Addis College

Department of Civil Engineering

Irrigation Engineering Lecture Note

For Online Learning

Engidayehu Ch

October, 2020
 Chapter one
Introduction
DEFINITION, NECESSITY AND SCOPE OF IRRIGATION

Irrigation is the science of artificial application of

water to the land, in accordance with the crop
requirements throughout the crop period for full
nourishment of the crops.

It is the Engineering of controlling and binding the

various natural sources of water, by construction of
dams & reservoirs, canals & head works and
finally distributing the water to irrigable land.
Necessity of irrigation:

Generally the following are some of the factors that

necessitate irrigation.
 Inadequate rainfall
 Uneven distribution of Rainfall
 Increasing the yield of the crops
 Growing a number of crops
 Insuring against drought.
 Growing perennial crops.
Scope of Irrigation Engineering
 Various aspects of Irrigation Engineering are:
1. Water resources and hydrology aspect
2. Engineering Aspect
3. Agricultural aspect
4. Management Aspect
 BENEFITS & ILL-EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION
Benefits of irrigation
 Increase in food production
 Elimination of mixed cropping
 General prosperity
 Generation of hydroelectric power
 Domestic water supply
 Facilities of communication

Ill-effects of irrigation
 Water logging
 Long term application of pesticides
 Outbreak of disease
 Complex and expensive
 Functions of Irrigation water

1. It adds water to the soil to supply the moisture essential

for plant growth
2. Some salt present in soil react to produce nourishing
food products only in the presence of water
3. Water cools the soil and the atmosphere and thus makes
more favorable environment for healthy plant growth.
4. Irrigation water, with controlled supplies, washes out or
dilutes salts in the soil
5. It reduces the hazard of soil piping.
6. It softens tillage pans
STANDARDS OF IRRIGATION WATER
Every water is not suitable for irrigation.

The quality of irrigation water is very much

influenced by the contents of the soil, which is
to be irrigated.
Irrigation water may be said to be unsatisfactory for use
if it contains:
• Chemicals toxic to plants or the persons using that plant
as food
• Chemicals that react with the soil to produce
unsatisfactory moisture x-cs.
• Bacteria injurious to persons or animals eating plants
irrigated with water.
 Feasibility studies of irrigation projects
Types of Irrigation projects
Based on the scope of the irrigation project, irrigation projects can be classified as:
a) Large scale
b) Medium scale
c) Small scale
Irrigation projects and their development costs
Type of project Command area Development cost*
(ha) U.S dollars/ha
Average cost Range in cost
Large scale >10,000 16,000 5,000-50,000
Medium scale 2,000-10,000 9,000 4,000-15,000
Small scale <2,000 4,000 1,000-6,500

* Source: FAO, 1995.

Note: In Ethiopia, Small scale irrigations are those which have command areas <200 ha,
medium scale 200-3000 ha And large scale >3000 ha.
, Ethiopia has a total potentially irrigable area of about 3.64,Million ha.
which is 27.55% of the total cultivable area. From which
o For small scale irrigation 165,000-400,000 ha.
o For medium and large scale irrigation 3,300,000 ha

. Stages of investigations in the development of irrigation projects

Basically, the development of water resources for irrigation requires

conception,
planning,
design,
construction, and operation of various facilities to utilize and
control water and to maintain water quality.

 Investigations of the development of irrigation projects need multi-

disciplinary approach. Specialists of different disciplines, such as,
Soil and water specialist, Engineers (Irrigation and civil),
Agronomist, Geologist, and Socio-economist required.
+

The common procedures adopted in the development of an

irrigation project are:
1. Sites are located on the top sheet.
2. The marked sites are inspected (reconnaissance) to decide their
feasibility.
3. The feasibility investigations are carried out for one or more of
the possible alternatives and estimates based approximate details
are prepared.
4. Detailed investigations are then taken up and technical sanctions
are granted.
5. After the technical sanction, agency of execution (i.e., contractor)
is fixed and construction started.
 Con’t…

When the idea of an irrigation project is conceived (after

reconnaissance survey), the data to be collected at the
feasibility study stage are:
1. Physical data: Location, size, physiography (description of land
only physical aspects), climate, etc.
2. Hydrological data: Precipitation, Evaporation, transpiration, stream
flow, sediment, water quality etc.
3. Agricultural data: Land classification, crop water requirements,
types of crops etc
4. Geological data: Rock & Soil types, ground water, minerals,
erosion, etc.
5. Cartographic data: Topographic & other maps of the area.
.
 cont…

6. Ecological data: Types of vegetation, fish & wild life.

7. Demographic data: Population statistics, data of people etc
8. Economic data: Means of transportation, market, land taxes, etc.
9. Legal data: Water rights, land ownership administrative pattern,
10. Data in existing project: Types of Location of various projects.
11. Data on public opinion: Opinions of different section of the
society
12. Flood control data: Records of past flood, extent of damage
caused, drainage requirements etc.
Information to be collected includes
1. Land resources
The four basic features of land suitability for irrigated
agriculture are
 Irrigable terrain (land forms)
 Potentially fertile soil
 A climate in which the crop can develop well & be healthy
 A reliable source of water of consistent and quality

2. Water resources
• Surface water
• ground water supplies
 3. The Engineering aspect
Focuses on the development of a source of water for irrigation
and construction of various structures for storage, diversion,
conveyance and application of water.
These includes investigations of
 Site selection and Design of a reservoir , dam & Design of
diversion head.
 Alignment for canal system (lay outs for canal)
 Alignment for field channels.
 Study of sub–surface conditions that affect the design and
construction of a proposed structures.
 the mechanical properties of the soil at foundation levels.
 Construction materials including, soil and sand, rock and
aggregate, cement,
4. Social and Economical aspects.
The Various items considered in benefit/cost relationships are.:
a) Costs
 Capital cost of the project
 Interest on Capital
 Depreciation
 Operational and maintenance cost of project
b) Benefits
 Agricultural production in the project area before and after taking up
the project (irrigation).
 Cost of cultivation before and after irrigation (cost of inputs viz.
Seeds, manure, labor, irrigation machines and implement etc).
Then
B. C ratio =

>1.5 for economically justified project.

Other aspects to be considered
o Organization and management aspects.
o Further expansion potential of the project.
o Environmental Surveys (Environmental Impact Assessment, EIA)
 Chapter -2
Soil-Water-Plant Relationships
 Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Soil-Water-Plant Relationships relate the properties

of the soil that affect the movement, retention and
use of water.
It can be divided & treated as:
Soil-Water relation
Soil-plant relation
Plant- Water relation
 Soils for agronomist are the storehouse of
water, nutrients and air which are necessary for
plant growth.

 Plants need water – soil stores this water and

the atmosphere provides some amount of
energy for the water to be withdrawn by plants.
 The water stored in the soil pore is known as
the soil moisture content
 Plants absorb water mainly through their roots and
use only 1.0 to 1.5% of absorbed water for building
their vegetative structures and performing various
physiological and biochemical activities.
 Then where does the rest 98.5 % - 99% of water
absorbed from soil goes …???

 Study of the process of water transport in soil, from

soil to the plan and from the plants to the
atmosphere are the basics of irrigation
 Important in Irrigation is
when to irrigate and how much to irrigate
 Both excess and deficit soil water affects plant
growth and hence result in yield reduction
 Soil – Water Relationship
Physical properties of soils
 Soil is the natural material that covers the land surface of
the earth.
 Which is formed by a combination of natural processes
with the influences of climate, vegetation, parent material,
and time.
 Soil is a three-phase system constituting solid, liquid and
gases.
 The minerals and organic matters in soil together
constitute the solid phase
 The total soil volume occupied by solid soil and that
occupied by the pore space has significant effect in limiting
ability of soil to store water
 A typical silt loam soil contains about 50% soil solids, 30%
water and 20% air.
Three phase diagram of a soil profile

Water film

Air space

Soil particles

Figure 2.1: Diagram showing cross section of soil

 I.Soil Texture
 Soil texture refers to the relative size of soil particles in a
given soil.
 According to their size soils particles are grouped into
sand, silt and clay
 The relative sizes of soil (sand silt and clay) as Classified
by
 the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
 the International Soil Science Society (ISSS)
are shown on table below
Size limits of soil separates
Soil separates Particle diameter (mm)
USDA ISSS
Very course sand 2.0 - 1.0 -
Course sand 1.0 - 0.5 2.0 - 0.2
Medium sand 0.50 - 0.25 -
Fine sand 0.25 - 0.10 0.20 - 0.02
Very fine sand 0.10 - 0.05 -
Silt 0.05 - 0.002 0.02 - 0.002
Clay < 0.002 < 0.002
 The percentage content of soil separates in a soil is
determined by mechanical analysis.
 Based on the percentage content of sand, silt and clay
present, the textural class of a soil is determined by using the
triangular diagram

