CHAPTER 4 Rotary drilling with rolling tricone bits 4.1 INTRODUCTION Until 1949, almost all blastholes were drilled with rotary percussive rigs and only in very soft rocks were rotary drills applicable with drag bits. ‘The opening of large surface coal mining operations in the United States, with overburdens that went up to 40m, and the appearance on the market of a low cost bulk explosive of high energy efficiency, such as ANFO, were events that stimulated the manufacturers of rock drills to design large capacity equipment that were capable of giving high penetration rates At the same time roller tricone bits became popular in mining, developed in the oil fields from around 1907, and compressed air came into use for flushing away the drill cuttings. : ‘The blasthole diameters varied between 2” and 17’ (50 to 444 mm), with the most frequent range for surface mining from 6 to 12” (152 to 311 mm). Larger diame- ters are limited to mines with large productions, and under 6” is almost never used because of the limited wear of the tricone bits due to the reduced size of the bearings. This drilling method is very versatil, as it covers a wide range of rocks, from the very soft where its application started, to the very hard where its use has replaced other ‘once popular systems, such as Jet Piercing in taconites. As rotary drilling with roller tricone bits is the most widely used method, this chapter will focus its attention on the large rigs that are capable of giving high feed force on the bit, considering that the units that work with drag bits are of a more simple design and smaller in size. Rotary rock drills essentially consist of a power source, a string of pipes, individual or connected in series that tanst the load, rotation and flushing air to a bit with steel teeth or tungsten carbide inserts that, in turn, acts * upon the rock, Fig. 4.1. 4.2 MOUNTING AND PROPULSION SYSTEMS ‘There are two basic mounting systems for rotary drilling rigs: on crawler tracks or on rubber tyres. The factors that dictate which type of mounting should be chosen are the ground conditions and the degree of movability required. Ifthe work surface has steep grades, is uneven or offers maneuvering difficulties, crawler mounting is the most indicated as it offers maximum stability, maneuverability and flotability, 48 Aheavy axle at the drill end of the machine and a pivot, axle permit the rig to oscillate and maintain full crawler ground contact at all times, Fig. 4.2. ‘The majority of the large rigs are mounted on rugged ‘crawlers, as these can support heavier loads with less pressure on the ground when moving from one place to another, The drills that are mounted on tractor type crawlers are useful in difficult and abrupt terrain such as can be found in civil engineering. The main disadvantage of crawler mountings is its low translation velocity, 2 to 3 km/h. Therefore, if many benches are to be drilled and they are quite far away from each other, it would be more advisable to mount the rig on a truck, which moves an average of ten times faster. However, in large operations the equipment is not usually moved very much as they drill a high number of blast- holes in a reduced area. Much lighter rigs are usually mounted on trucks, with chasis of 2 or 3 axles, and only those of larger dimen- sions, more than 60.000 pounds of feed force, are mounted on 4 axle chasis. During drilling, these units are supported by 3 or 4 hydraulic jacks which also serve to level the machine. 4.3 POWER SOURCES The primary sources of power can be: diesel or electric engines. In rock drills with a drilling diameter above 9” (230 mm), electric energy is normally used, at half tension, supplying the drill with alternating current (AC) by means of a four conduct power cable covered with rubber. The small and medium sized rigs, which are usually mounted on trucks, can be run by one or two diesel engines. ‘The average distribution of the power installed on these rigs for different operations and mechanisms is as follows: ~ Elevation and translation movement: 18% — Rotation: 18% ~ Thrust load: 3% — Levelling: 2% = Dust collector: 3% ~ Flushing and removal of drill cuttings with com- pressed air: 53%Rotary drilling with rolling tricone bits WACHNE ROOM cowenessor / fo be nowt anon / ran Box Fig. 4.1, Principal components ofan electrically driven rotary rig (Marion). CRAWLER PIVOT AXLE HEAVY AXLE Fig. 4.2, Rugged erawler mounting = Auxiliary equipment: 3% When diesel power is used, this can be from the truck engine, Fig. 4.3, or with an independant engine. Nowa- days, the later is usually the case owing to the different characteristics required. There are also diesel-electric drills that have been designed for large production mines without an electric power layout, 49 ACCESS STARWAY AND PLATFORM | SONTROL Heamnes Bown word \Leaawuer The electric rigs have lower maintenance costs, 10 10 15%, than those driven by diesel power. The latter are chosen when there is no reliable electric power source near the operation, or when the rig is mounted on a truck. 