The Nervous System part 2

The Nervous System

Functions of the Nervous System

1. Sensory input—gathering information
Sensory receptors monitor changes, called stimuli, occurring inside and outside
the body
2. Integration
Nervous system processes and interprets sensory input and decides whether
action is needed
3. Motor output
A response, or effect, activates muscles or glands

Organization of the Nervous System

Nervous system classifications are based on:
Structures (structural classification)
Activities (functional classification)
Structural Classification
Central nervous system (CNS)
Organs
Brain
Spinal cord
Function
Integration; command center
Interprets incoming sensory information
Issues outgoing instructions

Structural Classification
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord
Spinal nerves—carry impulses to and from the spinal cord
Cranial nerves—carry impulses to and from the brain
Functions
Serve as communication lines among sensory organs, the brain and
spinal cord, and glands or muscles

Functional Classification
Sensory (afferent) division
Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system
Somatic sensory (afferent) fibers carry information from the skin, skeletal
muscles, and joints
Visceral sensory (afferent) fibers carry information from visceral organs
Motor (efferent) division
Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system organs to
effector organs (muscles and glands)

Functional Classification
Motor (efferent) division (continued)
Two subdivisions
Somatic nervous system = voluntary
Consciously (voluntarily) controls skeletal muscles
Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
Automatically controls smooth and cardiac muscles and glands
Further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems

Nervous Tissue: Support Cells

Support cells in the CNS are grouped together as neuroglia
General functions
Support
Insulate
Protect neurons

Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function

Nervous tissue is made up of two principal cell types
Supporting cells (called neuroglia, or glial cells, or glia)
Resemble neurons
Unable to conduct nerve impulses
Never lose the ability to divide
Neurons

Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells

CNS glial cells: astrocytes
Abundant, star-shaped cells
Brace and anchor neurons to blood capillaries
Determine permeability and exchanges between blood capillaries and neurons
Protect neurons from harmful substances in blood
Control the chemical environment of the brain
Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells
CNS glial cells: microglia
Spiderlike phagocytes
Monitor health of nearby neurons
Dispose of debris

Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells

CNS glial cells: ependymal cells
Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
Cilia assist with circulation of cerebrospinal fluid
Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells
CNS glial cells: oligodendrocytes
Wrap around nerve fibers in the central nervous system
Produce myelin sheaths

Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells

PNS glial cells
Schwann cells
Form myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the PNS
Satellite cells
Protect and cushion neuron cell bodies
 Nervous
Tissue: Neurons
Neurons = nerve cells
Cells specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses)
Major regions of all neurons
Cell body—nucleus and metabolic center of the cell
Processes—fibers that extend from the cell body

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Cell body is the metabolic center of the neuron
Nucleus with large nucleolus
Nissl bodies
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Neurofibrils
Intermediate filaments that maintain cell shape
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
Processes (fibers)
Dendrites—conduct impulses toward the cell body
Neurons may have hundreds of dendrites
Axons—conduct impulses away from the cell body
 Neurons have only one axon arising from the cell body at the axon hillock
End in axon terminals, which contain vesicles with neurotransmitters
Axon terminals are separated from the next neuron by a gap

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Processes (fibers) (continued)
Synaptic cleft—gap between axon terminals and the next neuron
Synapse—functional junction between nerves where a nerve impulse is
transmitted

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Myelin
White, fatty material covering axons
Protects and insulates fibers
Speeds nerve impulse transmission

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Myelin sheaths
Schwann cells—wrap axons in a jelly roll–like fashion (PNS) to form the myelin
sheath
Neurilemma—part of the Schwann cell external to the myelin sheath
Nodes of Ranvier—gaps in myelin sheath along the axon
Oligodendrocytes—produce myelin sheaths around axons of the CNS
Lack a neurilemma
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
Terminology
Nuclei—clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
Ganglia—collections of cell bodies outside the CNS in the PNS
Tracts—bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS
Nerves—bundles of nerve fibers in the PNS
White matter—collections of myelinated fibers (tracts)
Gray matter—mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
Functional classification
Sensory (afferent) neurons
Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to the CNS
Receptors include:
Cutaneous sense organs in skin
Proprioceptors in muscles and tendons
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
Functional classification (continued)
Motor (efferent) neurons
Carry impulses from the central nervous system to viscera and/or muscles
and glands
Interneurons (association neurons)
Cell bodies located in the CNS
Connect sensory and motor neurons