USDA textural triangle

Sandy soils
have greater proportion of large sized particles and hence
commonly termed as coarse or light soils
They have usually a low water holding capacity and low
cation exchange capacity
Clay soil
has a high percentage of fine particles and is referred to as
fine or heavy soils
clay soils hold more water than sandy soil and they have
cations exchange capacity
Loamy soil
have almost equal amount of sand and clay is called
medium textured soil
movement of water, air and roots is easy and water retention
is adequate
They have most favorable conditions for plant growth by providing good
soil drainage and aeration as well as more available water and nutrients.
Fine sand

Moisture Status: 25-50% 50-75% 75-100%

Loam soils (sandy clay loam , loam , silt loam)

 Clay soils

Moisture Status: 25-50% 50-75% 75-100%

II. Soil Structure
 It refers the Arrangement and organization of soil particles in
the soil and
 The tendency of individual soil particles to bind together into
aggregates.
 The arrangements of soil aggregates give soil its structure.
Soil Structure development is influenced by:
Amount and type of clay, exchangeable ions on the clay
 Amount and type of organic matter
 Amount and type of inorganic matter
 Presence of iron and aluminum oxides (cementing agents)
 Vegetation: produces OM, roots act as holding soil
together, and protects soil surface
The overall quality of the soil structure may be evaluated
in terms of its:
 Porosity,
 Aggregation,
 Cohesiveness,
 Permeability for water or air.
A soil structure has pronounced effect on soil properties,
Hence it is important in plant growth as it influences
 Erodibility
 Porosity,
 Hydraulic conductivity,
 Infiltration, and
 Water holding capacity
 III. Volume and mass relationships

Va Air Wa~0
Vv
Vw Water W
VT w

Vs Solid W
s

Volume Weight

V  Vs  Vw  Va  Vs  Vv W  Ws  Ww
Bulk density -
 Mass per unit volume of soil comprising the solid
and gaseous phase in exclusion of the liquid phase
is called bulk density.
 In other words, bulk density is the weight of oven
dry soil per unit total volume.
 It is sometimes referred to as apparent specific
gravity.
 To determine bulk density soil core method is
widely used

Ms Ms
b  
Vt Vs  Va  Vw 
Particle density –  s

 It denotes the mass of soil solid per unit volume of soil

solid
 The particle density of any soil is constant and does not
vary with the amount of space between the particles
 It is defined as the mass (weight) per unit volume of soil
particles (soil solids).
 In most mineral soils the s is about 2.2 – 2.7 gm/cm3

Ms
s 
Vs
Total pore space and porosity (E)
Total pore space (E) is the ratio of the volume of pores
(voids) to the total volume of soil and is expressed in %.
It is the volume of soil occupied by air and water.

E
Vf

Va  Vw  Vt  Vs

 Vs 
 1  
Vt Vt Vt  Vt 

 b 
E  1  
 s 
Soil Water Content
Soil water content is expressed on mass basis or volume basis.
It is measured using
 Gravimetric method
 Neutron-Scattering,
 Based on fast-moving neutrons emitted by a radioactive
source which collide with nuclei in the soil and lose energy
 Capacitance methods
 based on measuring the capacitance of a capacitor, with
the soil-water-air mixture as the dielectric medium
 Time-Domain Reflectrometry.
 The propagation time of a pulse travelling along a wave
guide is measured
 This time depends on the dielectrical properties of the soil
surrounding the wave guide, and hence on the water
content of the soil
 Gravimetric method (on mass or volume basis)
Mass basis:
Water content (w) is the ratio, expressed in
percentage, of the weight of water to the
weight of solids

Volume basis:
b
Vw Vw v  w
  w
Vt Vs  V f 
 The gravimetric method is still the most widely
used technique to determine the soil water
content and is often taken as a standard for the
calibration of other methods
 Its disadvantage is that it is laborious, because
samples in duplicate or in triplicate are required
to compensate for errors and variability.
 Example
A sample of soil taken from irrigation field is given below
 Weight of soil sample = 1013g
 Vol. of soil sample = 585.0cm3.
 Dry weight of soil = 904.0g
Determine the bulk density, porosity, mass base water
content and volume base water content (consider the
particle density of the sample 1.73g/cm3
 Types of soil water
1. Gravitational water
2. Capillary water
3. Hygroscopic water
1. Gravitational water
 Water moving downwards through soil under gravity is
termed as gravitational water
 Plants need only 0.33 atm. or less water tension at this
stage
 When sufficient water is added to soil, water gradually fills
the pore system expelling air completely from soil.
 all voids are occupied by water
2. Capillary water
Capillary water is when the available water is the field
capacity and permanent welting point
 This soil water tension is about 0.10 – 0.33atm.
Water enters the pores until the soil-water tension equal
to the gravity force.
This water is available to plants.
Optimum growth of plant takes place when the soil water
is maintained at near field capacity
3. Hygroscopic water
 The water that an oven dry soil absorbs when exposed to
air saturated with vapour is called hygroscopic water
 Plants needs a tension of 31 atm
 Water held tightly to the surface of soil particles by
adsorption forces.
 Its un available water content when the moisture
is below the permanent welting point
 Plants couldn’t exert a pressure of 31atm. To use
this water so that this water is unavailable to the
plant
 Types of soil water
Saturation

Gravitational water

Field capacity

Capillary water (Plant

available water)

Permanent welting point

Unavailable water

Hygroscopic coeff.
Hygroscopic water Air dry
Oven dry

Illustration of soil water constants

 Example
A 60cm3 soil sample taken from irrigated land, it was
weighted 127gm and 113gm during field capacity and
permanent wilting point respectively. The oven dry weight
of the sample was found to be 100gm
Calculate the moisture content at field capacity,
permanent wilting point and the available water using
both mass based and volume based water content
Basic concepts of soil water dynamics
 Water status in soils is characterized by both the amount of
water present and its energy state
 Forms of energy recognized in soil-water movement are:
1. The kinetic Energy- due to motion of water through soil layer.
- negligible due to the slow motion
2. The potential Energy –due to position of soil water within soil
body & internal conditions.
- responsible in determining soil- water status.
 The magnitude is the force is the difference b/n soil water
potential at two different points.
 The potential energy is defined w.r.t the reference state.
Components of forces acting on soil water

 Soil water is subject to several forces,

The primary forces acting on soil water held within a rigid soil
matrix under isothermal conditions are:
 Matric forces
 Osmotic force
 Gravitational force
Matric forces
 Resulted from interactions of the solid phase with the liquid
and gaseous phases.
 Matric forces includes adsorptive forces and capillary forces
 Capillarity caused by liquid–gas interfaces
 Adhesion of water molecules to solid surfaces
 Cohesion water & adhesion water
 Osmotic forces:
 Soil water contains certain amount of dissolved salts and
other solutes and is termed as soil solution
 When a solution is separated by a semi permeable
membrane from pure water or, water tends to diffuse or
osmoses into the concentrated solution through the
membrane. That diffusive force is termed as Osmotic
forces
 Water tends to flow low conc. to high conc. Osmosis
Gravitational forces:
 Every body on the earth’s surface is attracted toward the
earth’s centre by a gravitational force equal to the weight
of the body
 Soil-water potential Concept
 The effect of a force on soil water can be described by
potential energy of soil water in a particular force field.
 The forces governing soil-water flow can be described by
the energy concept.
 The energy status of water is simply called 'water
potential'.
 The total soil water potential is the sum of potentials
resulting from different force fields
 The total soil water potential = Matric Potential (  m) +
Osmotic potential (  O ) + Gravitational potential (  g )
t m O  g or ht  hm  hO  hg
In soil physics, water potential can be expressed as energy
on a mass basis (  m ), on a volume basis (  v ) or on a
weight basis (  w ).
  
