 1:246–247
powerlifting and, 3:1211 history, 1:242–243
rules and play, 1:226–227 Kenya, 2:899
women’s, 1:220–225 in literature, 3:936–938
Boer War, sport during, 4:1657 at Madison Square Garden, 3:947–948
Bogner, Willy, 4:1409 Mexico, 3:1006
Boklov, Jan, 4:1397 mixed martial arts, 3:1010–1012
Bolivarian Games, 3:1145 movies, 3:1050
Bondi Beach, 1:228–231 New Zealand, 3:1072
Bonds, Barry, 2:828, 3:1167, 4:1552 Olympics, ancient, 3:1102
Book of Kings, 3:935 Olympics, modern, 1:243, 1:244
Boomerang throwing, 1:231–233 physical dangers of, 1:245–246
Boosting, 2:464–465 popular culture and, 1:247
Borelli, Lou, 2:890–891 professional, 1:243
Borg, Björn, 1:39, 4:1605, 4:1693 racism in, 1:247, 3:987, 3:1236, 3:1337
Borota, Jean, 1:39 radio broadcasts, 3:990, 3:1189, 3:1190,
Borra, Luigi, 2:852 3:1243
Boshen, W.C., 2:597 Senegal, 3:1337, 3:1338
Bosman, Jean-Marc, 2:493 social issues, 1:245–247
Bossi, Carmelo, 2:854 television broadcasts, 3:993
1758 INDEX
Boxing (continued) Broun, Heywood, 4:1537

violence in, 1:241, 4:1673, 4:1674 Broun, Heywood Hale, 4:1537
B women’s, 1:244–245
Boyd, Jean, 3:1326
Brown, Bruce, 2:543
Brown, Elwood S., 2:808, 2:809
Brabham, Jack, 2:794 Brown, Franklin H., 2:863
Brack, Kenny, 2:794 Brown, Mordecai “Three Finger,” 1:149
Bradman, Donald, 1:101, 1:115, 1:127 Brown, Walter, 1:171
Braid, James, 1:257 Brown University, 4:1613
Brand, Myles, 3:1326, 4:1615–1616 Browne, Mary Kendell, 4:1606
Brand management, 1:248–252, 2:649–653. Brugnon, Jacques, 1:39
See also Sponsorship Brundage, Avery, 3:1117, 3:1120, 3:1143, 3:1219,
Brandsten, Ernst, 2:475 4:1504, 4:1704–1705
Brandsten, Greta Johanson, 2:475 Brunei, 4:1463
Brazil, 1:252–256. See also Capoeira Brunet, Pierre, 4:1385
beach volleyball, 4:1683 Bryan, Bob and Mike, 4:1608
Maracana Stadium, 3:964–965 Bryant, Kobe, 1:354, 2:510
masculine nature of soccer in, 3:986 Bryant, Paul “Bear,” 1:350, 2:810
mixed martial arts, 3:1011 Bryn Mawr College, 4:1603
São Paulo Pan American Games (1963), 3:1143– BSA motorcycles, 3:1021, 3:1022
1144 Bubka, Sergey, 4:1624
soccer, 1:254–55, 3:986, 4:1430, 4:1433, Buchman, Sydney, 3:1048
4:1491, 4:1709 Buckner, Bill, 4:1710
Breal, Michel, 3:966 Budd, Zola, 4:1460
Breast-feeding and exercise, 3:1261 Budge, Don, 4:1605
Breastroke, swimming, 4:1575 Budo. See Japanese martial arts, traditional
Breeze, Joe, 3:1031 Buehning, Dr. Peter, 2:721
Breitenbach, Jake, 3:1029 Bulgaria, 1:258–261, 3:999, 4:1688, 4:1689
Brezek, John, 1:90 Bulimia, 2:458. See also Disordered eating
Brisbane Broncos, 3:995 Bull Durham, 3:1050
Britain. See United Kingdom Bulletins, 3:949
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), 3:991, Bullfighting, 1:261–268, 3:937–938
3:993, 3:994 animal rights and, 1:66
British Empire Games, 1:355 matadors, selection process, 1:264–265
British Open, 1:256–258, 3:1073, 4:1543 matadors, women as, 1:265–266
Britten, John, 3:1074 Mexico, 3:1006
Britton, Helene, 3:1135 origins, 1:262
Broadwick, Charles, 3:1148 practice of, 1:262–264, 1:266–268
Broekhoff, Jan, 3:908 Bulpetts, W. H., 4:1416
Broekhuysen, Nico, 3:907–908 Bunche, Ralph, 3:1324
Brooklyn Dodgers, 3:1244, 4:1712 Bundy, May Sutton, 4:1606
Brooks, Cleanth, 3:1056–1057 Bungee jumping, 2:541
Brooks, Herb, 3:918 Burk, Martha, 3:989
Brotherhood of Professional Baseball Players, Burke, Glenn, 1:31, 1:32
3:1131, 3:1132 Burnout, 1:268–270, 4:1749. See also Psychology
Burton, Michael, 4:1578
Burton Nelson, Mariah, 4:1675
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers Burton snowboards, 4:1419
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Burtuzzi, Todd, 4:1502
INDEX 1759
Busch family, 3:1134 sports and national identity, 4:1491

Bush, George W., administration of, 4:1614–1615 televised sports in, 1:285–286, 3:963, 3:991
Bushido, 2:865, 2:880 Winnipeg Pan American Games, 3:1144, 3:1146
Button, Richard “Dick,” 3:1120, 4:1384, 4:1546 winter Olympic history, 3:1118, 3:1119, 3:1123
Buttrick, Barbara, 1:245 women and sport, 1:283–284 C
Buzkashi, 1:270–273 youth and sport, 1:284–285
Byers, Chester, 3:1274 Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 1:285, 3:991
Byers, Walter, 1:46 “Canadian canoeing,” 1:287
Canadian Colleges Athletic Association (CCAA),
C 1:284
Cadine, Ernest, 4:1686 Canadian Football League (CFL), 1:283
Caffeine, 3:1093 Canary, Martha “Calamity Jane,” 2:785
Calgary Olympics (1988), 3:1121–1122 Cancer, 2:533, 2:536
Call of the Wild, The, 4:1416 Canoeing and kayaking, 1:287–293
Calorie, defined, 2:458–459 canoe polo, 1:291
Calvert, Allen, 2:606 canoe sailing, 1:291
Calvin, John, 3:1252 competition, 1:291–292
Camarillo, Leo, 3:1276 dragon boat racing, 1:291
Cambodia, 4:1461–1462 flatwater, 1:290
Cameroon, 1:274–277 future aspects, 1:292–293
Camogie, 1:277–280, 2:839, 2:841 governing body, 1:292
Campanella, Roy, 1:147 history, 1:287–288
Campbell, Jeannette, 1:87, 1:88 marathon, 1:290–291
Campbell, Veronica, 2:858–859 popularity of, 1:288
Camps. See Academies and camps, sport recreational racing, 1:288–289
Canada, 1:281–287. See also Commonwealth slalom, 1:290
Games; Montreal Olympics (1976); Native variations, 1:290–291
American games and sports; Stanley Cup wildwater, 1:290
baseball, 1:283 Canopying, 2:541
Calgary Olympics (1988), 3:1121–1122 Canutt, Enos Edward “Yakima,” 3:1274
Commonwealth Games and, 1:357–358 Canyoning, 2:541
curling and, 1:417–418 Capital Cities. See Walt Disney/ABC/Capital Cities
football, 1:283, 2:630–632 Capoeira, 1:43–44, 1:293–295, 2:617
future aspects, 1:285–286 Capriati, Jennifer, 1:308
history, 1:281–282 Car racing. See Auto racing
hockey, 1:282–283, 4:1545–1546 Carbohydrates, 3:1091–1092, 3:1094, 3:1162
Hockey Night in Canada, 3:962–963, 3:990, Carbohydrates, healthy eating and, 2:456–457
3:1192 Cardiovascular diseases, 1:12, 2:533, 2:534–535,
lacrosse, 1:283, 3:913–915, 3:1062 4:1526, 4:1528, 4:1737
lifeguarding, 3:933–934 Cardiovascular endurance, 2:511–512, 2:534–535,
Maple Leaf Gardens, 3:962–964 2:599, 4:1509, 4:1511–1512
mountaineering in, 3:1044–3:1046 Carew, Rod, 1:150
newspaper sports pages, 3:991, 3:1079 Caribbean Games. See Central American and
organizations, 1:285 Caribbean Games
racism, 1:281, 4:1491 Carlesimo, P. J., 4:1674
Ringette, 3:1265 Carlisle Indian School, 3:1062
rodeos, 3:1272, 3:1274, 3:1278 Carlos, John, 1:17, 4:1506
snowshoeing, 4:1421, 4:1422 Carmichael, Chris, 2:603
1760 INDEX
Carnegie Report, 1:45–46, 1:295–297, 2:815 Chariot races, 3:1282, 3:1283

Carnera, Primo, 2:853 Chariots of Fire, 3:1335
Carolina Panthers, 4:1563 Charles, Bob, 3:1073
Carom billiards, 1:193, 1:194 Charles, J.A.C., 1:142
C Carpenter Burton, Jake, 4:1419 Charleston, Oscar, 1:147
Carpentier, Georges, 1:242, 3:1189, 3:1243, 3:1337 Charlesworth, Ric, 2:738
Carrel, Jean, 3:1041 Charlotte Bobcats, 3:1134
Carriage driving, 1:297–299 Charreada, 3:1273, 3:1278
Carter, H. Adams, 3:1045 Chase, Hal, 1:150
Carter, Hamish, 3:1074 Chastain, Brandi, 1:183, 4:1702
Cartwright, Alexander, Jr., 1:145 Chausson, Anne-Caroline, 3:1036
Cashel Byron’s Profession, 3:936 Cheating, 4:1530, 4:1664–1665
Cassina, Igor, 2:718 Cheerleading, 1:301–306
Cassioli, Giuseppe, 3:1114 Chelsea Football Club, 3:1134
Casting, defined, 2:595 Chenal-Minuzzo, 3:1120
Catholic Youth Organization, 3:1254 Chess, 3:1050, 4:1598
Catlin, George, 1:77, 1:93 Chesser, Todd, 2:543
Caulkins, Tracy, 3:1144 Chicago Black Sox, 1:150–151, 3:1073, 3:1136,
Cave diving, 2:541 4:1711
Cawley, Evonne. See Goolagong, Evonne Fay Chicago Bulls, 1:173, 3:1245
Cayley, George, 4:1423 Chicago Cubs, 3:1163, 3:1245, 4:1474, 4:1476,
Cazaly, Roy, 1:130 4:1479. See also Sosa, Sammy; Wrigley Field
CBS, 1:354, 3:992, 3:1192, 3:1245, 4:1485 Chicago White Sox, 1:150–151, 3:1133, 3:1136,
Centazz, Guilherme, 3:1204 4:1711
Central America, Mesoamerican ball court games in, Chichén Itzá, 3:1003, 3:1005
3:1003–1005 Child sport stars, 1:306–309. See also Academies
Central American and Caribbean Games, 1:299– and camps, sport; Elite sports parents;
301, 3:1145 Youth sports
Cuba and, 1:404–406 Chile, 3:1278
Honduras and, 2:756–757 China, 1:309–315, 4:1505, 4:1701–1702. See also
Jamaican participation, 2:857 Wushu (kung fu)
Mexican participation in, 3:1006–1007 ancient, sports in, 1:309–310, 3:1160–1161
Central American and Carribean University Games, Asian Games and, 1:101, 1:102, 1:104
3:1145 badminton in, 1:141
Cha cha cha, 2:443, 2:444 modern sport and physical education, 1:310–315,
Chadwick, Henry, 1:147, 1:148 3:1179
Chamberlain, Wilt “the Stilt,” 1:172, 1:173, 4:1360 sepak takraw, history of, 3:1345
Chambers, John Graham, 1:242 soccer, 4:1701–1702
Chamonix Olympics (1924), 3:1118, 4:1545 table tennis, 4:1586–1587, 4:1589–1591
Champions League, soccer, 4:1433–1434 taekwando, history of, 4:1591
Chand, Dhyan, 2:738 tai chi, history of, 4:1595, 4:1597
Chandler, Richard, 3:1103 weightlifting, 4:1689
Changing Room, The, 3:939 Chizevsky, Kim, 1:223, 1:225
Chanute, Octave, 4:1423 Choi, Hong Hi, 4:1592, 4:1593
Chapey, Paul, 2:745 Chouniard, Yvon, 3:1043
Christianity, sport and, 3:1250–1256, 4:1357–1358
Notes: 1) Bold entries and page numbers denote encyclopedia Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD),
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers 2:536
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Chukchee of Siberia, sports ritual of, 3:1251
INDEX 1761
Chunhong, Liu, 4:1689 Cohn, Linda, 2:525

Cierpinski, Waldemar, 3:967 Cold War, 4:1506–1507
Cincinnati Reds, 3:1134, 4:1475, 4:1710 Olympics and, 3:1119–1122, 4:1478, 4:1506–
Cinema. See Movies 1507
Cintron, Conchita, 1:266 World University Games, 4:1714–1715 C
Circuit training, 2:515–516 Coliseum (Rome), 1:334–335
Citizenship Through Sports Alliance (CTSA), 4:1533 Collective bargaining, 1:335–338, 3:923,
Clark, E. B., 2:863 4:1648–1652. See also Unionism
Clark, Jim, 1:133, 2:794 baseball and, 1:150, 1:336–338, 2:651
Clark Flores, José de Jesús, 3:1009, 3:1143 free agency and, 1:337, 2:655–656
Clarke, William, 1:388 College athletes, 1:340–347. See also Amateur
Clemens, Mrs. Roger, 1:167 vs. professional debate; Intercollegiate
Clement, Amanda, 1:154 athletics; World University Games
Clemente, Roberto, 1:150 academic standards, 1:343
Cleveland Browns, 2:489 African-American students, 2:812, 3:1323–1328
Cleveland Indians, 3:983, 4:1667 controversies, 1:346
Clifton, Nathaniel “Sweetwater,” 1:172 corporations and, 1:341–343
Clijsters, Kim, 1:189, 4:1608 Drake Group, 1:48, 2:477–479
Clouds from Both Sides, 3:1000 football, 1:340–341, 2:811
Clout shooting, 1:83 history, 1:340
Clubsport systems, 1:315–320 locker rooms for, 1:348–349
Coaching, 1:320–328 perks, 1:349–350
attitudes, essential, 1:321 professional sports, move to, 1:348
characteristics, essential, 1:321–322 recruiting practices, 1:350–351
coach and athlete, sexual relations between (See reform, early, 1:341
Sexual harassment) Sanity Code, 1:341
ethical issues, 1:322–323 women’s sports, 1:343–344, 1:346, 2:812–813
gender equity in, 2:669 College Sport Network, 4:1483
history, 1:324–325 Collings, Gertrude, 2:597
organizations, 1:326–327 Collins, Eddie, 1:149
salaries and perks, 1:349 Collins, John, 2:843, 2:844
school sports, participation in, 3:1331 Collins, Wilkie, 3:936
social issues, 1:325–326 Colonialism, 3:1235
stress and, 1:323–324 Colorado Avalanche, 4:1502
training, 1:326 Columbia University, 2:811, 4:1500
Coakley, Jay, 3:1186–1187, 3:1192 Comaneci, Nadia, 1:16, 1:115, 1:308, 2:715, 3:1279
Coan, Ed, 3:1213 Comiskey, Charles, 1:148, 3:1133
Coase theorem, 2:655–656 Commercialization of college sports, 1:250,
Cobb, Ty, 1:149, 1:155 1:347–351. See also Amateur vs.
Coca Cola (company), 1:111, 2:509–510, 4:1482 professional debate; Carnegie Report
Cocaine, 3:1166 Commission on Opportunity in Athletics, 4:1614–
Cochet, Henri, 1:39 1615
Cody, Buffalo Bill, 2:782, 3:1273, 3:1277 Commodification and commercialization,
Coeducational sport, 1:328–333 1:351–354, 4:1503–1504. See also
Cognitive aspects, spectator sports consumption, Commercialization of college sports;
4:1470–1471 Marketing; Ownership; Spectator
Cognitive information processing personality theory, consumption behavior; Sponsorship
3:1174–1175 brand management, 1:248–252, 2:649–653
Cohen v. Brown University, 4:1613 global symbolism of sport, 3:1270
1762 INDEX
Commodification and commercialization Contract law, 3:919

(continued) Converse (company), 2:506
jogging/running, 2:873 Conway, Martin, 3:1025
Olympics, 1:352–354, 3:1115–1116 Conzelman, Jimmy, 2:626
C professionalism and, 3:1220 Cook, James, 4:1566
United Kingdom, 4:1658–1659 Cooney, Gerry, 1:247
Wembley Stadium, 4:1692 Cooper, Chuck, 1:172
Commonwealth Games, 1:125, 1:354–359 Cooper, Kenneth, 1:12, 2:511, 2:607, 2:608, 2:873
Commotio cordis, defined, 2:796 Cooperation, 1:376–379
Community, 1:359–365, 4:1496. See also Fan Cooperstown (NY), 1:145, 1:155
loyalty; Social identity; Sport and national Coors Brewing Company, 2:481, 3:978
identity Coppi, Fausto, 1:426, 2:853
Compagnoni, Deborah, 2:854 Corbett, James J., 3:1072
Competition, 1:365–372 Cordero, Angel, 2:763
anti-competition movement, 1:377–378 Coronary artery disease (CAD). See Cardiovascular
approaches to, 4:1663–1664 diseases
cooperation, 1:376–379 Corruption, in sports, 4:1666–1667. See also
corporations and, 1:370–371 Sportsmanship; Values and ethics
critical perspectives on, 1:369–370 baseball, 1:150–151 (See also Chicago Black Sox)
cultural variances, 1:368–369 boxing, 1:246–247
as defining feature of sport, 1:367–368 bullfighting, 1:266–267
good competitor, evaluation of, 4:1663 cricket, 1:390
historical perspective, 1:366–367 cycling, 1:422–423
implications, 1:371 horse racing, 2:763, 2:765
media and, 1:370–371 internet and, 2:826–827
nature of, 4:1663 Cortes, Hernan, 3:1038
relationships of, 1:366 Corti, Claudio, 2:501
Competitive balance, 1:372–376 Cortina d’Ampezzo Olympics (1956), 2:854, 3:1120
Conant, James, 2:901 Cortopassi, Greg, 2:619
Conative aspects, spectator sports consumption, Cosell, Howard, 3:1191
4:1473 Costa Rica, 3:1146
Concentration, role in sports performance of, Costas, Bob, 3:1245–1246
1:1015–106, 3:1002 Costeau, Jacques-Yves, 4:1644–1646
Confidence, role in sports performance of, 3:1002 Cotton Bowl (Dallas), 2:628
Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court, A, 3:936 Coubertin, Pierre de, 2:817
Connell, Frank, 2:597 modern Olympics founded by, 2:580, 2:644,
Conner, Dennis, 1:54, 1:55 2:821, 3:1104, 3:1107, 3:1111–1113
Connolly, Cyril, 4:1359 muliculturism, support for, 3:1052
Connolly, Mary Catherine, 4:1606 Olympic, use of term, 2:809
Connors, Jimmy, 4:1605 Olympic ideal promoted by, 3:1179, 3:1219,
Consett Rugby Club, 1:317 4:1622
Constitutional overstrain, theory of, 2:573 pentathlon introduced by, 3:1158, 3:1159
Consumer services, 3:955 as president of International Olympic Committee,
Conte, Victor, Jr., 3:1167 3:1117
“Continental handball,” 2:720 on swimming, 4:1577
women athletes, opinion on, 2:573, 3:967,
Notes: 1) Bold entries and page numbers denote encyclopedia 4:1612, 4:1625, 4:1704
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers World University Games and, 4:1713–1714
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Coulthard, David, 1:184
INDEX 1763
Country club, 1:379–386 Cruz, Juanita, 1:265–266

activities, 1:380–381 CTA (Cowboys Turtle Association), 3:1274–1275
development of, 1:381–382 CTSA (Citizenship Through Sports Alliance), 4:1533
gender, issues of, 1:384 Cuba, 1:155–156, 1:404–409, 3:1144–1146,
golf, impact on, 1:382–383 4:1505, 4:1688. See also Central American
history, 1:379–380, 1:384–386 and Caribbean Games
Court of Arbitration of Sport (CAS), 3:919, 3:920 Cuban, Mark, 2:489 D
Couthard, David, 3:1191 Cuervo, Jorge, 3:1144
Coutts, Russell, 1:54 Cultural studies theory, 1:409–414
Cowboys Turtle Association (CTA), 3:1274–1275 Cunningham, Merce, 1:439, 1:440
Cowles, Betsy, 3:1028 Curavoo, Karen Brisson, 1:91
Cown, Tommay, 3:1243 Curi-Pressig, Anne, 2:483
Cranston, Toller, 4:1384–1385 Curling, 1:414–420, 3:1122
Cranz, Christl, 4:1402 Curry, John, 4:1384–1385
Crawford, Sam, 1:155 Curry, Jon, 1:31
Crawford, Shawn, 3:1109 Curtis, Katharine, 4:1580
Crawl stroke, swimming, 4:1575 Curtis, Mike, 4:1479
Creatine, 3:1093, 3:1166 Curtius, Ernst, 3:1104
Cresta Run, skeleton, 4:1417–1418 Cusack, Michael, 2:635
Crick, Francis, 1:199 Cycling, 1:420–427, 3:937, 3:938. See also
Cricket, 1:386–391, 3:936, 3:1235, 4:1656 Biathlon and triathlon; Mountain biking;
amateurs and professionals in, 4:1654–1655 Tour de France
in art, 1:94 Belgium, 1:186, 1:188
Ashes, the, 1:99–101 bicycling polo, 3:1198–1199
Australia, 1:124–125, 3:1189–1190, 3:1192 competition in, 1:426–427
clubs, 1:319 duathlon, 2:480–483
colonialism and, 4:1446 history, 1:420–423
Jamaica, 2:859 nature of, 1:423–426
Lord’s Cricket Ground, 3:939–941 New Zealand, 3:1075
memorabilia, 3:997 Portugal, 3:1203
New Zealand, 3:1072, 3:1074, 3:1075 women in, 1:427
South Africa, 4:1455–1456, 4:1458 Cypress Gardens, 4:1412, 4:1414
television and, 1:389, 3:995, 4:1477, 4:1658– Cyr, Louis, 3:1210, 4:1686
1659 Czech Republic (Czechoslovakia), 1:428–431,
women in, 2:859 3:999, 4:1677–1678
Cricket World Cup, 1:392–394
Crimes, sports. See Corruption, in sports; Gambling; D
Violence Da Vinci, Leonardo, 3:1148, 4:1423
Crist, Bob, 3:1212 Daehlie, Bjorn, 3:1123
Cronkite, Walter, 3:1245 Daimler, Gottlieb, 3:1017, 3:1021
Croquet, 1:95, 1:394–398, 4:1489 Dalai Lama, 3:1025
Crosby, Bob, 3:1274 Dallas Cowboys, 3:1170
Crosby, Cornelia T., 2:597 Dally, Eugène, 3:1179
Crossbow shooting, 1:83 Dance, 1:432–442. See also Capoeira
Cross-country running, 1:398–404 aerobic, 1:12
Cross-country skiing. See Skiing, cross-country in Asia, 1:433
Croz, Michel, 3:1040–1041 athletics of, 1:440–441
Crum, Ben, 3:909 ballet, 1:436–438
Crump, Diane, 2:763 exercise, 1:12
1764 INDEX
Dance (continued) Delgado, Carlos, 2:654

future aspects, 1:441 DeLillo, Don, 3:938
global forms of, 1:433–434 DeLorme, Thomas, 4:1508, 4:1511
Highland Games and, 2:733 DeMar, Clarence H., 1:234
historical aspects, 1:432–433 Dempsey, Jack, 1:109, 1:243, 3:1006
human movement studies and, 2:772–773 broadcasts of matches, 3:990, 3:1189, 3:1190,
D Native American, 3:1061 3:1243
origins of Western, 1:434–435 Carpentier match, 1:242, 3:1189
in physical education, 3:1182 Denali, 3:1044
Renaissance court, 1:435–436 Dene Games, 3:1060, 3:1065
revolutions in, 1:438–440 Denmark, 2:452–456
training, 1:440 Dennehy, Patrick, 4:1672
“Dance fight,” 1:293 DePalma, Ralph, 2:794
DanceSport, 2:443–445 Der wesse Rausch, 4:1409
Daniel, Charles, 4:1578 Derrida, Jacques, 3:1058–1059
Darbellay, Michel, 2:501 Desai, Amrit, 4:1736
Darbepoetin, 3:1168 DeSaussure, H. B., 3:1040
Darts, 2:445–447, 4:1656 Desbonnet, Edmond, 2:880, 2:884
Database marketing, 3:976–977 Desessartz, Jean Charles, 3:1177
Davenport, Lindsay, 4:1700 Desgrange, Henri, 4:1616–1617
Davin, Pat, 2:635 Designated hitter rule, 1:150
Davis, Al, 2:491 Desjardins, Peter, 2:474
Davis, Dwight Filley, 2:447–448 Destivelle, Catherine, 2:499, 2:501
Davis, Jeanette, 1:91 Devers, Gail, 4:1627
Davis, Malachi, 1:119 Devoy, Susan, 3:1075
Davis Cup, 2:447–449, 3:1073, 3:1279, 4:1603– Di Centa, Manuela, 2:854
1605, 4:1608 Diabetes mellitus, 2:533, 2:535–536
Davos, Switzerland, 3:941, 3:942, 4:1416, 4:1543, Diack, Lamine, 3:1337
4:1714 Diaghilev, Sergei, 1:438
Dawson, Zack, 2:890 Dialogics, narrative theory, 3:1056
De Dion, Baron, 3:1021 Dianabol, 3:1165, 3:1212
De Oliveira, Joao Carlos, 3:1144 Dibiasi, Klaus, 2:475–2:477
De Varona, Donna, 4:1614 Didrikson, Babe. See Zaharias, Mildred “Babe”
Deaf World Games. See Deaflympics Didrikson
Deaflympics, 2:449–452, 2:461, 2:463 Diem, Carl, 3:1104, 3:1114
Dean, Cleve, 1:90 Diet and weight loss, 2:456–460, 3:1127–1129,
Dean, Dizzy, 1:149 3:1332, 4:1551–1552. See also Exercise and
Decker, Mary. See Slaney, Mary Decker health; Nutrition
Deconstructionism, 3:1058–1059 Dietary supplements, 3:1092–1094, 4:1687
Dedyulya, Svetlana, 3:1213 Dill, David Bruce, 4:1508
Deferr, Gervasio, 2:718 Dillard, Terry, 3:1212
Definitional deception, 4:1665 Dilutional pseudoanemia, 1:57
Dehydration, 2:459–460 DiMaggio, Joe, 1:112, 1:149, 1:157, 4:1734
DeJesus, Esteban, 1:31 Diouf, Assani, 3:1337
Delauney, Henry, 2:526, 2:528 Disability sport, 2:460–466. See also
Deaflympics; Paralympics;
Notes: 1) Bold entries and page numbers denote encyclopedia Special Olympics
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers adapted physical education, 1:5–9
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. defined, 2:461
INDEX 1765
exercise, health and, 2:537 Doyle, Mamie, 3:1319

