Chapter 7

The Nervous System

Functions of the Nervous System

1. Sensory input—gathering information
o Sensory receptors monitor changes, called stimuli, occurring inside and
outside the body
2. Integration
o Nervous system processes and interprets sensory input and decides whether
action is needed
3. Motor output
o A response, or effect, activates muscles or glands

Organization of the Nervous System

 Nervous system classifications are based on:
o Structures (structural classification)
o Activities (functional classification)

Structural Classification
 Central nervous system (CNS)
o Organs
 Brain
 Spinal cord
o Function
 Integration; command center
 Interprets incoming sensory information
 Issues outgoing instructions
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
o Nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord
 Spinal nerves—carry impulses to and from the spinal cord
 Cranial nerves—carry impulses to and from the brain
o Functions
 Serve as communication lines among sensory organs, the brain and
spinal cord, and glands or muscles

Functional Classification
 Sensory (afferent) division
o Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system
 Somatic sensory (afferent) fibers carry information from the skin,
skeletal muscles, and joints
 Visceral sensory (afferent) fibers carry information from visceral organs
 Motor (efferent) division
o Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system organs

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 to effector organs (muscles and glands)
o Two subdivisions
 Somatic nervous system = voluntary
o Consciously (voluntarily) controls skeletal muscles
 Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
o Automatically controls smooth and cardiac muscles and glands
o Further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems

Nervous Tissue: Support Cells

 Support cells in the CNS are grouped together as neuroglia
 General functions
o Support
o Insulate
o Protect neurons

Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function

 Nervous tissue is made up of two principal cell types
o Supporting cells (called neuroglia, or glial cells, or glia)
 Resemble neurons
 Unable to conduct nerve impulses
 Never lose the ability to divide
o Neurons

Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells

 CNS glial cells: astrocytes
o Abundant, star-shaped cells
o Brace and anchor neurons to blood capillaries
o Determine permeability and exchanges between blood capillaries and neurons
o Protect neurons from harmful substances in blood
o Control the chemical environment of the brain
 CNS glial cells: microglia
o Spiderlike phagocytes
o Monitor health of nearby neurons
o Dispose of debris
 CNS glial cells: ependymal cells
o Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
o Cilia assist with circulation of cerebrospinal fluid
 CNS glial cells: oligodendrocytes
o Wrap around nerve fibers in the central nervous system
o Produce myelin sheaths
 PNS glial cells
o Schwann cells
 Form myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the PNS

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 o Satellite cells
 Protect and cushion neuron cell bodies

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

 Neurons = nerve cells
o Cells specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses)
o Major regions of all neurons
 Cell body—nucleus and metabolic center of the cell
 Processes—fibers that extend from the cell body
 Cell body is the metabolic center of the neuron
o Nucleus with large nucleolus
o Nissl bodies
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum
o Neurofibrils
 Intermediate filaments that maintain cell shape
 Processes (fibers)
o Dendrites—conduct impulses toward the cell body
 Neurons may have hundreds of dendrites
o Axons—conduct impulses away from the cell body
 Neurons have only one axon arising from the cell body at the axon
hillock
 End in axon terminals, which contain vesicles with neurotransmitters
 Axon terminals are separated from the next neuron by a gap
 Processes (fibers) (continued)
o Synaptic cleft—gap between axon terminals and the next neuron
o Synapse—functional junction between nerves where a nerve impulse is
transmitted
 Myelin
o White, fatty material covering axons
o Protects and insulates fibers
o Speeds nerve impulse transmission
 Myelin sheaths
o Schwann cells—wrap axons in a jelly roll–like fashion (PNS) to form the myelin
sheath
 Neurilemma—part of the Schwann cell external to the myelin sheath
 Nodes of Ranvier—gaps in myelin sheath along the axon
o Oligodendrocytes—produce myelin sheaths around axons of the CNS
 Lack a neurilemma
 Terminology
o Nuclei—clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
o Ganglia—collections of cell bodies outside the CNS in the PNS
o Tracts—bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS
o Nerves—bundles of nerve fibers in the PNS
o White matter—collections of myelinated fibers (tracts)
o Gray matter—mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies
 Functional classification