h  d w   m d m
 w 
Measurements of Soil water pressure head
 Tensiometer is used to measure soil-water
pressure head, h, or the matric head, hm are
usually restricted to a particular range of the head

 m 
h  d w   d m
 w 
 Available Water
Field capacity and permanent wilting point
 Field capacity is defined as the soil water content
corresponding to a matric potential ranging from 0.1 bar
for sand to 0.5 bar
 The ‘wilting point’ or ‘permanent wilting point’ is defined as
the soil water condition at which the leaves undergo a
permanent reduction in their water content (wilting)
because of a deficient supply of soil water
 The amount of water held by a soil between field capacity
(and wilting point is defined as the amount of water
available for plants
 Below the wilting point, water is too strongly bound to the
soil particles.
 Above field capacity, water either drains from the soil
without being intercepted by roots,
 Relationship between soil texture and water content

Available water
 Quiz 1
 A 74cm3 soil sample taken from irrigated land, it was
weighted 150gm and 132gm during field capacity and
permanent wilting point respectively. The oven dry weight
of the sample was found to be 120gm.
 Calculate the volumetric based moisture content at
(A)Field capacity, (B) permanent wilting point using
volumetric water content and (C) The available water
depth if wheat is to be grown with root of 80cm
 Chapter Three
Crop Water Requirements
 Crop Water Requirements (CWR)
 Evapotranspiration process
 Determination of Reference Evapotranspiration – ETo
 Duty-delta relationship
 Determination of crop Evapotranspiration– ETc
 Irrigation Efficiencies
 Irrigation Scheduling
 Crop Water Requirements
 It is the total amount of water required by the crop in a given
period of time for normal growth, under field conditions.

 It includes evapotranspiration, water used by crops for

metabolic growth, water lost during application of water
and the water required for special operations such as land
preparation, tillage and salt leaching etc.

 it is expressed as the surface depth of water in mm, cm or

inches per unit cropped area.

CWR = Consumptive use (Cu) + conveyance losses

(Wu) + water required for special operation (Ws)
 Gross Irrigation requirements of crops (IRg):

 It refers to the amount of water applied to the field together

with the water lost through distributaries and field channels
and during water application to the crop field.

IRg = CWR – (ER + ∆SW + ∆GW)

 Net Irrigation requirements

 It refers to the amount of water needed to replenish soil
moisture deficit in the crop field.

IRn = IRg x Efficiency of water application

= Cu – ER - conveyance losses
 Sources of water for Crop Use

Therefore the sources of water for Crop are

 Effective Rainfall

 Irrigation

 Soil Water

 Groundwater Water contribution

CWR = ER + IRn+ ∆SW + ∆GW

 Objective of Crop Water Requirement Study

 To decide possible cropping pattern of area

 Effective use of available water

 Plan and design an irrigation project

 Plan water resource development in an area

 Assess irrigation requirement of an area

 Management of water supply from sources

 Evapotranspiration (ET) and
Consumptive use (Cu) Process
 Evapotranspiration:
 It is defined as the water transpired by crop plants and
the water evaporated from the soil in the crop field
Consumptive use:
 It is the evapotranspiration plus the water used by
plants for metabolic activities which is hardly 1 % of ET
 Consumptive use is the water required by plants to fulfill
the evapotranspiration needs of crops. (FAO)

 Consumptive use is the total amount of water used by

the plants in transpiration (building of plant tissues etc)
and evaporation from adjacent soils or from plant leaves in
any specified time period. (S.K. GARG)
 Evapotranspiration = Evaporation + Transpiration

Evaporation
 liquid water is converted to water vapor (vaporization)

and removed from the evaporating surface (vapor

removal)
 Water evaporates from a variety of surfaces, such as
lakes, rivers, pavements, soils and wet vegetation
 Solar radiation is used to vaporize liquid molecules

 It first increases and later decreases till saturation speed

affect evaporation
 Transpiration
 It is the vaporization of liquid water contained in plant
tissues and the vapour removal to the atmosphere.
 Nearly all water taken up is lost by transpiration and
only a tiny fraction is used within the plant.
 radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind, The
soil water content crop characteristics and
environmental aspects and cultivation practices affect
transpiration
Evapotranspiration (ET)
 Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously

 When crop is small-evaporation is predominant

 When crop grows-transpiration is predominant

 Factors affecting evapotranspiration

i. Weather Parameters
 radiation, air temperature, humidity and wind speed

affect ET
ii. Crop Factor
 The crop type, variety and development stage affect ET

 Differences in resistance to transpiration, crop height,

crop roughness, reflection, ground cover and crop

rooting characteristics are also additional factors
iii. Management factors
iv. Environmental (soil) factors
 Important terminology on Evapotranspiration

 Reference Evapotranspiration - ETo

 Defined as ET from a hypothetical crop with an assumed
height of 0.12 m, an albedo of 0.23, closely resembling the
evaporation of an extension surface of green grass of
uniform height, actively growing and adequately watered.

-Hypothetical crop
-Green grass
-uniform height (12 cm)
-Actively growing
-Adequately watered
 Actual crop evapotranspiration (ETc):
 Crop Evapotranspiration under standard conditions
 It refers to the evapotranspiration from excellently
managed, large, well-watered fields that achieve full
production under the given climatic conditions
Crop Evapotranspiration under non-standard
conditions (ETc-adj)
 Due to sub-optimal crop management and environmental
constraints that affect crop growth and limit
evapotranspiration,
 ETc under non-standard conditions generally requires a
correction
= ETo

ETc = ETo * Kc

ETc –adj. = ETo * Ks*Kc

 Crop Coefficient (Kc)

 Crop coefficient:
 It is the ratio b/w the actual crop Evapotranspiration
to the reference crop evapotranspiration.
Kc = ETc / ETo

 It determined experimentally for various crops, at varius

stage
 Kc is different for different crop and for different crop
growth stages.

 It is mainly affected by crop type, soil type and climate

of the area.
Crop Coefficient (Kc) Curve
 Crop Growth Stages

 Initial stage
 From planting date to approximately 10% ground
cover
 Crop development stage
 From 10% ground cover to effective full
cover(initiation of flowering)
 Mid-season stage
 From effective full cover to the start of maturity
 Late season stage
 From the start of maturity to harvest or full
senescence
 Kc for a given crop will vary over the growing period
 Determination of Reference Crop
Evapotranspiration (ETo)
Direct Measurement of ET includes:
 Lysimeter experiment

 Field experimental plots

 Soil moisture studies

 Water balance method

Climatic Approaches to estimate evapotranspiration

Pan evaporimeter method
Empirical methods
 Blaney criddle method

 Penman method

 Modified penman method

 Radiation method
 Direct Measurement
1. Lysimeter experiment
It is a container (0.5m – 2 m in diameter) having an
experimental soil separated from the surrounding soil in the
crop field
Measurements of different components for water balance
studies such as water added to lysimeter through precipitation
and irrigation, change in soil water storage and water lost
through evaporation, transpiration, runoff and deep
percolation are made
The relationship is: ET  ER  IRn  SW
 Field experimental plots

 Suitable for determination of seasonal water requirements.

 Water is added to selected field plots, yield obtained from
different fields are plotted against the total amount of water
used.
 The yield increases as the water used increases for some limit
and then decreases with further increase in water.
 The break in the curve indicates the amount of consumptive
use of water.
 Soil moisture studies
 Soil moisture measurements are done before and after
each irrigation application.

 Knowing the time gap b/n the two consecutive irrigations,

the quantity of water extracted per day can be computed
by dividing the total moisture depletion b/n the two
successive irrigations by the interval of irrigation.

 Then a curve is drawn by plotting the rate of use of water

against the time from this curve, seasonal water use of
crops is determined.
 Water Balance method

 Based on inflow – outflow – storage principle.

ET = I + P - RO - DP + CR ± ΔSF ± ΔSW
where: I - Irrigation
P – rainfall
RO - Runoff
CR – capillary rise
DP – Deep percolation
SF – subsurface flow
SW – soil water content
 Climatic Approaches to estimate
evapotranspiration

The following methods are the combination of some empirical,

analytical and theoretical approaches.
1. FAO Balnney-Criddle Method
2. FAO Radiation Method
3. FAO Penman Method
4. Hargreave's Class A Pan Evaporation Method
5. FAO Pan Evaporation Method
6. FAO Penman-Monteith Method
7. Thornthwaite Method
 FAO Balney-Criddle Method

 Blaney and Criddle (1962) proposed an empirical relation

which is used largely by irrigation engineers to calculate
crop water requirement of various crops.
 Estimation of potential evapotranspiration (consumptive use)
is carried out by correlating it with sunshine temperature.

