UNIT 2 ASPECTS AND ISSUES

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to :
• understand the need and importance of Technological Change, Technology Life
Cycles and Technological Transformation;
• know what is appropriate technology and the criterion for its selection;
• understand the need and role of technology policies and policy instruments;
• analyse technology development options and strategies available to an
organisation;
• appreciate the importance of linkage between technology issues and socio-
economic planning process; and
• know about some of the considerations that govern the technology development
and management.

Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Technological Change
2.3 Technology Life Cycle
2.4 Diffusion and Growth of Technologies
2.5 Technological Transformation
2.6 Technological Alternatives
2.7 Appropriate Technology
2.8 Technology Policy and Policy Instruments
2.9 Technology Planning
2.10 Technology Development Options and Strategies
2.11 Technology and Socio-economic Planning
2.12 Summary
2.13 Key Words
2.14 Self-assessment Questions
2.15 Further Readings

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In the first unit we discussed the concepts and definitions related to Technology and
Technology Management at national and enterprise levels. In this unit we will
discuss some of the issues and aspects concerned with technology. These aspects
include Technological Change, Technology Life Chain, Diffusion and Growth of
Technology, Technological Transformation and Technology Alternatives,
Appropriate Technology, Technology Policy and Policy Instruments, Planning,
Development Options and Strategies, etc. There are many more issues, some of
which have been discussed in other units at relevant places. As mentioned earlier in
the first unit, Technology and Technology Management are complex subjects and
have several dimensions and implications. While it is difficult to cover all of these
dimensions or implications, we have attempted to cover some basic issues which
should pro.vide a fairly good understanding of the subject and enable an executive to
deal with matters concerned with technology management more effectively.

2.2 TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE

Technological growth is the result of new inventions and innovations. Every

invention is something new and in most cases it is a combination of already existing
technological elements. An invention becomes innovation when applied for the first
time. An innovation which has little disruptive impact on behaviour pattern is called
a continuous innovation (e.g. fluoride tooth paste). In such cases alteration of an
19
 ----------------------------------=------------------------------------------------- ...
Technology: Issues and existing product rather than creation of a new product is involved. There are also
ImpUcations dynamically c~ntinuous innovations which do not involve new consumption patterns
but involve the creation of a new product or the alteration of the existing one (e.g.
electrical tooth brush). Further, there are discontinuous innovations which involve
the establishment of new behaviour patterns and the creation of previously unknown
products such as automobiles, televisions, computers etc. -

The process of technological change is clearly linked to innovation. Technological

change occurs through substitution and diffusion, The simplest form of technological
substitution occurs when a new technology captures over a period of time a
substantial share of the market from an existing older technology. The new
technology is better and economically more viable. Thus after it has gained sma1\
market share, it is likely to become more competitive with time. Therefore, once a
substitution has begun, it is highly profitable to eventua1\y take over the available
market. This is a simple one-to-one technological substitution process. A good
example is the introduction of colour television in place of black and white
television. Diffusion has been discussed elsewhere in this unit as we1\ as in Unit'S,

There is a broad spectrum of factors which can have an impact on the process of
substitution and diffusion. These can be broadly classified into (a) factors affecting
the demand for a technology; and (b) factors affecting the supply of a technology.
We shall discuss implications of technological change in greater depth in the next
unit.

2.3 TECHNOLOGY LIFE CYCLE

The life span of various technologies can be conveniently identified as consisting of

four distinct stages, all of which taken together form the 'Technologs ItIife Cycle'.
The stages of technology life cycle are innovation, syndication, diffusion, and
substitution.
Innovation stage: This stage represents the birth of a new product, material or
process resulting from R&:D activities. In R&D laboratories, new ideas are generated
by 'need pull' and 'knowledge push' factors. Depending upon the resource allocation
and .also the change element, the rime taken in the innovation stage as well as in the
subsequent stages vanes widely. You will recall we had discussed the terms
"innovation" and "invention" in the previous Unit. .