goalball, 2:686–688 Drag racing, 1:133, 1:134
historical aspects, 2:461–462 Dragon boat racing, 1:289, 1:291
international competitions, 2:462–463 Drake Group, 1:48, 2:477–479
issues/controversies, 2:463–465 Draper, Dave, 1:219, 4:1670
Pan American Games for the Blind, 3:1147 Draves, Victoria Manalo, 2:475, 2:476
Pan American Wheelchair Games, 3:1147 Dream Team, 1:175, 3:1113, 3:1220–1221
for senior athletes, 3:1344 Dressage, 1:298, 2:766–767
tennis, 4:1608 Dresse, Antoine, 2:449–450 E
trends, 2:465–466 Dreyfus, Barney, 2:625
Discus throwing, 2:700–701, 4:1622–1624 Drive, He Said, 3:938
Disordered eating, 2:466–473, 3:1332. See also Drugs. See Performance enhancement
Diet and weight loss; Exercise and health; Dry-fly fishing, 2:595
Nutrition Duathlon, 2:480–483
dancers and, 1:440 Dudley, Jimmy, 3:1240
diagnosis, 2:467 Duke University, 4:1613–1614
gymnasts and, 2:716 Dukic, Yelena, 4:1700
health consequences of, 2:467–2:469 Dunaway, Deborah, 2:598
helping athletes with, 2:470–471 Duncan, George, 3:1307
overview, 2:466–467, 2:471–472 Duncan, Isadora, 1:439
prevalence, 2:467, 2:468 Dundee, Johnny, 3:1243
prevention, 2:468, 2:470 Dunlap, Alison, 3:1036
risk factors, 1:33, 1:217, 2:468 DuPont, Richard, 4:1423
sexuality of ideal body, 4:1360–1361 Durack, Fanny, 4:1578
signs/symptoms, 2:469 Durkheim, Emile, 3:1206, 3:1266–1267, 4:1492,
treatment, 2:471, 2:472 4:1495, 4:1672
youth sports and, 2:796 D’Usseaux, Eugnio Brunetta, 3:1117
Dispositional personality theory, 3:1172–1174 Duval, Helen, 3:1342
Distance running. See Marathon and distance Duvall, David, 2:509
running Dyhrenfurth, Norman, 3:1029
Diving, 2:473–477. See also Underwater sports Dyson, Betty, 1:245
DNA testing, 1:199, 2:673–674
Doby, Larry, 1:147 E
Docherty, Bevan, 3:1074 Eagan, Ed, 2:522
Dog sled racing, 4:1415–1417. See also Iditarod Eagan, Edward, 3:1118
Dogon people, racing ritual of, 4:1497 Eakins, Thomas, 3:1295
Doherty, Matt, 1:349 Earnhart, Dale, 1:133
Doherty, Reggie and Laurence, 4:1605, 4:1693 East Germany, 2:484–488, 3:999, 3:1119,
Domed stadiums, 1:106–108, 1:159, 2:520 3:1165–1166
Donaldson, Gillian Sheen, 2:582 East Timor, 4:1463
Donnelly, Ben “Sport,” 2:625 Easy Rider, 3:1022
Donor services, 3:957 Eating disorders. See Disordered eating
Don’t Make Waves, 4:1670 Eco-Challenge, 2:541
Doping, blood. See Performance enhancement Economics and public policy, 2:488–496, 3:958–
Doreen, Wilber, 1:82 959, 4:1519–1520. See also Ownership;
Doubleday, Abner, 1:144–145 Revenue sharing; Social class and sport;
Douglas, Archibald Lucius, 2:862 Spectator consumption behavior; Sporting
Douglas, Francis, 3:1041 goods industry; Unionism
Downing, Liz, 2:483 beach volleyball, prize money in, 4:1682
1766 INDEX
Economics and public policy (continued) Elite sports parents, 1:3–4, 2:503–506, 2:557–
cooperation and, 2:490–492 562. See also Youth sports
crisis in, 2:495–496 Elliot, Launceston, 4:1686
franchise relocation, 2:649–653 (See also Fan Ellis, F. B., 4:1629
loyalty) Ellison, Tom, 3:1072
golf, 4:1438–1439 Els, Ernie, 2:508
labor market and, 2:492–493 Elssler, Fanny, 1:437
memorabilia, 3:996–998 Elway, John, 2:507
E NASCAR, 3:1085 Emerson, Roy, 1:39
Olympics, cost of, 3:1111, 3:1120 End Zone, 3:938
overview, 2:488–489 Ender, Kornelia, 4:1578
periodicals, 3:951 Endorsements, 2:506–511. See also Athletes as
professional sports and, 2:489–490, 2:493–495, celebrities; Sponsorship
3:992 Endurance, 2:511–517
rodeo, prizes in, 3:1272–1273, 3:1275–1276 aerobic, 2:512–514, 2:599, 2:604
rowing, costs of, 3:1289 cardiovascular, 2:511–512, 2:599, 2:604
salaries, professional athletes, 2:493–494, 2:654– circuit training, 2:515–516
655, 4:1439–1430, 4:1648 cross-training, 2:516
size of sports industry, 3:958–959, 3:975 fitness and, 2:511–512
ski professionals, 4:1403 medical clearance, 2:516
soccer, 4:1430 muscular, 2:514–2:516, 2:599, 2:604
sponsorship, spending on, 3:978, 4:1482–1486 overload and progression, 2:515
subsidization, professional teams, 2:494–495 relative perceived exertion (RPE) scale, 2:514
Super Bowl, economic value of, 4:1562–1563 target heart rate zone, 2:513–514
tennis, 4:1604, 4:1607, 4:1692 Enebuske, Claes, 3:1178
Tour de France, 4:1617 England. See United Kingdom
Edberg, Stefan, 4:1605 English billiards, 1:195
Ederle, Gertrude, 4:1578 Enjoyment by athlete, 3:1015
Edschmid, Kasimir, 3:937 Enquist, Per Olov, 3:938
Edstrom, Sigfrid, 3:1117 Entertainment and Sports Network (ESPN). See ESPN
Edwards, Jonathon, 4:1623–1624 Environment, 2:517–522, 2:782, 4:1526
Edwards, Michael, 3:1122 Environmental physiology, 4:1509–1510
Egan, Pierce, 4:1534–1535 Ephedrine, 3:1168
Egorova, Ljubov, 3:1122 Epstein, Theodore, Jr., 3:1342
Egypt, 2:496–498, 3:1160 Equipment. See Athletic equipment and apparel
Eiger North Face, 2:498–502 Erasmus, Desiderius, 3:1252
Eiselen, Ernst, 3:1283 Ergometers, 3:1294
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 4:1508 Erickson, Marian, 2:888
Eisenhower Trophy, 3:1073 Ericson, Jon, 2:477
El Guerrou, Hicham, 3:1109 Eriksen, Stein, 4:1403
Elder, Lee, 3:989 Erratchun, Jean, 3:1157
Elderly. See Senior sport Erving, Julius “Dr. J,” 1:172–173
Elek, Ilona, 2:582 Erythropoietin (EPO), 3:1168, 4:1526, 4:1617
Elfstedentocht, 2:502–503 ESPN, 1:354, 2:490, 2:522–525, 3:994, 4:1652
broadcast rights, table of, 3:992
extreme sports and, 4:1380, 4:1728
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers radio network, 3:1246
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. sports news on, 4:1476–1477
INDEX 1767
Estadio Mario Filho, 3:964–965 young adults and, 2:537–538

Ethics. See Sportsmanship; Values and ethics youth sports and (See Youth sports)
Ethiopia Exercise machines, 2:607
gugs horse sport, 4:1502 Exercise-induced hemolysis, 1:57, 1:58
Olympic marathon victories, 3:967 Experience marketing, 3:979
Ethnicity and racism, 3:1236–1238 Extreme sports, 2:539–543. See also X Games
Etienne, Joseph and Jacques, 1:142 Extreme surfing, 2:543–545
Eurhythmics, 1:438
Euro 2000, 4:1502, 4:1531 F
Euro 2004, 2:526–527 FA (Football Association). See Football Association
European Federation of Sport Psychology (FEPSAC), (FA) F
3:1225 Faber, Red, 1:149
European Football Championship, 2:528–530, Facility management, 2:546–551
4:1433–1434 Facility naming rights, 2:551–553. See also
“European handball,” 2:720 Sponsorship
Eurosport, 2:530–532 Fair Play for Children (FPC), 4:1533
Evans, Charles, 3:1029 Fairbairn, Steve, 3:1292
Evans, Janet, 4:1578 Fairchild, Julia, 2:597
Everest, George, 3:1025 Falconry, 2:553–557
Everest, Mount. See Mount Everest Faldo, Nick, 1:258, 3:989
Everson, Cory, 1:224 False anemia, 1:57
Evert, Chris, 4:1606, 4:1700 Family involvement, 2:557–562. See also Elite
Evetts, Phyllis, 2:888 sports parents
Evey, Stuart, 2:523 Fan clubs, 3:976
Evinrude, Ole, 3:1017 Fan loyalty, 2:562–565, 2:649, 4:1495, 4:1496.
Ewald, Manfred, 3:1165–1166 See also Social identity
Exclusion, ethical issure of, 4:1665–1666 Fanck, Arnold, 4:1400, 4:1409
Exercise and health, 2:532–539. See also Diet and Fangio, Juan Manuel, 1:85
weight loss; Endurance; Fitness; Nutrition; Fantasy camps. See Academies and camps, sport
Osteoporosis; Performance; Reproduction Fantasy sports, 2:566–568
(reproductive health); Sport science; Yoga Fanzines, 3:949
adolescents and, 2:537–538 Faroux, Charles, 3:924
adverse effects, 2:536–537 Farr, Bruce, 1:54
cancer and, 2:536 Fashion, 2:568–572, 4:1567. See also Athletic
cardiovascular disease and, 2:533–535 equipment and apparel; Beauty
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and, 2:536 Fast pitch softball, 4:1452
defined, 2:532–533 Fat City, 3:938
diabetes and, 2:535–536 Fats, healthy eating and, 2:457
disabled people and, 2:537 Faulkner, Max, 1:258
health, overall, 2:533–534 Fay, Sir Michael, 1:54
hyperlipidemia and, 2:535 Federation Cup, 4:1604, 4:1607
hypertension and, 2:535 Federation Internationale de Football Association
mental health and, 2:536 (FIFA), 2:862, 3:964, 4:1431, 4:1434, 4:1522,
obesity and, 2:534 4:1533. See also Women’s World Cup;
for older adults (See Senior sport) World Cup
peripheral vascular disease and, 2:535 Federation Internationale de Ski (FIS)
special populations and, 2:537–538 Alpine skiing, 4:1403
stroke and, 2:535 cross-country skiing, 4:1404, 4:1406, 4:1408
1768 INDEX
Federation Internationale de Ski (continued) ski jumping, 4:1396–1397

free-style skiing, 4:1408, 4:1410 worker sport in, 4:1706
snowboarding, 4:1420 Finn, Tony, 4:1684
Federer, Roger, 4:1606, 4:1609 Firdawsi, Hakim Abu ol-Qasem Mansur, 3:935
Feerick, John, 4:1674 Fire and Ice, 4:1409
Fehr, Donald, 1:25, 4:1648, 4:1652 Firpo, Luis Angel, 1:85
Felicien, Perdita, 3:1109 Fischart, Johann, 3:935
Feller, Bob, 1:149, 1:336 Fischer, Leo, 4:1449–1450
Fells Method, biological maturation and, 2:710 Fischer, Scott, 3:1030
Female triad, 1:33, 1:217, 2:468, 2:470 Fisher, Carl, 2:793
F Feminist perspective, 2:572–579, 4:1442, 4:1443. Fisher, Carsten, 2:738
See also Gender equity; Lesbianism Fisher, Gary, 3:1031
animal rights and, 1:64–65 Fisher, Hugh, 1:281
culture, difference and, 2:576–578 Fisher, Sarah, 1:134, 2:795
muscularity, bodybuilding and, 1:223–225 Fishing, 2:590–598, 3:937. See also Hunting
sport apparel, fashion and, 2:568–572 big-game, 2:597
sport as sexist spectacle, 4:1502–1503 competitions, 2:593–595
Fencing, 2:579–584. See also Iaido; Kendo; Kyudo economic impact, 2:591
competitions, 2:580–582 facts about, finding, 2:598
naginata (naginatado), 2:867–872, 3:1054–1056 freshwater, 2:596–597
rules and play, 2:582–584 ice, 1:361
Fenley, Molissa, 1:440 methods/equipment, early, 2:591–593
Fenway Park, 2:584–586 record catches, 2:597–598
brand management and, 1:249 saltwater, 2:597
design, 1:163 types, 2:595–597
facility management, 2:549 Fisk, Carlton, 4:1710
history, 1:159, 4:1734 Fitch, Bill, 1:173
FEPSAC (European Federation of Sport Psychology), Fitness, 2:598–604, 3:956, 4:1528. See also
3:1225 Athletic training; Diet and weight loss;
Ferguson, Tom, 3:1276 Endurance; Nutrition; Performance;
Fernandez, Lisa, 4:1454 Physical education; Senior sport; Sport
Ferrigno, Lou, 4:1670 science
Festivals. See Folk sports components of, 2:599–600, 2:604–605
Field hockey, 2:734–739 cultural aspects, 2:600–601
Field of Dreams, 3:1050, 3:1051 future aspects, 2:603–604
Field shooting, 1:82–83 growth, development and, 2:704–705, 2:712
FIFA. See Federation Internationale de Football popularity of, 2:601–602
Association (FIFA) pregnancy, exercise during, 3:1257–1262
Figure skating. See Skating, ice figure sexuality of ideal body, 4:1360–1361
Finch, Jennie, 4:1451 trends, current/emerging, 2:602–603
Fingleton, Jack, 3:941 U. S. government, promotion by, 4:1508–1509
Finland, 2:586–590 youth sports and, 4:1741–1742, 4:1746–
at Olympics, 2:587–589, 3:1118 1748
Ringette, 3:1265 Fitness industry, 2:604–609
Fittapaldi, Emerson, 1:133
Fitz, George, 3:1181, 4:1508
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers Fitzsimmons, Bob “Ruby Robert,” 3:1072
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Fixx, Jim, 2:873, 3:970
INDEX 1769
Flag football, 2:632–635 as religion, 4:1493, 4:1496–1497

Flatwater freestyle racing, 1:289 television and, 1:353–354, 2:628–629, 3:992–
Flatwater kayaking, 1:290 3:993, 3:1191–1192, 4:1476, 4:1479, 4:1501,
Fleming, Peggy, 3:1120 4:1562
Flessel, Laura, 2:582 Football, Canadian, 2:630–632
Flexibility, fitness and, 2:599, 2:604 Football, flag, 2:632–635
Flight shooting, 1:83 Football, Gaelic, 2:635–638
Flood, Curt, 1:337, 2:654 Football Association (FA), 4:1427–1429, 4:1654,
Floor exercise, 2:716–717 4:1655, 4:1691
“Floor hockey,” 2:806 For Love of the Game, 3:1050
Floorball, 2:609–610 Ford, Alexander Hume, 4:1566–1567 F
Florida Marlins, 4:1479, 4:1712 Foreman, George, 1:243, 2:507
Flouret, Jacques, 4:1715 Formula 1 racing, 1:133, 1:135
Flowers, Vonetta, 3:1236 Foro Italico, 2:638–640
Fly casting, 2:595 Fosbury, Dick (Fosbury Flop), 4:1619
Fly-fishing, 2:595 Foster, Andrew “Rube,” 1:147
Flying, 2:610–612 Foucault, Michel, 3:1058, 3:1207–1208
Folk sports, 2:612–619 Foudy, Julie, 4:1614, 4:1703
Afghanistan, 1:270 Four-in-hand driving, 1:298
Belgium, 1:185 Fowler, John “Bud,” 1:146
Cameroon, 1:275–276 Fowler, William Herbert, 3:1154
defined, 2:612–618 Fox, James, 3:1159
fundamentals of, 2:614–616 Fox, Terry, 1:115
modern, 2:616–618 Fox Sports Radio, 3:1246
nature of, 2:618–619 Fox Television, 1:354, 3:992, 3:994, 4:1485
premodern, 2:613–614 Foxhunting, 1:65–66, 2:640–644
Follis, Charles, 2:628 Foxtrot, 2:443, 2:444
Fonda, Jane, 1:12, 2:602, 2:608 Foyt, A.J., 2:795
Fonst, Ramon, 2:580 FPC (Fair Play for Children), 4:1533
Fontaine, Steve, 4:1414 France, 2:644–649. See also Jousting;
Foo, Mark, 2:543 Tour de France
Foot races, ancient olympics, 2:700 Albertville Olympics (1992), 3:1122, 3:1349
Foot strike hemolysis, 1:58 Chamonix Olympics (1924), 3:1118, 4:1545
Footbag, 2:619–621 Grenoble Olympics (1968), 3:1120
Football, 2:622–630, 3:938. See also Le Mans, 1:133, 3:924–925
National Football League (NFL); Olympic marathon victories, 3:967
Super Bowl parachuting in, 3:1148
amateur vs. professional debate, 1:47 rugby in, 3:1299
anti-jock movement and, 1:70 soccer, 2:645, 3:1135, 3:1236, 4:1429,
in art, 1:95 4:1446–1447, 4:1709–1710
athletic talent migration in, 1:118–119 volleyball, 4:1677
college, 1:340–341, 2:625–628, 2:811, weightlifting, 4:1686
3:1243–1245 worker sport in, 4:1706
development, 2:623–624 France, Bill, Sr., 3:1083
ESPN and, 2:523–524 Franchise relocation, 2:490, 2:649–653.
memorabilia, 3:997 See also Fan loyalty
movies, 3:1047–1050 Francioni, Warren, 1:41
origins, 2:622–623 Francis, Bev, 1:224
1770 INDEX
Franco, Francisco, 4:1464, 4:1465 Gait, Paul and Gary, 3:917

Frank, Gerry, 3:1213 Galenic theory, 4:1523–1524
Franko, Jure, 3:1121 Gallico, Paul, 4:1537–1538
Franz, Ernie, 3:1212–1213 Gambling, 3:922, 3:1220. See also Chicago Black
Fraser, Dawn, 4:1578 Sox; Corruption; Horse racing
Fraser, Gretchen, 3:1119, 4:1546 Internet, 2:830–831
Fraser, Ken, 2:597 Native American games of chance, 3:1061, 3:1063
Fraser, Neale, 1:39 New Zealand, 3:1072
Frazier, Joe, 1:243, 1:247 Singapore, 4:1376
Fredericks, Frankie, 1:23 Super Bowl, 4:1563
Free agency, 1:150, 1:337, 2:653–657, 4:1648– Games, folk. See Folk sports
1652. See also Collective bargaining; Games of the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO),
G Unionism 2:658–661
Free calisthenics, 2:716–717 Gaming. See Gambling
Free climbing, 2:541 GANEFO (Games of the New Emerging Forces),
Free diving, 4:1646 2:658–661
Freeman, Cathy, 1:126, 4:1501 Gant, Lamar, 3:1213
Freestyle skiing, 4:1408–1410 Garcia, Sergio, 2:508
Freestyle wrestling, 4:1719–1720 Gardner, Leonard, 3:938
Freeth, George, 4:1566 Gargantua, 3:936
French Open Tennis Championship, 3:1279, 4:1606, Garlits, Don, 1:133
4:1609 Garmisch-Partenkirchen Olympics (1936), 3:1119
Freshwater fishing, 2:596–597 Garnerin, Andre Jacques, 3:1148
Friday, Dallas, 4:1685 Garnett, Kevin, 3:1322
Friedman, Gal, 2:847, 3:1110 Gate control theory, pain, 3:1139–1140
Friesinger, Anni, 1:183 Gate-revenue sharing, 3:1263
Frigerio, Ugo, 3:1234 Gatlin, Justin, 3:1109
Frisbie, 1:41–42, 4:1640–1643 Gatting, Mike, 4:1458
Froebel, Friedrich, 3:1181 Gay Games, 2:661–665
Frontiere, Georgia, 3:1134 Gebreselassie, Haile, 1:23
Frye, Jack, 1:146 Geesink, Anton, 2:882
Fu Mingxia, 2:476 Gehrig, Lou, 1:149, 1:157, 4:1734
Fudge, Gloria Miller, 1:224 Geijessen, Carolina, 4:1390
Fujiyama, Mount, 3:1039 Gender equity, 2:665–671, 4:1443–1444. See also
Fukayama, Francis, 4:1675 Body image; Disordered eating; Feminist
Funakoshi, Gichen, 2:887 perspective; Injury risk in women’s sport;
Furst, Silvia, 3:1035 Lesbianism; Psychology of gender
Furtado, Juli, 3:1035 differences; Sexual harassment; Sexuality
coeducational sport, 1:328–333
G in foxhunting, 2:641, 2:642–643
Gabler, Dr. George, 1:169 International Olympic Academy and, 2:818–819
Gaelic football, 2:635–638 masculinity and, 3:985–988
Gaelic Games, 3:1271 women’s sports, coverage of, 4:1697–1701
Gagnan, Emile, 4:1644–1646 in youth sports, 4:1742–1743, 4:1746–1748
Gender verification, 2:671–675, 3:1279, 4:1525
General Electric (company), 4:1485. See also NBC
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers General Mills, 3:1244
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Genlis, Comtesse de, 3:1177
INDEX 1771
Gerevich, Aladar, 2:581 internet and, 2:827–828

Germany, 2:675–681. See also Berlin Olympics national identity and, 4:1490–1491
(1936); East Germany; Turner festivals sport politics, 4:1504–1508
(turners) Glycogen, 3:1092, 3:1094–1095
Eiger North Face, 2:498–502 Goalball, 2:686–688
Garmisch-Partenkirchen Olympics (1936), 3:1119 Goalie’s Fear during the Penalty Kick, The, 3:939
glider development, history of, 4:1423 Goal-setting for sports performance, 3:1001, 3:1015
lifeguarding, 3:932–933 Goat dragging (buzkashi), 1:270–273
motorcycle racing, 3:1021–1023 Goerner, Hermann, 3:1210
Munich Olympics (1972), 3:1116, 4:1506 Gogarty, Deidre, 1:244
physical education in, 3:1178, 3:1180–1181, Goggins, Steve, 3:1213
3:1283–1284 Go-karting, 2:890–891
soccer, 4:1429–1430, 4:1446, 4:1531 Gold, Joseph (Gold’s Gym), 1:220, 2:601, 2:602,
G
sports medicine in, 4:1525 4:1670
women’s sports, coverage of, 4:1698, 4:1699 Golden State Warriors, 4:1674
worker sport in, 4:1703–1705 Goldsworthy, Bill, 1:31
Gesner, Conrad, 3:1039 Golf, 2:688–696, 3:1073, 4:1656. See also British
Gestring, Marjorie, 2:477 Open; St. Andrews
Getty Oil (company), 2:523, 2:524 amateur, 2:692–693
Gevaert, Kim, 1:188 in art, 1:95
Geyelin, H. L., 4:1629 country clubs and, 1:382–383
Gibb, Roberta “Bobbi,” 1:234 courses, pollution and, 2:521
Gibson, Althea, 2:694–695, 3:1143, 4:1436, derivation of word, 3:1071
4:1606, 4:1693 endorsements and, 2:506
Gibson, Bob, 1:149–150 equipment, 2:690–692
Gibson, Hoot, 3:1274 history, 2:688–689
Gibson, Josh, 1:147 Masters Tournament, 3:988–990
Gibson, Kirk, 4:1710 memorabilia, 3:997
Gibson, Thomas R., 2:837 Mexico, 3:1006
Gigghia, Alcides, 3:964 minorities in, 2:693–695
Gilera motorcycles, 3:1021, 3:1022 movies, 3:1050
Gilkey, Art, 3:1045–1046 New Zealand, 3:1073
Gillette (company), 2:506 at Olympics, 3:1113
Gills, Jim, 2:843 Pebble Beach, 3:1153–1155
Ginobilli, Emanuel “Manu,” 1:85, 1:119 professional, 2:690–692
Giove, Missy, 3:1036 rules development, 2:689–690
Gipp, George, 3:1255 Ryder Cup, 3:1307–1309
Giresse, Alain, 4:1710 social class and, 4:1438–1439
Gladden, Washington, 3:1254 technology, equipment changes due to, 4:1597–
Gladiatorial combat, 3:1282–1283, 4:1357, 4:1475 1599, 4:1601
Glazer, Malcolm, 3:1132 women in, 2:693–695, 3:1113
Glen Ridge, New Jersey, rape case, 4:1671 Golubnichiy,Vladimir, 3:1234
Gliding Goncharov, Valeri, 2:718
hang, 2:722–724 Goodenow, Bob, 4:1652
soaring, 4:1423–1427 Goodyear, Scott, 2:794
Globalization, 2:681–686. See also Internet; Sport Goolagong, Evonne Fay, 3:1236, 4:1606, 4:1693
and national identity; Sport tourism Gordon, Robby, 2:794
commercialized sport and, 1:352–353 Gore, Arthur, 4:1693
1772 INDEX
Gore, Spencer, 4:1692 Grove, Lefty, 1:149

Governance sport clubs, 1:316, 1:319 Grove City College v. Bell, 3:921, 4:1610–1611.
Grace, W. G., 1:388, 3:940–941, 4:1655 4:1613
Gracie, Carlos, Helio, and Rorion, 3:1011 Growth and development, 2:702–713. See also
Graf, Stephanie “Steffi,” 1:133, 4:1606, 4:1674, Exercise and health; Nutrition; Youth sports
4:1693 biological maturation and, 2:708–711
Grafström, Gillis, 3:1118, 4:1384 normal, standards of, 2:706–708
Graham, Billy, 3:1255 physical fitness and, 2:704–705, 2:712
Graham, Leslie, 3:1024 sexual maturation, ages and, 2:710–711
Graham, Martha, 1:439, 1:440 studies over time, 2:703–704
Graham, Trevor, 3:1167 Gruber, Stein, 3:1122–1123
Grand, George, 2:523 Grudzielanek, Mark, 1:157
Grand Prix, 1:135 Grut, Willie, 3:1158
Grand Slam, tennis, 4:1605–1606 Guerin, Robert, 2:821
H Grand Tetons, 3:1044 Guerrero, Wilton, 4:1530
Grange, Harold “Red,” 2:626 Guettich, Bruce, 2:619
Grant, Douglas, 3:1154 Guevara, Ana, 3:1009
Grant, Frank, 1:146 Gulick, Luther Halsey, 1:168, 3:1179, 3:1181–1182,
Grant, George F., 2:694 4:1495
Grantham, William W., 3:1287–1288 Guthrie, Janet, 1:134, 2:795
Granville, Laura, 4:1608 GutsMuths, Johann Christoph Friedrich, 2:675–676,
Great Britain. See United Kingdom 2:714, 3:1178, 3:1283
Greco-Roman wrestling, 4:1720 Guttmann, Allen, 1:51, 1:76
Greece, 2:696–698 Guttmann, Ludwig, 3:1150–1152
Athens Olympics (1896) (See Olympics, Gymkhana, 2:769
Summer) Gymnastics, apparatus, 2:713–718
Athens Olympics (2004) (See Olympics, 2004) Belgium, 1:185–186
Greece, ancient, 2:698–702, 4:1357. See also Bulgaria, 1:260
Homer; Olympia human movement studies and, 2:772
performance, 3:1161 Japan, 2:861
performance enhancement, 3:1164 at Olympics, 2:714–718, 3:1140
religion and sport, 3:1247–1250, 3:1267 Poland, 3:1194
wrestling, origins of, 4:1718 Romania, 3:1279
Green Bay Packers, 3:1134, 4:1563 Gymnastics, rhythmic, 2:718–719
Greenberg, Hank, 3:1255
Grenoble Olympics (1968), 3:1120 H
Gretzky, Wayne, 1:115, 2:744 Habeler, Peter, 3:1029, 3:1030
Greulich-Pyle (GP) Method, biological maturation Hackenschmidt, George, 4:1686
and, 2:709 Hackl, Georg, 3:942
Grey, Zane, 2:597 Hacky Sack®, 2:619
“Gridiron football,” 2:632 Hadlee, Richard, 3:1074
Griffith, Coleman, 3:998, 3:1163, 3:1170, 3:1172 Hadow, Douglas, 3:1041
Grimek, John, 1:220 Hageborge, Otto, 2:474
Gros, Piero, 2:854 Hagen, Walter, 2:692, 3:1307
Hahn, Kurt, 1:9
Haibin Teng, 2:718
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers Haines, Dan, 4:1411
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Haines, Jackson, 4:1382
INDEX 1773
Hainz, Christoph, 2:501 Hatha yoga, 4:1735