ETo   K .F F  (0.0457Tm  0.8128 ) P
Where K is the monthly crop coefficient,
F is the monthly consumptive use factor, in cm
ETo is the potential evapotranspiration in cm;
Tm is the mean monthly temperature in 0C,
P is the monthly % of hours of bright
Lat. Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
oN

0 8.50 7.66 8.49 8.21 8.50 8.22 8.50 8.49 8.21 8.50 8.22 8.50
10 8.13 7.47 8.45 8.37 8.81 8.60 8.86 8.71 8.25 8.34 7.91 8.10
15 7.94 7.36 8.43 8.44 8.98 8.80 9.05 8.83 8.28 8.26 7.75 7.88
20 7.74 7.25 8.41 8.52 9.15 9.00 9.25 8.96 8.30 8.18 7.58 7.66
25 7.53 7.14 8.39 8.61 9.33 9.23 9.45 9.09 8.32 8.09 7.40 7.42
30 7.30 7.03 8.38 8.72 9.53 9.49 9.67 9.22 8.33 7.99 7.19 7.15
35 7.05 6.88 8.35 8.83 9.76 9.77 9.93 9.37 8.36 7.87 6.97 6.86
40 6.76 6.72 8.33 8.95 10.02 10.08 10.22 9.54 8.39 7.75 6.72 6.52
42 6.63 6.65 8.31 9.00 10.14 10.22 10.35 9.62 8.40 7.69 6.62 6.37
44 6.49 6.58 8.30 9.06 10.26 10.38 10.49 9.70 8.41 7.63 6.49 6.21
46 6.34 6.50 8.29 9.12 10.39 10.54 10.64 9.79 8.42 7.57 6.36 6.04
48 6.17 6.41 8.27 9.18 10.53 10.71 10.80 9.89 8.44 7.51 6.23 5.86
50 5.98 6.30 8.24 9.24 10.68 10.91 10.99 10.00 8.46 7.45 6.100 5.65
 Example
 Use Blaney-Criddle method to calculate consumptive use
(PET) for rice crop grown from January to March in Orissa at a
latitude 220 N from the following data taken from a nearby
observatory. Find the net irrigation demand for rice using the
given rainfall during crop period

Month January February March

Mean temperature 0C 12 16 24
Rainfall (mm) 8 20 16
Mean monthly sunshine @22o 7.62 7.20 8.40

 For rice crop, monthly crop coefficient K = 1.10.

Solution
 F for January = (0.0457 Tm + 0.8128) x P

= (0.0457 x 12 + 0.8128) x 7.62= 10.37 cm

 F for February = (0.0457 Tm + 0.8128) x P

= (0.0457 x 16 + 0.8128) x 7.2 = 11.12 cm

 F for March = (0.0457 Tm + 0.8128) x P

= (0.0457 x 24 + 0.8128) x 84 = 16.04 cm

 Total F (consumptive use factor )

10.37+11.12+16.04 = 37.75 cm

o   K .F  1.1* 37.75  41.525cm


ET
Exercise
.
 Exercise
 Sugarcane is to be grown for Arjodedessa sudar factory.
Latitude of the area is 9° 55′N. the useful climatological data
is given in table below. The total area of cultivable land is
48,000 ha.
Months Mean Temp. oC Eff. Rain Fall(cm) P
November 28 2.74
December 30 2.34
January 32 1.04
February 29 1.74
March 26 3.04
The crop factor for Sugarcane is 1.09. using Blaney-Criddle
method determine the actual evapotranspiration, irrigation
requirement and the eff. volume of water in the five month
 Pan Evaporation Method
1. Hargrave's Class A Evaporation Method
ETo is related to pan evaporation (EP) by a constant Kc, called
consumptive use coefficient
ETo = Kc * Ep
Determination of Ep can be by:
 Experiment or

 Christiansen formula

Ep = 0.459R * Ct*Cw*Ch*Cs *Ce

Ct = Coefficient for temperature
Cw = Coefficient for wind velocity
Ch= Coefficient for relative humidity
Cs= Coefficient for % of possible sunshine
Ce= Coefficient of elevation
 Christiansen formula
Ep = 0.459R * Ct*Cw*Ch*Cs *Ce

 Ct = Coefficient for temperature

Ct = 0.393 +0.02796Tc+0.0001189Tc2 where Tc= mean temperature, 0c

 Cw = Coefficient for wind velocity

Cw= 0.708+0.0034w-0.0000038w2
where w=mean wind velocity at 0.5m above the ground, km/day.
 Ch= Coefficient for relative humidity.
Ch= 1.250-0.0087H-0.75*104H2 –0.85*10-8H4
where H= mean percentage relative humidity at noon
 Cs= Coefficient for percent of possible sunshine
Cs= 0.542+0.008S-0.78*10-4S2+0.62*10-6S3
where S= mean sunshine percentage
 Ce= Coefficient of elevation
 Ce= 0.97+ 0.00984E where E= elevation in 100 meters
 2. FAO Pan Evaporation Method

 It is the most widely used evaporimeter for finding

evaporation from the free water surface
 The pan evaporation is related to the reference
evapotranspiration by an empirically derived pan coefficient
ETo = Kp Epan
 where
ETo reference evapotranspiration [mm/day],
Kp pan coefficient [-],
Epan pan evaporation [mm/day].
 The Class A Evaporation pan is circular, 120.7 cm in
diameter and 25 cm deep.
 The pan is mounted on a wooden frame which is 15cm
above ground level
 Penman Method
 Penman developed a theoretical formula based on the
principles of both energy budget and mass-transfer to
calculate potential evapotranspiration.
 Penman Method is theoretically developed the formula using
important climatic parameters (solar radiation, temperature,
vapour pressure and wind velocity) to compute the evaporation
from open free water surface
 Penman’s equation, incorporating some of the modification
suggested by other investigators, is given as
(   H    Ea )
ET 
(   )
Then
 ETc is obtained by multiplying with crop coefficient(KC)
 (  H    E a )
ET 
. (   )
 Where ;
 ET the daily potential evaporation in mm/day
  the slope of the saturated vapor pressure vs.
temp. curve which is given by table 1
Temperature Saturation vapor Slope of
(oC) pressure es 
mmHg) mbar
0.0 4.58 6.11 0.30
5.0 6.54 8.72 0.45
7.5 7.78 10.37 0.54
10.0 9.21 12.28 0.60
12.5 10.87 14.49 0.71
15.0 12.79 17.05 0.80
17.5 15.00 20.00 0.95
20.0 17.54 23.38 1.05
22.5 20.44 27.95 1.24
 (  H    E a )
ET 
. (   )
 H Net incoming solar radiation in mm of evaporable water
per day and is estimated from the energy budget theories
using the relation
H  H a (1  r ) (0.29 cos  0.55n / N )  Ta4 (0.56  0.092 ea ) (0.10  0.9n / N )
Where
 Ha is the extraterrestrial solar radiation (from Table 3)

  the latitude of the place

 r is the reflection coefficient

 n is the actual duration of bright sunshine (Table 2)

 N is the maximum possible hours of bright sunshine (Table 4)

  Is the Stefan-Boltzman constant = 2.01 x 10-9 mm/day

 T is the mean air temperature in oK = (273 + 0C)
 (  H    E a )
ET 
(   )

  is psychometric constant whose value is 0.49mmHg/0C

 Ea is the drying power of air which includes wind velocity and
saturation deficit and is estimated form the relation
E a  0.002187 (160  u 2 ) (es  ea )

u2 is the mean wind speed in km/day measured 2m above the

ground, wind speed measured at any other height z to 2 m
height is given by:  
2
0.143

u2  u  
z
es is saturation vapor pressure at mean temp. in mm Hg and
ea actual vapor pressure in mm Hg
 (  H    E a )
ET 
(   )

1. Using Penman’s formula calculate the consumptive use of

rice for the month of February. Take the following data
 Wind velocity measured at 2 m height = 30km/day

 Elevation of the area = 220 m

 Relative humidity(RH) for February = 50%

 Latitude = 220C
 Mean monthly temperature = 160C
 The reflection coefficient (r) is 0.20.