Syndication stage: This stage represents the demonstration (pilot production) and
commercialisation of a new technology (product, material or process) with potential
for immediate utilisation. Many innovations are shelved in R&D laboratories. Only a
very smal\ percentage of these are commercialised .. Commercialisation of research
outcomes depends on technical as wel\ as non-technical (mostly economic) factors.

Diffusion stage: This represents the market penetration of a new technology through
acceptance of the innovation by potential users of the technology. But supply and
demand side factors jointly influence the rate of diffusion.

Substitution stage: This last stage represents the decline in the use and eventual
extension of a technology due to replacement by another technology. Many technical
and non-technical factors influence the rate of substitution. The time taken in the
substitution stage depends on the market dynamics.

2.4 DIFFUSION AND GROWTH OF

TECHNOLOGIES

There is another way of looking at the technology life from the prespective of growth,
and diffusion.

Every technology eventually reaches a decline phase owing to the development of

better technologies (in terms of perforrnanceand/ or cost). In other words
technological change occurs through 'substitution '. The process of technological
 advancement through substitution is shown schematically in Fig. L 1. Most . Aspects and Issues
technologiesfollow an S-shaped growth pattern. However, it has also been observed
that, although 'Ilparticular technology eventually reaches a stage where it has limited
use, new technologies are developed to achieve further growth with respect to any
particular 'figure of merit' (i.e. index of particular requirement). For example, if one
takes the speed of passenger travel as a 'figure of ~it', then Technology T I, is a
propellor aircraft, T 2 is the turbo prop aircraft and T.l is the jet aircraft. Each of
these technologies normally shows an S-shaped improvement over time. Moreover,
the overall growth of these successive technologies (representing a system of high
order, characterised by a succession of discontinuous innovations) also exhibits an
S-shaped growth pattern.

Tcchology
"1'3"

., / Technology
"Tt"

.....-:: A
,."/
____ TIME!

f1aur. 1.1 : S1ba •••••aro ••••• or •••••• 010&1 ••

-...: TeclInoIooyfor DeveIopmentJuN.ESCAP;1984.il>j7.

The hardware intensive technology diffusion process can be considered to consist of

five phases (Figure 2.2). The first is the 'incubation phase' where many ideas are
gradually reduced to one commercial product for introduction into the market. Next,
is the 'introduction phase' where the applications of the new technology are very
slow. Later when the number of applications increase rapidly, the technology is in its
"growth phase". After sometime its growth reduces and some stability can be
observed in the 'maturity phase'. Finally, an improved substitution makes the
technology obsolete, and hence it enters the 'decline phase'. It may be noted,
however, that time taken for these different patterns varies widely. The introduction,
growth and maturity phases of a technology are also referred to as the three major
stages of 'Technology Life Cycle'.

Incubation Introduction Growth Decline

~~--------i-----------+---------T~======~+---------;
'O§
l~
§:a.
zg.

---I~~ Time

t'llur. 1.2 ': I·h•••• In ,he lechnololY dlrrwdon pr••••••

Source: Technology for Development, UN·ESCAP, 1984'1! 7,

, ~ctivity 1- "
'bi'scuss the "Technology Life Chain" of anyone of the processes or products
concerned with your organisation or any other you know of, indicating the stage of
the technology at which the products or processes are located .•"
" .
21
••••••••••••• e .••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
 T«hnology: Issues and
ImpUcations 2.5 TECHNOLOGICAL TRANSIFORMATION ! 1

It is recognised that it is neither possible nor desirable to try to develop technology

in every sector when one talks of building up indigenous technology. Nevertheless, it
may highly desirable that in carefully selected areas of production there is a vertical
integration with respect to all stages of technological transformation necessary to put
a product on the market, starting from the natural resources.