Hakanson, Walter, 4:1450 Hautamaeki, Matti, 4:1397
Halas, George, 2:625 Hawaii Ironman Triathlon, 1:191
Halazy, Oliver, 1:7 Hawk, Tony, 1:40, 2:507, 2:508, 4:1379, 4:1380,
Haldane, John, 4:1645–1646 4:1731
Hale, Edward Everett, 3:1253 “Hawking,” 2:553
Hall, Bob, 1:234 Hayashizake Jinsuke Shigenobu, 2:869
Hall, G. Stanley, 3:1181 Hayes, Woody, 4:1675
Hall, Lars, 3:1158–1159 Hazing, 2:724–727
Hall, Rob, 3:1030 Hazlitt, William, 4:1673
Haller, Gordon, 2:843 HBO, 4:1698
Halprin, Anna, 1:442 H’Doubler, Margaret, 3:1182
Halstead, Alfred, 4:1676–1677 Head, Howard, 4:1598
Hamilton, Bethany, 2:543 Health and fitness. See Fitness
Hamilton, Laird, 2:543 Hearn, George, 4:1579
H
Hamilton, Tara, 4:1685 Heart disease. See Cardiovascular diseases
Hamm, Mia, 1:183, 1:250, 1:354, 2:810 Heath, Lady, 3:1115
Hamm, Paul, 2:718 Heckmair, Andreas, 2:500, 2:501
Hammer, 4:1622, 4:1623 Heffelfinger, Walter “Pudge,” 2:625
Hancock, George, 4:1449 Heiden, Eric, 3:1121
Handball, team, 2:720–722, 3:1281 Heiden, Max, 2:720
Handicapped sports. See Disability sport Helley, W. S., 3:1198
Handke, Peter, 3:939 Helmsley, Lord Francis, 1:211
Hang gliding, 2:722–724 Helton, Mike, 4:1530
Hanlon, Ned, 2:491 Hemenway, Robert, 3:1327
Hannibal, 3:1039 Hemingway, Ernest, 3:937–938
Hansson, O. B., 3:1124 Hemmings, Deon, 2:858–859
Hardekopf, Cristina, 1:88 Hemmings, Fred, 4:1570
Harding, Tonya, 4:1387, 4:1674 Henderson, George, 3:970
Hargrove, Mike, 1:157, 1:167 Hendricks, Agnes E. M. B. “Aggi,” 1:134
Hargrove, Sharon, 1:167 Henie, Sonja, 3:1118, 3:1119, 4:1383–1384
Harlem Globetrotters, 1:171, 1:172 Henin, Justine, 1:189
Harley Davidson, 3:1021, 3:1022 Henin-Hardenne, Justine, 4:1608
Harlin, John, 2:501 Henley Regatta, 2:727–729
Harmsworth Trophy, 3:1018 Henman, Tim, 4:1485
Harness racing, 2:761–762 Henry, Franklin, 2:901
Harrer, Heinrich, 2:501 Henry, Jodie, 4:1578
Harrington, Joey, 1:349 Henry V, 3:936
Harris, David, 1:196 Heptathlon, 2:729–731
Harris, William T., 3:1179 Herbert, Charles, 3:1113
Harrison, C. Keith, 3:1326 Herd, Franklin, 4:1622
Harroun, Ray, 2:794 Herkimer, Larry, 1:301
Hartwell, Edward M., 3:1178 Hernandaz, Angela, 1:266
Harvard University, 2:811, 3:1324, 4:1449, 4:1508, Hernández, Tirso, 3:1008
4:1509 Herodotus, 3:966
Harvey, William, 4:1524 Herr, Andy, 4:1529
Hasiltudes, 2:874, 2:876–878 Heterosexuality, defined, 2:753
Hatcher, Billy, 4:1530 Hetherington, Clark, 3:1182
1774 INDEX
Hewitt, Foster, 3:962–963 Stanley Cup, 2:739, 4:1546–1548

Hewitt, Lleyton, 1:126, 4:1606 women, 3:1123
HGH (human growth hormone), 3:1168 Hockey, indoor, 2:738
Hicks, Helen, 2:692 Hockey, in-line, 2:745–747, 4:1394–1395
Hicks, Thomas, 3:1165 Hockey, underwater, 4:1646–1647
Hideo, Nomo, 1:117 Hoeppner, Manfred, 3:1165–1166
Higgins, Bob, 1:146 Hoffman, Bob, 1:220, 1:221, 2:606, 3:1211–1212,
Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, 3:1253 4:1510, 4:1686–1687
High bar, 2:716 Hogan, Ben, 1:258, 3:989
High jump, 4:1619–1620, 4:1623 Hogan, Michael, 2:636
High-impact aerobics, 1:13 Holder, C.F., 2:597
Highland Games, 2:731–734, 3:1333–1335, Holland, Jerome “Brud,” 2:812
4:1550–1551, 4:1632 Hollins, Marion, 2:693
Hill, Grant, 2:810 Holmenkollen Ski Jump, 2:747–748, 4:1395
H Hill, Lynn, 3:1044 Holmenkollen Sunday, 2:748–750
Hill climbing auto racing, 1:133 Holmes, Alfred (Tup), 2:694
Hillary, Edmund, 1:115, 3:1026–1030, 3:1044, Holt, Lawrence, 1:9
3:1076 Holyfield, Evander, 4:1738
Himalayas, 3:1044–1045. See also K2; Mount Home field advantage, 2:750–752. See also Fan
Everest loyalty
Hingis, Martina, 1:308 Homer, 3:935, 3:1247, 4:1718
Hinterstoisser, Andreas, 2:500 Homophobia, 2:752–756, 3:987, 3:988, 4:1609.
Hiraoka, Hiroshi, 2:860–861 See also AIDS and HIV; Lesbianism
Hirofumi, Daimatsu, 4:1678 feminist perspective, 2:576
Hise, Joseph Curtis, 3:1210 Gay Games and, 2:661
Hitchcock, Edward, 3:1178 sexuality in sports and, 4:1359
Hitler, Adolf, 3:1105, 3:1106, 4:1504 Honda motorcycles, 3:1022
Hitomi, Kinue, 2:867 Honduras, 2:756–758
HIV. See AIDS and HIV Hoogenband, Pieter van den, 3:1109, 4:1578
Hoad, Lew, 1:39 Hoosiers, 3:1050
Hockey, field, 2:734–739 Hopman, Harry, 2:448
Hockey, ice, 2:739–745, 3:1118–1123. See Horine, M. F., 4:1619
also Lake Placid; National Hockey League Horizontal bar, 2:716
(NHL) Hornbein, Tom, 3:1029
anti-jock movement and, 1:70 Hornsby, Rogers, 1:149
Canada, 1:282–283, 4:1545–1546 Hornussen, 4:1581
crimes related to, 3:922, 4:1478, 4:1502 Horse racing, 2:758–766, 3:937
Hockey Night in Canada, 3:962–963, 3:990, animal rights and, 1:65
3:1192 Argentina, 1:84
Maple Leaf Gardens, 3:962–964 in art, 1:94
memorabilia, 3:997 Ascot, 1:97–99
movies, 3:1049 Australia, 3:1189–1190
prayer for, 4:1498 Belgium, 1:186
professional, 3:923 Brazil, 1:252–253
carriage driving, 1:297–299
controversies, 2:763, 2:765
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers harness, 2:761–762
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. history, 2:758–759, 3:1282, 3:1283
INDEX 1775
movies, 3:1050 historical aspects, 2:779–780

New Zealand, 3:1072 methods, 2:780–781
performance enhancement, 2:763, 2:765, 3:1166 Portugal, 3:1202
radio broadcast of, 3:1244, 3:1245 regulation of, 2:782–783
social aspects, 2:762–763 safety, 2:780–781
South Africa, 4:1455–1456 underwater, 4:1647
steeplechase, 2:762 unrestricted, dangers of, 2:782
thoroughbred, 2:759–761 weapons, 2:781–782
United Kingdom, 4:1656 women in, 2:785
Horseback riding, 2:766–771 Huntsman World Senior Games, 3:1342
New Zealand, 3:1074 Hurdles, 4:1627, 4:1630, 4:1631
Portugal, 3:1202 Hurling, 1:277, 1:278, 2:786–787
Spain, 4:1463–1464 Husing, Ted, 3:1245
Horween, Arnold, 2:626 Hussein, Ibrahim, 1:234
Hosoi, Christian, 4:1379 Huston, Tillinghast, 4:1732
Hot dogging, 4:1408, 4:1409 Hutchinson, Jock, 1:258 I
Houston, Charles, 3:1028, 3:1030, 3:1045–1046 Hveger, Ragnhild, 4:1578
Houston, Oscar, 3:1028 Hyatt, John Wesley, 1:194
Houston Astros, 4:1530 Hyde, Lloyd, 2:725
Houston Rockets, 4:1673–1674 Hyperlipidemia, 2:535
Howard, Dwight, 1:348 Hyperreality, 3:1208–1209
Hoy, William “Dummy,” 1:148 Hypertension, 2:535
Hoyt, Dick and Rick, 1:192
Hsi En-ting, 4:1590 I
Hsu Shao-Fa, 4:1589 IAAF. See International Amateur Athletics Federation
Huang Liang, 4:1589 (IAAF)
Hubbard, William Dehart, 4:1618 Iaido, 2:869–872, 2:896, 2:897
Hudson, Robert A., 3:1308 Iba, Hank, 1:175
Hughes, Sarah, 1:308 IBM, 4:1482, 4:1604
Hughes, Thomas, 3:1176, 3:1177, 3:1253, 4:1427 Ibos, 3:1086
Hulman, Tony, 2:794 Ice boating, 1:208–210, 3:1311–1314
Human Genome Project, 4:1513 Ice hockey. See Hockey, ice
Human growth hormone (HGH), 3:1168 Ice skating. See Skating, ice figure; Skating, ice
Human movement studies, 2:771–776. See also speed
Physical education Iceberg profile, 3:1173
Human services, 3:955 Iditarod, 2:788–790, 4:1416, 4:1422
Humphrey, Doris, 1:439 Iliad, 3:935, 3:1247
Hungary, 2:776–779, 3:1200, 3:1201, 4:1588– Imagery
1590 sports performance, role in, 3:1001
Hunt, H. C. John, 3:1028–1029 sports venues, promoted in, 4:1667
Hunt, Lamar, 2:629, 4:1563 Imagined communities, sports teams as, 4:1445–
Hunter, C. J., 3:1168 1447, 4:1470–1471
Hunter seat horseback riding, 2:769 Inclusion, ethical issue of, 4:1665–1666
Hunting, 2:779–785, 3:937. See also Fishing Indart, Jose Ramon, 3:1157
animal rights and, 1:65, 1:66–67 Indexing services, periodical, 3:952
clubs, 2:784 India, 1:102, 1:104, 2:790–793, 4:1522
falconry, 2:553–557 Indian motorcycles, 3:1021
foxhunting, 1:65–66, 2:640–644 Indian wrestling, 1:90
1776 INDEX
Indianapolis 500, 1:133, 1:135, 2:793–795, governing bodies, 2:811–812

3:1244 historical aspects, 2:810–811
Indianapolis Pan American Games (1987), 3:1145– radio broadcasts, 3:1243–1245
1146 social mobility and, 4:1440
Individualism in sport, issues of, 4:1672–1673 speedball, 4:1480–1482
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (1997), television and, 1:174–175, 1:350, 2:628, 3:991–
1:5, 1:6 992, 4:1476, 4:1483, 4:1500
Indonesia, 1:102–103, 4:1372–1376, 4:1462 tennis, 4:1608
Indoor hockey, 2:738 track and field, 4:1631–1632
Indoor sport facilities. See Stadiums trends in, 2:813–816
Ingels, Art, 2:890–891 Ultimate, 4:1643
Ingwerson, Bert, 2:626 violence and, 4:1672–1673
Injuries, youth, 1:307–308, 2:795–797, 4:1527– women in, 1:343–344, 1:346, 2:812–813
1528 youth leagues and, 3:1187
Injury, 2:797–801, 3:987, 4:1525–1528, 4:1667. International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF),
I See also Athletic training; Sports medicine 4:1531, 4:1618, 4:1622, 4:1625, 4:1632
athletic training and, 1:122 false start rule, 4:1629
in boxing, 1:245–246 Golden League, 4:1622
exercise, adverse effects of, 2:536–537 race walking events, 3:1233
knees and, 1:198–199 Senegal, center in, 3:1337
overuse, 1:197, 1:269, 4:1512 women’s running events, 3:968
pain, 3:1138–1142 world records certified by, 4:1624
prevention, 1:200–201, 2:599–600, 2:780–781 International Olympic Academy, 2:817–820
professionalism, increased injuries and, 3:1220– International Olympic Committee (IOC), 1:325,
1221 3:1107, 3:1116–1117, 4:1505. See also
Injury risk in women’s sport, 1:197, 1:198, Olympics; Olympics, Summer; Olympics,
2:801–806, 3:1257–1262, 4:1527–1528 Winter
In-line hockey. See Hockey, in-line amateurs, issue of (See Amateur vs. professional
In-line skating. See Skating, in-line debate)
Innebandy, 2:609, 2:806–807 codified rules and policies, 3:919–920
Innsbruck, Austria ethics and, 4:1531–1533
luge, origins of, 3:941 Paralympics and, 3:1152
Olympics, 3:1120–1121 pentathlon and, 3:1158, 3:1159
Intellectual property, 3:923 South Africa, policy toward, 4:1458, 4:1460
Interallied Games, 2:807–809 Special Olympics authorized by, 4:1467
Intercollegiate athletics, 2:809–817, 3:1177. sports medicine, role in, 4:1525
See also Amateur vs. professional debate; substance abuse policies, 3:919, 3:1167, 3:1168
College athletes; World University Games technology, controlling innovations due to,
commercialization of, 1:347–351 4:1599, 4:1601
controversies, 2:813–816, 4:1531–1532 trademark protection by, 3:923
divisions, 2:809–810 International Paralympic Committee (IPC), 2:462
Drake Group, 1:48, 2:477–479 International politics, 2:820–825, 4:1506–1508.
football, 1:340–341, 2:811 See also Sport and national identity
future aspects, 2:816–817 International Silent Games. See Deaflympics
International Skating Union (ISU), 4:1383, 4:1386–
1387, 4:1389
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP),
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. 3:1224–1225
INDEX 1777
International Tennis Federation (ITF) J

amateur/professional tournaments, 4:1606–1607 Jackie Robinson Story, The, 3:1047–1048
Veterans Circuit, 4:1604 Jacklin, Tony, 3:1308
Internet, 2:825–832 Jacks, Sam, 3:1265
fans, athletes and, 2:828–829 Jackson, Andy, 1:146
fantasy sports and, 2:566 Jackson, Phil, 1:173, 1:249, 4:1738
gambling and, 2:830–831 Jackson, Reggie, 1:150, 4:1733
globalization, 2:827–828 Jackson, “Shoeless Joe,” 1:149
information and dialogue, 2:826–827 Jaffee, Irving, 3:1118
International Olympic Academy and, 2:819 Jahn, Friedrich Ludwig, 2:714, 3:1178, 3:1283
Major League Baseball (MLB), used by, 4:1499 Jai alai, 3:1009, 3:1156
overview, 2:825–826 Jamaica, 2:856–859. See also Commonwealth
periodicals, online access to, 3:952–953 Games
ticket sales, 3:979 James, C. L. R., 3:1235
video games, 2:829–830 James, Charmayne, 3:1276
Interorganizational networks, 3:958 James, LeBron, 1:111, 2:508, 2:510
Interpretive sociology, 2:832–836 Jameson, Frederic, 3:1058
Inzer Designs, 3:1213 Jansen, Dan, 3:1123 J
IOC. See International Olympic Committee (IOC) Jansma, Paul, 1:5
IPC (International Paralympic Committee), 2:462 Japan, 2:859–867. See also Baseball; Japanese
Iran, 1:103–104, 2:836–839, 2:844–847 martial arts, traditional; Sumo
Ireland, 2:635–638, 2:839–842, 3:1271, 3:1298. archery, 1:76
See also Camogie; Hurling Asian Games and, 1:101, 1:102, 1:105
Iron deficiency anemia, 1:57, 1:58 beach volleyball, 4:1683
Ironman Triathlon, 2:842–844, 3:1342, 4:1565 football, 1:118–119
Irvine, Andrew, 3:1027–1028 future, 2:867
Irvine, Marion, 3:1342 martial arts, 1:35
Iselin, Hope Goddard, 3:1321 modernized martial arts, 2:864
Islam, sport and, 2:497–498, 3:1250, 3:1255, motorcycle racing, 3:1022
3:1256 Nagano Olympics (1998), 2:860, 3:1123
Iran, 2:838–839 physical education in, 3:1179
silat, 4:1373, 4:1374 Sapporo Olympics (1972), 2:860, 3:1119, 3:1120
Islamic Countries’ Women’s Sports Solidarity sepak takraw, history of, 3:1345
Games, 2:844–847 table tennis, 4:1586, 4:1589–1590
Israel, 2:847–850, 3:945, 3:1110, 3:1116 traditional sports, 2:864–867
ISSP (International Society of Sport Psychology), volleyball, 4:1678–1679
3:1224–1225 weightlifting, 4:1687
Italy, 2:850–855. See also Rome, ancient westernized sports, history of, 2:860–863
Cortina d’Ampezzo Olympics (1956), 3:1120 women and sport, 2:866–867, 2:869, 3:1055–
motorcycle racing, 3:1021 1056
soccer, 3:1264, 4:1429 Japanese martial arts, traditional, 2:864, 2:867,
women and sports, 2:854, 4:1698 2:868–872, 3:939. See also Judo; Jujutsu;
ITF (International Tennis Federation) Karate; Kendo
amateur/professional tournaments, 4:1606– aikido, 1:35–38
1607 naginata (naginatado), 2:867–872, 3:1054–1056
Veterans Circuit, 4:1604 for women, 2:867, 2:869, 2:888–890, 2:896
Itosu, Anko, 2:887 Jardine, Douglas, 1:100
Iyengar yoga, 4:1735 Jaripeo, 3:1005–1006
1778 INDEX
Javelin, 2:701, 4:1621–1623 Jousting, 2:874–879, 3:935, 3:1161, 4:1357–

Jazz dance, 1:434 1358, 4:1475
Jazzercise, 1:12, 2:608 development, 2:877–878
J’drzejczak, Otylia, 3:1195 origins, 2:876–877
Jeffries, Jim, 3:987 practice, 2:878–879
Jenkins, Dan, 4:1539 Joyner-Kersee, Jackie, 2:731, 3:1146
Jennings, Lynn, 1:401, 1:402 Jubinville, Karyn, 1:91
Jensen, Viggo, 4:1686 Judaism, sport and, 3:1255, 3:1256
Jihong Zhou, 2:477 Judo, 1:37, 2:879–883
Jnana yoga, 4:1735 Athens Olympics, 2004, controversy at, 3:1109
Jogging, 2:872–874, 3:968–970 Japan, 2:864, 2:867
Johansson, Hjalmar, 2:474, 2:475 Jujutsu, 1:36, 2:879, 2:881, 2:884–885, 3:1010,
Johnson, Ben, 4:1531 3:1011
Johnson, Bill, 3:1121, 4:1403 Julin, Magda, 3:1118
Johnson, Byron Bancroft, 1:145 Jumping. See Track and field—jumping and
Johnson, Earvin “Magic” throwing
as athlete celebrity, 1:111
as college athlete, 2:810 K
health issues, 1:30–1:33 K2, 3:1000, 3:1030, 3:1045
K ranking, 1:50, 1:173 Kahanamoku, Duke Paoa, 4:1566, 4:1578
Johnson, Irvin, 4:1687 Kailus, Mount, 3:1038–1039
Johnson, Jack, 1:242, 3:987, 3:1006 Kajinosuke, Tanikaze, 4:1561
Johnson, Junior, 3:1083 Kalganov, Michael, 2:847
Johnson, Richard, 1:146 Kallio, Elin, 2:588
Johnson, Robert L., 3:1134 Kanazawa, Hirokazu, 2:888
Johnson, W. T., 3:1274–1275 Kanjuro, Shibata, XXI, 2:872
Johnson, Wait C., 2:808 Kano, Jigoro, 1:36, 2:879–881, 2:884
Johnson, Walter, 1:149 Kansas City Chiefs, 4:1563
Joly, Andrée, 4:1385 Karate, 2:886–890, 3:1010
Jones, Bill T., 1:442 Karma yoga, 4:1734
Jones, Dot, 1:90, 1:91 Karolyi, Bela, 1:308, 2:716
Jones, Marion, 3:1167, 3:1168, 4:1627 Karppinnen, Pertti, 3:1295
Jones, Parnelli, 2:794 Karras, Alex, 4:1675
Jones, Rammel, 2:862 Karsavina, Tamara, 1:438
Jones, Robert, 4:1382 Karting, 1:133, 1:137, 2:890–891
Jones, Robert Tyre (Bobby), 1:258, 2:693, 3:988, Kasparek, Fritz, 2:501
4:1543 Kawasaki motorcycles, 3:1022
Jordan, Michael, 1:339, 3:1081, 4:1444 Kayaking. See Canoeing and kayaking
as athlete celebrity, 1:110–112, 2:828 Kazmaier, Bill, 3:1213
as athlete hero, 1:115 Kee Chung Sohn, 3:905
brand management, 1:251 Keeler, “Wee” Willie, 1:148
as college athlete, 2:810 Kehoe, George, 4:1449
endorsements and, 1:354, 2:506, 2:508, 2:510 Keino, Kipchoge, 2:898, 2:900
ranking, 1:50, 1:173 Kellerman, Annette, 2:475, 4:1578, 4:1580
Kelley, Charlie, 3:1031
Kelley, Essie, 3:1144
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers Kelly, Jack, 2:728, 3:1295
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Kelly, John, 3:1295
INDEX 1779
Kelly, Michael “King,” 1:148 Kjellstrom, Bjorn, 3:1124, 3:1125

Kelty, Agnes, 2:849 Klemperer, Wolfgang, 4:1423
Kemari, 2:865–866 Klobukowska, Eva, 2:674
Kemp, Dixon, 3:1315 Knees, injury and, 1:198–199
Kendo, 2:864, 2:867, 2:892–898, 4:1666. Knight, Bob, 1:175, 4:1530
See also Iaido Knight, Phil, 1:111, 1:402
Dai Nihon Butokukai, 2:895 Knight Commission, 1:342–343
equipment, 2:893 Knox, Alexander, 3:1048
future of, 2:897 Knudsen, Dane Fredrik, 1:421, 2:721
history and development, 2:892–893 Knute Rockne, All American, 3:1047–1048
international spread of, 2:897 Koch, Bill, 1:54, 1:56, 4:1405
Meiji period kenjutsu, 2:893–894 Koch, Konrad, 2:720
post-war democratization, 2:896 Kochakian, Charles, 4:1687
pre-war militarism, 2:895–896 Koetter, Dirk, 3:1326
rei, 2:895 Kolbe, Peter-Michael, 3:1295
schools, kenjutsu in, 2:894–895 Kolesar, Judy, 2:888
tradition vs. sport, 2:897 Koll, Edward R., 2:725
training methodology, 2:893 Konishi, Yasuhiro, 2:887
Kenkichi, Sakakibara, 2:894 Kono, Tommy, 4:1687
Kennedy, John F., 2:902 Konopacka, Halina, 3:1194–1195 K
Kenteris, Costas, 3:1109, 3:1110 Korbut, Olga, 1:308, 2:715, 2:804
Kentucky Derby, 3:1244, 3:1245 Korda, Petr, 4:1609
Kenya, 2:898–900 Koreas, 3:905–907, 4:1587, 4:1591–1593
Kenyatta, Jomo, 2:899 Korfball, 3:907–911, 3:1069
Kerrigan, Nancy, 4:1387, 4:1674 Korzeniowski, Robert, 3:1195, 3:1234
Kickboxing. See Taekwando Koss, Johann Olav, 3:1123
Kidder, Kieran, 3:1213 Kostélic, Janica, 3:1123
Killander, Ernst, 3:1124 Koufax, Sandy, 1:149, 3:1255, 4:1712
Killanin, Lord, 3:1117, 4:1462 Kournikova, Anna, 1:183, 2:510, 4:1502, 4:1609,
Killlian, George E., 4:1717–1718 4:1699–1700
Killy, Jean-Claude, 3:1120, 4:1402, 4:1403 Kozlova, Anna, 4:1581
Kim, Jimmy, 4:1594 Kraenzlein, Alvin, 4:1627
Kim Un-yong, 4:1593 Kramer, Ingrid, 2:475
Kindlundh, Anna, 4:1573 Krankl, Hans, 1:133
Kiner, Ralph, 1:336 Kreuter, Chad, 4:1531
Kinesiology, 1:196–199, 2:900–902. See also Krieger, Heidi, 3:1166
Physical education; Sport science Kripalu yoga, 4:1736
King, Billie Jean, 1:39, 2:602, 3:931, 4:1606–1609, Krone, Julie, 2:763
4:1693 Kronfeld, Robert, 4:1423
Kingsley, Charles, 3:1253 Krzyzewski, Mike, 2:810
Kinney, Abbott, 4:1668 Kuerten, Gustavo, 2:509
Kiptanui, Moses, 1:23 Kundalini yoga, 4:1736
Kiraly, Karch, 4:1682 Kung fu. See Wushu (kung fu)
Kirby, Karolyn, 4:1682, 4:1683 Kunisato,Naganuma Shirozaemon, 2:893
Kirk, William, 3:1188 Kuparento, Jodaki, 3:1148
Kirkland, Gelsey, 1:440 Kurz, Toni, 2:500
Kite, Tom, 3:1155 Kusanku, 2:887
Kite sports, 1:42, 2:542, 3:903–904, 3:906 Kusner, Kathy, 2:763
1780 INDEX
Kusocinski, Janusz, 3:1195 Lardner, Ring, 4:1537