 Take
  0.49,  2.01 x10 mm / day, Ta  273 16  289 K

9 0

 Use the Penman Tables

 (  H    E a )
ET 
(   )
Solution
From Table 3 For temperature of 160C, interpolating
es = 13.67mmHg
Δ = 0.86 mm Hg per 0C
.From Table 2 For 22 0N latitude, interpolating
H  H a (1  r ) (0.29 cos  0.55n / N )  Ta4 (0.56  0.092 ea ) (0.10  0.9n / N )
Ha = 11.94 mm of water per day
From Table 4 For 22 0N latitude, the maximum possible
hours of bright sunshine (N = 11.42h)
From Table 4 For 22 0N latitude, Monthly percentage of day
time hours (n = 7.20h)
 Solution
 Substituting in the equation
H  H a (1  r ) (0.29 cos  0.55n / N )  Ta4 (0.56  0.092 ea ) (0.10  0.9n / N )

H = 2.88 mm of water/day
Ea is the drying power
The actual vapor pressure in air
ea = es x RH = 13.67 x 0.50 = 6.88 mmHg
Drying power of air
Ea = 0.002187 (160 + U2) (es – ea)

 Ea = 0.0021817 (160 + 30) (13.67 – 6.88) = 2.84 mm/day

 Therefore Ea = 2.84 mm/day
H = 2.88 mm of water/day
Δ = 0.86 mm Hg per 0C
 = 0.49mmHg/0C

(   H    Ea ) 0.86  2.88  0.49  2.84

ET    2.865 mm / day
(   ) 0.86  0.49

which is = 2.865 x 28 /month = 80.3mm for February

Consumptive use of rice for February is 80.3 mm of water.
 Exercise

Compute the total consumptive use (ETO) from a drainage basin

located in Omo Kuraz during the month of April by Penman’s
formula the following data are given
Latitude = 28oN
Elevation = 220m
Meteorologically observed data during April
Mean monthly Temp. = 40oC
Mean Relative Humidity = 35%
Wind Velocity @ 2m height = 72km/day
Take :The reflection coefficient (r) is 0.25, and
Use the tables
 Ea = 18.07mm/day
H = 5.705mm of water/day
Δ = 2.95 mm Hg per 0C
 = 0.49mmHg/0C
Answer ETO= 17.01mm/day
For April month 17.01 x 30 = 510.3mm
 FAO Penman-Monteith equation

From the original Penman-Monteith equation and the

equations of the aerodynamic and canopy resistance, the
FAO Penman-Monteith equation has been given by:

Where:
Rn is the net radiation,
G is the soil heat flux,
 Thornthwaite Method
Thornthwaite (1948) developed an exponential relationship
between mean monthly temperature and mean monthly
consumptive, given as
a
 10Tm 
ETo 1.62 R f  
Where  Te 
Rf is the reduction factor (See Table),
Tm the mean monthly temperature in 0C,
Te is the annual temperature efficiency index
a is a constant which can be computed from the relation
a  0.4923  0.01792 Te  0.0000771 Te2  0.000000675 Te3
 a  0.4923  0.01792 Te  0.0000771 Te2  0.000000675 Te3
.

Where Te is the annual temperature efficiency index given by

1.514
12
 Tm 
Te  
j l

 5 


For one period, say for one month, Te is calculated as

1.514
T 
Te   m 
 5 
 Reduction Factor Rf for ETo to be used in Thornthwiate's
equation.

Month
Latitude J F M A M J J A S O N D

00N 1.04 0.94 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.01 1.04

100N 1.00 0.91 1.03 1.03 1.08 1.06 1.08 1.07 1.02 1.02 0.98 0.99

200N 0.95 0.90 1.03 1.05 1.13 1.11 1.14 1.11 1.02 1.00 0.93 0.94

300N 0.90 0.87 1.03 1.08 1.18 1.17 1.20 1.14 1.03 0.98 0.89 0.88

400N 0.84 0.83 1.03 1.11 1.24 1.25 1.27 1.18 1.04 0.96 0.83 0.81

500N 0.74 0.78 1.02 1.15 1.33 1.36 1.37 1.25 1.00 0.92 0.76 0.70
Using Thornthwaite equation, calculate the consumptive use of
paddy for the month of February. Take data from Example
 Wind velocity measured at 2 m height = 30 km/day

 Elevation of the area = 220 m

 Relative humidity for February = 50%
 Latitude = 220C
 Mean monthly temperature = 160C
 a
 10Tm 
Solution ETo 1.62 R f  
 Te 

 Since ETo is required to be calculated for February only, the

following equation is used.
1.514 1.514
T   16 
Te   m     5.818
 5  5
 Constant a
a  0.4923  0.01792 Te  0.0000771 Te2  0.000000675 Te3

 a = 0.4923 + 0.01792 x 5.818 – 0.0000771 x 5.8182 + …

= 0.4923 + 0.1043 – 0.0026 = 0.594
 Rf is the reduction factor from Table for 22oN latitude and
for feb. then interpolating
Month
Latitude J F M A M J J A S O N D
00N 1.04 0.94 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.01 1.04
100N 1.00 0.91 1.03 1.03 1.08 1.06 1.08 1.07 1.02 1.02 0.98 0.99
200N 0.95 0.90 1.03 1.05 1.13 1.11 1.14 1.11 1.02 1.00 0.93 0.94
300N 0.90 0.87 1.03 1.08 1.18 1.17 1.20 1.14 1.03 0.98 0.89 0.88
400N 0.84 0.83 1.03 1.11 1.24 1.25 1.27 1.18 1.04 0.96 0.83 0.81
500N 0.74 0.78 1.02 1.15 1.33 1.36 1.37 1.25 1.00 0.92 0.76 0.70

 Rf is 0.895
a 0.594
 10Tm   10 x16 
ETo 1.62 R f   ETo 1.62 x0.895    10.38
 Te   5.818 
 Exercise

1. Compute the total consumptive use (ETO) from a drainage

basin located in Omo Kuraz during the month of April by
Penman’s formula the following data are given
Latitude = 28oN
Elevation = 220m
Meteorologically observed data during April
Mean monthly Temp. = 40oC
Mean Relative Humidity = 35%
Wind Velocity @ 2m height = 72km/day
Take :The reflection coefficient (r) is 0.25, and
Use the tables
 Exercise (Previous Exercise)

2.Compute the total consumptive use (ETO) from a drainage

basin located in Omo Kuraz during the month of April by
Thornthwaite equation the following data are given
Latitude = 28oN
Elevation = 220m
Meteorologically observed data during April
Mean monthly Temp. = 40oC
Mean Relative Humidity = 35%
Wind Velocity @ 2m height = 72km/day
 Ea = 18.07mm/day
H = 5.705mm of water/day
Δ = 2.95 mm Hg per 0C
 = 0.49mmHg/0C
Answer ETO= 17.01mm/day
For April month 17.01 x 30 = 510.3mm
 Exercise (Previous Exercise)

Compute the total consumptive use (ETO) from a drainage basin

located in Omo Kuraz during the month of April by
Thornthwaite equation the following data are given
Latitude = 28oN
Elevation = 220m
Meteorologically observed data during April
Mean monthly Temp. = 40oC
Mean Relative Humidity = 35%
Wind Velocity @ 2m height = 72km/day
 a
 10Tm 
ETo 1.62 R f  
 Te 
.