A schematic presentation of the stages of technological transformation in the

production of goods is presented in Figure 2.3. The presentation is simplistic and it
only illustrates the basic point of technology planning. Everything starts from nature
and eventually goes to the market. In between there are five major stages of
transformation. The first stage is called the 'collective stage' and includes such
operations as extracting, mining and farming. Stage two can be called 'refining stage'
and includes operations such as purification, preservation and metallurgy.
"Processing' call be deemed as third stage where chemical and electrical conversions
take place. The fourth stage is the 'manufacturing stage' which refers to all kinds of
mechanical conversions and fabrications. The last stage is 'packaging stage', where
things .are assembled and packaged for dispatch to the markets. There are
considerable variations in the technology content added to the product at each of
these five stages. -

Stages of technological Technology

transfcrmation Technology content Content
added to of the
the product transformation
facilities
Nature

-~ l Collecting ... .
• Extracting Very
Low
v;'" • Mining high
• Farming

-•..
~
'"
-
- Refining

• Purifying
• Preserving
•••••

High High
Vl
• Metallurgy

-
5
~
, Processing

• Chemical and
electrical
t-.
Very
high
Very
very
.high
Vl
conversion

-
>
l
u
- Manufacturing

• Mechanical
conversion
!iigh High

and fabrication
.
Packaging. 1--0-.
>u Very
•..:
Vl
• Assembling
• Containerizing
,High
high

( Market )
I'I&UR1.3 : 'v. ,Iales or lechnoloeical Iransrormallon In Ih. prodUClionor loods

22 ~_•• -e: Technc'ogy for Developmenl UN-ESCAP,1984 P 11.

Attivity 1 Aspedl and Issues
Identify the stage of technology transformation of a product/ process manufactured
by your company or any other company you are familiar with, and give the reasons .
.................................................................................................
......................... , .

2.6 TECHNOLOGICAL ALTERNATIVES

Nations that spend relatively large amounts on R&D in an industry tend to be.
relatively quick in ·reapmg the benefits of new technology, even though they may not
be the original innQ\ii{~rs. Both for nations and the individual firms, R&D provides
a window to dev~Opments in various parts of the outside world, enabling the nation
or the firm to evaluate external developments and react more quickly to them. For
the developing countries most important question is that of making strategic choices
regarding the areas of specialisation. This is a complex task because of innumerable
choices and alternatives for each area of technology. To illustrate, in the area of
energy and materials technology, alternative objectives can be: more efficient use of
energy or materials; natural resources surveys; new and renewable energy resources;
non-conventional sources of energy; widening the raw materials base, conversion and
recycling of raw materials. .
The alternative field of activities can be : production of consumer services with less
consumption of energy and raw materials, evolutionary replacement of metals and
alloys by ceramics, composites and polymers, anti-corrosion through surface
treatment, coal utilization including gasification; construction materials, etc.

2.7 APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY

Technology is a product of an R&D centre outfit or establishment. However,
different R&D centres produce different technologies for achieving the same or
similar goals. This is because of differing environments and surroundings and other
conditions, viz .• population, resources, economic, technological, environmental,
socio-cultural, and politico-legal systems. The objective functions used in the
development of technology could also be different at different places.

, Inappropriate because
of changed surroundings
Same place
different time ) and/or objectives
Inappropriate owing to
different surroundings
Different time
and place
\ J and/or objectives

Still appropriate for

Still appropriate similar surroundings
owing to no change and objectives
in surroundings
and objectives

In appropriate owing
Appropriate with to different
respect to surroundings surrounding and/or
and objectives objectives

Still appropriate
Place and time for similar
. of original same time
surroundings and
application different place
objectives .

F~aun 1.4 : Appropriate and inappropriate tecbDOlope.

s.nr. Tec:bnolosYfor Dev~1opment UN-ESCAP, 1984,p'~.
Technology: Issues and Figure. 2.4 illustrates- the concept of appropriate and inappropriate technologies. Any
ImpUeations technology is 'appropriate' at the time of development, with respect to the .
surroundings for which it has been developed, and in accordance with the objective
function used for development. It mayor may not be appropriate at the same place
at a different time, because the surroundings and/ or objective functions may have
changed. Similarly it mayor may not be appropriate at a different place at the same
time, or at different times, because the surroundings and objective' function mav be
different. Thus, technological appropriateness is not an intrinsic quality of any
technology, but it is derived from the surroundings in which it is to be utilised and
also from the objective function used for evaluation. It is, in addition, a value
judgement of those involved.