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 o Sensory (afferent) neurons
 Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to the CNS
 Receptors include:
o Cutaneous sense organs in skin
o Proprioceptors in muscles and tendons
 Functional classification (continued)
o Motor (efferent) neurons
 Carry impulses from the central nervous system to viscera and/or
muscles and glands
o Interneurons (association neurons)
 Cell bodies located in the CNS
 Connect sensory and motor neurons
 Structural classification
o Based on number of processes extending from the cell body
o Multipolar neurons—many extensions from the cell body
 All motor and interneurons are multipolar
 Most common structural type
 Structural classification (continued)
o Bipolar neurons—one axon and one dendrite
 Located in special sense organs, such as nose and eye
 Rare in adults
 Structural classification (continued)
o Unipolar neurons—have a short single process leaving the cell body
 Sensory neurons found in PNS ganglia
 Conduct impulses both toward and away from the cell body
 Functional properties of neurons
o Irritability
 Ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it to a nerve impulse
o Conductivity
 Ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles, or glands
 Electrical conditions of a resting neuron’s membrane
o The plasma membrane at rest is inactive (polarized)
o Fewer positive ions are inside the neuron’s plasma membrane than outside
 K+ is the major positive ion inside the cell
 Na+ is the major positive ion outside the cell
o As long as the inside of the membrane is more negative (fewer positive ions)
than the outside, the cell remains inactive
 Action potential initiation and generation
o A stimulus changes the permeability of the neuron’s membrane to sodium ions
o Sodium channels now open, and sodium (Na+) diffuses into the neuron
o The inward rush of sodium ions changes the polarity at that site and is called
depolarization
o A graded potential (localized depolarization) exists where the inside of the
membrane is more positive and the outside is less positive
o If the stimulus is strong enough and sodium influx great enough, local
depolarization activates the neuron to conduct an action potential (nerve

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 impulse)
 Propagation of the action potential
o If enough sodium enters the cell, the action potential (nerve impulse) starts and
is propagated over the entire axon
o All-or-none response means the nerve impulse either is propagated or is not
o Fibers with myelin sheaths conduct nerve impulses more quickly
 Repolarization
o Membrane permeability changes again—becoming impermeable to sodium
ions and permeable to potassium ions
o Potassium ions rapidly diffuse out of the neuron, repolarizing the membrane
o Repolarization involves restoring the inside of the membrane to a negative
charge and the outer surface to a positive charge
 Repolarization (continued)
o Initial conditions of sodium and potassium ions are restored using the
sodium-potassium pump
o This pump, using ATP, restores the original configuration
o Three sodium ions are ejected from the cell while two potassium ions are
returned to the cell
o Until repolarization is complete, a neuron cannot conduct another nerve
impulse
 Transmission of the signal at synapses
o Step 1: When the action potential reaches the axon terminal, the electrical
charge opens calcium channels
 Transmission of the signal at synapses (continued)
o Step 2: Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny vesicles containing the
neurotransmitter chemical to fuse with the axonal membrane
 Transmission of the signal at synapses (continued)
o Step 3: The entry of calcium into the axon terminal causes porelike openings to
form, releasing the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
 Transmission of the signal at synapses (continued)
o Step 4: The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft and
bind to receptors on the membrane of the next neuron
 Transmission of the signal at synapses (continued)
o Step 5: If enough neurotransmitter is released, a graded potential will be
generated
 Eventually an action potential (nerve impulse) will occur in the neuron
beyond the synapse
 Transmission of the signal at synapses (continued)
o Step 6: The electrical changes prompted by neurotransmitter binding are brief
o The neurotransmitter is quickly removed from the synapse either by reuptake
or by enzymatic activity
o Transmission of an impulse is electrochemical
 Transmission down neuron is electrical
 Transmission to next neuron is chemical
 Reflexes are rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli
 Reflexes occur over neural pathways called reflex arcs