4.4 ROTATION SYSTEMS With the purpose of making the drill pipes rotate and the transmission of the rotary torque, the drilling rigs have a rotation system mounted on a frame that slides up and down the mast. The system of top head drive can be run by an electric, or hydraulic engine. The first is the most commonly used for large rigs, as the continuous current engines are easily regulated, from 0 to 150 rp.mn, In the older designs, the Ward Leonard system was used, and in the more modern the thyristor converter D.C. motor system. The hydraulic system consists of aclosed circuit with a constant pressure pump and a rotary torque converterAt) Drilling and blasting of rocks CAROUSEL. COMPRESSED AIR LINE om Povey TRANSMISSION DURING MOVEMENT HYDRAULIC OR ELECTRIC MOTOR {OTATION HEAD Fig. 4.3. Truck engine diesel drive for a rock dri. COMPRESSED AR, FOR FLUSHING — 4 COMPRESSED’ ‘AR FOR FLUSHING PULL Down SYSTEM put oown systen = iy covenessep An FORE qj, bk cause, || ly KELLY BAR [> = |— eI L\ LA (a) (b) (c) Fig. 4.4. Rotary drive options: (a) top head drive, (b) Kelly bar drive and (c) false Kelly bar drive. with which the rotary speed of the top head drive hydrau- lic engine can be varied. This method is widely used on small and medium rigs. The mechanical or indirect systems are the Kelly bar, or rotary table, which is very popular in the oil fields but = not much used in mining machinery, and the so-called false Kelly bar, which are shown in Fig. 4.4. 4.5 PULLDOWN/HOISTING SYSTEMS In order to achieve a good drilling rate in rock, a certain pulldown or feed is necessary. This depends upon the compressive strength of the rock and the blasthole diame- ter. As the weight of the bars is not sufficient to obtain the precise thrust load, extra forces must be applied through hydraulic energy tranmission. ‘There are four systems. The first three, shown in Fig. 4.5, are known as a) direct rack and pinion, b) direct chain, and c) rack and pinion with chain. The fourth system, Fig. 4.6, consists of one or two hydraulically driven cylinders. It has the following ad- vantages: light weight, absorbs impacts, indicates wear or fatigue level and is easy to change or adjust. These feed mechanisms allow, apart from supplying a perfectly controlled, balanced feed force, the hoisting of the pipes that constitute the drill string. ‘The weight of the whole set up behaves as a reaction against the feed applied to the bit, from which one can deduce that the weight of the rock drill should be above and normally double that of the maximum intended thrust. The hoisting rate of the string is usually from 18 t0 21, meters/min; higher rates are not recommendable due to vibration problems.Rotary drilling with rolling tricone bits 51 Q by DIRECT CHAIN Fig. 46. Pull down system with cylinder (lagersoll-Rand), 4.6 MAST AND PIPE CHANGER The masts that accomodate the drill steel and rotary head are the most critical structure on the drill and should be designed to resist bending from weight, the thrust load and the strains originated by the rotary torque, The most common designs are constructed in a truss pattern of tubular or normal section steel. The modem rigs have a structure made of box type girders that can withstand longer single-pass masts and high rotary torques. Masts are usually hinged and connected to hydraulic, cylinders that permit them to be lowered to a horizontal position for moving. Mast elevation time is usually around 2 to 5 minutes Inclined hole drilling is usually harmful because of the fatigue forces placed upon the mast and drill pipes, apart from a lower pull down load and flushing difficulties, all of which lower production which, in hard rocks, can ©) RACK AND PION WITH CHAIN Fig. 4.5. Pulldown or feed options. Photo 4.1. Crawler mounted rotary rig, 49 R. (Courtesy of Bucyrus- Eire)2 Drilling and blasting of rocks BOTTON PLATE Fig. 4.7. Carouselle type pipe changer. reach 20%. The pinning or inclination can be as much as 30% in 5° intervals. Even though it is recommended that the machine se- lected be capable of drilling the blastholes with only one pipe, there is always the possibility of having to drill Jonger holes. Therefore, the mast should carry a carousel- le type pipe changer as well as a mechanism for placing and removing them, ‘The rigs are equipped with tray like sistems with from one to three pipes, or carouselle type with four or more pipes with a drilling capacity of 50 to 60 meters. Both systems are hydraulically driven, Fig. 4.7. Pipe changing usually takes between 2 to 6 minutes each. 4.7 CONTROL CABIN ‘The control cabin, pressurized and air conditioned, has all the controls and instruments required for handling the rig * during drilling, as follows: ~ Control of the principal motor and gear box. — Control of elevation and lowering of the mast. ~ Control of the leveling jacks. — Control of pulldown on the bit. ~ Control of water injection, = Control of the carouselle, etc. Usually the cabin is located near the mast so that all movements of the pipes during work can be observed. 