Kuznetsova, Elena, 4:1609 Larner, Jeremy, 3:938
Kuznetsova, Svetlana, 4:1609 Larsen, Don, 4:1733
Kwan, Michelle, 1:308 Larwood, Harold, 1:101
Kyudo, 2:864, 2:867, 2:868, 2:870–872 Laser, Christine, 2:731
Lasutina, Larissa, 3:1123
L Latfod, Bob, 3:1084
Labor issues, professional sports, 3:923. See also Lauda, Nikki, 1:133
Sexual harassment; Unionism Laver, Rod, 1:39, 4:1605, 4:1693
injuries to athletes, 3:1220 Law, 3:918–924. See also Collective bargaining;
rodeo cowboys, strike by, 3:1274–1275 Economics and public policy; Free agency;
salary caps, 3:1322–1323 Sexual harassment; Title IX; Unionism
soccer, 4:1430–1431 athlete rights, 3:920
tennis, 4:1606–1607 contract law, 3:919
Lacoste, Rene, 1:39 Court of Arbitration of Sport (CAS), 3:919, 3:920
Lacrosse, 3:911–918, 3:1061, 3:1062 crimes, 3:922
Canada, 1:283 future, 3:923
future, 3:917 history, 3:919
governing bodies, 3:915–917 intellectual property, 3:923
history, 3:911–913 labor issues (See Labor issues, professional sports)
modern, growth of, 3:913–916 NCAA, 3:920–921
L professional, 3:917 Olympic movement, 3:919–920
rules and play, 3:916–917 periodicals, 3:951
for women, 3:914–917 prayer by athletes, constitutional issues of, 3:1215–
Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA), 1:385, 1217
3:930 sports agents, 3:922
LaDue, Florence, 3:1274 torts, 3:922
Laguerre, Andre, 4:1539 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO),
Laird, Dr. Bob, 2:843, 2:844 3:923
Laird, Ron, 3:1234 Lawn tennis, 1:38–40, 2:447
Lajoie, Nap, 1:149 Le Mans, 1:133, 3:924–925
Lajunen, Sampan, 3:1123 League of Their Own, A, 3:1050
Lake Placid, 3:918, 3:1118–1119, 3:1121 League-revenue sharing. See Revenue sharing
Lakewood, California, Spur Posse case, 4:1671–1672 Leaves of Grass, 3:936
LaLanne, Jack, 1:220, 2:601, 2:606–607, 4:1669 Lee, Haeng Ung, 4:1593
Lambeau, Curly, 2:625 Lee, Jeanette, 4:1670
Lambert, Michael, 3:1213 Lee, Sammy, 2:475, 2:476
Lambert, Raymond, 3:1028 Lee v. Weisman, 3:1216
Lampell, Millard, 3:1048 Legaignoux, Bruno and Dominique, 3:903
Landis, Kennesaw Mountain, 4:1711 Legrange, Louis, 4:1393
Landry, Tom, 4:1497 Leisure sports, participation in, 3:958
Lang, Otto, 4:1400 Leland, George Adams, 2:861, 3:1179
Langer, Gustave Harold, 3:1342 Lemaire, Lyn, 2:843
Laos, 4:1461–1462 Lemon, Meadowlark, 1:172
Lendl, Ivan, 4:1605
Lengendre, Robert, 4:1618
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers Lenglen, Suzanne, 1:39, 4:1606, 4:1693
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Lenin, Vladimir, 3:998
INDEX 1781
Lenoir, Jean, 3:1017 Lipinski, Tara, 1:308, 3:1229

Leonard, Benny, 1:243 Liston, Sonny, 1:243
Leonard, Lee, 2:523 Literature, 3:934–939. See also Magazines;
Leonard, Ray, 3:1144 Sportswriting and reporting
Lepennec, Emilie, 2:718 epic poems and feats, 3:935–936
Lepper, Merry, 3:968 modern sports literature, 3:936–939
Lerner, Helen, 2:597 narrative theory, 3:1056–1058
Lesbianism, 2:576, 3:926–931, 4:1609. See also physical education supported by, 3:1176–1178
Homophobia Little Women, 4:1489
competitiveness in sport and, 3:928–929 Livy, 3:1039
future, 3:931–932 Lloyd, Earl, 1:172
historical foundations, 3:926–927 Loader, Danyon, 3:1074
homonegative attitudes, 3:926, 3:929–931 Lobo, Rebecca, 1:174, 2:810
recognition of lesbians in sport, 3:930–931 Local-revenue sharing, 3:1263
sexuality and sport, 3:927–928 Locke, John, 3:1177
success of women athletes and, 3:928 Lockouts, collective bargaining and, 1:338, 2:657
vocabulary, 3:926 Loie, Fuller, 1:439
Lesgaft, Pyotr, 3:1179 London, Jack, 4:1415–1416
Leslie, Lisa, 1:174, 2:510 London Marathon, 2:874, 3:967, 3:970
Lever, Sir Ashton, 1:79 London Olympics (1908), 3:1118
Levin, Jenifer, 3:938 London Olympics (1948), 4:1657, 4:1691
Lewis, Carl, 1:115, 3:1146, 4:1618, 4:1623, Londoner Norton, 3:1021 L
4:1627 Loneliness of the Long-Distance Runner, 3:938
Lewis, Dio, 2:861 Long horse (vault), 2:717
Lewis, Duffy, 2:585 Long jump, 4:1618, 4:1623
Lewis, Joe, 4:1733 Longboat, Thomas, 1:281, 3:1064
Lewis, Jonas Norman, 1:336 Longbow, English, 1:77–78
Lewis, William Henry, 2:812, 3:1324 Longest Yard, The, 3:1049
Lexan, Ben, 1:54 Longfellow, Wilbert, 3:932, 3:933
Li Bong-ju, 1:234 Longhi, Stefano, 2:501
Liboton, Roland, 1:188 Lonormand, Sebastian, 3:1148
Liddell, Eric, 3:1335 Lopes, Carlos, 3:1204
Lieb, Fred, 4:1537 Lopez, Steven, 4:1594
Liebling, A. J., 4:1539–1540 Lord, Thomas, 3:940
Lifeguarding, 3:932–934, 4:1564–1566 Lord’s Cricket Ground, 1:99, 3:939–941
Lilienthal, Otto, 4:1423 Los Angeles Dodgers, 3:995, 3:1009, 4:1530,
Lillard, Joe, 2:628 4:1710
Lillehammer Olympics (1994), 3:1122–1123 Los Angeles Lakers, 4:1673–1674
Lima, Vanderlei, 3:1110 Los Angeles Olympics (1984), 3:906, 3:1115,
Limas, Arlene, 4:1594 3:1116, 4:1483–1485, 4:1506–1507
Lin Ma, 4:1591 Louganis, Greg, 1:31–1:33, 2:476, 2:477
Lincoln, Abraham, 3:1233 Louis, Joe, 1:243, 1:246, 3:1081, 3:1236
Lincoln, D. F., 3:1179 Louys, Spiridon, 3:967
Lind, John, 4:1569 Love III, Davis, 2:509
Ling, Per Henrik, 3:1178, 4:1524 Love Me Tender, 3:938
Ling Association, 3:1066–1068, 3:1179 Lovelock, John Edward, 3:1073
Linton, Arthur, 3:1165 Lovin, Fita, 1:401
Lipa, Elisabeta, 3:1295 Low-impact aerobics, 1:13
1782 INDEX
Lowry, Philip, 1:159 Mahoney, Mary, 1:245

Lowry, Sunny, 4:1358 Maier, Hermann, 3:1123
LPGA. See Ladies Professional Golf Association Major Indoor Lacrosse League (MILL), 3:917
(LPGA) Major League, 3:1050
Lucas, Jerry, 1:175 Major League Baseball (MLB), 3:923, 4:1522.
Lucas, Tad, 3:1274, 3:1276 See also Free agency; Unionism; World
Luce, Henry, 4:1539 Series; Wrigley Field; specific teams
Lucian, 3:966 economics, public policy and, 2:489
Ludodiversity, folk games and, 1:185 endorsements and, 2:509
Luge, 2:542, 3:941–943 fan behavior, 4:1479
Lunn, Arnold, 4:1398–1400 franchise relocation and, 2:651
Luque, Adolfo, 1:155 Internet and, 4:1499
Lusko, Cammie, 1:224 radio broadcasts, 3:1240, 3:1241, 3:1244–1246,
Luther, Martin, 3:1252 4:1712
Luyendyk, Arie, 2:794 religion and, 3:1255
Lydiard, Arthur, 3:968–970 revenue sharing, 3:1263–1264
Lynn, Fred, 2:586 salary caps, 3:1323
Lynn, Peter, 3:903 sponsorship and, 4:1483–1485
sports psychology, use of, 3:1170
M substance abuse issues, 3:1166–1167
Mable, Alice, 4:1606 team ownership, 3:1131, 3:1133–1136
Maccabiah Games, 3:944–947 television broadcasts, 1:163–164, 3:992, 4:1485
MacFadden, Bernarr, 1:219–1:221, 2:606 ticket sales, 4:1474–1475
M MacGregor, John, 1:288, 1:289 Major League Baseball Players’ Association (MLBPA).
Mackenzie, Alister, 3:988 See Unionism
MacLean, John, 2:843 Malaysia, 1:358, 3:1345–1348, 4:1372–1376,
Maclennan, Hugh Dan, 4:1362, 4:1363 4:1461–1463
Macredy, R. J., 3:1198 Male hormones, synthetic, 3:1116
Madison Square Garden, 3:947–948, 3:1274, Mallory, George Leigh, 3:1026–1028, 3:1038
3:1275 Malone, Karl, 1:32, 1:173
boxing and, 1:243, 1:247 Malone, Moses, 1:173
statuary, 1:94 Malya, netball in, 3:1067
Maehata, Hideko, 2:867 Man and Wife, 3:936
Magazines, 3:948–954, 4:1475. See also Management, 3:954–962. See also Economics and
Literature; Sportswriting and reporting public policy; Marketing; Ownership
abstract and indexing services, 3:951–952 academic study of, 3:959
academic sport and physical education periodicals, allied industries, 3:959–961
3:949–951, 3:959, 3:1175–1176, 3:1223 as coordination, 3:957–958
full-text and online access, 3:952–953 defining the field, 3:954–956
future, 3:953 economic impact of sports industry, 3:958–959
general sport, 3:948, 4:1538–1539 facility management, 2:546–551
memorabilia, information on, 3:997 future, 3:961
newsletters and bulletins, 3:949 periodicals, 3:951
sport-specific, 3:948–949, 3:970, 3:1046, 3:1211, services, classifying, 3:956–957
3:1213, 4:1510, 4:1686 Manchester City, 3:995
Manchester United, 1:248, 1:249, 3:995–996, 3:1132
Notes: 1) Bold entries and page numbers denote encyclopedia Mandela, Nelson, 3:1236, 4:1458
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers Mangiarotti, Edoardo, 2:581
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Manning, Peyton, 2:810
INDEX 1783
Mantegazza, Paolo, 2:852 mental conditioning, used for, 3:1000

Mantle, Mickey, 1:149, 4:1734 mixed, 3:1010–1012
Maori rugby players, 3:1072, 3:1076–1077 silat, 4:1372–1376
Maple Leaf Gardens, 3:962–964 tai chi, 4:1595–1597
Maracana Stadium, 3:964–965 Martin, Casey, 1:7
Maradona, Diego, 4:1709 Martin, Christy, 1:244
Marathon and distance running, 3:965–971, Marx, Karl, 3:1206, 4:1505–1506
4:1627–1628, 4:1630, 4:1631. See also Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC), 1:319, 1:387,
Boston Marathon 3:939–940
Athens Olympics (2004), 3:1109, 3:1110 Mascots, 1:162, 3:980–985
jogging inspired by, 2:873–874, 3:968–970 controversies, 3:982–984, 4:1667
Kenyan participation, 2:899–900 current, 3:981–982
Native American running, 3:969 perspectives, 3:984–985
New Zealand, 3:1075 Masculinity, 3:985–988, 4:1360, 4:1675
Olympics, 3:966–967, 3:1204 Mason, James, 3:954
Portugal, 3:1204 Masotta, Katrina, 2:738
women, 3:967–968 Massey, Christopher Michael, 4:1412
Marathon canoeing, 1:290–291 Masters games, 3:1342–1344
Marbury, Stephon, 1:348 Masters Tournament, 3:988–990
“March Madness,” 1:175 Matete, Samual, 1:23
Marciano, Rocky, 1:243 Mathewson, Christy, 1:149, 2:625
Marey, Etienne-Jules, 3:1179 Mathias, Christian, 1:210
Mariani, Carolina, 1:88 Matsui, Hideki, 1:154, 2:861
Marino, Dan, 4:1738 Matterhorn, 3:1040 M
Maris, Roger, 1:149, 3:1166, 4:1733 Mattes, Roland, 4:1575, 4:1578
Marketing, 3:971–980. See also Commodification Matthes, Ruthie, 3:1035
and commercialization; Media-sports Maturation, defined, 2:703
complex; Ownership; Spectator Mauermayer, Gisela, 2:730
consumption behavior; Sponsorship; Sport Mauritzi, C.F., 2:474
tourism; Sporting goods industry Mayans, 3:1003–1005
basics, 3:971 Mayer, Helene, 2:582
current practices, 3:975–978 Mayer, Hermann, 1:133
facility naming rights, 2:551–553 Mays, Willie, 1:149, 1:157, 4:1710
future, 3:978–979 Ma’ysz, Adam, 3:1195
mascots and, 3:982 Mazzinghi, Sandro, 2:854
memorabilia, 3:996–998 MCC (Marylebone Cricket Club). See Marylebone
newspaper sports pages, 3:1079 Cricket Club (MCC)
of Olympics (See Olympics) McCarthy, E. Jerome, 3:973
overview, 3:971–973 McCartney, Kathleen, 2:843
periodicals, 3:951 McCloy, Charles, 3:1179
process, 3:973–975 McCormack, Mark, 1:26
of tennis, 4:1604, 4:1608–1610 McCormick, Kelly, 2:476
United Kingdom, 4:1658–1659 McCormick, Pat, 2:476
Marshall, Mike, 2:619 McCoy, Georgia, 2:598
Marshall, Nancy, 1:168 McDaniel, Stephen, 2:826
Martial arts, 3:939. See also Japanese martial arts, McDonald, Les, 1:192
traditional; Judo; Jujutsu; Kendo; Silat; McDonald’s (company), 1:111
Taekwando; Wushu McEnroe, John, 1:39, 4:1605
China, 1:310 McFadden, Bernarr, 2:880, 2:884
1784 INDEX
McGee, Maz, 4:1563 Mendez, Jose, 1:155

McGraw, John, 1:148 Mendoza, Daniel, 1:242
McGwire, Mark, 1:160, 3:1166 Mendy, Jean Baptiste, 3:1338
McHale, Kevin, 1:173 Mental conditioning, 3:998–1003, 3:1012–1016.
McKenley, Herb, 2:857, 2:858 See also Coaching; Psychology
McKinley, Mount, 3:1044 Mental health, 2:536
McLane, David, 2:745 Mercedes-Benz, 4:1604
McLaren, Bruce, 3:1073–1074 Mercer v. Duke University, 4:1613–1614
McLish, Rachel, 1:224 Merckx, Eddy, 1:188
McManus, Sean, 3:1192 Merivale, Charles, 1:206
McNally, Dave, 1:150, 1:337, 2:654 Merlin, Joseph, 4:1391
McNamee, Graham, 3:1190, 3:1245, 4:1476, Merrill, Janice, 3:1144
4:1712 Mesoamerican ball court games, 3:1003–1006
McNeil v. NFL, 4:1651 Messersmith, Andy, 1:150, 1:337, 2:654
McPhail, Larry, 4:1733 Messner, Reinhold, 3:1029, 3:1030
Mears, Rick, 2:795 Metamorphoses, 3:935
Media-sports complex, 3:961, 3:990–996, Mexico, 3:1005–1010
4:1476–1478. See also ESPN; Magazines; Central American and Caribbean Games, 3:1006–
Movies; Play-by-play announcing; Radio; 1007
Sportswriting and reporting; X games future, 3:1009–1010
debates, 3:993–994 history, 3:1005–1006
deregulation, new technology, and globalization, Mesoamerican ball court games, 3:1003–1006
3:994–995 mountain climbing, 3:1038
M Eurosport, 2:530–532 Olympic Games, 3:1008–1009
future, 3:996, 3:1082 organizations, 3:1009
government intervention in sports broadcasting, Pan American Games, 3:1007–1008, 3:1143,
3:993 3:1144
history, 3:990–991 participant and spectator sports, 3:1006
mountain biking, coverage of, 3:1032 professional sports, 3:1009
national identity, representing, 3:1082 rodeos, 3:1273, 3:1278
newspapers, 3:990–991, 3:1078–1083 women and sport, 3:1009
Robinson, Jackie, story of, 3:1047–1048 Mexico City Olympics (1968), 1:17, 3:1008–1009,
sports-television relationship/transformation, 4:1506, 4:1526
3:991–993 (See also Television) Meyer, Debbie, 4:1578
superleagues and media control, 3:995 Meyer, Starke, 1:209
symbiosis and vertical integration, 3:995–996, Miami Dolphins, 4:1479
3:1134 Michigan State University, 1:350
synthetic images (hyperreality), 3:1208–1209 Micronutrients, 3:1092–1094
women’s sports, coverage of, 4:1697–1700 Middle Ages, sports in, 3:1161–1162
Medicine, sports. See Sports medicine Middle Tennessee State University, 3:984
Medline/PubMed, 3:952 Middle-distance races, 4:1627–1628, 4:1630, 4:1631
Melbourne Olympics (1956), 1:125 Mikami, Takayuki, 2:888
Melges, Buddy, 1:54 MILL (Major Indoor Lacrosse League), 3:917
Melzack, Ronald, 3:1139 Miller, Charles, 1:254
Memorabilia industry, 3:996–998 Miller, Gin, 1:13
Miller, Johnny, 1:258
Notes: 1) Bold entries and page numbers denote encyclopedia Miller, Marvin, 1:337
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers Miller, Warren, 4:1409
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Milliat, Alice, 2:574
INDEX 1785
Milo of Crotona, 3:1210, 4:1686 Morriss, Violette, 3:1024

Milovich, Dimitrije, 4:1419 Morse, Samuel F. B., 3:1153–1154
Minerals, healthy eating and, 2:457 Moscow Olympics (1980), 3:999, 3:1116, 3:1305,
Minnesota Vikings, 3:1168 4:1506–1507
Minor leagues, 1:146 Moser-Pröll, Annemarie, 1:133
Miracle on Ice, 3:918, 3:1121, 4:1487 Moss, Julie, 2:843
Miresmaili, Arash, 3:1109 Mosso, Angelo, 2:852
Miske, Billy, 3:1243 Mota, Rosa, 1:234, 3:1204
Missett, Judy Sheppard, 1:12, 2:608 Motivation, 3:998–1003, 3:1012–1016, 3:1174.
Mitchell, Abe, 3:1307 See also Coaching; Psychology
Mitchell, Billy, 3:1148 spectator consumption behavior and, 4:1470–
Mitchell, E. D., 4:1480 1471
Mitchell, Jackie, 1:153 television, fans motivated by, 4:1477–1478
Mitchell, Maxine, 2:582 Motley, Marion, 2:628
Mitford, Mary Russel, 3:936 Moto Guzzi, 3:1021, 3:1022
Mittermaier, Rosi, 4:1402 Motorboat racing, 3:1017–1019
Mixed martial arts, 3:1010–1012 Motorcycle racing, 3:1020–1024
MLB. See Major League Baseball (MLB) Mount Everest, 3:1024–1031, 4:1657–1658
Moceanu, Dominique, 1:308 early interest in climbing, 3:1025–1027
Modern dance, 1:434, 1:438, 2:772–773 first expeditions, 3:1027–1028
Modernism, 3:1205–1207 later expeditions, 3:1029–1031, 3:1045
Mogul skiing, 4:1408, 4:1409 U. S.-British team, 1952, 3:1027–1028
Molino, Cosimo, 2:852 Mountain biking, 3:1031–1037
Monday Night Football, 3:1191–1192, 4:1479 bicycle technology, 3:1032 M
Mont Blanc, 3:1040 biking events, 2:542, 3:1032–1034
Montagu, Ivor, 4:1588 future, 3:1037
Montana, Joe, 2:810 governing bodies, 3:1034–1035
Montgolfier brothers, 1:142, 3:1148 media coverage, 3:1032
Montgomery, Jim, 4:1578 problems, 3:1036–1037
Montgomery, John, 4:1423 women bikers, 3:1035–1036
Montgomery, Tim, 3:1167 Mountain boarding, 2:542
Montherlant, Henry de, 3:937 Mountaineering, 1:42–43, 3:939, 3:1037–1047.
Montreal Canadiens, 4:1547 See also Mount Everest
Montreal Olympics (1976), 3:971, 3:1115, 3:1116, Alpine style, 3:1045–1046
4:1482, 4:1506 basic climbing procedures, 3:1041–1043
Moolenijzer, Nicolaas, 3:908 clubs, 3:1046
Moore, Steve, 4:1502 difficulty of climb, 3:1040
Moos, Bill, 1:349 early history, 3:1038–1039
Morceli, Noureddine, 1:23 Eiger North Face, 2:498–502
Morgan, Joe, 1:150 mental conditioning for, 3:1000
Morgan, John N., 3:1342 rules, 3:1043
Morgan, William G., 4:1676–1677 short climbs and expeditions, 3:1044
Moriarty, Jay, 2:543, 2:544 siege techniques for big mountains, 3:1044–1045
Morris, Alwyn, 1:281 sports climbing, 3:1046–1047
Morris, Mark, 1:440 technical climbing, 3:1039–1041
Morris, “Old” Tom, 1:256 tools, new, 3:1043–1045
Morrison, Cynthia, 2:732 women, 3:1028, 3:1030, 3:1041, 3:1044
Morrison, Fred, 1:41 Movement, human, 2:771–776. See also Physical
Morrison, Tommy, 1:31, 1:33 education
1786 INDEX
Movement education, 3:1182 Naish, Robby, 3:903

Movies, 1:16, 1:18, 3:1047–1051 Naismith, James, 1:168–169, 1:343, 3:1066, 3:1254
arm wrestling, 1:90 Naismith Memorial Hall, 1:176
Australian rules football, 1:130 Nam Sun Uong, 3:905
boxing, 1:247 Namath, Joe, 2:507, 2:629, 4:1564
figure skating, 4:1384 Namba, Yasuko, 3:1030
motorcycle racing, 3:1022 Names
running, 3:1335 facility naming rights, 2:551–553 (See also
skiing, 4:1400, 4:1408–1409 Sponsorship)
synchronized swimming, 4:1580 nicknames, 1:157–158, 2:525
Venice Beach, 4:1669 Nandrolone, 4:1526, 4:1609
Mr. America contest, 3:1211, 4:1670 Nanga Parbat, 3:1045
Mueller-Preiss, Ellen, 2:582 Nansen, Fridtjof, 4:1398, 4:1404
Muldoon, William, 4:1720 Narrative theory, 3:1056–1060
Muldowney, Shirley, 1:134 NASCAR. See National Association for Stock Car
Mulford, Ralph, 2:794 Auto Racing (NASCAR)
Mulhall, Lucille, 3:1274 NASPE. See North American Society for Sport
Multiculturalism, 3:1051–1053. See also Management (NASSM)
Anthropology Days; Native American NASSM (North American Society for Sport
games and sports; Racism Management), 3:954–955, 3:959
Mummery, Albert F., 3:1030, 3:1041 Nastase, Ilie, 2:507, 3:1279, 4:1605
Munich Olympics (1972), 3:1116, 4:1506 National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing
Murdoch, John, 3:1335 (NASCAR), 1:134, 1:136, 3:978, 4:1530
Murdoch, Rupert, 1:111, 1:112, 3:994, 3:995, Nextel (Winston Cup), 3:1083–1085
3:1270, 4:1659 radio broadcasts, 3:1246
N Murphy, Dennis, 2:745 sponsorship and, 4:1484
Murphy Cup, 2:745 television contracts, 3:992, 3:1085
Murray, Jim, 4:1539–1540 National Baseball Hall of Fame (Cooperstown, NY),
Murray, Lenda, 1:224, 1:225 1:155
Murray, Ty, 3:1276 National Basketball Association (NBA), 3:947
Muscle Beach, 4:1670 See also specific teams
Muscle Beach (CA). See Venice Beach agents and, 1:29
Musial, Stan, 1:149 brand management and, 1:249
Muster, Thomas, 1:133 collective bargaining and, 1:337
Mutlu, Halil, 4:1689 economics, public policy and, 2:489
Myskina, Anastasia, 4:1609 endorsements and, 2:509
foreign interest in, 3:1069
N franchise relocation and, 2:651–652
Naegele, Bob, Jr., 2:745 free agency and, 2:654, 2:657
Nagano Olympics (1998), 2:860, 3:1123, 4:1385 history, 1:170–172
Nagashima, Shigeo, 2:861 Olympics, players at, 1:175, 3:1109, 3:1113,
Naginata (naginatado), 2:867–872, 3:1054–1056 3:1220–1221
NAIG. See North American Indigenous Games players’ union (See Unionism)
(NAIG) racism and, 3:1237
radio broadcasts, 3:1245
revenue sharing, 3:1263–1264
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers salary cap, 3:1322
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. sponsorship and, 4:1484
INDEX 1787
team ownership, 3:1134 team ownership, 3:1134