The surroundings differ not only from place to place but also over time. With the
passage of time and application of technologies almost all elements of the
surroundings change for better or worse. Although in general two surroundings are
unlikely to be identical, for any particular technology many apparently different
surroundings may in fact be considered similar.

The following examples will illustrate the concept of appropriateness of technologies:

I) OOTwas an appropriate pesticide at the place and time of original application.
However, after sometime it became inappropriate even at the place of origin and
the pesticide is banned in industrialised countries. DOT is still considered to be
appropriate in many developing countries as the specific surroundings and
objectives are collectively judged to be similar to those of the place and time of
original application.
2) Coal based technology for power generation was very appropriate at one time,
but became inappropriate due to technological substitution process. Now with
further change in the surroundings (with respect to resource aspect particularly)
the coal based technology has become appropriate again. Because of the changes
in the surroundings, technologies once labelled inappropriate can become
appropriate technologies in the future.
3) Technologies such as electric tooth btush, cable car etc. are appropriate only in a
few places and inappropriate in many other places because of the surroundings.
4) Technologies embodied in drugs, such as, antibiotics, vaccines. contraceptive
pills are appropriate aIJ through the world because the specific surroundings
include mostly human body and, therefore, are somewhat similar.

Some of the accepted criteria for selecting appropriate technologies in the

contemporary situation are considered below:
It should primarily aim at meeting the basic needs of rural people; it should be
capable of absorbing large labour force, -preserve existing traditional jobs, low
cost and require low levels of skills;
It should provide viable means for smaIJ scale production operations;
It should consume lesser energy;
It should be capable of using indigenous raw materials and services;
It should provide for waste recycling and should be non-polluung;
It should be consistent with local culture;
It should be compatible with social system,
'.
It should be acceptable to the political system.
Activity 3
Do you think the products/ processes with which your organisation is concerned are
based on Appropriate Technology? Give reasons .

• • • • • • • • • • • • ~ ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• " •••••••••• , •• $ •••••••

", ',.
ill.' •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• t., .\, •••••••••••• t,O

..............................................................................................
. '

........................................................................
..•••••••••••••• , ••• 0:,.& •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••..••••••••••••••••
?A
 Aspects and Issues
2.8 TECHNOLOGY POLICY AND POLICY
INSTRUMENTS

The need for technology policy springs from an explicit commitment to a national
goal and the acceptance of technology as an important strategic variable in the
development process. Technology policy formulation ought to naturally follow the
establishment of a development vision or perspective plan. This plan is characterized,
among others, by a desired mix of the goods to be produced and services to be
\
provided in the country in the coming one or two decades. The formulation of a
technology policy begins with. the establishment of a vision for the country and the
corresponding scenario of the mix of goods and services to be produced and
provided. The policy framework has to be broad and flexible enough, taking into
account the dynamics of change.

A technology policy is a comprehensive statement by the highest policy making body

(Cabinet/ Parliament) in the Government to guide, promote and regulate the .\
generation, acquisition, development and deployment of technology and science in
solving national problems or achieving national objectives set forth in the
development vision or perspective plan.

The principal aims and objectives of a technology policy are to acquire the
technology and essential technological capabilities for the production of goods and
services as envisaged or set forth in the vision for the country. The policy statement
includes the expression of a desire to develop a national capacity for autonomous
decision making in technological matters. The policy document includes the
principles on which the envisaged technological development is to be based. Such
. principles include, among others, considerations of preservation and improvement of
environment, satisfaction of basic needs, promotion of self-reliance, creating mass
involvement, etc.