 Solution 1.514 1.514

T   40 
Te   m     23.3
 5   5 
a  0.4923  0.01792 Te  0.0000771 Te2  0.000000675 Te3

a  0.4923  0.01792 x 23.3  0.0000771 23.32  0.000000675 23.33

a = 0.868 ,
The reduction factor Rf (from table )for April month in 28o
interpolating Rf = 1.132
0.868
 10 x 40 
ETo 1.62 x1.132    21.63mm
 23 .3 
 Duty-Delta Relationship
Crop period and Base period
 The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to
the instant of its harvesting is called the crop period.
 The time between the first watering of a crop at the time of
its sowing to its last watering before harvesting is called the
base period.
Duty and Delta of Crops
Duty (D): is defined as the area of the land which can be
irrigated if one (m3/sec) of water was applied to the land
continuously for the entire base period of the crop.
Delta (∆): is the total depth of water required by a crop during
the entire base period
Delta (∆) = Total quantity of water (ha-m)
Total area of land (ha)
 The relation between duty, base period and delta, can be

obtained as follows:-
 Considering the area of land of D-hectares,

 The total quantity of water used in the base period of B days

is equal to that obtained by a continuous flow of 1 cumec for
B days.
Quantity of water= 1*B*24*60*60*, m3
 If Delta is the total depth of water in meters supplied to the

land of D- hectares, the quantity of water is also given by

Quantity of water = ( D *104)*∆ , m3
 Equating the volumes of water given in egn
1*B*24*60*60* = (D*104)* ∆

8.64 B 8.64 B
 D Or 
 D
Where D = in ha/cumec
∆ = in m
B = in days
 Find the delta for a crop when its duty is 860 hectares per
cumec. on the field, the base period of this crop is 120days

8.64 B 8.64 x120

   1.2m
D 860
 Different forms of Duty
1. Flow duty : the duty of water in hectares /cumec
It is convenient in the case of flow irrigation from canals
and duty and the area of land to be irrigated are known
 Area (ha) 
Disch arg e, m 3 / s   
 Duty( ha / cumec) 
2. Quantity of Duty
 For Tank /pond irrigation, the duty is usually expressed as
the total area of land which can be irrigated per million m3 of
water stored in the tank
Area (ha)
Volume of water (Mm 3 ) 
Duty(ha / Mm 3 )
 Duty in the form of total depth ( or Delta ):
 It can be expressed in terms of the total depth (i.e. delta) of
water required for a crop
 It is another form of the quantity duty because the total
depth is equal to the volume divided by the area of land
Volume(ha  m)
Delta = ,m
Area (ha)
NB
 Delta is the quantity of water actually supplied to the crop.
Delta included not only consumptive use of water for a crop
but also the water lost by evapotranspiration and seepage
from canals, and deep percolation in the field.
 Duty of water varies from head regulator to the canal out let
because of various losses.
 The duty of water goes on increasing as the water flows
from the head to the tail of the canal system.
 Thus, in order to specify duty two things must be stated
clearly: Base of duty and position of measurement of duty.
 Factors affecting Duty
Duty of water depends up on different factors
 Type of soil
 Type of crop and base period
 structure of soil
 Slope of ground
 Climatic condition
 Method of application of water
 Salt content of soil

Duty of water may be improved by counter – acting all the

factors that decrease it (by decreasing various losses
 Example

A discharge of 15 cumecs is released at the head of the canal.

If the duty at the field is 1800 ha/cumecs, and the losses in
the transit are 30%, determine the area that can be irrigated.
 The base period, duty of water and area under irrigation for
various crops under a canal system are given in the table
below. If the losses in the reservoir and canals are
respectively 15%, 25%, determine the reservoir capacity.
Crop Wheat Sugar cane Cotton Rice V. table

Base period B (days) 120 320 180 120 120

Duty , D (ha/cumec) 1800 1600 1500 800 700

Area irrigated (ha) 15000 10,000 5000 7500 5000

 Irrigation Efficiencies
1. Water Conveyance efficiency ( Ec)
2. Water application Efficiency ( Ea)
3. Water storage efficiency (Es)
Project Efficiency (Ep)
4. Field Canal Efficiency (Eb)
5. Water Distribution Efficiency (Ed)
6. Water Use Efficiency
 1. Water Conveyance efficiency ( Ec)

 This term is used to measure the efficiency of water

conveyance system associated with the canal network
 It is the ratio of the Water delivered to the irrigated field to
Water diverted from the source
Wf
EC  * 100
Wd
2. Water application Efficiency ( Ea)
 It is the ratio of the water stored in the rot zone of the
plants to that of Water delivered to the irrigated field
Ws
Ea  * 100
Wf
 3. Water storage efficiency (Es)

 It the ratio of the amount of water stored in the rot zone of

the plants to that of the amount of Water needed in the root
zone prior to irrigation
Ws
Es  *100
Wn

4. Field Canal Efficiency (Eb)

 This ratio between water received at the field inlet and that
received at the inlet of the block of fields.
Wp
Eb  x100
Wf
 5. Water Distribution Efficiency (Ed)

 This shows how uniformly water is applied to the field along

the irrigation run.

 y
Ed  1   x 100
 d

Where Ed = water distribution efficiency , %

d = average depth of water penetration
= average deviation from d.

y
 6. Water Use Efficiency
This shows the yield of the crop per unit volume of water used.
It may be expressed in Kg/ha.cm or q/ha.cm

A) Crop Water Use Efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield (Y)
to the amount of water consumptively used by the crop.
Y
Ew 
CU

B) Field Water Use Efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield(y)

to the total water requirement of crops including Cu losses and
other needs.
Y
Et 
WR
 7. Project Efficiency (Ep)

 This shows how efficiently the water source used in crop

production.
 It indicates the overall efficiency of the systems from the

head work to the final use by plants for Cu.

 The Overall project efficiency must be considered in order to

fix the amount of water required at the Diversion head work.

Gross irrigation requirement (GIR)
 The total water applied to satisfy Evapotranspiration and
irrigation losses NIR
GIR 
Ep
 EXAMPLE
 A stream size of 150 lit /sec was released from the diversion headwork
to irrigate a land of area 1.8 hectares. The stream size when measured
at the delivery to the field channels is 120lit/sec. The stream continued
for 8 hours. The effective root zone depth is 1.80m. The application
losses in the field are estimated to be 440m3. The depth of water
penetration was 1.80m and 1.20m at the head and tail of the run
respectively. The available water holding capacity of the soil is 21cm/m
and irrigation was done at 60% depletion of available moisture . The
stream size delivered to the plot was 100 lit/sec.
1. Water Conveyance efficiency ( Ec)
2. Field Canal Efficiency (Eb)
3. Water application Efficiency ( Ea)
4. Water storage efficiency (Es)
5. Water Distribution Efficiency (Ed)


120 lit / sec

x100  80%
150 lit / sec

100 lit / sec

 x100  83.3%
120 lit / sec


0.1.m3 x8x60 x60  2880 m3

2440 m3
Ea  3
x 100  84.7%
2880 m


3
0.2268 x 1.8 x 10 4  4082 .4m

2440 m 3
Es  3
 59.8%  60%
4082 .4m
5. Water Distribution Efficiency (Ed)
 y
Ed  1  
 d
1.8  1.20
d  1.50m
 Average water penetration depth = 2

 Numerical deviation y = 1.80 –1.50=0.30m

 0,30 
Ed  1    80 %
 1.50 
 A stream of 130l/sec water diverted from the source and
100l/sec where delivered to the field an area of 1.6 hactares
was irrigated in 8 hours the effective root depth was 1.7m
the run off loss in the field was 420m3 the depth of
penetration varied linearly from 1.7 at the head end of the
field to 1.1m at the tail end. The holding capacity of the soil
is 20cm/m Irrigation was stored at a moisture level of 50%
of the available moisture. Take The stream size delivered to
the plot to be 80 l/se. Demine
1. Water Conveyance efficiency ( Ec)
2. Water application Efficiency ( Ea)
3. Water storage efficiency (Es)
4. Field Canal Efficiency (Eb)
 Irrigation Scheduling

 Scheduling of irrigation application is very important for

successive plant growth and maturity
 Water is not applied randomly at any time and in any
quantity
 Irrigation scheduling is the schedule in which water is
applied to the field.
 The two scheduling parameters of field irrigation scheduling
are the depth of irrigation and interval of irrigation
Depth of irrigation (d):
Interval of irrigation (i):
 Depth of irrigation (d)

 This is the depth of irrigation water that is to be applied at

one irrigation
 It is the depth of water that can be retained in the crop root
zone b/n the field capacity and the given depletion of the
available moisture content (PWP)
 All the water retained in the soil b/n FC and PWP is not
readily available to crops.
 The readily available moisture is only some percentage of
the total available moisture.
 The depth of irrigation (d) is given by :
d (net) = As *D *(FC – PWP)*P, m
Where As = Apparent specific gravity of soil
D = Effective root zone depth in m
FC = water content of soil at FC
PWP = Water content of soil at PWP
P = depletion factor

 Because of application losses such as deep percolation and

runoff losses, the total depth of water to be applied will be
greater than the net depth of water
d (gross) = As*D(FC-PWP)*P , m
Ea
Where Ea = Field application efficiency
 Interval of irrigation (i):
 The interval of irrigation is the time gap in days between
two successive irrigation applications
 It depends on the type of the crop, soil type and climate

conditions.
 Thus interval of irrigation depends on the consumptive use

rate of the crop and the amount of readily available

moisture (RAM) in the crop root zone.
The interval (frequency) of irrigation is given by:
As .DFC  PWP . P
i (days) 
ETcrop  peak
Where: ETcrop (peak) is the peak rate of crop evapotranspiration
in m/day
 Field Irrigation Supply Schedules
(Irrigation Scheduling in Command Area)

 This is the schedule of water supply to individual fields or

command area
 This is a schedule of the total volume of water to be applied
to the soil during irrigation
 the total volume of water applied to the field during
irrigation at the head of the field
10
 AS .D ( Fc  pwp.P. A

q.t 
Ea Where: q= Stream size (application rate) lit/sec
t = Application time in sec
From the above equation, if either of Ea = Application efficiency
the application time or the stream size As = Apparent specific gravity
D = Effective root zone depth, m
fixed, one of them can be determined. P = Depletion factor
A = Area of the command (field) in ha
 The total volume of water diverted at the headwork is given
by
As .D. FC  PwP, p. A
10
Qt 
Ep

Where: Q = flow rate at the head work, m3/sec.