4.8 SYSTEM FOR FLUSHING DRILL CUTTINGS ‘Compressed air carries out the following functions: ~ Cooling and lubrication of the roller tricone bear- ings. = Cleaning the bottom of the blasthole. ~ Bailing out of the drill cuttings with adequate up- ward velocity. ‘The air circulates through a pipe from the compressor to the mast and from, by a protected flexible hose, to the rotary head from which it enters into the drill pipe and eventually arrives at the bit. The air flushes out from passages in the bit through the teeth to swirl up the cuttings and bail them upwards to the surface. If the tricones are large and the flow of air insufficient, the cuttings fall back to the bottom to swirl around until they reach a large enough size to be swept upwards. Lack of air, therefore, produces an unnecessary waste of energy, a lower penetration rate and more wear on the bit. On the other hand, if the upward velocity is too high, the centra- lizer and the drill pipes will suffer more wear. If the rock density and the diameter of the chips are known, two equations can be used to calculate the mini- mum upward velocity: P, x dos V, = 573 x ° p+1 7? and V, = 250 x pit x dit where: V, = Minimum upward velocity (m/min), p, = Rock Density (g/cm*), d, = Chip diameter (mm). The air flow necessary is determined by: (-d) 1.27 Q,=A, xV,=V,x where: A, = Cross-sectional area of the annulus between the blasthole wall and the drill pipe (m?), Q, = Required air flow (m?/min), V, = Upward velocity (m/min), D Blasthole diameter (m), d = Drill pipe diameter (m). ‘Another equation to determine the approximate flow is: Q, = 224 x D* where: Q, = Air flow (m*/min), D = Blasthole diameter (m). The recommended bailing velocities, in function with the type of rock, are the following: Table 4.1. ‘Type ofrock Minimum velocity Maximum velocity _—____(imin) _(feet/min) _(av/min) _ (feet/min) Soft 1200 4.000 1.800 6.000 Medium 1500 5.000 2.100 7.000 Hard 1.800 6.000__—2.400_—_—8.000Rotary drilling with rolling tricone bits BAILNG VELOCITY 53 RorAny courLNO BIT DIAMETER (inch) AIR VOLUME (teet?/min) Fig. 4.8. Drill pipe sizing Thus, the drill pipe diameter recommended, according to the rock type, should be 3” (75 mm) smaller than that of the tricone bit in soft material, 2” (50 mm) in medium rocks and 1” (38 mm) in hard rock, as the particle or chip size decreases with an increase in rock compressive strength, From the nomograph below, the diameter of commer- cial drill pipes can be determined more exactly, once the air flow, upward velocity and blasthole diameter are known. When the compressive rock strength is under 100 MPa, the high drilling rate achieved retains the cuttings in the blasthole if the annulus or ring of space is not large enough. The following should comply: Blasthole area divided by the annulus area = 2 which is the equivalent of: Drill pipe diameter divided by blasthole diameter = 0.7 Normally low pressure compressors are used in rotary drills, 50 p.s.i. (350 kPa). However, the number of rigs that have medium to high pressure compressors, 100-150 p.s.i. (700-1050 kPa), is increasing owing to improved cooling of the bearings and the possibility of using down- the-hole hammers. 4.9 DRILLSTRING The drill string, Fig. 4.9 is composed of the rotary coup- ling, the drill pipe, the stabilizer and the rolling cone or rotary tricone rock bit. 49.1 Rotary coupling This element transmits the rotary torque from the rotary head to the drill string which is underneath. ROLUNG CONE ROCK BIT Fig. 49. Drill string. 49.2 Drill pipe The length of the drill pipes depends upon the length of the blasthole. They transmit the pulldown or feed force to the bit and to canalize the compressed air required to clean the hole and cool the bearings. The pipes are usually made of steel with a 1” thickness (25 mm) and sometimes up to 1”” (38 mm). The most common threads used in the couplings are API, BECO, or similar. 4.9.3 Stabilizer The stabilizer is placed on top of the drill bit, Fig. 4.10, and its mission is to make the tricone bit rotate correctly depending upon the axis of the blasthole and avoid oscil- lations and bending of the drill steel. ‘The advantages of its use are: — Fewer blasthole deviations, above all in inclined drilling. — Less wear on the tricone and better drilling rates due to improved feed force. — Less skirt, gauge insert and bearing wear. ~ Improved blasthole wall stability as the drill pipes do not bend. — Improved bulk explosive loading, as the distribution ismore uniform. * ‘The stabilizer should have a diameter similar to that of the hole, usually 4” (3 mm) smaller than that of the tricone bit. There are two types of stabilizers: blade type and roller type. ‘The blade type is least expensive but the disadvantages are that it must be used with wear bars, it reduces the available rotary torque and is unstable in hard ground after drilling the first holes.54 Drilling and blasting of rocks Fig. 4.10, Roller type stabilizer. The roller