television contracts, 3:992, 4:1500 television and, 1:353–354, 2:628–629, 3:992–
violence in, 4:1673–1674 993, 3:1191–1192, 4:1476, 4:1479, 4:1501,
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), 4:1562
3:920–921, 3:958. See also College athletes; National Hockey League (NHL), 3:947. See also
Intercollegiate athletics specific teams
Academic Reform Movement (ARM), 3:1324, agents and, 1:28, 1:29
3:1326–1327 Canada, 1:282–283
agents and, 1:28 collective bargaining and, 1:337
amateur vs. professional debate, 1:45–49, 1:339 economics, public policy and, 2:489
Carnegie Report and, 1:296 franchise relocation and, 2:652
ethics and, 4:1531–1532 free agency and, 2:654, 2:657
guidelines, 1:35, 2:809 history, 2:740
history, 1:341 players’ union (See Unionism)
lacrosse, 3:916, 3:917 radio broadcasts, 3:962–963, 3:990
spending on sports by schools in, 3:958–959 revenue sharing, 3:1263–1264
sponsorships, 4:1483 salary caps, 3:1323
substance abuse, 3:1168 sponsorship and, 4:1484–1485
television and, 1:174–175, 1:350, 2:628, 3:991– Stanley Cup, 2:739, 4:1546–1548
992, 4:1476, 4:1483 team ownership, 3:1134
tennis, 4:1608 television and, 3:991, 3:992, 4:1500
Title IX and, 4:1615–1616 National identity, sport and. See Sport and national
track and field events, 4:1624, 4:1631–1632 identity
wrestling, 4:1719 National Indian Athletic Association, 3:1060, 3:1063
National Football League (NFL), 2:625–628, 3:921, National Indian Finals Rodeo, 3:1060, 3:1063
3:923, 3:961. See also Super Bowl; specific National Lacrosse League (NLL), 3:917
N
teams National League (NL), 1:145, 1:150
agents and, 1:29 National Library of Medicine, 3:952
American Football League-NFC lawsuit and National Off-Road Bicycling Association (NORBA)
merger, 3:921, 4:1563–1564 events, 3:1032–1035
collective bargaining and, 1:337 National Senior Games and Senior Olympics,
economics, public policy and, 2:489 3:1340–1342
endorsements and, 2:509 National Veterans Golden Age Games (NVGAG),
fan behavior, 4:1479 3:1344
foreign interest in, 3:1069 National Wrestling Coaches Association, 4:1614–
franchise relocation and, 2:650–651 1616
free agency and, 2:654, 2:657 Native American games and sports, 3:1060–
globalization and, 1:353 1066. See also Lacrosse
players, contributions to community by, 4:1670 all-Native sporting competitions, 3:1051, 3:1060,
players’ union (See Unionism) 3:1062–1064
racism and, 3:1237 Anthropology Days and, 1:68
radio broadcasts, 3:1245, 3:1246 archery, 1:77, 1:93
religion and, 3:1255 dance and, 1:432–1:434
revenue sharing, 2:490, 3:1263–1264 Euro-American impact, 3:1061–1062
salary cap, 3:1322–1323 history, 3:1060–1061, 3:1247
sponsorship and, 4:1484 hunting and, 2:782
sports psychology, use of, 3:1170 mascot controversies, 3:983–984, 4:1667
substance abuse, 3:1167–1168 Mesoamerican ball court games, 3:1003–1006
1788 INDEX
Native American games and sports (continued) Neubert, Ramona, 2:731

mountain climbing for religious reasons, 3:1038 Neville, Jack, 3:1154
racism and, 3:1237, 3:1276 New criticism, narrative theory, 3:1056–1057
religion and, 3:1247 New England Patriots, 4:1563
rodeos, 3:1060, 3:1062, 3:1063, 3:1273, 3:1276 New Jersey Nets, 3:977
running, 3:969, 3:1063 New York Cosmos, 4:1431
significance, 3:1065–1066 New York Giants (baseball team), 3:1243–3:1245,
traditional sports and games competitions, 4:1712
3:1064–1065 New York Giants (football team), 4:1734
Natural, The, 3:1049–1051 New York Jets, 4:1564
Navratilova, Martina, 1:39, 2:576, 3:931, 4:1606, New York Knicks, 3:947, 3:948, 3:995
4:1609, 4:1693 New York Liberty, 3:947
Nazis, 2:677–678, 4:1657. See also Berlin Olympics New York Marathon, 3:970, 3:1075
(1936) New York Mets, 4:1712
motorcycle racing supported by, 3:1023 New York Rangers, 3:947, 3:948, 3:995
in Romania, 3:1279 New York Yacht Club, 1:55, 1:316
worker sport and, 4:1703–1705 New York Yankees, 1:248, 3:1243–1245, 3:1264,
NBA. See National Basketball Association (NBA) 4:1649, 4:1711–1712, 4:1732
NBC, 1:353, 1:354, 3:992, 3:1244, 3:1246, 4:1485, New Zealand, 1:357, 3:1071–1078. See also
4:1585,4:1698, 4:1699 Commonwealth Games
NCAA. See National Collegiate Athletic Association future, 3:1077
(NCAA) history, 3:1072
Ndereba, Catherine, 1:234, 2:899 netball, 3:1068, 3:1072, 3:1074–1075
Nebiolo, Primo, 4:1715–1717 organizations, 3:1076
Necessary Roughness, 3:1050 participant and spectator sports, 3:1072–1074
N Negotiations, labor. See Collective bargaining rodeos, 3:1273, 3:1278
Negro National League, 1:147 rugby in, 3:1075–1077, 3:1116, 3:1299–1301,
Neiminen, Toni, 3:1122 4:1458 (See also All Blacks)
Neligan, Gwen, 2:582 sport in society, 3:1076–1077
Nelson, Byron, 2:692, 3:989 televised sports in, 3:993–3:995
Nelson, Don, 1:173 women and sport, 3:1074–1075, 3:1077
Nelson, Lindsey, 3:1245 youth sports, 3:1075
Nelson, Maud, 1:154 Newby, Arthur, 2:793
Nepal, 3:1025–1030 Newby-Fraser, Paula, 2:843
Netball, 3:1066–1068, 3:1072, 3:1074–1075 Newcombe, John, 1:39
Netherlands, 2:747, 3:1069–1071 News Corporation (Fox), 1:354, 3:994, 3:995,
Elfstedentocht, 2:502–503 3:1246, 4:1485
korfball, 3:907–911, 3:1069 Newsletters, 3:949
lifeguarding, 3:932, 3:933 Newspapers, 3:990–991, 3:1078–1083, 4:1616–
sailing, history of, 3:1315 1617. See also Media-sports complex;
skating, history of, 4:1381, 4:1388, 4:1390 Sportswriting and reporting
soccer, 3:1070, 4:1709 Nextel (Winston) Cup, 1:136, 3:1083–1085
women’s sports, coverage of, 4:1698 NFL. See National Football League (NFL)
Netsch, Adolf, 3:1284 Ngugi, John, 1:402
NHL. See National Hockey League (NHL)
Notes: 1) Bold entries and page numbers denote encyclopedia Nibelungenlied, 3:935
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers Nichibo Spinning Mills, 4:1678
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Nichols, Billy, 4:1414
INDEX 1789
Nickalls, Vivian and Guy, 2:728 Nutrition, 3:1090–1095, 3:1162. See also Diet
Nicklaus, Jack, 1:258, 2:507, 3:989, 3:1154–1155, and weight loss
3:1308, 4:1543 for competition, 3:1094–1095
Nicknames healthy eating, 2:456–457
baseball, 1:157–158 micronutrients and dietary supplements, 3:1092–
ESPN and, 2:525 1094, 4:1687
Nigeria, 1:438, 3:1085–1088 osteoporosis and, 3:1127–1129
Nike (company), 3:959, 3:974–976, 4:1489, for training, 3:1090–1092
4:1520–1522 Nuvolari, Tazio, 2:853, 3:1022
Freddie Adu and, 2:510 NVGAG (National Veterans Golden Age Games),
LeBron James and, 2:508 3:1344
Michael Jordan and, 1:111–112, 1:251, 2:506 Nykänen, Matti, 3:1122, 4:1396
Steve Prefontaine and, 2:608
Tiger Woods and, 2:507 O
Nixon, Richard M, 4:1507, 4:1610 Oakland Athletics, 3:1170, 4:1710, 4:1711
Noel, J. B., 3:1026 Oakland Raiders, 3:1167
Noguchi, Mizuki, 3:1109 Oakley, Annie, 2:785
Noll, Greg, 2:544 Obesity. See also Diet and weight loss
Nomo, Hideo, 1:154, 2:861 exercise, health and, 2:533, 2:534, 4:1508
NORBA (National Off-Road Bicycling Association) youth sports and, 4:1510, 4:1741–1742
events, 3:1032–1035 O’Brien, Herb, 4:1684
Nordau, Max, 3:944 O’Brien, Larry, 4:1673
Nordquest, Joe, 3:1211 O’Brien, Parry, 4:1621
Norgay, Tenzing, 1:115, 3:1026–1030, 3:1044 Ocean (offshore) sailboat racing, 3:1319
Norman, Greg, 1:258 Ochoa, Francisco Fernandez, 3:1120
Norman, Peter, 1:17 Octopush, 4:1646–1647
North American Indigenous Games (NAIG), 3:1051,
3:1060, 3:1064
Odell, Noel, 3:1027, 3:1045
Odyssey, 3:935, 4:1718
O
North American Society for Sport Management Oerter, Al, 4:1624
(NASSM), 3:954–955, 3:959, 3:960 Officiating, 3:1096–1102
North Dallas Forty, 3:1049 changing rules over time, 3:1101
North Korea, 3:905–907, 4:1587, 4:1592 components of official’s job, 3:1096–1098
Northern Games, 3:1060, 3:1065 errors by officials, 3:1100–1101
Norton, Edward, 3:1027 figure skating, 4:1386–1387
Norton, Ken, 4:1733 selecting and evaluating officials, 3:1099–1100
Norway, 1:204, 2:748, 3:1088–1090, 3:1118, sport and competition level, effect of, 3:1098–
4:1545 1099
Bislett Stadium, 1:204–205 violence toward officials, 3:1099
Holmenkollen Ski Jump, 2:747–750, 4:1395 Women’s World Cup, 4:1701–1702
Lillehammer Olympics (1994), 3:1122–1123 Off-road auto racing, 1:133
Oslo Olympics (1952), 3:1119–1120 Ogilvie, Bruce, 3:1170
ski jumping, 4:1395–1396 Ogimura, Ichiro, 4:1589
skiing, 4:1400, 4:1403, 4:1404 Oh, Sadharu, 2:861
Notre Dame University, 3:1254, 4:1476. See also Oikaze, Yoshida, 4:1559, 4:1560
Rockne, Knute Okafor, Emeka, 1:348
Nott, Tara, 4:1688 Okayama, Yasutaka, 1:119
Nowitzki, Dirk, 1:119 Okinawa, 2:886–887
Nurmi, Paavo, 1:115, 2:589 Okrent, Daniel, 2:566
1790 INDEX
Olberman, Keith, 2:525 Olympics, Summer

Older adults. See Senior sport Antwerp (1920), 1:187, 1:189, 3:1118
OLN (Outdoor Life Network), 3:1032 archery, 1:80–82
Olson, Scott, 2:745, 4:1391 Argentinian participation, 1:87
Olympia, 2:700–702, 3:1102–1104, 3:1161, Athens (1896), 3:966, 3:967, 3:986, 3:1107,
3:1248–1250, 4:1475, 4:1499, 4:1624 3:1113, 3:1114, 3:1116
Olympic Charter, 3:1112, 3:1220 Athens (2004) (See Olympics, 2004)
Olympic flag, 3:1113–1114 Atlanta (1996), 4:1532–1533
“Olympic handball,” 2:720 badminton, 1:139, 1:141
Olympic hymn, 3:1114 Barcelona (1992), 3:1115
Olympic motto, 3:1116 baseball, 1:156
Olympic Stadium (Berlin), 1936, 3:1105–1107 basketball, 1:175–176, 3:1109, 3:1113
Olympics. See also International Olympic Committee Beijing (2008), 2:686
(IOC); Special Olympics; United States Berlin (1936) (See Berlin Olympics (1936))
Olympic Committee (USOC) British participation, 4:1657, 4:1658
amateurs vs. professionals in (See Amateur vs. Chinese participation, 1:314–315
professional debate) commercialism, 3:1115–1116
ancient games (See Olympia) Cuban participation, 1:407–408
Anthropology Days and, 1:68–70 dance, 2:444
boycotts, 3:919, 3:1116, 3:1120, 3:1305, 4:1506, Dutch participation in, 3:1070
4:1688 fencing, 2:580–582
Cold War, 3:1119–1122, 4:1478, 4:1506–1507 Honduran participation, 2:757
facility management and, 2:546–547 Hungarian participation, 2:778–779
fitness and, 2:601 in-line skates, 4:1392
gender verification in, 2:672–673 Italian participation, 2:854
International Olympic Academy, 2:817–820 Jamaican participation, 2:858–860
O law and, 3:919–920
marketing of, 1:352–354, 2:509, 3:971, 3:978,
Japanese participation, 2:860, 2:867
judo, 2:882, 2:883
3:1115–1116, 4:1482–1483, 4:1485 Kenyan participation, 2:898–899
multiculturalism in, 3:1051–1052 Korean participation, 3:905
racism and, 4:1458, 4:1460, 4:1704–1705 lacrosse, 3:914, 3:915, 3:917
ritual and, 3:1268 London (1908), 3:1118
as spectacle, 4:1500, 4:1501 London (1948), 4:1657, 4:1691
substance abuse (See Performance enhancement) Los Angeles (1984) (See Los Angeles Olympics (1984))
technology, controlling innovations due to, marathons, 3:966–967
4:1599, 4:1601, 4:1602 Melbourne (1956), 1:125
television broadcasts, 1:353–354, 3:991, Mexican participation in, 3:1008–1009
4:1501 Mexico City (1968) (See Mexico City Olympics
trademark protection, 3:923 (1968))
women in, 2:573–574, 2:667–668 Montreal (1976) (See Montreal Olympics (1976))
Worker Olympics and, 3:1304, 4:1703–1705 Moscow (1980) (See Moscow Olympics (1980))
Olympics, 2004, 2:681, 2:719, 3:1107–1111 Munich (1972), 3:1116, 4:1506
drug use in, 1:18–19 New Zealand participation, 3:1073–3:1075
swimming at, 4:1578 Nigerian participation, 3:1085
Norwegian participation, 3:1088
pelota, 3:1157
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers pentathlon, 3:1157–1159
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Polish participation, 3:1194–1195
INDEX 1791
political tensions, 3:1116 figure skating, 4:1383–1386

Portuguese participation, 3:1204, 3:1205 Garmisch-Partenkirchen (1936), 3:1119
race walking in, 3:1233–1235 Grenoble (1968), 3:1120
revival, 3:1112–1114 Innsbruck (1964), 3:1120
roller hockey, 4:1395 Innsbruck (1976), 3:1120–1121
Romanian participation, 1:1279–1281 Italian participation, 2:854
Rome (1960), 2:639–640, 2:854, 4:1485 Jamaican bobsled team, 2:856
rowing, 3:1295 Korean participation, 3:907
sailing, 3:1314 Lillehammer (1994), 3:1122–1123
Senegalese participation, 3:1337–1338 luge, 3:942
Seoul (1988), 3:906, 3:907 Miracle on Ice (See Miracle on Ice)
soccer, 4:1433 Nagano (1998), 2:860, 3:1123, 4:1385
softball, 4:1451 Norwegian participation, 3:1088
Soviet participation, 3:1159, 3:1305 Oslo (1952), 3:1119–1120
Stockholm (1912), 3:1117 pentathlon, 3:1159
swimming, 3:1113, 4:1575–1579 post-Cold War, 3:1122–1123
swimming, synchronized, 4:1580–1581 Salt Lake City (2002) (See Salt Lake City
Swiss participation, 4:1582–1583 Olympics (2002))
Sydney (2000) (See Sydney Olympics (2000)) Sapporo (1972), 2:860, 3:1119, 3:1120
table tennis at, 4:1590–1591 Sarajevo (1984), 3:1121
taekwando, 4:1592, 4:1594 skeleton sledding, 4:1418
tennis, 4:1604, 4:1609 ski jumping, 4:1396–1397
torch relay, 3:1114–1115 skiing, Alpine, 4:1401–1403
track and field, 3:968, 4:1618, 4:1622–1625 skiing, cross-country, 4:1405–1406
treatment of, 4:1632 skiing, freestyle, 4:1408, 4:1410
tug-of-war, 4:1633–1634 snowboarding, 4:1420
Turkish participation, 4:1635, 4:1636
volleyball, 4:1678–1679
Soviet participation, 3:1120–1122, 3:1305
speed skating, 4:1388–1390
O
volleyball, beach, 4:1683 Squaw Valley (1960), 3:1120, 4:1485
water polo, 3:1201 Switzerland in, 4:1583
weightlifting, 3:1211, 4:1686–1688 torch relay, 3:1119
windsurfing, 4:1695 Vancouver (2010), 1:286
winter games at, 3:1117–1118 women in, 4:1388, 4:1402, 4:1503
women in, 3:986, 4:1503, 4:1576, 4:1622, World War II, 3:1119
4:1623, 4:1625–1626, 4:1628, 4:1666, Olympique de Marseilles, 3:1135
4:1698, 4:1699, 4:1704 Olympiques, Les, 3:937
wrestling, 4:1719, 4:1720, 4:1722 Olympus, Mount, 3:1039
Olympics, Winter, 3:1117–1123, 3:1236. See also O’Malley, Walter, 3:954
Lake Placid; St. Moritz Omori, Hyozo, 2:863
Albertville (1992), 3:1122, 3:1349 One in a Million, 4:1384
biathlon (See Biathlon and triathlon) One on One, 3:1049, 3:1050
bobsledding, 1:211–212 O’Neal, Shaquille, 3:1322
Calgary (1988), 3:1121–1122 O’Neil, John “Buck,” 1:147
Chamonix (1924), 3:1118, 4:1545 Onischenko, Boris, 3:1159
Cold War games, 3:1119–1122 Oosterlynck, Georges, 4:1715
Cortina d’Ampezzo (1956), 2:854, 3:1120 Open to All: Title IX at Thirty, 4:1614
curling, 1:419 Orange Bowl (Miami), 2:628
early games, 3:1118–1119 Orienteering, 3:1124–1126
1792 INDEX
Ornish, Dr. Dean, 4:1737 Pan American Games, 3:1142–1147. See also
Oropeza, Vincente, 3:1276 Central American and Caribbean Games
Ortega, Domingo, 1:265 Argentina and, 1:86–87
Orvis-Marbury, Mary, 2:597 Cuba and, 1:406–407
Osage nation, 3:969 history, 3:1142–1143
Osiier, Ellen, 2:581 Honduras and, 2:757
Oslo Olympics (1952), 3:1119 Jamaica and, 2:857–858
Osteoporosis, 1:217, 2:471, 2:536, 3:1126–1131, karate at, 2:889–890
3:1340, 4:1511 Mexico and, 3:1007–1008, 3:1143
Ottey, Merlene, 2:858–859 race walking in, 3:1234
Otto, Kristen, 4:1578 significance of, 3:1147
Otto, Nikolaus August, 3:1021 softball, 4:1451, 4:1453
Ouden, Willie den, 4:1578 swimming, 4:1579
Our Village, 3:936 winter, 3:1146
Outcome expectations, athlete’s, 3:1013–1014 Pan American Games for the Blind, 3:1147
Outdoor Life Network (OLN), 3:1032 Pan American Wheelchair Games, 3:1147
Outerbridge, Mary Ewing, 4:1603 Pancratium, defined, 2:701
Outward Bound, 1:9, 1:11 Pankration, 3:1010–1011
Overload, 4:1511–1513 Pantagruel, 3:936
Overuse injuries. See Injury Par golf, 2:690
Ovid, 3:935 Parachuting, 3:1147–1150
Owens, Jesse, 1:109, 1:115, 2:812, 3:1236, Paragliding, 2:542
4:1626 Parallel bars, 2:717
Ownership, 3:1131–1137 Paralympics, 2:461, 2:462–463, 2:687, 3:1150–
future, 3:1136 1153
models of, 3:996, 3:1133–1136 Athens, 2004, 3:1110
organizational background, 3:1131–1133 summer games, list of, 3:1151
Winter, 3:1123, 3:1151
P P Parawing sailing, 3:1311, 3:1312, 3:1314
Paccard, Michel, 3:1040 Parcells, Bill, 1:249
Pacifico, Larry, 3:1212 Parche, Gunther, 4:1674
Packer, Kerry, 1:389, 1:390, 3:995 Parents, role of, 1:3–4, 2:503–506, 2:557–562.
Paddock, Charles, 2:809, 4:1714 See also Youth sports
Padilha, Sylvio de Magalhaes, 3:1143 Park, Willie, 1:256
Paes, Leander, 4:1606 Parker, Arnold, 4:1587–1588
Page, Dorothy G., 2:789 Parker, Tony, 1:119
Paglinawan, Ruby, 2:888 Parkour, 2:542
Paige, Leroy “Satchel,” 1:147 Parnell, Mel, 2:585
Paige, Rod, 4:1614 Parrington, Frank, 2:473
Pain, 3:1138–1142. See also Injury Parrish, Robert, 1:173
Palamas, Kostis, 3:1114 Participant services, 3:955–956
Palm, Kerstin, 2:582 Paterno, Joe, 2:810
Palmer, Arnold, 1:258, 2:507, 3:989 Patrick, Dan, 2:525
Pamplona (Spain), 1:261 Patten, David, 1:90
Patterson, Carly, 2:718
Patton, George S., 3:1159
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers Paulche, Wilhelm, 4:1582
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Pauley, Michael J., 4:1449–1450
INDEX 1793
Paulhan, Louis, 2:611 sportsmanship and, 4:1530–1531, 4:1665

Pavlova, Anna, 1:438 strength and, 4:1551–1552
Pebble Beach, 3:1153–1155 teens, by, 3:1169
Peck, Annie, 3:1041 tennis, 4:1609
Pedestrianism. See Race walking Tlingits, drugs used by, 3:1169
Pedroso, Eustaquio, 1:155 Tour de France, 3:1168, 4:1531, 4:1617
Pelé, 1:115, 2:507, 3:1236, 4:1431, 4:1434, 4:1709 track and field, 4:1625
Pellaton, Scott M., 4:1414 Periodicals. See Magazines
Pelletier, David, 3:1123, 4:1385 Periodization, 4:1512–1513
Pelota, 3:1155–1157 Peripheral vascular disease (PVD), 2:535
Frontenis (pelota vasca), Mexico, 3:1006 Perkain, 3:1157
Mesoamerican pelota maya/pelota mixteca, Permission marketing, 3:976
3:1003–1005 Perry, Fred, 4:1605, 4:1693
Pentathlon, ancient, 3:1102 Pershing, General “Black Jack,” 2:808
Pentathlon, modern, 3:1157–1159, 3:1342 Personality, 3:1171–1175, 3:1227–1228. See also
Pentathlon, 2:730 Motivation; Psychology; Psychology of
Pentland Group, 4:1521 gender differences
Pep, Willie, 1:243 Pesky, Johnny, 2:585
Peppe, Mike, 2:475 Pétain, Marshall Philippe, 2:808
Pérez Dueñas, Pedro, 3:1144 Petanque, bocce and, 1:235–237
Performance, 3:1160–1164. See also Performance Peters, Mary, 2:731
enhancement Petitjean, Jean, 4:1714
Performance enhancement, 3:923, 3:987, Petrarch, 3:1039
3:1164–1171, 4:1526–1527. See also Petty, Richard, 1:133
Nutrition; Psychology; Steroids; Technology; Pezzo, Paola, 2:854, 3:1035–1036
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) PGA. See Professional Golf Association (PGA)
ancient times, 3:1164–1165 Phar Lap (race horse), 1:127
BALCO case, 3:1167, 4:1665 Pheidippides, 3:966
biotechnology and, 1:202–203, 4:1601–1602 Phelan, Jacquie, 3:1035 P
blood doping, 2:590, 3:1168, 4:1526, 4:1575 Phelps, Michael, 3:1109, 4:1578
bodybuilding, 1:223, 1:225 Phenomological personality theory, 3:1174–1175
dietary supplements, 3:1093–1094 Philadelphia Phillies, 3:1243
disability sport, 2:464–465 Physical education, 3:1175–1184. See also
early professional sports, 3:1165 Fitness; Sport science; Turner festivals
ephedrine, 3:1168 (turners)
future, 3:1170–1171 adapted physical education, 1:5–9
horse racing, 2:763, 2:765, 3:1166 China, 1:309–312
human growth hormone, 3:1168 coeducational sport, 1:328–333
NCAA policies, 3:920 conceptual and curricular changes, 3:1181–1182
Olympics, 1:18–19, 3:919, 3:1109, 3:1110, connections to other fields and organizatons,
3:1123 3:1179–1181
Pan American Games, 3:1144–1145, 3:1147 early research efforts, 3:1182–1183
powerlifting/weightlifting, 3:1165, 3:1212–1213, eighteenth-century antecedents, 3:1177–1178,
4:1687 4:1524
recent professional sports, 3:1166 health reform and public health, links to, 3:1178–
school sports, 3:1332 1179
sports authorities, actions by, 3:1167, 3:1168 human movement studies, 2:771–776
sports psychology as alternative to, 3:1169–1170 kinesiology, 2:900–902
1794 INDEX
Physical education (continued) Poland, 3:1193–1196

as multidisciplinary field, 3:1181 Pole vault, 4:1620, 4:1623–1624
nineteenth-century developments, 3:1178, 4:1524, Poll, Sylvia, 3:1146
4:1582 Pollack, Burglinde, 2:731
outlook, 3:1183 Pollard, Fritz, 2:625, 2:628, 2:812
periodicals, 3:949–951 Pollution, sports and, 2:520–521
Portugal, 3:1203–1204 Polo, 1:1966–1198, 3:935–936
rope jumping, 3:1283–1285 Argentina, 1:85
Soviet Union, 3:1179, 3:1304 in art, 1:94
Turkey, 4:1635–1636 China, 1:309
Pickett, Bill, 3:1273, 3:1274, 3:1276 Iran, 2:836
Piercy, Violet, 3:968 Polo, bicycle, 3:1198–1199
Pilates, 1:441, 2:603, 3:1184–1186 Polo, canoe, 1:291
Pilcher, Percy, 4:1423 Polo, water, 3:1199–1202, 4:1656
Pillay, Dhanaraj, 2:736 Pommel horse, 2:714, 2:717
Pilots, 2:612 Ponor, Catalina, 2:718
Ping-pong. See Table tennis Pool, Robert, 3:915
Piping, as Highland Games event, 2:733 Pool ( billiards), 1:193–195, 4:1656
Pippig, Uta, 1:234 Pope, Dick, 4:1412
Pires, Sandra, 4:1683 Popinjay shooting, 1:79–1:81, 1:83
Pittsburgh Pirates, 3:1243 Popocatepetl, 3:1038
Pius XII, Pope, 4:1359 Popov, Alexander, 4:1578
“Plasticbandy,” 2:609 Porter, Pat, 1:402
Platform diving, 2:474 Portland Trailblazers, 3:1170
Platini, 4:1710 Portugal, 3:1202–1205
Plato, 3:1176–1177 Posse, Nils, 3:1178
Platz, Tom, 1:222 Postmodernism, 3:1205–1210
Play vs. organized sport, 3:1186–1188 Poststructuralism, 3:1058–1059, 3:1207
P Play-by-play announcing, 3:1188–1193 Pound, Dick, 3:1110
beginnings of, 3:1189–1190 Powell, Foster, 3:1232
broadcast team, 3:1189 Powell, Mike, 4:1618
early resistance by sports organizations, 3:1190 Powell, Rene, 2:695
entertaining style, 3:1190–1191 Power kiting, 1:42
by former athletes and coaches, 3:1192 Powerlifting, 3:1165, 3:1210–1215. See also
future, 3:1193 Weightlifting
Monday Night Football, 3:1191–1192 Pow-wows, 3:1064–1065
viewers influenced by, 3:1192 Pratt, Hodgson, 4:1713
women announcers, 3:1192 Prayer, 3:1215–1218. See also Religion; Sport
Player, Gary, 1:258, 3:989 as religion
Playing surfaces, 2:518, 2:520 PRCA. See Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association
Plimpton, James, 4:1393 (PRCA)
Pocket billiards, 1:193, 1:195 Preble, Dana, 4:1685
Pocock, George, 3:903 Prefontaine, Steve, 1:402, 2:608
Podoloff, Maurice, 1:171–172 Pregnancy. See Reproduction (reproductive health)
Price, Nick, 1:258
Princeton University, 2:811, 2:812, 3:1244, 4:1500,
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers 4:1643
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Pritzi, Gertrude, 4:1590
INDEX 1795
Pro-am sport clubs, 1:315, 1:316 Pulaski, Maximillian, 4:1411