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 Two types of reflexes
o Somatic reflexes
o Autonomic reflexes
 Somatic reflexes
o Reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles
o Involuntary, although skeletal muscle is normally under voluntary control
o Example: pulling your hand away from a hot object
 Autonomic reflexes
o Regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the heart, and glands
o Example: regulation of smooth muscles, heart and blood pressure, glands,
digestive system
 Five elements of a reflex arc
1. Sensory receptor—reacts to a stimulus
2. Sensory neuron—carries message to the integration center
3. Integration center (CNS)—processes information and directs motor output
4. Motor neuron—carries message to an effector
5. Effector organ—is the muscle or gland to be stimulated
 Two-neuron reflex arcs
o Simplest type
o Example: patellar (knee-jerk) reflex
 Three-neuron reflex arcs
o Consists of five elements: receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor
neuron, and effector
o Example: flexor (withdrawal) reflex

Central Nervous System (CNS)

 Functional anatomy of the brain
o Brain regions
 Cerebral hemispheres
 Diencephalon
 Brain stem
 Cerebellum

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

 Cerebral hemispheres are paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain
o Include more than half of the brain mass
o The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci)
o Fissures are deeper grooves
o Lobes are named for the cranial bones that lie over them
 Three main regions of cerebral hemisphere
1. Cortex is superficial gray matter
2. White matter
3. Basal nuclei are deep pockets of gray matter
 Cerebral cortex
o Primary somatic sensory area

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  Located in parietal lobe posterior to central sulcus
 Receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors
o Pain, temperature, light touch (except for special senses)
 Sensory homunculus is a spatial map
 Left side of the primary somatic sensory area receives impulses from
right side (and vice versa)
 Cerebral areas involved in special senses
o Visual area (occipital lobe)
o Auditory area (temporal lobe)
o Olfactory area (temporal lobe)
 Cerebral cortex (continued)
o Primary motor area
 Located anterior to the central sulcus in the frontal lobe
 Allows us to consciously move skeletal muscles
 Motor neurons form pyramidal (corticospinal) tract, which descends to
spinal cord
 Motor homunculus is a spatial map
 Cerebral cortex (continued)
o Broca’s area (motor speech area)
 Involved in our ability to speak
 Usually in left hemisphere
o Other specialized areas
 Anterior association area (frontal lobe)
 Posterior association area (posterior cortex)
 Speech area (for sounding out words)
 Cerebral white matter
o Composed of fiber tracts deep to the gray matter
 Corpus callosum connects hemispheres
 Tracts, such as the corpus callosum, are known as commissures
 Association fiber tracts connect areas within a hemisphere
 Projection fiber tracts connect the cerebrum with lower CNS centers
 Basal nuclei
o “Islands” of gray matter buried deep within the white matter of the cerebrum
o Regulate voluntary motor activities by modifying instructions sent to skeletal
muscles by the primary motor cortex
 Diencephalon
o Sits on top of the brain stem
o Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
o Made of three structures
1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
3. Epithalamus
 Diencephalon: thalamus
o Encloses the third ventricle
o Relay station for sensory impulses passing upward to the cerebral cortex
o Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for localization and

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 interpretation
 Diencephalon: hypothalamus
o Makes up the floor of the diencephalon
o Important autonomic nervous system center
 Regulates body temperature
 Regulates water balance
 Regulates metabolism
o Houses the limbic center for emotions
o Regulates the nearby pituitary gland
o Houses mammillary bodies for olfaction (smell)
 Diencephalon: epithalamus
o Forms the roof of the third ventricle
o Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
o Includes the choroid plexus—forms cerebrospinal fluid
 Brain stem
o Attaches to the spinal cord
o Parts of the brain stem
1. Midbrain
2. Pons
3. Medulla oblongata
 Brain stem: midbrain
o Extends from the mammillary bodies to the pons inferiorly
o Cerebral aqueduct (tiny canal) connects the third and fourth ventricles
o Two bulging fiber tracts, cerebral peduncles, convey ascending and
descending impulses
o Four rounded protrusions, corpora quadrigemina, are visual and auditory reflex
centers
 Brain stem: pons
o The rounded structure protruding just below the midbrain
o Mostly composed of fiber tracts
o Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing
 Brain stem: medulla oblongata
o The most inferior part of the brain stem that merges into the spinal cord
o Includes important fiber tracts
o Contains important centers that control:
 Heart rate
 Blood pressure
 Breathing
 Swallowing
 Vomiting
o Fourth ventricle lies posterior to pons and medulla
 Brain stem: reticular formation
o Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem
o Involved in motor control of visceral organs
o Reticular activating system (RAS)
 Plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and consciousness