type stabilizers with tungsten carbide but- tons do not require much rotary torque, are more expens- ive and also more efficient than the blade type. 4.9.4 Single pass drilling ‘The use of high masts, up to 27 m, which allow each hole to be drilled in a single pass with lengthening the drill string has the following advantages: ~ Noadded drill pipes which takes from 2to 6 minutes each. ~ Reduced thread wear. = 10 to 15% increase in production. — Easier blasthole cleaning. = Permits a continuous air flow through the bit which is especially interesting in blastholes with water. — Reduces loss of feed and rotation force transmission as there are no unions between pipes. There are a few disadvantages to single pass drilling such as: = Higher masts are more unstable, especially in the rotary head. — The mast requires stronger anchoring to the rig. — More care has to be taken when moving. — The feed transmission chain needs an improved design, 4.9.5 Vibration and shock subs Since 1967 a series of vibration and shock absorption systems have been developed which give the following benefits: = Lower rock drill maintenance cost by reducing axial and torsional shock loads transmitted to the mast. = Increase in drilling rate by improving bit contact, with the rock and enabling a better use of the combination feed force/drilling rate for each type of formation, SHOCK ABSORBER Fig. 4.11. Anti-shock coupling placement — Increased service life of the bit as the impacts to the bearings and cutting structure are absorbed. = Less noise level in the operator cabin as the direct contact rotary head/dril bars eliminated, Anti-shock couplings should be used in broken ground, alternating hard and soft layers and in hard formations. ‘The type of shock subs used are: = Horizontal shock absorbers. — Vertical shock absorbers (swivel mounted). — Nitrogen shock absorbers (gas spring) Horizontal shock absorber Performs as a flexible and compressible unit and reduces vertical and transversal vibration. Field tests have shown an increase in penetration rate of 5% in soft rocks and 20% in hard rocks, with a 25% increase in tricone life. One of the characteristics of this system is that it only has two elements that can be worn out, Vertical shock absorber (swivel mounted) This type has an assembly of 18 elastic segments that are mounted vertically, giving a performance similar to that of the horizontal shock absorber, Fig. 4.12. Nitrogen shack absorber (gas spring) This system uses pressurized nitrogen. Its main disad- vantage is the high initial cost and maintenance. 4.9.6 Blasthole reamers This is an interesting practice as it permits the use of explosive columns similar to spherical charges. The ad- vantages of the system of chambering against the con- ventional uniform blasthole can be summed up as fol- lows: — Less volume of rock drilled. — Higher production output. ~ Less manuevering time. ~ Lower volume of stemming, and — Improved muckpile profile for front end loader.Rotary drilling with rolling tricone bits 55 recat oF ‘ae Reef paweren i ‘SareTy ELT ver, Fig. 4.12. Vertical shock absorber (B.J. Hughes, Inc.) rT Fig. 4.13. System for widening blastholes. 4.10 AUXILIARY ELEMENTS 4.10.1 Dust elimination A large amount of dust builds up during drilling and if not eliminated, apart from affecting the health of personnel, it can create maintenance problems in the rock drill. Dust Gace coe suppression can be carried in two ways: — Wet system. ~ Dry system. The wet system consists in adding a small amount of ‘water, with or without foam, into the flushing air. The dust that has formed in the bottom of the hole becomes caked and is bailed upwards with the cuttings. This system is simple but has disadvantages, which are: ~ Lower service life of the tricone bit - between 15 to 20%. ~ If too much water is injected the dust can become pasty, thick and abrasive, which is difficult to bail out and could cause great wear on the drill string. = Incold climates it produces operative problems. The dry dust suppression system consists of a dust collector mounted on the rig and composed of cyclones and filters. The big advantage of this method is that it does not affect the bits and is very efficient. However, when water is present in the hole its efficiency is quite reduced and the maintenance is high. ‘The operators cabin and the engine room are usually pressurized to keep the dust out. 4.10.2 Leveling ‘When the machine is drilling, its weight rests on leveling Jacks which are pinned to the drills main structure and can be regulated from the operator cabin. Each rig usually has from three to four jacks and it takes about I minute to set them up. A hydraulic jack.at each comer of the machine is usually the best arrangement to evenly distribute the weight, reducing strain on the rig, mast vibrations and general damage, Fig. 4.14. 