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Structural classification
Based on number of processes extending from the cell body
Multipolar neurons—many extensions from the cell body
All motor and interneurons are multipolar
 Most common structural type

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Structural classification (continued)
Bipolar neurons—one axon and one dendrite
Located in special sense organs, such as nose and eye
Rare in adults

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Structural classification (continued)
Unipolar neurons—have a short single process leaving the cell body
Sensory neurons found in PNS ganglia
Conduct impulses both toward and away from the cell body
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
Functional properties of neurons
Irritability
Ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it to a nerve impulse
Conductivity
Ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles, or glands

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Electrical conditions of a resting neuron’s membrane
The plasma membrane at rest is inactive (polarized)
Fewer positive ions are inside the neuron’s plasma membrane than outside
K+ is the major positive ion inside the cell
Na+ is the major positive ion outside the cell
As long as the inside of the membrane is more negative (fewer positive ions)
than the outside, the cell remains inactive
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
Action potential initiation and generation
A stimulus changes the permeability of the neuron’s membrane to sodium ions
Sodium channels now open, and sodium (Na+) diffuses into the neuron
The inward rush of sodium ions changes the polarity at that site and is called
depolarization

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Action potential initiation and generation (continued)
A graded potential (localized depolarization) exists where the inside of the
membrane is more positive and the outside is less positive
If the stimulus is strong enough and sodium influx great enough, local
depolarization activates the neuron to conduct an action potential (nerve
impulse)

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Propagation of the action potential
 If enough sodium enters the cell, the action potential (nerve impulse) starts and is
propagated over the entire axon
All-or-none response means the nerve impulse either is propagated or is not
Fibers with myelin sheaths conduct nerve impulses more quickly

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Repolarization
Membrane permeability changes again—becoming impermeable to sodium ions
and permeable to potassium ions
Potassium ions rapidly diffuse out of the neuron, repolarizing the membrane
Repolarization involves restoring the inside of the membrane to a negative
charge and the outer surface to a positive charge
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
Repolarization (continued)
Initial conditions of sodium and potassium ions are restored using the sodium-
potassium pump
This pump, using ATP, restores the original configuration
Three sodium ions are ejected from the cell while two potassium ions are
returned to the cell
Until repolarization is complete, a neuron cannot conduct another nerve impulse

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Transmission of the signal at synapses
Step 1: When the action potential reaches the axon terminal, the electrical
 charge opens calcium channels

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Transmission of the signal at synapses (continued)
Step 2: Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny vesicles containing the neurotransmitter
chemical to fuse with the axonal membrane

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Transmission of the signal at synapses (continued)
Step 3: The entry of calcium into the axon terminal causes porelike openings to
form, releasing the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
Transmission of the signal at synapses (continued)
Step 4: The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind
to receptors on the membrane of the next neuron

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Transmission of the signal at synapses (continued)
Step 5: If enough neurotransmitter is released, a graded potential will be
generated
Eventually an action potential (nerve impulse) will occur in the neuron
beyond the synapse
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
Transmission of the signal at synapses (continued)
Step 6: The electrical changes prompted by neurotransmitter binding are brief
The neurotransmitter is quickly removed from the synapse either by reuptake or
by enzymatic activity
Transmission of an impulse is electrochemical
Transmission down neuron is electrical
Transmission to next neuron is chemical

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Reflexes are rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli
Reflexes occur over neural pathways called reflex arcs
Two types of reflexes
Somatic reflexes
Autonomic reflexes
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
Somatic reflexes
Reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles
Involuntary, although skeletal muscle is normally under voluntary control
Example: pulling your hand away from a hot object
Autonomic reflexes
Regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the heart, and glands
Example: regulation of smooth muscles, heart and blood pressure, glands,
digestive system