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  Filter for incoming sensory information
 Cerebrum
o Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
o Outer cortex of gray matter and inner region of white matter
o Controls balance
o Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and coordination of body
movements

Protection of the Central Nervous System

 Meninges
o Dura mater
 Outermost leathery layer
 Double-layered external covering
o Periosteum—attached to inner surface of the skull
o Meningeal layer—outer covering of the brain
 Folds inward in several areas
o Falx cerebri
o Tentorium cerebelli
o Arachnoid layer
 Middle layer
 Weblike extensions span the subarachnoid space to attach it to the pia
mater
 Subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
 Arachnoid granulations protrude through the dura mater and absorb
cerebrospinal fluid into venous blood
o Pia mater
 Internal layer
 Clings to the surface of the brain and spinal cord
 Cerebrospinal fluid
o Similar to blood plasma in composition
o Formed continually by the choroid plexuses
 Choroid plexuses—capillaries in the ventricles of the brain
o CSF forms a watery cushion to protect the brain and spinal cord
o Circulated in the arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal
cord
 Cerebrospinal fluid circulation
1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexus of each ventricle
2. CSF flows through the ventricles and into the subarachnoid space via the
median and lateral apertures. Some CSF flows through the central canal of the
spinal cord
3. CSF flows through the subarachnoid space
4. CSF is absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid villi
 Blood-brain barrier
o Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
o Allows water, glucose, and amino acids to pass through the capillary walls
o Excludes many potentially harmful substances from entering the brain, such as

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 wastes
o Useless as a barrier against some substances

Brain Dysfunctions
 Traumatic brain injuries
o Concussion
 Slight brain injury
 Typically little permanent brain damage occurs
o Contusion
 Marked nervous tissue destruction occurs
 Coma may occur
o Death may occur after head blows due to:
 Intracranial hemorrhage
 Cerebral edema
 Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), or stroke
o Results when blood circulation to a brain area is blocked and brain tissue dies
o Loss of some functions or death may result
 Hemiplegia—one-sided paralysis
 Aphasia—damage to speech center in left hemisphere
 Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
o Temporary brain ischemia (restriction of blood flow)
o Numbness, temporary paralysis, impaired speech

Spinal Cord
 Extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to the first or second lumbar vertebra
 Cauda equina is a collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end
 Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and from the brain
 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord
 Gray matter of the spinal cord and spinal roots
o Internal gray matter is mostly cell bodies
o Dorsal (posterior) horns house interneurons
 Receive information from sensory neurons in the dorsal root; cell bodies
housed in dorsal root ganglion
o Anterior (ventral) horns house motor neurons of the somatic (voluntary)
nervous system
 Send information out ventral root
o Gray matter surrounds the central canal, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
 White matter of the spinal cord
o Composed of myelinated fiber tracts
o Three regions: dorsal, lateral, ventral columns
o Sensory (afferent) tracts conduct impulses toward brain
o Motor (efferent) tracts carry impulses from brain to skeletal muscles

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

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 PNS consists of nerves and ganglia outside the CNS

Structure of a Nerve
 Nerves are bundles of neurons found outside the CNS
 Endoneurium is a connective tissue sheath that surrounds each fiber
 Perineurium wraps groups of fibers bound into a fascicle
 Epineurium binds groups of fascicles
 Mixed nerves
o Contain both sensory and motor fibers
 Sensory (afferent) nerves
o Carry impulses toward the CNS
 Motor (efferent) nerves
o Carry impulses away from the CNS

Cranial Nerves
 12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the head and neck
 Only the pair of vagus nerves extends to thoracic and abdominal cavities
 Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory only
1. Optic
2. Olfactory
3. Vestibulocochlear

Cranial Nerves Mnemonic Device

 Oh – Olfactory- taste
 Oh – Optic- vision
 Oh – Oculomotor- eye movement
 To – Trochlear-
 Touch – Trigeminal
 And – Abducens
 Feel – Facial
 Very – Vestibulocochlear
 Green – Glossopharyngeal
 Vegetables – Vagus
 A – Accessory
 H – Hypoglossal