4.10.3 Stability In order to obtain high productivity, the rigs should be able to move with the mast and drill string in the vertical56 Drilling and blasting of rocks HYDRAULIC CYLINDER JACK PAD Fig. 4.14, Hydraulic jack, position, For this reason, the equipment should be de- signed in such a manner that its center of gravity is as low as possible and close to the centerline of the crawler. The ‘crawlers can be oversized to increase stability and carry ballast to keep the rig in balance. 4.104 Gradeability Rigs on crawlers are capable of propelling up 10 to 12% grades for one hour and reach peak gradeability of 20% fora short time. 4.10.5 Oilor grease injection ‘The injection of oil into the flushing air provides extra lubrication to the bearings of the tricone bit, helping to cut down on wear, Fig.4.15. If the flow is excessive, the air passages in the bearings can become blocked and premature failure could occur, as well as the dust taking on a pasty consistency which is, an obstacle for uphole bailing. If compressors with sliding-vanes are used, it has been found that the service life of the bits increases noticeably, as the air carries a small amount of oil with it. For this reason, if the compressors that are mounted on the rigs are of rotary screw type then it is recommended that oil be injected into the flushing air. : 4.11 OPERATIVE PRACTICE. DRILLING PARAMETERS The internal parameters that intervene in rotary drilling are: — Feed or pulldown force on the bit. — Rotation speed. ~ Bit wear. — Blasthole diameter, and ~ Flushing air flow. The external parameters are the following: Am water ot a ‘MIXTURE Ol Is NYECTED INTO THE WATERLINE AT THS PONT 26/85 160 ‘OIL FLOW RATE = 69 i/n Fig. 4.15. Oil injection system in a rotary rock drill. = Characteristics and compressive strength of the rocks, and ~ Operator efficiency. 4.11.1 Feed or thrust load on the bit The feed force applied to the bit should be sufficient to overcome the compressive strength of the rock, but not excessive to avoid premature or abnormal failure of the tricone bit. The drilling rate increases proportionately with the feed, up to the point where the bit becomes locked against the rock as the teeth or inserts bury into the material, Fig. 4.16, or because of the high drilling rate and the large volume of cuttings produced the blasthole is not adequa- tely cleaned. In hard formations, a high thrust force on the bit can produce breakage of the inserts before the bit becomes stuck or the hole cleaning is defective. Also the bearing life is diminished, but not necessarily the length drilled by the rolling cone bit. When rock is drilled, the tricones can work in three different situations, Fig. 4.17. a) With insufficient feed or pulldown. b) With efficient advance, and c) When the tool becomes buried. The minimum pulldown under which a rock is not drilled, can be estimated from the following equation: E,, = 28.5 x RC x D where: E,, = Minimum pulldown (pounds), RC = Com- pressive strength of the rock (MPa), D = Diameter of the tricone bit (inches).Rotary drilling with rolling tricone bits 37 Fig. 4.16. Rock breakage. Excessive feed. PENETRATION RATE, Fig. 4.17. Pulldown effect on drilling rate. oe Table 4.2, Diameter of the bit Limit pulldown dbs) 21.000 31.000 37.000 50.000 9 65.000 om 79.000 2% 121.000 The maximum pulldown, above which the tricone is buried, is considered to be double the previous value. E,=2X Eq limit pulldown that a roller tricone can withstand is in function with the size of its bearings which, at the same time, depends upon the diameter of the bit: E, = 810 x D where: E, = Limit pulldown on the tricone (pounds), D = Diameter (inches). Table 4.2 gives the limit values for tricones of different diameters. 4.11.2 Rotation speed Penetration rate increases with rotation speed in a propor- tion that is slightly lower than the unit, up to a limit imposed by the bailing out of drill cuttings, Fig. 4.18. Rotary speeds vary from 60 to 120 r/min for steel toothed roller tricones, and from 50 to 80 r/min for those with tungsten carbide inserts. Table 4.3 gives the rotary speeds that are adequate for different types of rock. The rotary speed limit is set by bearing wear, which itself depends upon the pulldown, the cleaning of the blasthole and the temperature; and upon breakage of the inserts produced by impacts against the rock, in which the intensity is proportional to the square of the rotary speed. 4.11.3 Wear of the bit When steel tooth roller tricones are used, the drilling rate goes down considerably as the wear on the bit increases. Fig. 4.19, shows how, for a half used roller tricone bit, the penetration rate can be reduced by 50 to 75% when compared to that obtained with anew tricone. 4.11.4 Drilling diameter Fig. 4.20 shows how the drilling rate obtained with constant feed force and rotation speed is proportional to the inverse of the squared drilling diameter. 