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Five elements of a reflex arc
1. Sensory receptor—reacts to a stimulus
2. Sensory neuron—carries message to the integration center
3. Integration center (CNS)—processes information and directs motor output
4. Motor neuron—carries message to an effector
5. Effector organ—is the muscle or gland to be stimulated

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Two-neuron reflex arcs
Simplest type
Example: patellar (knee-jerk) reflex
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
Three-neuron reflex arcs
Consists of five elements: receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron,
and effector
Example: flexor (withdrawal) reflex

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Functional anatomy of the brain
Brain regions
Cerebral hemispheres
Diencephalon
Brain stem
Cerebellum
Functional Anatomy of the Brain
Cerebral hemispheres are paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain
Include more than half of the brain mass
The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci)
Fissures are deeper grooves
Lobes are named for the cranial bones that lie over them
Functional Anatomy of the Brain
Three main regions of cerebral hemisphere
1. Cortex is superficial gray matter
2. White matter
3. Basal nuclei are deep pockets of gray matter
Functional Anatomy of the Brain
Cerebral cortex
Primary somatic sensory area
Located in parietal lobe posterior to central sulcus
Receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors
Pain, temperature, light touch (except for special senses)
Sensory homunculus is a spatial map
Left side of the primary somatic sensory area receives impulses from right
side (and vice versa)

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

Cerebral areas involved in special senses
Visual area (occipital lobe)
Auditory area (temporal lobe)
Olfactory area (temporal lobe)

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

Cerebral cortex (continued)
Primary motor area
Located anterior to the central sulcus in the frontal lobe
Allows us to consciously move skeletal muscles
Motor neurons form pyramidal (corticospinal) tract, which descends to
spinal cord
 Motor homunculus is a spatial map

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

Cerebral cortex (continued)
Broca’s area (motor speech area)
Involved in our ability to speak
Usually in left hemisphere
Other specialized areas
Anterior association area (frontal lobe)
Posterior association area (posterior cortex)
Speech area (for sounding out words)

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

Cerebral white matter
Composed of fiber tracts deep to the gray matter
Corpus callosum connects hemispheres
Tracts, such as the corpus callosum, are known as commissures
Association fiber tracts connect areas within a hemisphere
Projection fiber tracts connect the cerebrum with lower CNS centers
Functional Anatomy of the Brain
Basal nuclei
“Islands” of gray matter buried deep within the white matter of the cerebrum
Regulate voluntary motor activities by modifying instructions sent to skeletal
muscles by the primary motor cortex

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

Diencephalon
Sits on top of the brain stem
Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
Made of three structures
 1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
3. Epithalamus

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

Diencephalon: thalamus
 Encloses the third ventricle
Relay station for sensory impulses passing upward to the cerebral cortex
Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for localization and
interpretation

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

Diencephalon: hypothalamus
Makes up the floor of the diencephalon
Important autonomic nervous system center
Regulates body temperature
Regulates water balance
Regulates metabolism
Houses the limbic center for emotions
Regulates the nearby pituitary gland
Houses mammillary bodies for olfaction (smell)

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

Diencephalon: epithalamus
Forms the roof of the third ventricle
Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
Includes the choroid plexus—forms cerebrospinal fluid

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

Brain stem
Attaches to the spinal cord
Parts of the brain stem
1. Midbrain
2. Pons
3. Medulla oblongata
Functional Anatomy of the Brain
Brain stem: midbrain
Extends from the mammillary bodies to the pons inferiorly
Cerebral aqueduct (tiny canal) connects the third and fourth ventricles
Two bulging fiber tracts, cerebral peduncles, convey ascending and descending
impulses
Four rounded protrusions, corpora quadrigemina, are visual and auditory reflex
centers
Functional Anatomy of the Brain
Brain stem: pons
The rounded structure protruding just below the midbrain
Mostly composed of fiber tracts
Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

Brain stem: medulla oblongata
The most inferior part of the brain stem that merges into the spinal cord
Includes important fiber tracts
Contains important centers that control:
Heart rate
Blood pressure
Breathing
Swallowing
Vomiting
Fourth ventricle lies posterior to pons and medulla