Prochazka, Heinz, 2:450 Purging behavior. See Disordered eating
Profanity, 4:1530 Puritanism, sport and, 3:1252–1253
Professional Golf Association (PGA), 1:7, 1:385, Pyle, C.C., 1:26
3:989
Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA), Q
3:1272–1273, 3:1275–1278 Quarrie, Donald, 2:857, 2:858, 3:1144
Professional services, 3:955 Queensberry Rules, 1:242–243
Professional sport clubs, 1:315, 1:316 Quickstep, 2:443, 2:444
Professionalism, 3:1218–1221 Quiriot, Fidelia, 3:1146
brand management and, 1:249–250
free agency and, 2:654 R
salaries and, 2:493–494 R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, 3:1083
Profit, Christophe, 2:501 Rabelais, François, 3:936
Program, The, 3:1050 Race walking, 3:967, 3:1195, 3:1232–1235
Prohaska, Herbert, 1:133 Racism, 2:577, 3:927, 3:1235–1239, 4:1444,
Protein intake, 3:1091 4:1502–1504
Proteins, healthy eating and, 2:457 baseball, 1:115, 1:146–147, 1:153
Protest, sport as vehicle for, 3:1235–1236 basketball, 1:171–172
Protopopov, Ludmila and Oleg, 4:1385 boxing, 1:244, 1:247, 3:987, 3:1236, 3:1337
Proust, Marcel, 3:937 Canadian sports, 1:281, 4:1491
Psychodynamic theory, 3:1171–1172 in coaching, 1:325
Psychology, 3:1163, 3:1221–1226. See also colonialism and, 4:1446–1447
Social identity football, 2:628
extreme sports and, 2:539, 2:541 golf, 2:694–695
fan loyalty, 2:562–565, 2:649 intercollegiate athletics, 2:812
future, 3:1225–1226 multiculturalism and, 3:1051–1053
home field advantage, 2:750–752 against Native Americans, 3:1062, 3:1276
mental conditioning, 3:998–1003 New Zealand rugby, issue in, 3:1076–1077
motivation, 3:1012–1016 newspaper sports pages, racial stereotypes in,
performance enhancing drugs, alternative to, 3:1080–1082 Q
3:1169–1170 Olympics and, 4:1704–1705
periodicals, 3:951 professional golf, issue in, 3:989 R
personality and sports, 3:1171–1175 rodeos, 3:1276
research, teaching, and consultation, 3:1223–1224 scholar-ballers and, 3:1324
scope, 3:1222–1223 South Africa, apartheid in (See South Africa)
sport psychology societies, 3:1224–1225 youth sports, 4:1742–1743
Psychology of gender differences, 3:1226–1231. Racquetball, 3:1240–1242
See also Gender equity Radcliffe, Paula, 3:1109
applied sport psychology, 3:1230–1231 Rader, Peary, 3:1210, 3:1211, 4:1687
future, 3:1231 Radigonda, Ron, 4:1450
personality and gender-role orientation, 3:1227– Radio, 3:990–991, 3:1242–1247, 4:1476. See also
1228 Play-by-play announcing
sex differences, 3:1227 Hockey Night in Canada, 3:962–963, 3:1192
social processes and gender, 3:1228–1230 Tour de France, coverage of, 4:1617
women’s sports, gender in, 3:1226–1227 Rafter, Pat, 1:126
Public policy. See Economics and public policy Rainer, Edi, 2:500
Puica, Maricica, 1:401 Rainsford, William S., 3:1254
1796 INDEX
Raja yoga, 4:1734 Renshaw, Ernie and William, 4:1605, 4:1693

Ramadan, Nahla, 4:1689 Renson, Roland, 3:907–909
Ramirez, Manny, 2:654 Replacements, The, 3:1050
Ranier, Mount, 3:1044 Reproduction (reproductive health), 1:198, 2:538,
Rarick, Randy, 4:1570 3:1257–1262
Raschker, Eileen-Philippa Kersten, 3:1343 Reserve system, free agency and, 2:654
Rasmussen, Bill, 2:522, 2:523 Resistance training, 4:1510, 4:1511
Rasmussen, Scott, 2:522, 2:523 Retton, Mary Lou, 2:716
Ratjen, Dora, 2:674 Revenue sharing, 2:490–491, 3:923, 3:1262–
Raue, Bill, 2:745 1264, 4:1648
Ravitch, Richard, 4:1648 Revithi, Stamata, 3:967
Rawlings Sporting Goods Co., 4:1522 Reyes, Ernie, 4:1594–1595
Ray, Johnny, 3:1243 Reynolds, Allie, 1:336
Ray, Ted, 3:1307 Reynolds, John Hamilton, 3:936
Reader-response theory, 3:1058 Rhee, Jhoon, 4:1592
Reagan, Ronald, 3:1083, 3:1245, 4:1476 Rhoda, Franklin, 3:1038
Red Grange Rule, 2:626 Riach, Nancy, 3:1335
Redgrave, Steven, 3:1295 Ribbs, Willy T., 2:795
Redington, Joe, Sr., 2:789 Rice, Bobby, 2:795
Redmon, Jimmy, 4:1684 Rice, Grantland, 2:563, 3:1243, 4:1536–1538
Reebok (company), 4:1522, 4:1604 Richards, Tap, 3:1027
Mark Walker and, 2:510 Richardson, Dot, 4:1454
Venus Williams and, 2:508, 2:509 Richardson, Mildred and T. D., 4:1385
Reed, Rick, 1:158 Richardson, Nolan, 2:810
Rees, Dai, 3:1308 Richmond, Tim, 1:31
Reeves, Steve, 4:1670 Richter, Ulrika, 4:1578
Reggae Boyz soccer team, 2:856 Rickard, George L. “Tex,” 1:243
Rehabilitation Act (1973), 1:34 Rickenbacker, Eddie, 2:794
Reichardt, Lou, 3:1029 Riddles, Libby, 4:1416
Reinhoudt, Cindy, 3:1212 Riding. See Horseback riding
Relationship marketing, 3:976–977 Riefenstahl, Leni, 1:19, 4:1409
Relative perceived exertion (RPE) scale, 2:514 Riggin, Aileen, 2:476
R Relaxation skills, 3:1001–1002 Riggs, Bobby, 2:602, 4:1607
Religion, 3:1247–1256, 4:1712. See also Rigoulot, Charles, 4:1686
Rituals; Sport as religion Riley, Dawn, 1:56
ancient gods and games, 3:1247–1250 Riley, Pat, 1:173
medieval and renaissance Christianity, 3:1250– Rimet, Jules, 2:821
1252, 4:1357–1358 Rinehart, Tina, 3:1213
nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 3:1253–1255, Ringette, 3:1264–1266
4:1358–1359 Rings, 2:716
prayer, 3:1215–1218 Rio de Janeiro, Maracana Stadium, 3:964–965
Puritanism, effect of, 3:1252–1253 Ritchey, Tom, 3:1031
women in sport, 3:1255–1256 Rituals, 3:3 See also Mascots; Religion;
Renfro, William, 1:146 Sport as religion
behavior and social construct, 3:1267–1268
Chukchee of Siberia, sports ritual of, 3:1251
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers future, 3:1270–1271
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. global entertainment, 3:1270
INDEX 1797
modern sports as rituals, 3:1270–1271 Roesler, Corey and Bill, 3:903

prayer, 3:1215–1218 Rogan, “Bullet” Joe, 1:147
pregame rituals, 3:1270 Rogers, Bill, 1:234
symbols and symbolism, 3:1268–1270 Rogers, Will, 3:1274
Road Runners Club of America, 2:874 Rogge, Jacques, 1:189, 3:1109, 3:1117, 3:1123
Roba, Fatuma, 1:234, 3:967 Rolex, 4:1604
Rober, Lewis, 4:1449 Roller skating. See Skating, roller
Roberson, Gene, 3:1211 Roman, Charles P., 2:606
Robert, Charles and Ainé, 1:142 Romania, 3:1279–1281
Roberts, Cheryl, 4:1461 Romanowski, Bill, 3:1167
Roberts, Clifford, 3:988 Romary, Janice York, 2:582
Roberts, Eugene, 1:234 Rome, ancient, 3:1281–1283, 4:1357, 4:1475,
Roberts, Katie (Vulcana), 1:221 4:1499
Roberts, Robin, 2:525 performance, 3:1161
Robertson, Oscar, 1:175, 3:1143 performance enhancement, 3:1164–1165
Robeson, Paul, 2:625, 2:628, 2:812, 3:1324 religion and sport, 3:1250
Robinson, Eddie, 2:810 wrestling, origins of, 4:1718
Robinson, Frank, 1:150 Rome Olympics (1960), 2:639–640, 2:854, 4:1485
Robinson, (Jackie) John Roosevelt, 1:147, Romero, Curro, 1:267
3:1047–1048 Roosevelt, Theodore, 2:811
as athlete hero, 1:115 Rope jumping, 3:1283–1285
as college athlete, 2:812 Rope skipping, 3:1284–1285
racial issue and, 2:628 Roper, Sylvester, 3:1021
Robinson, Sugar Ray, 1:243, 1:246 Rose, Murray, 4:1578
Roby, Douglas, 3:1143 Rose, Pete, 1:150, 1:151
Roche, Bertrand, 3:1030 Rose Bowl (Pasadena), 2:628
Rockne, Knute, 1:326 Roseano, Angelica, 2:849
as football coach, 2:626, 3:1163, 3:1255, Rosendahl, Heide, 2:731
4:1734 Ross, Norman, 2:809, 4:1578
as football player, 2:625 Rosset, Jules, 4:1686
movie, 3:1047–1048 Rossi, Valentino, 2:854
Rocky Mountains, 3:1038, 3:1044 Rosu, Monica, 2:718
Roddick, Andy, 4:1609 “Rotisserie,” 2:566 R
Rodeo, 3:1272–1279 Rounders and stoolball, 3:1285–1288
animal rights and, 3:1277 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 3:1283
current, 3:1278 Rowe, David, 2:826
development, 3:1274–1276 Rowing, 3:1288–1296
events, 3:1277 amateurism in, 4:1655
international, 3:1277–1278 in art, 1:95
Native Americans and, 3:1060, 3:1062, 3:1063, Belgium, 1:186
3:1273, 3:1276 boat race (Cambridge vs. Oxford), 1:206–208,
organizations, 3:1276–1277 2:727
origins, 3:1273 Brazil, 1:253
Rodgers, Bill, 2:873 competition, top, 3:1294–1295
Rodriguez, Alex, 2:654 equipment, 3:1289–1290, 4:1599
Rodríguez, Jorge, 3:1144 governing body, 3:1295
Rodriquez, Jim, 3:1276 Henley Regatta, 2:727–729
Roe, Allison, 3:1075 history, 3:1288–1289
1798 INDEX
Rowing (continued) Native Americans, 3:969, 3:1063

Japan, 2:862 runner’s “high,” 3:1141
Mexico, 3:1006 Running clubs, 2:874
nature of sport, 3:1291–1292 Running with bulls, 1:261, 2:542
New Zealand, 3:1073, 3:1075 Runyon, Damon, 4:1537–1538
racing, 3:1292–1294 Rupp, Adolph, 1:175
social context, 3:1289 Rupp, Edward, 4:1498
social rowing, 3:1294 Ruppert, Jacob, 4:1732
team and individual success, 3:1295 Russia and USSR, 3:1302–1397, 4:1505. See also
Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews. Moscow Olympics (1980)
See St. Andrews Chukchee of Siberia, sports ritual of, 3:1251
Rozeanu, Virgilia, 3:1279 forced industrialization and sport, 3:1304
Rozelle, Pete, 2:523, 2:629 Maccabiah Games and, 3:945–946
“Rozier” balloons, 1:143 mental conditioning of athletes, use of, 3:998–
RPE (relative perceived exertion) scale, 2:514 999, 3:1163
Rubens Alcais, Eugene, 2:449–450 Olympic participation, 3:1120–1122, 3:1159,
Rubin, Barbara Jo, 2:763 3:1305
Rudeski, Greg, 4:1609 physical education in, 3:1179, 3:1304
Rudolph, Wilma, 3:1143, 4:1627 post-Communist developments, 3:1305–1307
Rugby, 3:939, 3:1296–1302 postwar sports competition, 3:1304–1305
amateur vs. professionals, 3:1220, 4:1658 rowing, 3:1295
Australia, 1:125, 3:1299–1301 Russian Revolution, sport in, 3:1302–1304
European Superleague, 3:1270, 4:1659 substance abuse by athletes, 3:1165
future, 3:1301 Tatarstan, folk sport and self-determination in,
historical development, 3:1296–1297 3:1306
injuries in, 3:1220 tennis, 4:1609
international spread, 3:1299–1301 volleyball, 4:1677–1678
Japan, 2:863 weightlifting, 4:1687–4:1689
memorabilia, 3:997 worker sport in, 3:1304, 4:1705, 4:1707
New Zealand (See New Zealand) Russian formalists, narrative theory, 3:1056
power struggles, 3:1297 Russo-Japanese War, 2:880, 2:884
Romania, 3:1279 Rutgers University, 3:1324, 4:1643
Rugby Union/Rugby League differentiated, 3:1296 Ruth, “Babe” George Herman, 3:997, 4:1712
televised competitions, 3:992, 3:995, 3:1296, as athlete celebrity, 1:109
S 4:1659 nickname, 1:157
transition and structural uncertainty, 3:1297–1299 ranking, 1:149, 1:159
United Kingdom (See United Kingdom) at Yankee Stadium, 4:1732–4:1734
at Wembley Stadium, 4:1691 Ruud, Birger, 4:1396–1397, 4:1402
women’s, 3:1075, 3:1077 Ryan, Nolan, 1:150, 2:654
Ruiz, Tracie, 4:1581 Rychlak, Gene, 3:1213
Rumba, 2:443, 2:444 Ryder, Samuel, 3:1307
Runner’s World, 2:872–874, 3:970 Ryder Cup, 3:1307–1309
Running, 2:872–874, 3:936–938, 3:968–970.
See also Marathon and distance running; S
Track and field—running and hurdling Sabatini, Gabriela, 1:85, 1:88
Saddle seat horseback riding, 2:769
Notes: 1) Bold entries and page numbers denote encyclopedia Safety, in sports, 1:229–230. See also Injury
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers Sail sports, 1:291, 3:1310–1314. See also Kite
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. sports; Windsurfing
INDEX 1799
Sailboarding, 3:1311–1313 Sapporo Olympics (1972), 2:860, 3:1119, 3:1120

Sailer, Toni, 3:1120, 4:1402, 4:1403 Sarajevo Olympics (1984), 3:1121
Sailing, 3:1314–1321, 4:1376. See also America’s Sarazen, Gene, 2:692, 3:989
Cup Sargent, Dudley, 3:927, 3:1179
boats, 3:1315–1317 Sarnoff, David, 3:1244
categories, 3:1317–1320 Sasaki, Kazuhiro, 1:154, 2:861
New Zealand, 3:1073, 3:1077 Satellite radio, 3:1246
origins, 3:1315 Saturday’s Hero, 3:1048
outlook, 3:1321 Saunders, Steve, 3:978
racing, 3:1319–1321 Savage Mountain, The, 3:1046
women in, 3:1321 Saxon, Arthur, 4:1686
Salary caps, 3:1322–1323. See also Collective Sayenev, Victor, 4:1623
bargaining; Economics and public policy; Scaino da Salo, Antonio, 3:1252
Revenue sharing; Unionism Scandals. See Corruption, in sports
Salavato, Joan, 2:597 Schäfer (Schaefer), Karl, 3:1118–1119
Salazar, Alberto, 2:873 Schelenz, Karl, 2:720
Salchow, Ulrich, 3:1118, 4:1383 Schembechler, Bo, 2:810
Salé, Jamie, 3:1123, 4:1385 Scherens, Jef “Poeske,” 1:188
“Salibandy,” 2:609, 2:806 Scheuchzer, Johann, 3:1039
Salinas, Juan, 3:1276 Schick, Marcus, 3:1213
Salt Lake City Olympics (2002), 3:1123, 3:1168, Schilling, Shonda (Mrs. Curt), 1:167
4:1385, 4:1533 Schlager, Werner, 1:133
Saltwater fishing, 2:593, 2:594, 2:597 Schlanegger, Hedy, 4:1583
Samaranch, Juan Antonio, 1:24, 3:1117 Schleimer, Paul, 4:1716
Samaras, Spyros, 3:1114 Schmeling, Max, 3:1236, 4:1733
Samba, 2:443, 2:444 Schneider, Hannes, 4:1400, 4:1403, 4:1409
Samba, Cire, 3:1337 Schneider, Vrenie, 3:1123
Sampras, Pete, 1:39, 4:1606, 4:1693, 4:1738 Schodl, Gottfried, 4:1688
Sampson, Charles, 3:1276 Schoening, Pete, 3:1046
Sampson, Millie, 3:968 Scholar-baller, 2:812, 3:1323–1328
Samuelson, Joan Benoit, 1:234, 3:967 Scholarships, sports, 1:46–47, 2:478–479, 2:812,
Samuelson, Ralph, 4:1411 3:1323–1328
San Francisco 49ers, 3:1134, 3:1170 School performance, 3:1328–1333
San Francisco Giants, 3:979, 3:1167, 4:1711 Schott, Marge, 3:1133
Sanchez, Cristina, 1:266 Schottenheimer, Marty, 4:1531 S
Sanchez, Felix, 3:1146 Schranz, Karl, 3:1120
Sanderson, Derek, 1:27 Schuba, Beatrix, 4:1387
Sandhu, Emanuel, 4:1385 Schuhmann, Karl, 4:1720
Sandow, Eugen (Eugene), 1:219, 1:220, 2:606, Schumacher, Michael, 1:250, 2:507, 2:508
3:1210, 4:1686 Schuyler, George L., 1:54
Sandwina (bodybuilder), 1:221 Schwartz, Eric, 2:483
Sandyachting, 3:1310–1314 Schwartz, Karen and Howard, 1:14
Sanex, 4:1604 Schwartz, Lou, 3:1245, 3:1246
Sanity Code, NCAA and, 1:341, 2:815 Schwarzenegger, Arnold, 1:225, 2:602, 4:1670
Santa Fe Independent School District v. Jane Doe, Scotland, 3:1333–1336, 4:1656. See also
et al., 3:1216 Commonwealth Games; Curling; Highland
Santa Monica, California, 4:1669–1670 Games; St. Andrews
Saperstein, Abe, 1:171, 1:172 golf in, 2:688–689
Sapp, Patrick, 2:828 rounders, history of, 3:1287
1800 INDEX
Scotland (continued) Sex, defined, 2:671

rugby in, 3:1298 Sex and performance, 3:1348–1350. See also
shinty, 4:1361–1363 Gender verification; Lesbianism
skating, history of, 4:1381, 4:1388–1389 Sex chromatin testing, 2:673, 2:674
soccer, 4:1429, 4:1446 Sexual abuse. See Sexual harassment
sport apparel in, 2:570 Sexual discrimination, defined, 2:753
tug-of-war, 4:1632 Sexual harassment, 3:1350–1357. See also
Scott, Jack, 1:376 Feminist perspective; Gender equity;
Scott, Robert Falcon, 4:1415 Sexuality
Scott, Stuart, 2:525 abusers, identification of, 3:1353
Scratch golfers, 2:690 definitions, 3:1350–1351
Scuba, 4:1643, 4:1646–1647 exploitation continuum, 3:1351
Scumacher, Michael, 1:134 intimacy of coach/athlete relationship, 3:1353–
Scurry, Briana, 4:1665 1354
Se Ri Pak, 2:508, 3:907 myths and taboos, 3:1351–1352
Sears, Eleonara, 4:1606 personal experiences of athletes and coaches,
Seaver, Tom, 1:150 3:1354–1355
Seavey, Mitch, 4:1416 persons at risk, 3:1353
Second, The, 3:938 prevention, 3:1355–1356
Security, sports facilities and, 2:549–551 previous research, 3:1352–1353
Segura, Bernardo, 3:1234 sports organizations, response of, 3:1352
Sehorn, Jason, 3:1237 triggers of, 3:1353
Seles, Monica, 2:550, 4:1674 Sexual orientation, defined, 2:671–672, 2:753
Self-determination, athlete’s, 3:1014, 3:1174 Sexuality, 4:1357–1361. See also Feminist
Self-efficacy beliefs, athlete’s, 3:1013 perspective; Homophobia
Selig, Bud, 4:1649 beauty and, 1:179–184, 4:1360–1361
Senegal, 3:1337–1338 sport as sexist spectacle, 4:1502–1503
Senior sport, 3:1338–1345 Seyé, Abdouleye, 3:1337
aging and exercise, 2:537–538, 3:1338–1340, Shahamorov, Esther Roth, 2:849
4:1511 Shakespeare, William, 3:936
Alaska International Senior Games, 3:1342 Shandler, Ron, 2:566
benefit of exercise on aging, 3:1340 Sharapova, Maria, 4:1609, 4:1700
fitness and, 2:602–603 Shaw, George Bernard, 3:936
Huntsman World Senior Games, 3:1342 Shawn, Ted, 1:440
S masters and veterans games, 3:1342–1344 Shea, Jack, 3:1118
National Senior Games and Senior Olympics, Sheehan, George, 2:873
3:1340–1342 Sheil, Bernard J., 3:1254
National Veterans Golden Age Games (NVGAG), Sherpas, 3:1026–1030, 3:1044–1045
3:1344 Sherrod, Blackie, 4:1539
sports medicine, 4:1527–1528 Shevchenko, Irina, 3:1109
World Master Games (WMG), 3:1344 Shewfelt, Kyle, 2:718
Sepak takraw, 3:1345–1348, 4:1376 Shin Geum Dan, 3:905
Seppala, Leonard, 4:1416 Shinty, 4:1361–1363
Service of Ladies, 3:935 Shippen, John M., 2:694
Shipton, Eric, 3:1045
Notes: 1) Bold entries and page numbers denote encyclopedia Shooting, 4:1363–1372. See also Biathlon and
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers triathlon; Hunting
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. competition, top, 4:1369–1370
INDEX 1801
governing bodies, 4:1370–1372 Skating, ice figure, 3:1229, 3:1231, 4:1380–1388,

history, 4:1363–1366 4:1502
rifle and pistol shooting, 4:1366–1367 competing styles, 4:1382
shotgunning, 4:1367–1369 early history, 4:1381–1382
Shorter, Frank, 1:234, 1:402, 2:873, 3:1144 future, 4:1387–1388
Shot put, 4:1620–1621, 4:1623 ice dancing, 4:1385–1386
Shouaa, Ghada, 2:731 institutionalization of sport, 4:1382–1385
Shoulders, Jim, 3:1276 judging, 4:1386–1387
Show jumping, 2:766 at Olympics, 3:1118–1123
Shrake, Bud, 4:1539 pairs, 4:1385
Shriver, Eunice Kennedy, 4:1466, 4:1468 recent developments, 4:1387
Shriver, Pam, 3:1146 violence in, 4:1387, 4:1674
Shriver, Sargent, 4:1467 Skating, ice speed, 4:1382–1383, 4:1388–1391
Shriver, Timothy, 4:1466, 4:1468 Elfstedentocht, 2:502–503
Shults, Kenny, 2:620 Norway, 1:204, 1:205
Shultz, John, 2:789 at Olympics, 3:1118, 3:1120, 3:1121, 3:1123
Shuttlecocks, 1:138, 1:140 Skating, in-line, 2:541–542, 4:1391–1395.
Sianis, Sam, 4:1712 See also Hockey, in-line
Siciliano, Angelo. See Atlas, Charles Skating, roller, 3:1312, 3:1313, 4:1393–1395.
Sick, Max, 2:606 See also Skating, in-line
Sidat-Singh, Wilmeth, 2:628 Skeletal age, determining, 2:710
Side horse, 2:717 Skeleton. See Sledding—skeleton
Sidesaddle horseback riding, 2:768–769 Ski ballet, 4:1410
Siegl, Siegrun, 2:731 Ski jumping, 4:1395–1397, 4:1405
Sierra Blanca, 3:1038 Holmenkollen Ski Jump, 2:747–750, 4:1395
Siitonen, Pauli, 4:1406 at Olympics, 3:1119, 3:1122
Sikharulidze, Anton, 3:1123, 4:1385 Poland, 3:1195
Siki, Battling, 3:1337 Ski sailing, 3:1312, 3:1313
Silat, 3:1010, 4:1372–1376 Skidriving, 2:542
Silk, Valerie, 2:843, 2:844 Skiing, Alpine, 4:1397–1404, 4:1582. See also
Sillitoe, Alan, 3:938 St. Moritz
Silva, Jackie, 4:1682, 4:1683 competition, top, 4:1402–1403
Simmons, Chester, 2:523 early races, 4:1399–1400
Simmons, Louie, 3:1214 environmental issues, 2:521
Simmons, Richard, 1:12, 2:602, 2:608 extreme, 2:541 S
Simonson, Eric, 3:1027 governing body, 4:1403
Simpson, Tommy, 4:1531, 4:1617 history, 4:1398–1399
Sims, Tom, 4:1419 Japan, 2:861
Sinclair, Rosabelle, 3:914–915 kite skiing, 1:42, 3:904
Singapore, 4:1376–1378, 4:1462 nature of sport, 4:1401–1402
Singh, Balbir, 2:738 Norwegians spread sport, 4:1400–1401
Singh, Vijay, 2:508 at Olympics, 3:1118–3:1120, 3:1123, 4:1583
Sirius radio, 3:1246 snowboarding and, 4:1401
Sisley, Alfred, 3:1295 technology, equipment changes due to, 4:1598
Skadarasy, Ernst, 4:1400 tourism and, 4:1515
Skate sailing, 3:1311–1313 Skiing, cross-country, 2:861, 3:1123, 4:1404–
Skateboarding, 1:40–41, 4:1378–1379 1408. See also Biathlon and triathlon
Skater hockey, 2:745 Skiing, freestyle, 4:1408–1410
1802 INDEX
Skiing, water, 4:1410–1414 Snowshoe racing, 4:1421–1422