4.11.5 Airflow When drilling is carried out with less air than necessary to PENETRATION RATE: ROTARY SPEED Fig. 4.18, Effect of rotary speed upon the penetration rate. Table 43. ‘Type of rock Rotary speed (rimin) Soft 75-160 Medivim 60-80 Hard 35:= Drill steel and accessories, The adequate design of a rock drill requires taking into account the rotary power necessary to rotate the bit and the method of bailing out the drill cuttings. Rotary power The required rotary power is equal to the product of the rotary torque necessary to rotate the bit by the rotation speed. N, xT, 5.250 where: HP, = Rotary power (HP), N, = Rotation speed (rimin), 7, = Rotary torque (lb/ft). The rotary torque increases with the thrust load on the bit and the depth of the blasthole. Normally, the drills are designed with a torque capacity in the range of 10 to 20 HP, 58 Drilling and blasting of rocks a é i ¥ é 98 on on = sO wo WEAR ON THE BIT (%) Fig. 4.19. Effect of bit wear on the penetration rate. vat 70? PENETRATION RATE BLASTHOLE AREA (ra) Fig. 4.20, Influence of diameter on the drilling rate. clean the blasthole, the following negative effects ap- pear: = Decrease in drilling rate. — Higher pulldown required to continue drilling. = Increase in drill damage owing to higher rotary torque necessary to rotate the tricone, = More wear on the stabilizer, drill pipe and bit, 4.11.6 Criteria for rock drill selection Once the drilling diameter has been determined, which depends upon: ~ Required outpiut. — Capacity and number of loading and haulage equip- ment. ~ Bench height. = Environmental limitations and — Operation costs. ‘And taking into consideration the geomechanics of the rock to be drilled, the following can be determined: ~ Rock drill characteristics. ~ Type of roller tricone bit. Ib/ft for each pound of pulldown load. ‘When the necessary torque is not known, the rotary power can be calculated from the following equation: HP, = Kx N, x D* x E'S where: HP, = Rotary power (HP), N, = Rotary speed (min), D'= Drilling diameter (inches), E = Pulldown (feed) force (thousands of pounds per inch of diameter), K = Constant of the rock formation (Table 4.4). In Fig. 4.21, the drilling energy per unit of volume is represented as function of the compressive strength. Necessary pulldown force The power necessary for the pulldown is low when compared to that of rotation, Fig. 4.22. Besides, the pulldown on the bit, as seen before, de~ pends upon the diameter and the compressive strength of the rock, Fig. 4.23. The feed capacity of the machine should be 30% more than the maximum working feed. Once this design parameter is known, the weight of the machine will be defined, as the feed is usually 50% of the working weight, with a 10 ta 15% in reserve to assure rig stability during operation and movement. Compressor ‘There are two most commonly used types of compressors nowadays: sliding-vane or rotary-screw type. The range of capacities goes from 7 to 70 m*/min approximately. Both the size and type of this equipment is optional in most cases. Rotary-screw type compressors work at higher pressu- re than those of sliding-vane type, have a more simple design and are more compact and give higher mechanical availability. Type of rolling cone or tricone bit One of the most important aspects of rotary drilling is the choice of the proper bit. If not, the following will occur: — Penetration rate lower than optimum. — Reduced bit life, giving a higher cost per meter drilled.Rotary drilling with rolling tricone bits 39 Table 44, Rock Compressive Constant (K) strength (MPa) Very sof . 14.10 Soft - 12.1075 Medium soft m5 s Medium 560 Hard 2100 Very hard 4760 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (08 b/c) Fig. 4.21. Drilling energy as function of the compressive strength. BLASTHOLE OAMETER gen Fig. 4.22. Comparison of rotary power and pulldown force for differ. ent types of Rock. 4.12 PENETRATION RATE Penetration rate depends upon many extemal factors: geologies, physical properties of the rocks, distribution of Stresses and intemal structure. This makes it difficult for z" = 3 HARD g z cou 60. SOFT ° oor es BLASTHOLE DIAMETER (inch) Fig. 4.23, Pulldown force on the bit as function of the diameter and type of rock (I Kip = 4.448 kN). the project engineer to determine the drilling rate during the actual planning of the project, but highly necessary as the decision taken will effect the rest of the operations. There are two procedures that can be used for deter- mining the penetration rate: 1. The taking of representative samples and carrying out scaled down tests by the bit manufacturers, They will then send a report in which the following will be indi- cated: ~ The type of roller tricone recommended. — Suggested thrust load and rotary speed. ~ Estimated penetration rate, and ~ Predicted service life of the The reliability of the results depends on the represen- tivity of the samples sent to the manufacturer and, in general, the reports are usually conservative in their production and cost calculations because the effects of discontinuities and their infilling are not taken into account. 2. Calculation of the penetration rate from the com- pressive strength of the rock. This procedure is based upon use of empirical for- mulas suggested by several investigators. 