The technology policy declaration usually contains several commitments on behalf of

the Government and some categorical assurances .. The policy, among other things,
commits the authority to ensure:
• Establishment of institutional facilities for relevant knowledge dissimination and
skill development for stepwise absorption of imported technology.
• Provision of facilities for productive utilisation of research results and generation
of indigenous technology.
• Development of support facilities like information and documentation services,
standardisation and quality control.
• Adequate support to emerging technologies with an eye on future utilisation in
production sector.
• An optimal blend of indigenous and imported
.
technology.

The Indian Government had announced a comprehensive Technology Policy

Statement in 1983, the details of which are given in unit 10.

Policy Instruments
Policy instruments are the links between the expressed purpose and the results that
are sought in practice. There are both direct and indirect policy instruments. The
direct ones refer explicitly to technology functions and activities. The indirect ones,
although primarily referring to policies, functions or activities other than technology,
have an important indirect effect on S&T activities. A policy instrument is a complex
entity and may directly or indirectly affect activities or influence the results of
resource deployment. Different policy instruments are listed below:
• Policy instruments to build up S&T infrastructure.
• Policy instruments to regulate technology import.
• Policy instruments to define the pattern of demand for technology.
• Policy instruments to promote the performance of S&T activities in the
enterprises.
• Policy instruments to support the performance of S&T activities.
Techllll)logy: Issues and Technology policy influences the activities of different segments, agencies or
Implications departments of the government and has a direct bearing on various sectors of the
economy. The formulation of a technology policy is further complicated by the
necessity of its integration with the national development policy. The policy
formulation mechanism would vary from country to country depending on its social
values, political system and prevailing economic conditions. Technology policy
formulation largely depends on the political will of the government to take the
initiative. The govenment may ask an advisory body / committee/ ministry to draft an
S&T policy which may lead to an S&T Plan for integration into a national socio-
economic plan. In India the Science Advisory Council to the Prime Minister and the
Cabinet are the S&T policy making bodies. The policies are implemented through
the various departments in the Ministry of Science & Technology and other S&T
and Technical Departments.

Activity 4
Attempt as suggested below:
i) First, gather the information regarding recent changes in the industrial policy
which have a bearing on the flow of technology into India.

ii) Then, arrange a meeting with a knowledgeable person of your organisation and
discuss with him how these changes would affect your organisation, in the short
and the long run.

2.9 TECHNOLOGY PLANNING

With the emerging role of technology as a masterkey for development, 'integration of

technological considerations in the national socio-economic development, planning
process and strengthening of national capabilities for effective importation,

Deve"-l'ing cpuntries Developed Countries

•• StagCSlOf
development

Ffaure 1.5 : Chanpns In the structure of the economy with technoloalcal advancement

26 Souree: L.l1nology for Development tiN-ESCAP, 1984, p,26.

 c

generation and utilisation of technologies have become imperative. There are no Aspects and Issues
unified technology planning procec. .es; however, the objectives of technology plans
are usually expressed as under:
a) Importation, adaptation and modification 'of technologies produced elsewhere.
b) Advancement of technology development capability in the country.
c) Creation of a climate for the acceptance of the need for technological change.

Common procedures followed include macro level planning, micro level planning
and project level planning. Several problems are normally experienced in the
procedure. At the national level there is a dominant concern regarding the
unemployment aspects of technological change. It is important to realise that all
processes of modernisation and change result in some structural unemployment. The
employment situation changes continuously with the advancement of technology
(Figure 2.5). Therefore, it is essential to explore opportunities for achieving
structural changes and expansion of the base of production facilities.