Skijoring, 2:542, 4:1546 Snowsnake, 3:1065
Skurfer, 4:1684 Snurfer, 4:1419
Sky Global Network, 3:994, 4:1659 Soaring, 2:722–724, 4:1423–1427
Sky surfing, 2:542 Sobek, Joe, 3:1240
Skydiving, 3:1147–1150 Soccer, 3:938–939, 4:1427–1434. See also
SkyDome, 2:520 Federation Internationale de Football
Slalom kayaking, 1:290 Association (FIFA); Manchester United;
Slaney, Mary Decker, 2:804, 3:1144, 4:1628 Women’s World Cup; World Cup
Slap Shot, 3:1049 American Youth Soccer Organization (AYSO),
Slater, Duke, 2:628 1:52–53
Sled dog racing, 4:1415–1417. See also Iditarod Argentina, 4:1429, 4:1709
Sledding Athens Olympics (2004), 3:1110
bobsledding (See Bobsledding) athletic talent migration in, 1:117
luge, 2:542, 3:941–943 Brazil (See Brazil)
Sledding—skeleton, 3:941, 3:1119, 3:1123, China, 4:1701–1702
4:1417–1418 competition, top, 4:1433–1434
Sloane, William Milligan, 3:1113, 3:1117 early forms of, 3:1250–1252
Slow pitch softball, 4:1452 economics of, 2:489, 2:490
Smetania, Raisa, 3:1122 Euro 2000, 4:1502, 4:1531
Smith, Albert, 3:1040 Euro 2004, 2:526–527
Smith, Bill, 2:598 European Football Championship, 2:528–530,
Smith, “Bonefish Bonnie,” 2:598 4:1433–1434
Smith, Dean, 1:175, 2:810 expansion beyond Britain, 4:1429–1430
Smith, Emmitt, 4:1670 France (See France)
Smith, Horton, 3:989 Germany, 4:1429–1430, 4:1446, 4:1531
Smith, Jerry, 1:31 governing body, 4:1434
Smith, Kathy, 2:608 hooliganism, 4:1430, 4:1431, 4:1502, 4:1658,
Smith, Margaret Court, 4:1606, 4:1693 4:1659
Smith, Michele, 4:1454 Italy, 3:1264, 4:1429
Smith, Red, 4:1538 Jamaica, 2:856
Smith, Stan, 4:1605, 4:1608 Japan, 2:862–863, 2:867
Smith, Tommie, 1:17, 4:1506 Kenya, 2:899
Smith, Wilson, 1:210 Korea, 3:905–907
S Smith College, 4:1603 Maracana Stadium, 3:964–965
Smythe, Conn, 3:962–963 memorabilia, 3:997
Snead, Sam, 3:989 Mexico, 3:1006, 3:1009
Snell, Peter, 3:1073 movies, 3:1047, 3:1050
Snooker billiards, 1:194 nature of sport, 4:1432–1433
Snorkeling, 4:1646 Netherlands, 3:1070, 4:1709
Snouffer, Chet, 1:233 New Zealand, 3:1077
Snowball fights, 3:1121 Nigeria, 3:1086
Snowboarding, 3:904, 4:1401, 4:1418–1420, in North American market, 4:1431–1432,
4:1546 4:1484–1485
Norway, 3:1089–1090
origins, 4:1427–1429
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers para-soccer, 3:1086
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Poland, 3:1195
INDEX 1803
Portugal, 3:1203 governing bodies, 4:1454

racism and, 3:1239, 4:1502 Mexico, 3:1006
revenue sharing, professional leagues, 3:1263– New Zealand men’s team, 3:1073
1264 organizations, 4:1452–1453
Romania, 3:1279 professional, 4:1454
Singapore, 4:1376 “Softbandy,” 2:609
social identities of teams, 4:1446 Sokol clubs, 3:1194
Spain, 3:1264, 4:1446 Solomon, Donnie, 2:543
team ownership, 3:1132, 3:1134, 3:1136 Sombart, Werner, 1:49–50
televised broadcasts, 3:993, 3:995–996, 4:1430– Songe, Le, 3:937
1432, 4:1477, 4:1485, 4:1658, 4:1659 Sorensen, Jackie, 1:12, 2:608
United Kingdom (See United Kingdom) Sorenstam, Annika, 1:354, 2:508, 2:510
Uruguay, 4:1430 Sorrese, Dan, 1:91
at Wembley Stadium, 4:1691 Sosa, Sammy, 1:160, 3:1166, 4:1530
women’s, 4:1431–1432 SOSUPE (South American Society of Sport
young people, programs for, 1:52–53 Psychology), 3:1225
Social class and sport, 4:1434–1441 Sotomayor, Javier, 3:1146
basketball, 4:1438 Soule, Aileen Riggen, 3:1342
economics, 4:1435–1437 South Africa, 4:1455–1461
education, 4:1440 ball games, tribal, 4:1459
future, 4:1440–1441 competition, top, 4:1460–1461
golf, 4:1438–1439 exclusion from Olympics, 1:20, 1:21–22
professional sports, 4:1439–1440 future, 4:1461
social capital, 4:1437–1438 Olympics participation, 4:1458, 4:1460
social mobility, 4:1439 rugby, 3:1299–1300
sports participation, 4:1435 sports after apartheid, 3:1236, 4:1458–1460
Social constructivism, 4:1441–1444 sports before apartheid, 4:1455–1457
Social ideas, 3:957 sports during apartheid, 3:1235, 4:1457–1458,
Social identity, 4:1445–1449, 4:1470–1471. 4:1506
See also Athletes as celebrities; Sport and World Cup in, 4:1433
national identity South American Games, 1:85–86, 3:1145
athletes as heroes, 1:114–116 South American Society of Sport Psychology
masculinity and, 3:985–987 (SOSUPE), 3:1225
school sports, effect of participation in, 3:1330– South East Asian Games, 3:1347, 4:1376,
1331 4:1461–1463 S
Social-cognitive personality theories, 3:1175 South Korea, 3:905–907, 4:1592
Socialization, sport and, 4:1665 Asian Games and, 1:104, 1:106
Sociological narrative studies, 3:1058–1059 table tennis, 4:1587
Sociology Souza, Kenny, 2:483
interpretive, 2:832–836 Soviet Union. See Russia and USSR
postmodernism and, 3:1206–1207 Spahn, Warren, 1:149
Sodium bicarbonate, 3:1093–1094 Spain, 4:1463–1465. See also Bullfighting
Soft tennis, 2:861 Barcelona Olympics (1992), 3:1115
Softball, 4:1449–1455 at Olympics, 3:1120
Amateur Softball Association (ASA), 4:1449–1452 soccer, 3:1264, 4:1446
competition, top, 4:1453–1454 Worker Olympics and, 4:1703
description of game, 4:1452 Spalding, Albert G., 1:145, 1:148, 3:1131, 3:1134
future, 4:1454 Spalding Baseball Guides, 3:952–953
1804 INDEX
Speaker, Tris, 1:149 motorcycle races, 3:1022

Spear fishing, 2:591 national teams, corporate sponsorship of, 4:1491
Special Olympics, 1:7, 2:461, 2:463, 4:1465– Nigerian youth sports, 3:1087
1469 Olympics, 3:978, 3:1115, 4:1482–1483,
Spectator consumption behavior, 4:1469–1475. 4:1485
See also Marketing; Sporting goods industry race walking, 3:1233
demographic aspects, 4:1469–1470 sailboat racing, offshore, 3:1319
environmental aspects, 4:1473–1474 tennis, 4:1483, 4:1604, 4:1607
past behavior as predictor, 4:1473 United Kingdom, 4:1658
psychographic aspects, 4:1470–1473 wakeboarding, 4:1684
Spectators, 3:956, 4:1475–1480. See also Fan Wembley Stadium, 4:1692
loyalty; Mascots; Sport as spectacle; worldwide spending on, 3:957
Violence Sport academies. See Academies and camps, sport
ancient fans, 4:1475 Sport and Gagaly, 3:937
baseball, 1:159–160 Sport and national identity, 4:1486–1491
comfort, environment and, 2:518–519 globalization and, 4:1490–1491
fan behavior, 4:1478–1479, 4:1502, 4:1531 media, role of, 3:1082
franchise relocation, 2:649–653 national identity defined, 4:1487–1488
future, 4:1479 popular culture, sport in, 4:1491
international consequences, 4:1478 single national identity, 4:1488–1490
radio, role of, 4:1476 study of, 4:1488
stadiums, 4:1475–1476 Sport as religion, 4:1492–1498. See also Religion;
television, role of, 4:1476–1478, 4:1500–1501 Rituals
Speed biking, 2:542. See also Mountain biking as alternative to civil religion, 4:1493–1494
Speed skating. See Skating, ice speed future, 4:1496–1498
Speedball, 4:1480–1482 meaning of, 4:1496–1498
Speigler, Gustav, 3:945 reflection of society, religion and sport as,
Spiess, Adolph, 3:1178, 4:1582 4:1494–1496
Spiller, Ben, 2:694 Sport as spectacle, 4:1499–1504. See also Racism;
Spin casting, 2:595 Spectators; Violence
Spirit of St. Louis basketball teams, 3:1245 commercially exploitive spectacle, sport as,
Spitz, Mark, 2:507, 4:1578 4:1503–1504
Spitzack, Carol, 1:216 early spectator entertainment, 4:1499
Spock, Benjamin, 3:1295 Olympics, 4:1500, 4:1501 (See also Olympics,
S Spoelstra, Jon, 3:977 Summer; Olympics, Winter)
SPOLIT, 3:952 technology, impact on spectator sport of,
SPONET, 3:952 4:1499–1501
Sponsorship, 3:956–957, 3:977–979, 4:1482– violent, sexist spectacle, sport as, 4:1501–1503
1486, 4:1501. See also Athletes as celebrities; Sport history periodicals, 3:951
Marketing Sport philosophy peridocials, 3:951
America’s Cup race, 1:56 Sport politics, 4:1504–1508
baseball radio broadcasts, 3:1244 Sport science, 4:1508–1514. See also Fitness;
facility naming rights, 2:551–553 Physical education
Japanese volleyball, 4:1678 biomechanics, 1:195–199, 2:900–902
careers, 4:1514
classical issues in, 4:1508
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers environmental physiology, 4:1509–1510
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. exercise prescription, 4:1511–1513
INDEX 1805
future athletes and weekend warriors, 4:1511 Sportsmanship, 4:1528–1534. See also Corruption,
golden years, 4:1511 in sports; Performance enhancement;
heart-healthy lifestyle, 4:1509 Violence
human movement studies, 2:771–776 cheating, 4:1530, 4:1664–1665
periodicals, 3:949–951 ethical character, development of, 4:1529–1530
periodization, 4:1511–1513 future of fair play, 4:1533–1534
physical fitness assessment, 4:1508–1509 organizational level, ethics at, 4:1531–1533
principles of, 4:1511–1512 profanity, 4:1530
resistance training, 4:1510, 4:1511 return to ethical behavior, 4:1533
strength training (See Strength training) Sportswriting and reporting, 4:1534–1540.
Sport tourism, 3:959–961, 4:1514–1517 See also Literature; Magazines; Newspapers
SPORTDiscus, 3:952 American pioneers of, 4:1535
Sporting goods industry, 3:958–961, 3:974–977, Bennett, James Gordon, Jr., 4:1535–1536
4:1517–1522. See also Athletic equipment and birth of daily sports page, 4:1536
apparel; Spectator consumption behavior; cultural values and, 1:15–16, 1:18
Technology Egan, Pierce, 4:1534–1535
contemporary economic signficance of, 4:1519– Liebling, A. J., 4:1539–1540
1520 Murray, Jim, 4:1539–1540
corporate and social responsibility, 4:1521–1522 other luminaries, 4:1537–1538
emergence of, 4:1518–1519 Rice, Grantland, 3:1243, 4:1536–1537
global market, 4:1517–1518 Smith, Red, 4:1538
goods, circulation of, 4:1518 Sports Illustrated, 4:1538–1539
issues and controversy, 4:1520–1521 Texas sportswriters, 4:1539
mascots and, 3:982 women, 4:1539
memorabilia, 3:996–998 Sprewell, Latrell, 4:1674
organizations and associations, 4:1518 Springboard diving, 2:474, 2:475
team ownership by, 3:1131 Springboks, 3:1077
Sporting News Radio, 3:1246 Springfield (MA), 1:168, 1:176
Sports bars, rise of, 2:524–525 Sprints, 4:1625–1626, 4:1630–1631
Sports camps. See Academies and camps, sport Spur Posse case, 4:1671–1672
Sports Collector’s Digest, 3:997 Spurrier, Steve, 1:349
Sports Illustrated, 4:1538–1539 Squash, 3:1075, 4:1540–1542
Sports management. See Management Squaw Valley Olympics (1960), 3:1120, 4:1485
Sports medicine, 3:1180, 3:1203, 4:1523–1528. Ssirum Korean wrestling, 3:905
See also Diet and weight loss; Disordered S-SPSS (Sport-Self-Promotional Showmanship S
eating; Exercise and health; Injuries, youth; Syndrome), 4:1672–1673
Injury; Injury risk in women’s sport; St. Andrews, 1:319, 2:688, 2:689, 4:1542–1544
Nutrition; Osteoporosis; Sport science St. Goddard, Emile, 4:1416
anemia, 1:57–59 St. James, Lynn, 1:134
contemporary issues, 4:1525–1527 St. Louis Cardinals, 3:1133, 3:1134, 3:1136,
fitness and, 4:1528 3:1166, 4:1711, 4:1712
history, 4:1523–1525 St. Louis Rams, 3:1134
injured female athletes, 2:804–805 St. Moritz, 4:1544–1546
women, children, and older adults, 4:1527–1528 athletic clubs and events, 4:1544–1545
Sports products. See Athletic equipment and apparel; bobsledding, 1:211, 1:212, 3:941
Sporting goods industry luge, 3:941
Sport-Self-Promotional Showmanship Syndrome Olympics, 3:1118–1119, 3:1159, 4:1416–1417,
(S-SPSS), 4:1672–1673 4:1545–1546
1806 INDEX
Stadiums. See also Baseball stadium life; Domed Stockholm Olympics (1912), 3:1117
stadiums; Fenway Park Stockhorn, 3:1039
Bislett Stadium, 1:204–205 Stockton, Abbye “Pudgy” Eville, 1:221, 2:601, 2:602,
college, 1:348–349 4:1668–1669
environmental issues, 2:521 Stockton, Les, 1:220, 2:601
franchise relocation and, 2:652–653 Stojko, Elvis, 3:1229
indoor, 2:520 Stoke Mandeville Games, 1:7, 1:82, 3:1150–1152
Maracana Stadium, 3:964–965 Stone, Donna, 2:582
spectator sports and, 4:1475–1476, 4:1500– Stoolball, 3:1285–1288
1501 Storey, David, 3:939
Yankee Stadium, 1:159, 4:1732–1734 Stovey, George, 1:146, 1:147
Stagg, Amos Alonzo, 1:296 Strange, Frederick William, 2:861–862
Stalberger, John, 2:619 Strange, Mike, 2:544
Staley, Dawn, 2:810 Strategic deception, 4:1665
Standpoint theory, 4:1442–1443 Strawberry, Darryl, 1:347
Stanford University, 2:812, 3:1244, 4:1479, 4:1643 Streb, Elizabeth, 1:440
Stanley, Frederick Ashley, 4:1546–1547 Streb, Marla, 3:1036
Stanley Cup, 2:739, 4:1546–1548 Street hockey, 2:745
Stearns, Cheryl, 3:1150 Street luge, 2:542
Steeplechase (horse race), 2:762 Strength, 4:1510, 4:1548–1553
Steeplechase (track and field), 4:1628, 4:1630 competitions, 4:1550–1551
Steinborn, Henry, 3:1210 diet and drugs, 4:1551–1552
Steinbrenner, George, 4:1127, 4:1649 differences in, 4:1549
Stenberg, Sigge, 3:1124 exercises, 4:1549–1550
Stenmark, Ingemar, 3:1121, 4:1403 maximum, 4:1552
Step aerobics, 1:13 Strength training, 3:1162–1163, 3:1340, 4:1510,
Stephen, Leslie, 3:1030 4:1511, 4:1549–1550
Stephens, Rebecca, 3:1030 Stress, 4:1553–1557. See also Burnout;
Stern, David, 1:111, 1:249, 1:348, 4:1674 Psychology
Steroids, 3:1094, 3:1165–1167, 4:1601 athletic injury model, 3:1140–1141
bodybuilding and, 1:223, 1:225, 4:1551–1552 burnout and, 1:268–269, 4:1749
at Olympics, 3:1116 coaching and, 1:323–324
in powerlifting, 3:1212 Strikes, collective bargaining and, 1:150, 1:160,
sportsmanship and, 4:1531 1:337–338, 2:657
S Sweden, use in, 4:1573 Stringer, Korey, 3:1168
in tennis, 4:1609 Stroke, 2:535
in track and field, 4:1625 Stronger Women Get, The More Men Love Football, The,
in weightlifting, 4:1687 4:1675
by women, 2:804 Strongman competitions, 3:1213. See also
Stevens, A. Leo, 3:1148 Bodybuilding; Powerlifting; Weightlifting
Still rings, 2:716 Stroud, Cleveland, 4:1529
Stilt racing, 2:613 Stroud, Leonard, 3:1274
Stock car racing, 1:133, 1:135–136 Strug, Kerri, 2:716, 3:1140
Stock seat horseback riding, 2:769 Student-athletes, 2:478, 2:813–815
Su Il Nam, 3:905
Suárez, Paola, 1:85, 1:88
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers Substance abuse. See Performance enhancement
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Sudan, 1:19, 4:1719
INDEX 1807
Sudirman Cup, 1:141 water polo, 3:1199–1202

Sugar Bowl (New Orleans), 2:628 women, 3:1113
Sukarno, Ahmed, 2:658–660 Swimming, synchronized, 4:1579–1581
Suleimanov (Suleymanoglu), Naim, 4:1688 Swing, 2:443
Sullivan, Christopher, 2:826 Switzer, Kathrine, 1:234, 1:400, 3:968
Sullivan, John, 1:243 Switzerland, 4:1581–1585. See also Davos,
Sullivan, Kathy, 2:888 Switzerland; St. Moritz
Sumer, sports in, 3:1160 Swoopes, Sheryl, 1:174
Summitt, Pat, 1:324, 1:345, 2:810 Swordsmanship. See Fencing
Sumner, Cheryl, 1:221 Sydney Olympics (2000), 1:125, 3:1115, 4:1483,
Sumo, 2:864, 2:867, 4:1557–1560 4:1501, 4:1515, 4:1532–1533
Sumo Grand Tournament Series, 4:1560–1562 Sydor, Alison, 3:1036
Sun Also Rises, The, 3:937–938 Syers, Madge, 4:1383
Super Bowl, 2:550–551, 2:629, 4:1485, 4:1501, Synchronized driving, 2:474
4:1562–1564 Syracuse University, 4:1612
Supermoto (Supermotard), 2:542 Szewinska, Irena, 3:1195
Surf lifesaving, 4:1564–1566
Surface, playing. See Playing surfaces T
Surfing, 4:1566–1571 Tabei, Junko, 3:1030
competitive surfing, 4:1568–1571 Table tennis, 3:1279, 4:1376, 4:1507, 4:1586–
extreme surfing, 2:543–545 1591
innovations, 4:1567 competition, 4:1586–1591
kite surfing, 3:903–904 development, 4:1587–1588
origins of, 4:1566–1577 origins, 4:1587
social acceptance, 4:1567–1568 Taekwando, 1:37, 3:905, 4:1591–1595
Sutherland, Jock, 2:626 Taerea, Briece, 2:544
Suzuki, Ichiro, 1:154, 2:828, 2:861 Taglioni, Marie, 1:437
Suzuki motorcycles, 3:1022 Tai chi, 4:1595–1597
Swain, Beryl, 3:1024 Taiaroa, Jack, 3:1072
Swanson, Becca, 3:1213 Takahashi, Yukiko, 4:1683
Sweden, 2:806, 3:1158–1159, 4:1571–1573 Takeko, Mitamura, 2:872
physical education in, 3:1178 Takeshi, Mitsuzuka, 2:872
Stockholm Olympics (1912), 3:1117 Talk test, exercise and, 2:514
table tennis, 4:1587, 4:1590 Tamini, Noel, 3:970
Swift, Grace Ann, 1:91 Tampakos, Dimosthenis, 2:718
Swimming, 3:938, 4:1376, 4:1573–1579. See also Tan Liangde, 2:475–476
Biathlon and triathlon Tanaka, Ginnosuke, 2:863 T
Athens Olympics (2004), 3:1109 Tango, 2:443, 2:444
competitive, 4:1576–1578 Tanner-Whitehouse (TW) Method, biological
governing body, 4:1579 maturation and, 2:709–710
history, 4:1574–1576 Tanny, Victor “Vic,” 2:601, 4:1670
Olympics, 3:1113, 4:1575–1579 Tantra yoga, 4:1735
Poland, 3:1195 Tap dance, 1:434
senior athletes, 3:1342 Tapje, Bernard, 3:1136
strokes, 4:1575–1576 Target heart rate zone, 2:513–514
technology, equipment changes due to, 4:1598, Target shooting. See Shooting
4:1602 Taylor, Chuck, 2:506
television, effect on rules of, 3:993 Taylor, George, 4:1524
1808 INDEX
Taylor, J. H., 1:257 synthetic images (hyperreality), 3:1208–1209

Taylor, Marshall “Major” Walter, 1:426 tennis and (See Tennis)
Taylor, Paul, 1:440 Tour de France, 4:1617
TBS, 3:992 track and field and, 3:993, 4:1629
Technology, 4:1508, 4:1597–1602. See also Athletic United Kingdom, 3:991–995, 4:1658–1659
equipment and apparel women’s sports, coverage of, 4:1697–1698
biotechnology, 1:199–204, 4:1601–1602 X Games on, 4:1380
controlling innovations in sport, 4:1598–1602, Telfair, Sebastian, 1:348
4:1622 Tennis, 3:937–938, 4:1436, 4:1603–1610. See also
future, 4:1602 Davis Cup; Wimbledon
new materials, opportunities provided by, amateur vs. professional (See Amateur vs.
4:1597–1598 professional debate)
spectator sport, impact on, 4:1499–1501 in art, 1:95
team vs. individual, 4:1599–1601 current issues and challenges, 4:1607–1610
Ted Stevens Olympic and Amateur Sports Act, endorsements and, 2:506
3:920 history, 3:1252, 4:1603, 4:1606, 4:1608
Telemark skiing, 4:1405 Japan, 2:861
Television, 1:353–354, 3:991–993, 4:1476–1478, lawn, 1:38–40, 2:447
4:1500–1501, 4:1585. See also ESPN; Play- Mexico, 3:1006
by-play announcing; Wimbledon New Zealand, 3:1073
athlete celebrities and, 1:109–110, 1:112–113 notable players, 3:1279, 4:1605–1606
Australia, 3:993, 3:995 at Olympics, 3:1113
baseball and, 1:163–164, 3:992, 4:1485 rules, equipment, and training, changes in,
basketball and, 1:174–175, 3:992, 4:1500 4:1604–1605
Canada, 1:285–286, 3:963, 3:991 senior athletes, 3:1342
corporate sponsorship and, 4:1483, 4:1485 significant events, 4:1606–1607
cricket and (See Cricket) soft tennis, 2:861
curling and, 1:419 sponsorship of, 4:1483, 4:1604, 4:1607
endorsements and, 2:506 technology, equipment changes due to, 4:1598–
Eurosport, 2:530–532 4:1601, 4:1604
football and (See Football) television broadcasts, 1:354, 3:991, 3:1073,
hockey, 3:991, 3:992, 4:1500 4:1485, 4:1608, 4:1658, 4:1698–1700
intercollegiate athletics and (See Intercollegiate United Kingdom, 4:1656–1657
athletics) violence and, 4:1674
mixed martial arts competitions, 3:1011 women, 3:1113, 4:1502, 4:1698–1700
mountain biking and, 3:1032 worldwide growth and participation, 4:1603–
T NASCAR and, 3:992, 3:1085 1604
New Zealand, 3:993–3:995 Terrell, Roy, 4:1539
newspapers and, 3:1078 Tertullian, 3:1250
Olympics (See Olympics) Testoni, Claudia, 2:853
Pan American Games, 3:1146 Tetrahydrogestrinone (THG), 3:1167, 4:1527
revenue sharing and, 4901264 Thailand, 4:1461–1463
rugby and (See Rugby) Asian Games and, 1:103–106
soccer and (See Soccer) sepak takraw, 3:1346–3:1348
Thanou, Katrina, 3:1109
Tharp, Twyla, 1:440
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers Theodorakis, Mikis, 3:1110
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. THG (tetrahydrogestrinone), 3:1167, 4:1527
INDEX 1809
This Sporting Life, 3:939 ice hockey and, 2:743–744