4.12.1 Tests on samples There are two procedures known as Microbit and In- denter Test. The first, and oldest, has been used since the decade of the fifties. In consists of drilling small formation samples with a 1'4” (32 mm) microbit with a 200 pounds load on the bit and at 60 r/min, Each testis carried out by drilling a hole 22” (2.4 mm) deep and recording the drilling time each '22” (0.8 mm). After each test the bit wear is measured and registered. The results obtained are correlated with real data, Fig. 4.24, and the life of the tricone bit is estimated. The system gives good results in soft to medium for- mations, that can be drilled with steel tooth roller bits, but in hard formations where tungsten carbide insert bits have to be used, very low penetration rates are obtained60 Drilling and blasting of rocks - Poet Photo 4.2, Microbit test PONETRATION RATE (REET/OUR) PULLOOWY [bs x cermen OF OlAMETER) Fig. 4.24, Calculation of the penetration rate from the Microbit tests. with the microbit and the cutier wear is so high that the results do not give an accurate estimate. In the second test a hemispherical shaped tungsten carbide tooth or indenter is applied to the sample and the load increased in 500 pounds intervals up to a maximum of 5000 to 6000 pounds, until rock failure occurs, Photo 4.3, establishing the indenter or E, value which is consi- dered to be the threshold force at time of fracture. The feed force that must be applied to the bit is: E=E,xI, where: E = Feed force, E, = Threshold force, /, = Num- ber of inserts of the tricone that are in contact with the rock at a given instant. However, J. usually represents an 8% of the total number C, of tricone inserts, so the previous equation changes to: E=0.08 x E, x CG, The penetration rate will be given by: Photo 4.3. Indentor test. V=N,xp where: VP = Penetration rate, N, = Revolutions per minute, p = Tricone penetration per revolution, Also, the advance of the tricone bit in a revolution p should be proportional to the penetration p obtained in the test: paKxp" where K is a constant that covers the actual field condi- tions that the test cannot reproduce. The final equation for penetration rate is as follows: tra tna' EZ) «(2 This equation gives the penetration rate from a group of known parameters. As in most cases the roller tricone bits are thrown away when there is bearing failure, their useful lives can be estimated in meters by multiplying the penetration rate by the number of hours of bearing service life. 4.12.2. Empirical formulas for estimating the penetration rate This procedure is very simple and is based upon empi- tical formulas that were developed from field tests. They usually take into account the following parameters ~ Drilling diameter. = Pulldown force on the’bit ~ Rotary speed, and = Uniaxial compressive strength ‘The unknown parameter is the Compressive Strength, which can casily be determined by a field or laboratory test, from the Point Load Strength Index. In 1967, after investigation work was carried out in iron mining exploitations in Canada, A. Bauer and P Calder suggested the following equation:Rotary drilling with rolling tricone bits 61 tog = Kx lop. log— = K x log— ie BRC ry where: VP = Penetration rate (feet/hour), K = Factor that depends on the rock and varies between 1.4 and 1.75 for rocks with compressive strength in the range of 15.000 to 50.000 pounds per square inch, E = Pulldown force (pounds per inch of diameter), RC = Compressive rock strength (pounds per square inch). In 1971, Bauer modified the equation by introducing another parameter ~ rotary speed: VP = [61-28 k rox = x Ne = [61-28 lo; = Bi0, D* 300 where: VP = Penetration rate (feet/hour), RC = Com- pressive strength (thousands of pounds per square inch), EID = Unitary feed force (thousands of pounds per inch of diameter), N, = Rotary speed (r/min). This equation gives good results in the range of com- pressive strengths mentioned. In Fig. 4.25, there is a nomograph to calculate the penetration rate as function of the compressive strength. R. Praillet, in 1978, deducted the following empi- rical equation: 2.18 x Ex N, RC 10.000 VP = 0.2 x RC x D?? x where: VP = Penetration rate (m/h), E = Feed force (kg), N, = Rotary speed (t/min), RC = Compressive rock strength (MPa), D = Diameter of the roller tricone bit (mm). This formula is more reliable in the whole range of compressive rock strengths and permits calculation of the RC value in a working operation. petra mate restos PENETRATION RATE (FEET/HOUR) AT 89 rom * PULLOOWN PER ET OF OIAMETER (ha/nen) Fig. 4.26. Nomograph of penetration rates. And lastly, the manufacturers of roller tricone bits have drawn up simple nomographs where, in function with the compressive rock strength, the penetration rate can be calculated for a constant rotary speed of 60 r/min Fig. 4.26. 