Ep = project efficiency and others as defined above.
 EXAMPLE

 For the data below, determine depth & interval of irrigation

during different stages. Depth of the root zone = 1 m, FC =
20 %, PwP = 8 % Dry density of soil = 1.6 gm/cm3 and
density of water = 1 gm/cm3. The rates of consumptive uses
during different stages are as follows. A depletion of 50%
during initial period, 60 % during development and mid –
season stage and 70 % during late season stage is
allowable.
 Month June July August September
Dec 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Stage ini ini Inter dev dev dev mid mid mid Lat Lat Lat
ETcr/mm/d 3.5 3.5 5.0 5.2 5.8 6.5 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.2 6.0 5.8
R. depth(m) 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
DF (p) 0.5 0.5 0.50 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7
Depth of
irrigation
(mm)
Interval of
irrigation
(days)

Depth of 28.80 28.80 38.4 57.60 69.12 80.64 92.16 92.16 92.16 107.5 107.5 107.5
irrigation (mm)

Interval of 8 8 7 11 11 12 13 13 13 17 17 18
irrigation (days)
 A crop has effective root zone of 120 cm (1.20 m) prior to
irrigation; soil samples were taken from different depths to
determine the moisture status of the soil.
Depth of root zone (m) Weight soil sample (gm) Weight of oven dry soil (gm)

0 – 0.30 m 98.80 94.60

0.30 – 0.60 m 96.60 92.10
0.60 – 0.90 m 95.00 90.60
0.90 – 1.20 m 94.00 89.40

 The water holding capacity of the soil at field capacity is 19.60

cm/m. The specific gravity of the soil is 1.60. Determine, the
moisture content in the root zone at different depths, total
depth of water available in the root zone at different depths,
total depth of water available in the root zone and total deficit
 Assuming that the peak rate of consumptive use
during the stage of the plant is 8mm/day what
would be irrigation interval
 A stream of 130l/sec water diverted from the source
and 100l/sec where delivered to the field an area of 1.6
hactares was irrigated in 8 hours the effective root
depth was 1.7m the run off loss in the field was 420m3
the depth of penetration varied linearly from 1.7 at the
head end of the field to 1.1 m at the tail end. the water
holding capacity 20cm/m Irrigation was stored at a
moisture level of 50% of the available moisture. Take
The stream size delivered to the plot to be 80 l/se
Demine
1. Water Conveyance efficiency ( Ec)
2. Water application Efficiency ( Ea)
3. Water storage efficiency (Es)
4. Field Canal Efficiency (Eb)
5. Water Distribution Efficiency (Ed)
 A sandy loam soil holds water at 140mm/m depth between
the field capacity and permanent witting point. The root
depth of the crop is 30cm and the allowable depletion of
water is 35%. The daily water used by the crop is 5mm/day.
The area to be irrigated is 60ha and water can be delivered
@ a rate of 28l/sec the surface irrigation application
efficiency is 40%. There are no rainfall and ground water
contribution. Determine
I. Irrigation depth
II. Irrigation interval
III. Volume of water required
IV. Time required to irrigate 4ha plot
 CHAPTER Four
Water application Techniques
 Major irrigation methods

Irrigation Methods

Surface Irrigation Sub surface irrigation Pressurized irrigation

Border Natural Sprinkler

Check basin Artificial Drip/Trickle

Furrow
 Irrigation water Application methods

A. Surface Irrigation: Just flooding water. About 90% of

the irrigated areas in the world are by this method.
B. Sprinkler Irrigation: Applying water under pressure.
About 5 % of the irrigated areas are by this method.
C. Drip or Trickle Irrigation: Applying water slowly to the
soil ideally at the same rate with crop consumption.
D. Sub-Surface Irrigation: Flooding water underground
and allowing it to come up by capillarity to crop roots.
Introduction to Surface Irrigation Systems
Surface Irrigation Methods
Furrow Irrigation
Basin Irrigation
Border Irrigation
Wild Flooding Irrigation
Pressurized irrigation
Sprinkler Irrigation
Drip Irrigation
 Selection of Irrigation Method
 Decision must be made regarding the type of irrigation
method before an irrigation system is installed in a field.
 To choose an appropriate irrigation method, one must

know the advantages and disadvantages of the various

water application methods
Factors Affecting Selection of an Irrigation Method
 In selecting an irrigation method, the following factors

should be considered
 Soil type

 Field shape/geometry and topography

 Climate – evaporation rates, and ppt

 Water availability and its price

Cont.…
 The particular crop to be grown
 Required depth and frequency of irrigation
application
 Economic factor – cost–benefit ratio, initial
investment
 Fertigation capability
 Farm machinery and equipment requirements
 SURFACE IRRIGATION
The term 'surface irrigation' refers to a broad class of irrigation
methods in which water is distributed over the field by
overland flow.

Surface irrigation offers a number of important advantages at

both the farm and project level.
Because it is so widely utilized, local irrigators generally have
at least minimal understanding of how to operate and maintain
the system.

 Surface Irrigation: Just flooding water. About 90% of

the irrigated areas in the world are by this method.
Surface Irrigation Types
Furrow Irrigation
Basin Irrigation
Border Irrigation
Wild Flooding Irrigation
 Wild Flooding

 In this method, ditches are excavated in the field, and they

may be either on the contour or up and down the slope.

 Also in this category are the surface irrigation systems like

check-basins which irrigate individual trees in an orchard.
 Basin Irrigation

It is the most common form of surface irrigation, particularly in regions

with layouts of small fields.
 a field is leveled in all directions, which is closed by a dyke to
prevent runoff, and provides an undirected flow of water onto the
field, called a basin.
 is suited to different crops, such as, rice, cotton, groundnuts etc.
 Generally basin irrigation is used
 Salt affected area
 For closely spaced crop and sensitive to
flooding
 Soil with low infiltration rate
 Slope less than 0.1% flat lands
 Border Irrigation System
 Border irrigation is an extension of basin irrigation to
sloping, long rectangular or contoured field shapes,
with free draining conditions at the lower end.
 In which land is formed into strips, bounded by
ridges or borders
 Borders are generally prepared with zero side slope
and a small but uniform longitudinal slope not
exceeding 0.5%
 The lower end of the border is opened to a drainage
ditch
 Borders can be grouped into three major categories
depending on the management strategy adopted:
 Fixed flow: a system in which the inlet flow rate remains
constant throughout the duration of irrigation.
 Cutback: this is a system in which irrigation begins with a
maximum or near maximum non erosive inlet flow rate
 Tail water reuse: this is a system in which excess
surface runoff from the downstream end is collected in a
sump and then pumped back into the same field to open
up more borders or used to irrigate another field.
Figure 4.5 : Border Irrigation
 Furrow Irrigation
 Furrow irrigation is one of the oldest controlled irrigation
methods
 In this method, water isapplied to furrows using small
discharges to favor water infiltration
 Furrow irrigation is adapted for row crops like corn, banana,
tobacco, and cabbage.
 It is also good for grains.
 Irrigation can be by corrugation using small irrigation
streams.
 Furrow irrigation is adapted for irrigating on various slopes
except on steep ones because of erosion and bank
overflow.
Furrow Irrigation Contd.
 There are different ways of applying water to the furrow.
 siphons may be used to divert water from the head ditch
to the furrows.
 There can also be direct gravity flow whereby water is
delivered from the head ditch to the furrows by cutting the
ridge or levee separating the head ditch and the furrows
 Gated pipes can also be used.
 Large portable pipe(up to 450 mm) with gate openings
spaced to deliver water to the furrows are used. .
 The openings of the gated pipe can be regulated to
control the discharge rate into the furrows.
Furrow Irrigation at WONJI SHOA
 Pressurized irrigation