Thomas, Jim, 3:1150 intercollegiate athletics and, 2:813
Thomas Cup, 1:141 key lawsuits, 4:1613–1614
Thompson, Edith, 2:735 korfball and, 3:908
Thompson, Hunter S., 1:349 lesbianism and, 3:930–931
Thompson, John, 2:810 Women’s World Cup and, 4:1702
Thompson, William and Maurice, 1:80, 1:81 youth sports and, 4:1746
Thöni, Gustav, 2:854 TNT (Turner Network Television), 3:992, 3:1146
Thornton, Colonel Thomas, 2:554 Tobin, Michael, 2:483
Thoroughbred horse racing, 2:759–761 Toboganning, 3:941
Thorp, Ian, 4:1578 Todd, Jan, 1:221, 3:1212
Thorpe, Jim, 2:625, 3:1113, 4:1623 Todd, Mark, 3:1074
Throwing. See Track and field—jumping and Todd, Terry, 3:1211
throwing Tohei, Koichi, 1:36
Tibet, 3:1025–1028, 3:1038–1039 Tom Brown’s Schooldays, 3:1176, 3:1177, 4:1427,
Tibetan yoga, 4:1736 4:1475–1476
Ticket sales, 3:977, 3:979 Tomba, Alberto, 3:1122, 4:1403
revenue sharing and, 3:1263 Tomjanovich, Rudy, 4:1673–1674
soccer, 4:1431 Topolski, Dan, 1:207
spectator consumption behavior and, 4:1474– Toronto Blue Jays, 4:1712
1475 Toronto Maple Leafs, 3:962–964, 4:1547
Super Bowl, 4:1563 Torts, sports-related, 3:922
Ticketmaster, 3:977 Tough Man Competitions, 2:542
Tigana, Jean, 4:1710 Touny, Ahmed, 1:72
Tilden, Bill, 2:448, 4:1694 Tour de France, 4:1552, 4:1582, 4:1616–1618
Tilghman, Billy, 2:782 competitiveness of, 1:423, 1:426
Tillander, Gunnar, 3:1125 drug use in, 1:18–19
Tilman, H. L., 3:1028 substance abuse, 3:1168, 4:1531, 4:1617
Tilman, H. W., 3:1045 tourism and, 4:1515
Tishman, Maria Cerra, 2:582 yellow jersey, 3:990, 4:1616
Tissié, Philippe, 3:1179 Tourist Trophy motorcycle race, 3:1022–1024
Title IX, 3:921–922, 3:1229, 4:1610–1616, Tournaments, medieval. See Jousting
4:1675, 4:1697. See also Gender equity; Tow-in surfing, 2:544
Intercollegiate athletics Townsend, Peter, 4:1570
application and enforcement of, 4:1611–1613 Toxophilites and archery, 1:79–80
athletic training and, 1:122 Track and field—jumping and throwing,
baton twirling and, 1:178 4:1618–1624 T
cheerleading and, 1:303 amateurism and controversy, 4:1623
coaching and, 1:325 competition, top, 4:1623–1624
college athletics and, 1:344, 1:346 governing bodies, 4:1624 (See also International
Commission on Opportunity in Athletics debate, Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF))
4:1614–1615 jumping, 4:1618
cross-country running and, 1:403 at Olympics, 2:700, 3:1102, 3:1109, 3:1113
current status, 4:1615 technology, equipment changes due to, 4:1598,
field hockey and, 2:737 4:1622
fitness boom and, 2:602 throwing, 4:1620–1623
gymnastics and, 2:715 women, 3:1113
history, 4:1610–1611 world records, tables of, 4:1621
1810 INDEX
Track and field—running and hurdling, 4:1624– Tsugutake, Nakanishi Chuzo, 2:893
1632. See also Biathlon and triathlon Tug of war, 4:1632–1634
competition, top, 4:1631–1632 Tullis, Julie, 3:1000
cross-country running, 1:398–404 Tumbling, 1:303
drug use, 4:1626 Tunney, Gene, 1:109, 3:1190
duathlon, 2:480–483 Turati, Augusto, 2:853
facilities and equipment, 4:1631 Turkey, 4:1634–1636
governing bodies, 4:1631–1632 (See also Turkoglu, Hidayet, 3:1237
International Amateur Athletics Federation Turner, Ted, 1:111
[IAAF]) Turner festivals (turners), 2:676, 3:1178, 3:1283,
history, 4:1624–1625 4:1358–1359, 4:1636–1639
hurdles, 4:1627, 4:1630, 4:1631 Turner Network Television (TNT), 3:992, 3:1146
literature, 3:938 Twain, Mark, 3:936, 4:1566
middle-distance and long-distance races, 4:1627– Twentieth century, sports performance in,
1628, 4:1630, 4:1631 3:1162–1163
movies, 3:1050 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, 4:1644
nature of, 4:1629–11631 Twirling, baton, 1:176–179
at Olympics, 3:1102, 3:1109–1110, 3:1113 Twombly, A. S., 4:1566
relays, 4:1629, 4:1630 Tyson, Mike, 1:243, 2:510, 3:1255, 4:1360, 4:1674
senior athletes, 3:1342, 3:1343
sprints, 4:1626–1627, 4:1630–1631 U
steeplechase, 4:1628, 4:1630 Uber Cup, 1:141
television, effect on rules of, 3:993, 4:1629 UCI (Union Cycliste Internationale), 3:1034
women in, 3:968, 3:1113, 4:1625–1626 Uecker, Bob, 3:1240
world records, tables of, 4:1629 UEFA. See Union of European Football Associations
Tracks on Ice, 4:1382 (UEFA)
Training and trainers. See Athletic training; Ueshiba, Kisshomaru, 1:36
Strength training Ueshiba, Morihei, 1:36
Trek (company), 2:507 UIM (Union Of International Motor Boating),
Tremblay, Kari, 1:91 3:1018, 3:1019
Trevino, Lee, 1:258 Ulmer, Sarah, 3:1075
Trezeguet, David, 2:529 Ultimate Fighting Championship, 3:1011–1012
Trias, Robert, 2:888 Ultimate (Ultimate Frisbee), 1:41–42, 4:1640–
Triathlon. See Biathlon and triathlon 1643
Trillini, Giovanna, 2:854 Umbro (company), 4:1522
Triple jump, 4:1618–1619, 4:1623 Underwater sports, 4:1643–1648
Triplett, Norman, 3:998, 3:1163, 3:1169–1170 dangers of, 4:1644–1646
“Trotting,” 2:761 free diving, 4:1646
U Truck racing, 1:136 future, 4:1647–1648
Trujillo, James Charles, 3:1276 origins of, 4:1643–1644
Trust, 4:1675 recreational activities, 4:1646–1647
Tsitas, Georgios, 4:1720 scuba, 4:1643, 4:1646–1647
Tsuboi, Gendo, 2:861 technical diving, 4:1647
Uneven parallel bars, 2:717
Notes: 1) Bold entries and page numbers denote encyclopedia Uni, Louis, 4:1686
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers “Unihockey/unihok,” 2:609, 2:806
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), 3:1034
INDEX 1811
Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), participant and spectator sports, 4:1655–1658
3:958 polo, 3:1197
European Football Championship, 2:528–530, preindustrial sports, 4:1653
4:1433–1434 public schools, athletics at, 3:1176, 3:1177
stadium safety requirements, 3:964 rounders, history of, 3:1287
Women’s Championship, television coverage of, rowing, 3:1289, 3:1295
4:1698 rugby, 3:1296–1301, 4:1654, 4:1655, 4:1658,
Union Of International Motor Boating (UIM), 4:1659
3:1018, 3:1019 in Ryder Cup, 3:1307–1308
Unionism, 3:923, 4:1648–1652. See also sailing, history of, 3:1315
Collective bargaining; Free agency skating, history of, 4:1382–1383, 4:1388
defining labor issues, 4:1649–1650 skiing, 4:1398–1399
Major League Baseball (MLB), 1:25, 1:336–337, soccer, 3:1239, 3:1263–1264, 3:1336, 4:1428–
3:923, 3:1131–1132, 4:1648–1649, 4:1651– 1430, 4:1446, 4:1502, 4:1531, 4:1654–1655,
1652 4:1658–1659, 4:1691
National Basketball Association (NBA), 3:923, sponsorship, spending on, 3:978
4:1648–1650 sporting goods industry, 4:1519–1521
National Football League (NFL), 3:923, 4:1648– sports and national identity, 4:1491
1652 sports tourism in, 4:1515–1516
National Hockey League (NHL), 2:652, 3:923, table tennis, 4:1587–1588
4:1648, 4:1649 team ownership, 3:1132, 3:1134
United Kingdom, 4:1653–1661. See also Cricket; televised sports in, 3:991–995, 4:1658–1659
Scotland; St. Andrews; Wimbledon tug-of-war, 4:1632
amateurism in, 4:1654–1655, 4:1658 water polo, 3:1199–1201
archery in, 1:77–78 Wembley Stadium, 4:1691–1692
Ascot, 1:97–99 women’s sports, coverage of, 4:1698
British Open, 1:256–258, 3:1073 United Parcel Service (UPS), 3:978
Cambridge vs. Oxford boat race, 1:206–208, United States. See America’s Cup; Astrodome;
2:727 Baseball; Boston Marathon; Carnegie
Commonwealth countries, sports exported to, Report; College athletes; Davis Cup; Drake
3:1072, 3:1235, 3:1299, 4:1446, 4:1455– Group; Economics and public policy; ESPN;
1456 Fenway Park; Football; Indianapolis 500;
Commonwealth Games, 1:125, 1:354–359 Intercollegiate athletics; Masters; Native
cultural studies theory and, 1:410 American games and sports; Pebble Beach;
emergence of modern sport, 4:1653–1655 Ryder Cup; Title IX; Venice Beach; Wrigley
figure skating, 4:1382 Field; Yankee Stadium
Henley Regatta, 2:727–729 U. S. Amateur Championship (golf), 3:1154
identities and inequalities, 4:1659–1660 U. S. Anti-Doping Agency, 3:1167
influence on European sports, 3:1069, 4:1429– U. S. Open Golf Championship, 3:1154–1155
U
1430 U. S. Open Tennis Championship, 3:1279, 4:1605,
jousting, 2:876–879 4:1607–4:1609
lifeguarding, 3:932 United States Coast Guard Auxiliary, 3:1018
London Olympics, 3:1118, 4:1657, 4:1691 United States Football League (USFL), 4:1650–1651
memorabilia industry, 3:997 United States Olympic Committee (USOC), 3:920
motorcycle racing, 3:1021–1024 marketing by, 3:977
mountaineering in, 3:1040–1041, 3:1046 mental conditioning of athletes, use of, 3:999,
netball, 3:1066–1068 3:1002, 3:1163, 3:1170
1812 INDEX
United States Power Boat Squadron, 3:1018 Van Innis, Hubert, 1:80
Universiades. See World University Games Van Lierde, Luc, 2:843
University of Alabama, 3:1244, 4:1672 Van Looy, Rik, 1:188
University of California, 2:812, 3:1324, 4:1479, Van Steenbergen, Rik, 1:188
4:1643 Vance, Dazzy, 1:149
University of Chicago, 3:1244 Vancouver Canucks, 4:1502
University of Colorado, 1:349 Vander Merwe, Marina, 2:738
University of Illinois, 1:349–350, 3:983 Vardon, Harry, 1:257
University of Iowa, 3:1245 Vare, Glenna Collett, 2:693
University of Michigan, 2:811, 3:1245, 4:1480 Vault (long horse), 2:714, 2:717
University of Missouri, 1:349, 3:1245 Vázquez Raña, Mario, 3:1009
University of Nebraska, 3:1244, 4:1476 Vázquez Raña, Olegario, 3:1009
University of Oregon, 1:348–349 Vega, Nora Alicia, 1:88
University of Pennsylvania, 3:1244 Venables, Stephen, 3:1029
University of Pittsburgh, 3:1243 Venice Beach, 1:220, 2:602, 4:1668–1670
University of Southern California, 3:1244 Ventouz, Mount, 3:1039
University of Wisconsin, 1:350 Veranzio, Fausto, 3:1148
Unser, Al, Jr., 2:794 Verne, Jules, 4:1644
Unser, Al, Sr., 2:795 Vezina, Steve, 2:746
Unser, Bobby, 2:795 Vezzali, Valentina, 2:854
Unsoeld, Willi, 3:1029 Viacom. See CBS
UPS (United Parcel Service), 3:978 Vic Tanny’s Gym, 4:1670
USA Track & Field, 2:874 “Victorian rules football,” 1:128
USFL (United States Football League), 4:1650–1651 Video games, 2:829–830
USSR. See Russia and USSR Video replay, 3:992
Vietnam, 4:1461–1463
V Vigoro, 1:127
Valenzuela, Fernando, 3:1009 Vikelas, Dimitrios, 3:1117
Values and ethics, 1:285, 4:1662–1668. See also Vilas, Guillermo, 1:85, 4:1605
Corruption, in sports; Sportsmanship Vince, Marion Lloyd, 2:582
biotechnology and sports, 1:202–203 Vintage auto racing, 1:133, 1:136–137
debates over, 4:1663–1664 Violence, 4:1501–1502, 4:1531–1532, 4:1670–
disability sport and, 2:464–465 1676
foxhunting and, 2:641 boxing, 1:241, 4:1673, 4:1674
future, 4:1667–1668 contributions by athletes to society, 4:1670–1671
HIV/AIDS, 4:1667 facility management and, 2:549–550
imagery of sport, promotion of, 4:1667 in high school sports, 4:1671–1672
inclusion/exclusion, 4:1665–1666 in intercollegiate sports, 4:1672–1673
injury, risk of, 4:1667 Kerrigan-Harding incident, 4:1387, 4:1674
V intercollegiate athletics and, 2:815–816
school values, commitment to, 3:1330–1331
masculinity and, 3:987
outlook, 4:1676
socialization and sport, 4:1665 in professional sport, 4:1673–1675
Van Aaken, Ernst, 3:968, 3:970 soccer hooliganism, 4:1430, 4:1431, 4:1478,
Van Dorn, Marieke, 2:738 4:1502, 4:1658, 4:1659
by spectators, 4:1478–1480, 4:1502, 4:1531
Virgil, 3:935
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers Virginia Slims tournament, 4:1483
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Visa, 3:978, 4:1482
INDEX 1813
Visually impaired athletes. See Disability sport Water polo, 3:1199–1202

Vitamins, healthy eating and, 2:457 Water skiing, 4:1410–1414
Volleyball, 4:1676–1680 Watson, Andrew, 3:1236
Volleyball, beach, 4:1680–1683 Watson, Greg, 2:483
Volvo Ocean Race, 3:1319 Watson, James, 1:199
Von Gesner, Konrad, 4:1582 Watson, Maud, 4:1692
Von Laban, Rudolph, 1:438 Watson, Tom, 1:258, 3:989, 3:1154–1155
Von Lerch, Thodor, 2:861 Watterson, Garrett, 2:726
Von Liechtenstein, Ulrich von, 3:935 Waugh, Andrew, 3:1025
Voog, Daisy, 2:501 Way, Danny, 1:40
Vôrg, Ludwig, 2:500, 2:501 Webber, Chris, 3:1237
Weber, Max, 3:1206
W Weble, Ursula, 4:1416
Waddell, Dr. Tom, 1:31, 2:661 Weider, Ben, 1:220, 3:1211, 4:1687
Waddell, George “Rube,” 1:149 Weider, Joseph, 1:220, 2:601, 3:1211, 4:1510,
Wagner, Honus, 1:149, 1:157 4:1669, 4:1687
Wahlsten, Juhani, 3:1265 Weight loss. See Diet and weight loss
Waitz, Grete, 1:401 Weightlifting, 4:1376, 4:1510, 4:1670, 4:1686–
Wakeboarding, 2:542–543, 4:1684–1685 1691. See also Bodybuilding
Wales, 1:356 agents of change in, 4:1687–1688
Walker, Hershel, 2:810 American golden age of, 4:1687
Walker, John, 3:1074 basics of, 4:1689–1690
Walker, Mark, 2:510 current status, 4:1689
Walker, Moses Fleetwood “Fleet,” 1:146 early history, 4:1686
Walker, Murray, 3:1191 East European dominance, 4:1688
Walker, Welday, 1:146 governance, 4:1690
Wall, Patrick, 3:1139 international order, reconstruction of, 4:1688–
Wall of Ice, 3:939 1689
Wallach, Ira, 4:1670 powerlifting, 3:1210–1215 3:1165
Walt Disney/ABC/Capital Cities, 1:354, 2:524, as sport, 4:1686
3:992, 3:994, 3:1146, 4:1485, 4:1500. steroid use, 3:1165
See also ESPN Weiss, Alta, 1:154
Anaheim Mighty Ducks, 3:995, 3:1134 Weiss, Michael, 4:1385
hockey, televising of, 4:1652 Weissflog, Jens, 4:1397
Monday Night Football, 3:1191–1192, 4:1479 Weissmuller, Johnny, 4:1578
Wide World of Sports, 4:1476, 4:1569 Weld, Theresa, 3:1118
Walton, Bill, 1:175 Welsh, Lillian, 3:1178
Waltz, 2:444 Wembley Stadium, 4:1691–1692
Wangali, Robert, 2:899 Wenzel, Hanni, 3:1121
Wanshu, 2:887 Wepner, Chuck, 1:246, 1:247
Warbrick, Joe, 3:1072 West, Mae, 4:1669
Waring, Thomas, 1:79 West Virginia University, 3:1243 W
Warshaw, Mark, 4:1568 Western horseback riding, 2:769
Washburn, Brad, 3:1045 Westinghouse Radio, 3:1243
Washington, Kenny, 2:628 Weston, Edward Payson, 3:1233
Washington, Kermit, 4:1673–1674 Westside Barbell Club, 3:1214
Washington Redskins, 3:983 Wet-fly fishing, 2:595
Water Dancer, 3:938 Wethered, Joyce, 2:693
1814 INDEX
WFAN-AM radio, 3:1246 Williams, Serena, 4:1608

Wham-O Manufacturing Company, 4:1640 endorsements and, 1:250, 1:354, 2:510
Wheaties (company), 2:506 as yoga practitioner, 4:1738
Wheelchair athletes/athletics Williams, “Smokey” Joe, 1:147
basketball, 2:461, 2:462 Williams, Ted, 1:149, 1:157, 2:585
Boston Marathon and, 1:7–8, 1:234 Williams, Venus, 4:1604, 4:1608
ethical concerns, 2:465 endorsements and, 1:250, 2:508–2:510
Wheeler, Frank, 2:793 as yoga practitioner, 4:1738
Wheeler, Rashidi, 3:1168 Williams, Willie, 1:350
Wheel-rolling game, 1:69 Willis, Helen, 1:39
Whillans, Don, 1:43 Willis, Michael, 2:544
Whitbread Round the World Race, 3:1319 Wills, Helen, 3:928, 4:1606
White, Albert, 2:476 Wills, Maury, 1:149
White, Andrew, 3:1245 Wilmarth, Dick, 2:789
White, Byron “Whizzer,” 2:626 Wilson, Horace, 2:860–861
White, Cheryl, 2:763 Wilson, Maurice, 3:1028
White, Sol, 1:146 Wilson, William, 3:1200
White, Stanford, 3:947 Wimbledon, 1:38, 3:993, 4:1603, 4:1692–1694
White Fang, 4:1416 players, 4:1605–1607, 4:1609, 4:1693
White Frenzy, The, 4:1409 prize money, 4:1692
Whitehead, Cindy, 3:1035 sponsorship of, 4:1604
Whitewater freestyle racing, 1:289 television broadcasts, 1:354, 3:991, 3:1073,
Whitfield, Fred, 3:1276 4:1485, 4:1658
Whitman, Walt, 3:936 traditions, 4:1693–1694
Whitmore, Walter James, 1:395 Wind, Herbert Warren, 3:989
Whymper, Edward, 3:1040–1041 Windship, George Barker, 3:1210, 4:1686
Wide World of Sports, 4:1476, 4:1569 Windsurfing, 3:903–904, 3:1314, 4:1694–1696
Wiggins, Alan, 1:31 Winfrey, Oprah, 2:874
Wightman Cup, 4:1604 Wingfield, Walter Clapton, 1:38, 4:1603
Wigman, Mary, 1:438, 3:1182 Winnick, Joseph, 1:7
Wilander, Mars, 4:1605 Winston (Nextel) Cup, 1:136, 3:1083–1085
Wilbye, Harald, 3:1124–1125 Wint, Arthur, 2:857, 2:858
Wilcox, Howdy, 2:794 Winter, Liane, 3:968
Wild One, The, 3:1022 Winter Olympics. See Olympics, Winter
Wild West shows, 3:1273–1274, 3:1277–1278 Wipicat, 3:903
Wilding, Anthony, 3:1073 WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization),
Wildwater canoeing and kayaking, 1:290 3:923
Wilhelm, Bruce, 3:1213 Wise, John, 3:1148
Wilkins, Lenny, 1:173 Witt, Katarina, 3:1121, 3:1122
Williams, Esther, 4:1580 WMG (World Master Games), 3:1344
Williams, Jason, 3:1238 WNBA. See Women’s National Basketball Association
W Williams, John, 1:82 (WNBA)
Williams, Lucinda, 3:1143 Wolde, Mamo, 3:967
Williams, Mitch, 1:157 Wollstonecraft, Mary, 3:1177
Wolsey, Thomas, 3:1252
Women. See Baseball wives; Body image;
entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers Coeducational sport; Disordered eating;
denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found. Feminist perspective; Gender equity;
INDEX 1815
Gender verification; Injury risk in women’s World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO),
sport; Lesbianism; Psychology of gender 3:923
differences; Sexual harassment; Sexuality; World Master Games (WMG), 3:1344
Title IX; Women’s sports, media coverage World Series, 4:1710–1713
of; Women’s World Cup cancellation (1994), 1:150, 1:160, 1:338
Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA), radio broadcast, 3:990, 3:1241, 3:1244, 3:1245
1:174, 3:947, 4:1484 television broadcasts, 4:1485
Women’s Professional Rodeo Association (WPRA), World Series cricket, 3:995
3:1275, 3:1276–1278 World Team Tennis, 4:1608
Women’s sports, media coverage of, 4:1697– World University Games, 4:1713–1718
1701 Cold War split, 1945-1959, 4:1714–1715
Women’s Tennis Association (WTA), 4:1483, 4:1604, founders, 4:1713–1714
4:1606–1607 International University Sports and George E.
Women’s World Cup, 4:1431, 4:1432, 4:1664– Killian (1999-2005), 4:1717–1718
1665, 4:1698, 4:1701–1703 Universiades and Primo Nebiolo, 1959-1999,
Wood, “Smokey” Joe, 1:149 4:1715–1717
Wood, Thomas Denison, 3:1182 World War I
Wooden, John, 1:175 glider development, 4:1423
Woods, Tiger, 3:989, 3:1155, 4:1543 rounders, history of, 3:1287
as athlete celebrity, 1:111 skiing, 4:1405
as athlete hero, 1:115 soccer, 4:1429
brand management and, 1:250 World Series during, 4:1711
endorsements and, 1:354, 2:507–2:509 World War II. See also Nazis
father’s comments on, 2:504 glider development, 4:1423
Woolf, Bob, 1:26, 1:27 Japanese martial arts, effect on, 2:895–896
Wordsworth, Charles, 1:206 United Kingdom, sports promoted by, 4:1657
Worker sports, 2:587–588, 2:676, 3:1304, World Series during, 4:1711
4:1703–1708 World’s Strongest Man competition, 4:1551
Workman, Fanny, 3:1041 Worthy, James, 1:173
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), 1:202–203, WPRA (Women’s Professional Rodeo Association),
1:285, 3:920, 3:1093, 3:1110, 3:1116, 3:1275, 3:1276–1278
4:1513, 4:1526 Wrestling, 4:1718–1723
World Cup, 4:1431, 4:1433, 4:1448, 4:1708–1710 arm wrestling, 1:90–92
Brazilian dominance, 4:1709 in art, 1:96
commodification of sport, example of, 1:353 China, 1:309
Korean participation, 3:905–906 freestyle, 4:1719–1720
at Maracana Stadium, 3:964 Greco-Roman, 4:1720
origins, 4:1708 Iran, 2:836
postwar era, 4:1708–1709 movies, 3:1050
racism, 3:1236 in Olympics, 2:701
Romanian participation, 3:1279 origins, 3:1102, 3:1103, 4:1718
sponsorship, spending on, 3:978 rules and play, 4:1718–1719 W
television broadcasts, 4:1430, 4:1431, 4:1433, as spectacle, 4:1503
4:1477, 4:1485, 4:1658 ssirum Korean wrestling, 3:905
total football, dominance of, 4:1709–1710 Sudan, 1:19
violence and, 4:1478 Swiss folk wrestling, 4:1584
World Games for the Deaf. See Deaflympics Title IX and, 4:1614–1616
women, 4:1720–1722
1816 INDEX
Wright, Mickey, 2:692 Young, Larry, 3:1234

Wright, Orville and Wilbur, 2:611, 2:723, 4:1423, Young, Nat, 2:544
4:1425 Young Men’s Christian Association. See YMCA
Wrigley, Philip, 1:153 (Young Men’s Christian Association)
Wrigley, William, Jr., 4:1723 Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA),
Wrigley Field, 1:159, 1:249, 2:625, 4:1479, 3:1256
4:1712, 4:1723–1724, 4:1734 Younghusband, Francis, 3:1025, 3:1026
Wrist wrestling, 1:90 Youth culture and sport, 4:1739–1744
Writing, sports. See Sportswriting and reporting Youth sports, 4:1511, 4:1744–1749. See also
WTA. See Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) Parents, role of
Wulff, Lee, 2:597 academies and camps, 1:3–4, 2:817–820
Wushu (kung fu), 1:310, 3:1010, 4:1724–1727 exercise and health, 2:537–538, 4:1509–1511,
Wyatt, Jonathan, 3:1074 4:1741–1742, 4:1748–1749
Fair Play for Children (FPC), 4:1533
X family involvement, 2:557–562 (See also Elite
X Games, 2:509, 2:524, 2:539, 4:1380, 4:1728– sports parents)
1731 female superstars, 1:308
Xiong Ni, 2:476, 2:477 growth, development and, 2:712
XM radio, 3:1246 injuries and, 2:795–797
play v. organized sport, 3:1186–1188
Y track and field, 4:1618
Yachting. See Sail sports violence and, 4:1671–1672
Yale University, 2:811, 3:981, 4:1449 Yuko, Mashima, 3:939
Yamaha motorcycles, 3:1022 YWCA (Young Women’s Christian Association),
Yang Luchan, 4:1595 3:1256
Yankee Stadium, 1:159, 4:1732–1734
Yao Ming, 2:509, 2:828 Z
Yastrzemski, Carl, 1:150 Zadeh, Reza, 4:1689
Yasushi, Inoue, 3:939 Zafarana, Giacomo, 2:852
Yawkey, Tom, 2:585 Zagunis, Mariel, 2:582
YMCA (Young Men’s Christian Association), 3:957, Zaharias, Mildred “Babe” Didrikson, 1:115, 1:153,
3:1179, 3:1254, 3:1255, 4:1359, 4:1495 2:692, 3:928, 3:930
gymnastics promoted by, 2:714 Zane, Frank, 2:602
Japan, 2:863 Zarella, Joe, 3:1212
Mexico, 3:1006 Zatopek, Emile, 3:967
volleyball, invention of, 4:1676–1677 Zeevi, Arik, 2:847
Yoga, 2:603, 4:1734–1739 Zenzaemon, Yoshida, 4:1561
York, Denise DeBartolo, 3:1134 Zhang Sanfeng, 4:1595
Yosemite Valley, 3:1044 Zidan, Zinedine, 3:1236
Yoshinobu, Miyake, 4:1687 Ziegler, John B., 3:1165, 4:1687
Yost, Paul Edward, 1:143 Zinkin, Harold, 4:1669
Young, Buddy, 2:628 Zionism, 3:944–946
Young, Denton True “Cy,” 1:148 Zurner, Albert, 2:476
X Young, Geoffrey Winthrop, 3:1043 Zwaanswijk, Adri, 3:908
Y Notes: 1) Bold entries and page numbers denote encyclopedia

entries; 2) The bold numbers preceeding the page numbers
Z denote the volumes (1–4) where the page numbers can be found.

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BE R K S H I R E E N C Y C L OP E DI A O F

BERKSHIRE PUBLISHING GROUP

Great Barrington, Massachusetts U.S.A.

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Editorial and Production Staff Printers

Information Management and Programming Indexers

Academies and Camps, Sport Athletes as Celebrities Boomerang Throwing

Commercialization of ESPN Globalization

Interpretive Sociology Marathon and Distance Running Pain

Russia and USSR Spain Track and Field—Jumping and

College Sports Officiating European Football Championship

Wimbledon Play-by-Play Announcing Poland

Management Social Identity Sports—Body Movement

Foxhunting Sledding—Skeleton Sports—Stick and Ball

Coliseum (Rome) Olympic Stadium (Berlin), 1936 Anti-Jock Movement

A s manifestations of human physical embodiment,

Success is not the result of spontaneous

twenty-four brass rings, deflects attention from the Further Reading

subsequent flintlock featured

The fascination of shooting as a sport depends

demonstrations included an exhibition in 1884 when What Is Competitive Shooting?

An old sign warning against entry into a firing range.

Push yourself again and again. Don’t give an

Further Reading dreds of years. Knowledge of martial arts traditions in

S ilat, or pencak silat, is the general term for a wide

and Islamic beliefs. Fre-

were the coordination and systematization of silat

term plan to create champions, caused some concern

A boy at a skate park.

or bowl skating, but this oc-

Twenty years ago you could win a world

Renewed Popularity and The Future

The ten-step, showing

told a story with jumps and

Pairs Ice Dancing

Mary Louise Adams

I ce skating was born out of a need for rapid move-

Skating, Ice Speed

I n-line skating is a type of roller skating that uses

Sports do not build character.

R oller skating for sport developed from roller skating

I do not participate in any sport with ambulances

protect themselves from injury by wearing padding, Origins

T o spectators, ski jumping represents the height of

A ski jumper at the

In Switzerland, France, and

Controversies Further Reading

Section of Alps in northern Italy.

The best and fastest way to learn a sport is to watch

the Val Gardena, in Italy’s

Skiing combines outdoor fun with knocking

“Rich Man’s Passion”

P eople have been skiing to get from point A to point

Nordic skiing on the

Gabriella Paruzzi of Italy; and

Do not let what you cannot do interfere

F reestyle skiing goes back to the 1930s and is a form

Skier doing a jump in Colorado.