4.12.3 Average drilling rate ‘Once the penetration rate has been calculated, the average rate should be estimated after including the non- productive times and the mechanical availability of the machine which is usually 80%. It is calculated by the equation: VM = 2 x Vp06 where: VM = Average drilling rate (m/h), VP = Penetra- tion rate (mm/h). ‘Another more exact way of calculating VM is taking into account the individual non-productive times, dis- cussed before in the chapter on rotary percussive dril- ling. 4.13 CALCULATION OF DRILLING COSTS The drilling costs per meter drilled is calculated with the following equation: Cyt Cpt Cy + Cot Cet, + | i iI Fig. 4.25, Estimation of the Penetration Rate from the Compressive ‘Strength (Bauer and Calder). VM : where: Indirect costs; C, = Depreciation (S/h), C, = In- terest rates, taxes and insurance ($/h). Direct costs; Cy = Maintenance (S/h), Cg = Labor costs (S/h), Cz = Power costs (S/h), C, = Grease and lubrication (it), Cy = Bit, stabilizer and drill pipe ($/h), VM = Average drilling rate (m/h).62 Drilling and blasting of rocks 4.13.1 Depreciation The estimated operative life of these machines can be from 50,000 to 100.000 hours for electric rock drills and. from 16.000 to 30.000 hours for the diesel-hydraulic units mounted on trucks. In order to calculate the depre- ciation cost, the purchase price less the residual value is, divided by the number of estimated hours. Purchase price ~ Residual value Hours of operative life 4.13.2 Interest rates, insurance and taxes Most of the machinery is purchased with borrowed money, thus the interest rates must be taken into account, plus the insurance costs and taxes. In order to calculate the total, the following equation is used: Nel X Purchase price x % (interest + insurance + taxes) Ge ‘Work hours per year where: N = Number of years of service life. 4.13.3 Maintenance costs This includes repairs due to breakdown and those for preventative maintenance. It can be estimated by mul- tiplying the cost of the machine by 5 x 10° for electric rigs, and by 6 x 10° for diesel units. 4.13.4 Labor costs This corresponds to the cost/hour of the driller, including social security, vacations, etc., and also that of the helper, when necessary. 4.13.5 Power costs This cost can be electric or diesel energy, and itis caleu- lated from the engine specifications. 4.13.6 Oiland grease (lubrication) This cost is determined from the data supplied by the . ‘manufacturer, with reference tothe oil changes, hydraulic systems and carter or deposit capacity. The estimate is usually between 15 and 20% of the power costs. 4.13.7 Average rate ‘This is determined from the what was exposed in Section 12of this chapter. 4.13.8 Bit, stabilizer and drill pipe This is one of the critical areas, as there is a lack of previous information from the technicians, and also for its importance as its influence on drilling costs can run up from 15 to 40% of the total, depending upon the hardness of the rock. The service life of a tricone bit can be estimated from the following equation: 28.140 x DIS x E17 N, where: D = Diameter (inches), E = Pulldown force on the bit (thousands of pounds), N, = Rotary speed (r/min), VP = Penetration rate (mm/h) The drill pipes and stabilizers usually have an average life of 30.000 and 1 1.000 m, respectively. LIFE (m) = x3 VP 4.13.9 Example Ina mining operation, an electric drill is used with a total pulldown force of 70.000 pounds that drills rock with a compressive strength of 75 MPa, with a 9” (229 mm) diameter, The actual data of the operation are: ~ Feed force on the bit: 39.000 pounds. = Penetration rate: 34 m/h — Rotary speed: 60 r/min The purchase price of the equipment is 1.85 million dollars, and the administration wants to calculate the costs per lineal meter drilled. ‘The areas that make up the total cost are: 1,850,000 $ p q =———— = 23.12 $/h (without residual 80,000 h value) Bx 1.85 x 10S x 0.2 o—______ = 46.60 $n 4.300h where: Cyp = 1.85 x 108 x 5 x 10° = 92.50 $/h, Co = 26.00 $/h, Cz = 185 kW/h x 0.13 $/kW = 24.05 $/h, C= 0.2 x Cp = 4.81 S/h, Indirect Costs = C, + C, = 69.72$/h, Direct Costs = Cy + Co + Cz + C,, = 147.36 $/h, VM =2 x 34°65 = 19.8 nh. Life of the roller tricone bit 28,140 x 9155 x 39-167 60 750 == = 1.496 $/m (Tricone bit) 3,174 x3x34=3.174m Ca G _ 0.256 $/m (Stabilizer) = = 0.256 $/m (Stabilizer) "11,000 CG, aaa 0.108 $/m (Drill pipe) = 0,108 $/m (Drill pi ® "30,000 aleRotary drilling with rolling tricone bits 63 Ca = Car + Can + Coy = 1.86 $/m 69.72 + 147.36 19.8 + 1.86 = 12.82 $/m = REFERENCES Baver, A.: Drilling and Blasting. Bucyrus Erie. 1979. Bemaola, J; Prediccién de la Velocidad de Perforacién a Percusién ‘mediante Ensayo de Laboratorio sobre Muestras de Roca. Tesis Doctoral E.T.S. Ingenieros de Minas de Madrid. 1984, Chitwood, B. & Norman, N.E.: Blasthole Drilling Economics: a Look at the Cost Behind the Cost. E/M.1. June, 1979. Chugh, C.P: Manual of Drilling Technology. 1985. Herranz, F: Perforacién Rotativa en Mineria a Cielo Abierto. N.R. 1973. Lauwell, G.W.: The Pro's and Con’s of Rotary Blasthole Design. Mining Engineering. June-July 1978. Lopez Jimeno, C. y E. La Perforacin Rotatva con Triconos. 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