Some of the important points for effective technology planning at the national level
are as under:
a) It is essential that the planning for technology should be kept as a dynamic
process.
b) Shift from import substitution of consumer goods to capital goods and then
import substitution of technology itself which is a difficult one and requires
careful planning.
c) The dimension of time is particularly critical for technology development;
development of technological capabilities requires a long gestation period.
d) In the early stages of development, protection of local technological efforts is
essential, but this should gradually be withdrawn.
e) Fostering competition and market orientation is very important for technology
development.
f) The will to solve one's own political and administrative problems and financial
commitments at the highest nauonal level is a necessary precondition for the
preparation of any useful technology plan.

2.10 TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS AND

STRATEGIES
For all the countries, the most practical strategy for technology development-is to
'make some and buy some'. This gives the advantage of selecting an appropriate area
of specialisation and the potential to exploit the !echnology trade in the international
market place.
'"
The complex process of technology development is schernatically presented- in
Figure 2.6.
The technological needs are derived from national socio-eeonomic goals. A \country's
technology development strategy is then determined by combining these identified
technological needs with potential technological developments in the world and a
thorough assessment of available and emerging technologies. Then the country
determines a strategy to import technologies which it cannot practically develop itself
and identifies technologies which can be produced 'ccally. Now, there is a universal
realisation that unless a concerted attempt is made to build local technological
capabilities for absorbing imported technologies, any attempt to develop indigenous
technologies encounters enormous difficulties. Even with regard to imported
technology, it is essential for a country to be able to select, diges~apt and
improve it for local consumption. All of these efforts justify greater priority and
allocation of resources to R&D. A pre-requisite for effective utilisation of R&D
resources is the development of technological infrastructure within the country,
including institution building, manpower development, provision of support facilities
and creation of an innovative climate.

The following general principles with regard to the planning for development of,
indigenous technological capabilities may be kept in view: !
, Technology: Issues and i) It is important to be selective in self-development of technology. Emphasis
ImplicatiQJls should be given to total integration of all activities in the technology. production
chain to achieve self-reliance.
ii) In selecting areas for development, a country can be inward-looking in some
areas and outward-looking in sOl"e other areas.
iii) Import substitution can only be a temporary strategy.
iv) In the technology production chain, a number of activities involving basic and
applied research can be undertaken, but it is important to .be able to discard
some of the non-productive projects and concentrate, from time to time, upon
those which have high commercial potential.
v) Technology development is best achieved through collective effort. Individuality,
which tends to aim at being unique rather than practical, should be minimised.

National Soclo-economic
development goals
!
~--'I
Technology Technological Technolog,; L
assessment needs

-
forecasting
i
I I
General strategy for technology
development

Make those technologies

Buy those technologies , for which resources
which are impractical and capabUities
to self-develop are available

.
RandD
"\ , BuUd·up
r RandD

C
technological
efforts
effori.: c,apabWties

-,.-
• Improve
• Select

1\
traditional
• Digest /
innovative technologies
• Adapt ' Manpower
dlmate • Produce
• Improve
Imported Dew
technologies technologies

Support
Instihitions facUlties

I I I I
Englneerina Infol',atlon Service 'Marketing
system .ystelm .ystems System

•.'llure • I) : The process of Te£hnololY Development

,28 Source: l";chnology for Development, UN·ESCAP 1984, R30.

Activity 5
Aspects IInd Issues
What kind of Technology Development Strategy is followed in your organisation or
any other organisation you are familiar with? Discuss the merits and demerits of the
strategy .
..... ..... ....... .... .......... .... . ....... . ....... .• ...........~ .

......... ...... .... .. . .................~ .

..................... .

2.11 TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC

PLANNING

Successful integration of technological considerations into the socio-economic

planning process is very essential. It is necessary that the national development
strategies should include specifically the dimension of technology development. In
developed countries there are adequate pressures for technological considerations
within the various sectors of their economies. But in developing countries; . .
integration of technological considerations with economic planning at the highest
level is required in order to achieve technology-oriented devel~pment in priority
sectors. Figure 2.7 presents a general framework for integrating the technological
considerations in the national development planning process.