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

Brain stem: reticular formation
Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem
Involved in motor control of visceral organs
Reticular activating system (RAS)
Plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and consciousness
Filter for incoming sensory information

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

Cerebrum
 Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
Outer cortex of gray matter and inner region of white matter
Controls balance
Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and coordination of body
movements

Protection of the Central Nervous System

Meninges
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Blood-brain barrier
Protection of the Central Nervous System
Meninges (continued)
Dura mater
Outermost leathery layer
Double-layered external covering
Periosteum—attached to inner surface of the skull
Meningeal layer—outer covering of the brain
Folds inward in several areas
Falx cerebri
Tentorium cerebelli

Protection of the Central Nervous System

Meninges (continued)
Arachnoid layer
Middle layer
Weblike extensions span the subarachnoid space to attach it to the pia
mater
Subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Arachnoid granulations protrude through the dura mater and absorb
cerebrospinal fluid into venous blood
Pia mater
Internal layer
Clings to the surface of the brain and spinal cord
Protection of the Central Nervous System
Cerebrospinal fluid
Similar to blood plasma in composition
Formed continually by the choroid plexuses
Choroid plexuses—capillaries in the ventricles of the brain
CSF forms a watery cushion to protect the brain and spinal cord
Circulated in the arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord

Protection of the Central Nervous System

Cerebrospinal fluid circulation
1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexus of each ventricle
2. CSF flows through the ventricles and into the subarachnoid space via the
median and lateral apertures. Some CSF flows through the central canal of
the spinal cord
3. CSF flows through the subarachnoid space
4. CSF is absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid villi
Protection of the Central Nervous System
Blood-brain barrier
Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
Allows water, glucose, and amino acids to pass through the capillary walls
Excludes many potentially harmful substances from entering the brain, such as
wastes
Useless as a barrier against some substances

Brain Dysfunctions
Traumatic brain injuries
Concussion
Slight brain injury
Typically little permanent brain damage occurs
Contusion
Marked nervous tissue destruction occurs
Coma may occur
Death may occur after head blows due to:
Intracranial hemorrhage
Cerebral edema

Brain Dysfunctions
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), or stroke
Results when blood circulation to a brain area is blocked and brain tissue dies
Loss of some functions or death may result
Hemiplegia—one-sided paralysis
Aphasia—damage to speech center in left hemisphere
Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
Temporary brain ischemia (restriction of blood flow)
Numbness, temporary paralysis, impaired speech

Spinal Cord
Extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to the first or second lumbar vertebra
Cauda equina is a collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end
Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and from the brain
31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord
Spinal Cord
Gray matter of the spinal cord and spinal roots
Internal gray matter is mostly cell bodies
Dorsal (posterior) horns house interneurons
Receive information from sensory neurons in the dorsal root; cell bodies
housed in dorsal root ganglion
Anterior (ventral) horns house motor neurons of the somatic (voluntary) nervous
system
Send information out ventral root
Gray matter surrounds the central canal, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid

Spinal Cord
White matter of the spinal cord
Composed of myelinated fiber tracts
Three regions: dorsal, lateral, ventral columns
Sensory (afferent) tracts conduct impulses toward brain
Motor (efferent) tracts carry impulses from brain to skeletal muscles
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
PNS consists of nerves and ganglia outside the CNS

Structure of a Nerve
Nerves are bundles of neurons found outside the CNS
Endoneurium is a connective tissue sheath that surrounds each fiber
Perineurium wraps groups of fibers bound into a fascicle
Epineurium binds groups of fascicles

Structure of a Nerve
Mixed nerves
Contain both sensory and motor fibers
Sensory (afferent) nerves
Carry impulses toward the CNS
Motor (efferent) nerves
Carry impulses away from the CNS

Cranial Nerves
12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the head and neck
Only the pair of vagus nerves extends to thoracic and abdominal cavities
Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory only
1. Optic
2. Olfactory
3. Vestibulocochlear