Spinal Nerves
 Spinal nerves
o 31 pairs
o Formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord
o Named for the region of the spinal cord from which they arise
 Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the spinal cord into a dorsal ramus and a
ventral ramus

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 o Ramus—branch of a spinal nerve; contains both motor and sensory fibers
o Dorsal rami—serve the skin and muscles of the posterior trunk
o Ventral rami (T1–T12) —form the intercostal nerves that supply muscles and
skin of the ribs and trunk
o Ventral rami (except T1–T12)—form a complex of networks (plexus) for the
anterior
 Plexus—networks of nerves serving motor and sensory needs of the limbs
 Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves in the cervical, lumbar, and sacral regions
 Four plexuses
1. Cervical
2. Brachial
3. Lumbar
4. Sacral

Autonomic Nervous System

 Motor subdivision of the PNS
o Consists only of motor nerves
o Controls the body automatically (and is also known as the involuntary nervous
system)
o Regulates cardiac and smooth muscles and glands

Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems Compared

 Somatic nervous system
o Motor neuron cell bodies originate inside the CNS
o Axons extends to skeletal muscles that are served
 Autonomic nervous system
o Chain of two motor neurons
 Preganglionic neuron is in the brain or spinal cord
 Postganglionic neuron extends to the organ
o Has two arms
 Sympathetic division
 Parasympathetic division

Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division

 Parasympathetic division is also known as the craniosacral division
 Preganglionic neurons originate in:
o Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
o S2 through S4 regions of the spinal cord
 Preganglionic neurons synapse with terminal ganglia; from there, postganglionic
axons extend to organs that are served

Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division

 Sympathetic division is also known as the thoracolumbar division

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 Preganglionic neurons originate from T1 through L2
o Axons pass through a ramus communicans to enter a sympathetic trunk
ganglion
o Sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies near the spinal cord
 After synapsing at the ganglion, the axon may synapse with a second neuron at the
same or different level
 Or, the preganglionic neuron may pass through the ganglion without synapsing and
form part of the splanchnic nerves
o Splanchnic nerves travel to the collateral ganglion
o Collateral ganglia serve the abdominal and pelvic organs

Autonomic Functioning
 Body organs served by the autonomic nervous system receive fibers from both
divisions
o Exceptions: blood vessels, structures of the skin, some glands, and the adrenal
medulla
o These exceptions receive only sympathetic fibers
 When body divisions serve the same organ, they cause antagonistic effects due to
different neurotransmitters
o Parasympathetic (cholinergic) fibers release acetylcholine
o Sympathetic postganglionic (adrenergic) fibers release norepinephrine
o Preganglionic axons of both divisions release acetylcholine
 Sympathetic—“fight or flight” division
o Response to unusual stimulus when emotionally or physically stressed or
threatened
o Takes over to increase activities
o Remember as the “E” division
 Exercise
 Excitement
 Emergency
 Embarrassment
 Parasympathetic—“housekeeping” activites
o “Rest-and-digest” system
o Conserves energy
o Maintains daily necessary body functions
o Remember as the “D” division
 Digestion
 Defecation
 Diuresis

Developmental Aspects of the Nervous System

 The nervous system is formed during the first month of embryonic development
 Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful effects
 Oxygen deprivation destroys brain cells
 The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to develop

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 Severe congenital brain diseases include:
o Cerebral palsy
o Anencephaly
o Hydrocephalus
o Spina bifida

Developmental Aspects of the Nervous System

 Premature babies have trouble regulating body temperature because the
hypothalamus is one of the last brain areas to mature prenatally
 Development of motor control indicates the progressive myelination and maturation of
a child’s nervous system
 Brain growth ends in young adulthood. Neurons die throughout life and are not
replaced; thus, brain mass declines with age
 Orthostatic hypotension is low blood pressure due to changes in body position
 Healthy aged people maintain nearly optimal intellectual function
 Disease—particularly cardiovascular disease—is the major cause of declining mental
function with age
o Arteriosclerosis is decreased elasticity of blood vessels

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