Internal Foreign
technological technological
sources sources

Regulation
and balance of
technology Socio-economic
considerations
supply

Technological
considerations

Regulation and
National
balance of
development
technology
planning
demand

Internal Foreign
technological technological
market market

f'IIUR 2.7 : Inte&rMtion or technologicMI considerations in n.lional d eve lopment phtnning

SoIIree: Technology for Development, UN·ESCAP, 1984, p)4.

 Teehnolog" : Issues and The integration of technological aspects should extend significantly beyond mere
Implications
screening of imported technologies to the formulation of policies and guidelines.
They must be directed to generate and promote demand f~-'ocal technologies and
technological capabilities. Moreover, the insertion of technological considerations in
socio-economic development planning involves both the explicit introduction of the
technology issue at all phases of the planning process and identification of implicit
technology policies derived from the national development plans.

2.12 SUMMARY

Technology and its development is vital to the economic growth of a nation and its
enterprises. Therefore, it is important to understand the various aspects related to
technology. The aspects discussed in this unit include: technology life chain;
diffusion and growth of technology, appropriate technology, technology policy and
policy -instruments, technology planning, and development options and strategies.
Appropriate technology is a function of requirements at a given point of time in a
given environment, and several options are available to an enterprise to acquire such
technologies which would call for a strategy at corporate level. Technology planning
. and its linkage with social system is also important at national as well as enterprise
level. The other aspects include technology financing and financial returns,
technology audit, technology assessment and forecasting, technology information
systems, technology transfermechanisms, technology intelligence, intellectual
property systems, and so on. Many of these aspects have been discussed in detail in
other units of this course. Technology 'management involves the knowledge and
appreciation of all these aspects at the enterprise level, to remain competitive and to
achieve sustained growth.

2.13 KEY WORDS

Technology Life Cycle: Denotes a period of time during which a particular

technology after it has been introduced becomes obsolete or is overtaken by a newer
technology, and hence its utility or returns start declining.
Technological Transformation: The processes and/ or activities that transform
materials and components to usable products and services.
Appropriate Technology: A technology that is appropriate at a given point of time
for a given requirement under a set of conditions.
Technology Planning: Identification of future strategies and measures for
development, acquisition and use of technologies consistent with national
considerations.
\.

Tecbnolcgteal Needs and Strategies: Technological needs are derived from national
'socio-economic goals. Technology strategy is determined by considering the
identified needs with potential technological developments and an assessment of
available technologies consistent with country's capabilities or resources.

2.14 SELF·ASSESSMENT QUESTIO~

1) Define and explain the 'process of technological change and technology life
.chain. .
. -
2) What is appropriate technology? Discuss its various aspects and critically
comment on the concept.
3) Discuss some of tile aspects and issues concerned with technology. Discuss the
relevance of any two aspects with special reference to your organisation.
4) Comment on the role of technohgy in socio-economic planning.
5) Discuss various factors that may govern the choice of a particular technology
out of the various available alternatives. Illustrate with a suitable example.
 Aspeds and1_
6) Discuss the role of technology policies and policy instruments in achieving
industrial and economic developmental goals.
7) What could be the possible options for technology development a-n<r-acqulsition
at the enterprise level'! Discuss with reference to your own organisation or any
organisation you are familiar with.
8) Discuss the role of Technology Policy and Policy Instruments with reference to
Technology Management at enterprise level.

2.15 FURTHER READINGS

Choi, H.S. (ed.), 1984, Industrial Research in the Less Developed Countries, UN
ESCAP Regional Centre for Technology Transfer, Bangalore.
Human Resource Development: Its Technological Dimensions, 1986,
UN ESCAP Report.
Sharif, Nawaz, 1983, Management of Technology Transfer and Development. UN
ESCAP Regional Centre for Technology Transfer.
Sharif, M.N., 1986, Technology Policy Formulation and Planning: A reference
manual, Asian and Pacific Centre for Transfer of Technology.
Technology for Development, 1984, Study report by the ESCAP Secretanai for the
40th Session of the Commission.