Cranial Nerves Mnemonic Device

Oh – Olfactory
Oh – Optic
Oh – Oculomotor
To – Trochlear
Touch – Trigeminal
And – Abducens
Feel – Facial
Very – Vestibulocochlear
Green – Glossopharyngeal
Vegetables – Vagus
A – Accessory
H – Hypoglossal
Spinal Nerves
Spinal nerves
31 pairs
Formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord
Named for the region of the spinal cord from which they arise
Spinal Nerves
Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the spinal cord into a dorsal ramus and a ventral
ramus
Ramus—branch of a spinal nerve; contains both motor and sensory fibers
Dorsal rami—serve the skin and muscles of the posterior trunk
Ventral rami (T1–T12) —form the intercostal nerves that supply muscles and skin
of the ribs and trunk
Ventral rami (except T1–T12)—form a complex of networks (plexus) for the anterior

Spinal Nerves
Plexus—networks of nerves serving motor and sensory needs of the limbs
Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves in the cervical, lumbar, and sacral regions
Four plexuses
1. Cervical
2. Brachial
3. Lumbar
4. Sacral
Autonomic Nervous System
Motor subdivision of the PNS
Consists only of motor nerves
Controls the body automatically (and is also known as the involuntary nervous
system)
Regulates cardiac and smooth muscles and glands

Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems Compared

Somatic nervous system
Motor neuron cell bodies originate inside the CNS
Axons extends to skeletal muscles that are served
Autonomic nervous system
Chain of two motor neurons
Preganglionic neuron is in the brain or spinal cord
Postganglionic neuron extends to the organ
Has two arms
Sympathetic division
Parasympathetic division

Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division

Parasympathetic division is also known as the craniosacral division
Preganglionic neurons originate in:
Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
S2 through S4 regions of the spinal cord
Preganglionic neurons synapse with terminal ganglia; from there, postganglionic axons
extend to organs that are served

Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division

Sympathetic division is also known as the thoracolumbar division
Preganglionic neurons originate from T1 through L2
Axons pass through a ramus communicans to enter a sympathetic trunk ganglion
Sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies near the spinal cord

Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division

After synapsing at the ganglion, the axon may synapse with a second neuron at the
same or different level
Or, the preganglionic neuron may pass through the ganglion without synapsing and
form part of the splanchnic nerves
Splanchnic nerves travel to the collateral ganglion
Collateral ganglia serve the abdominal and pelvic organs
Autonomic Functioning
Body organs served by the autonomic nervous system receive fibers from both divisions
Exceptions: blood vessels, structures of the skin, some glands, and the adrenal
medulla
These exceptions receive only sympathetic fibers
Autonomic Functioning
When body divisions serve the same organ, they cause antagonistic effects due to
different neurotransmitters
Parasympathetic (cholinergic) fibers release acetylcholine
Sympathetic postganglionic (adrenergic) fibers release norepinephrine
Preganglionic axons of both divisions release acetycholine

Autonomic Functioning
Sympathetic—“fight or flight” division
Response to unusual stimulus when emotionally or physically stressed or
threatened
Takes over to increase activities
Remember as the “E” division
Exercise
Excitement
Emergency
Embarrassment

Autonomic Functioning
Parasympathetic—“housekeeping” activites
“Rest-and-digest” system
Conserves energy
Maintains daily necessary body functions
Remember as the “D” division
Digestion
Defecation
Diuresis
Developmental Aspects of the Nervous System
The nervous system is formed during the first month of embryonic development
Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful effects
Oxygen deprivation destroys brain cells
The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to develop
Developmental Aspects of the Nervous System
Severe congenital brain diseases include:
Cerebral palsy
Anencephaly
Hydrocephalus
Spina bifida

Developmental Aspects of the Nervous System

Premature babies have trouble regulating body temperature because the hypothalamus
is one of the last brain areas to mature prenatally
Development of motor control indicates the progressive myelination and maturation of a
child’s nervous system

Developmental Aspects of the Nervous System

Brain growth ends in young adulthood. Neurons die throughout life and are not
replaced; thus, brain mass declines with age
Orthostatic hypotension is low blood pressure due to changes in body position
Healthy aged people maintain nearly optimal intellectual function
Disease—particularly cardiovascular disease—is the major cause of declining mental
function with age
Arteriosclerosis is decreased elasticity of blood vessels