 Water is put into pipes, pressurized and precisely delivered

to plants
 This method saves much more water than traditional
surface flow irrigation ( has good application efficiency)
 Pressurized irrigation is a relatively recent technology
developed during the 1900s
 A key development was the invention of drip irrigation in
the 1960s in Israel
 Advantages Pressurized irrigation

 Pressurized irrigation systems avoid the water loss of open

surface flow irrigation
 Estimates indicate that open irrigation application efficiency
is 45 percent to a maximum of 60 percent. In contrast,
pressurized irrigation efficiency is 75 to 95 percent
 Pressurized irrigation systems need from one-tenth to one-
quarter of the man hours open systems require,
 Pressurized irrigation is especially valuable in arid and semi-
arid areas.
 Water quality is crucial to the prolonged operation of
pressurized irrigation systems
 Water high in dissolved minerals leads to frequent blocking of
emitters
 Routine maintenance is needed to unblock delivery fittings
and to maintain pumps and fertigation units
 water needs to be filtered before entering the irrigation
system to remove suspended solids such as silt, algae, sand
and dust, which will clog emitters
 Types of Pressurized Irrigation systems
SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
 Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying water to the
surface of the soil in the form of a spray, which is similar to
natural rainfall
 Water moves through the pipes under pressure,
 The sprinkler system is ideal in areas where water is scarce.
 A Sprinkler system conveys water through pipes and applies
it with a minimum amount of losses.
 Water is applied in form of sprays sometimes simulating
natural rainfall.
 The difference is that this rainfall can be controlled in
duration and intensity.
 . About 5 % of the irrigated areas are by this method.
 The major components of Sprinkler system are
Energy sources
Water sources
Distribution Network
Distribution network includes pipe system and emission devices

169
 Adaptability of Sprinkler irrigation

Some Conditions that favour Sprinkler Irrigation

 Soils with low water holding capacities and shallow rooted

crops
 Shallow soils the topography of which prevents proper
levelling for surface irrigation methods.
 Undulating land too costly too level sufficiently for good
surface irrigation
 Irrigation stream too small to distribute water efficiently by
surface irrigation.
 Undulating land too costly too level sufficiently for good
surface irrigation.
 Higher application efficiency can be achieved
170
 For optimum crop growth
sprinkler irrigation is suitable
under the following conditions:-
 Suitable crops:- suited for most row,
field and tree crops and water can be
sprayed over or under the crop
canopy.
 Suitable slopes:- adaptable to any
farmable slope, whether uniform or
undulating
 Suitable soils:- best suited to sandy
soils with high infiltration rates
although they are adaptable to most
soils
 Suitable irrigation water:- A good
clean supply of water, free of
suspended sediments, is required to
avoid problems of sprinkler nozzle
blockage and spoiling the crop by
coating it with sediment.
 Limitation of sprinkler Irrigation

 Wind distorts sprinkler pattern and causes uneven

distribution of water
 Ripened soft fruits may be affected by spraying water.
 Water must be clean and free of sand, debris and large
amount of dissolved salts.
 High initial investment as compared to surface irrigation.
 High power requirements
 Fine textured soils with slow infiltration rate can not be
irrigated efficiently in hot windy areas

172
 Sprinkler irrigation in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia Sprinkler Irrigation is practiced to a limited extent

for growing horticultural crops around Zeway, and
Tanabeles irrigation project and
For development of 6000 ha irrigated sugarcane plantation
for Fincha sugar factory.

Considering prospects of sprinkler irrigation systems

development in Ethiopia, few of the conditions which favour
the development or which calls for the system are:
The undulating topography
wide arable areas of the country,
shallow soils with low water holding
capacity
steep slopes and easily erodable soils 173
 The major bottlenecks were:

 No or little domestic production of system components-

pumps, quick couplers, light weight pipes, hose etc.
 Almost all components are imported.
 Individual farmers can not afford the installation costs.
 Poor infrastructure and marketing which could support
production of paying perishable crops and vegetables for
export and domestic consumption.
 Lack of skilled manpower for project identification, planning,
design and implementation.

174
 Suitable irrigation water

 A good clean supply of water,

 free of suspended sediments, is required to avoid problems

of sprinkler nozzle blockage

Sprinkler System Layout
A typical sprinkler irrigation system consists of the following
components:
 Pressure generating unit(Pump unit)

 Water carrier unit(mainline, submain linel, atterals)

 Water delivery units(rises pipes &sprinkler)

 Quality improvement subunit(screen, Sesilting basins)

175
 Wetting pattern (Top &side View)

Wetted depth

Note: Compare the wetted depth at the centre and at the ends
 The uniformity of sprinkler applications can be
affected by wind and water pressure
 To reduce the effects of wind, the sprinklers can be
positioned more closely together

Overlapping Pattern
 DRIP IRRIGATION
 Drip irrigation is sometimes called trickle irrigation and
involves dripping water onto the soil at very low rates (2-20
litres/hour) small diameter plastic pipes fitted with outlets
called emitters or drippers.
 Water is applied close to plants so that only part of the soil
in which the roots grow is wetted,
 Drip or trickle irrigation is a method of watering plants
frequently to the root of the plant
In this irrigation system:
 Water is applied directly to the crop ie. entire field is

not wetted.
 Water is conserved

 There is a low pressure system.

 There is a slow rate of water application somewhat

matching the consumptive use.

 Application rate can be as low as 1 - 12 l/hr.

 There is reduced evaporation,

 There is no need for a drainage system.

 Control
Head Wetting Pattern
Unit

Mainline
Or
Manifold

Emitter
Lateral
 Suitable crops
 Drip irrigation is most suitable for row crops (vegetables, soft
fruit), tree and vine crops where one or more emitters can be
provided for each plant
 Generally only high value crops are considered because of the
high capital costs of installing a drip system.
Suitable slopes
 Drip irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope

Suitable irrigation water

 the main problems in drip irrigation is blockage of the emitters.

 All emitters have very small waterways ranging from 0.2-2.0

mm in diameter and these can become blocked if the water is

not clean
 Criteria for Selection of Various Methods
 To choose an irrigation method, one must know the
advantages and disadvantages of the various methods.
 He or she must know which method suits the local conditions
best.
 Surface, Sprinkler or Drip Irrigation
 The suitability of the various irrigation methods depends
mainly on the following factors: natural conditions
 Type of crop
 Type of technology
 Previous experience with irrigation
 required labor inputs
 Costs and benefits.
 The natural conditions such as soil type, slope, climate,
water quality and availability, have the following impact on
the choice of an irrigation method
 Chapter 5

Water Conveyance and

Control
 Irrigation Canals

 Channels are very important in Engineering projects

especially in Irrigation and, Drainage.
 Channels used for irrigation are normally called canals

 Channels used for drainage are normally called drains.

The basic differences between irrigation and drainage canals are

 Irrigation canals carry clean water while drainage canals carry
dirty (saline or alkaline) water;
 The flow in irrigation canals is from the high level to the
lower level canals (main canals to tertiary canals) while flow
in drainage canals is from the lower level canals to the higher
level canals (tertiary drains to main drains).
 A network of canals is required to carry water from source
the head works (storage reservoir or diversion weir) to
destination
 For irrigation canals, design flow are estimated using peak
gross irrigation requirement.
 The layout on irrigation and drainage systems should take
into consideration:
 The physical (technical) feasibility and
 The economic feasibility
 Classification of canals

Based on size/source
1. Main canal Based on alignment
1. Lined Canal
2. Branch canal
2. Unlined Canal
3. Major distributaries
4. Minor distributaries
5. Water course/field channel

Based on canal surface

1. Rigid boundary canals
2. Loose boundary canals
188
 The Canal Network
 Main canal(Head Reach):
 It takes water from the head works or from outlets of

dams
 In designs shortest possible distance for mains

 No irrigation is done from main canal

 Branch canals
 This is a canal which branches from the main

 Take water from main canal on either side

 Direct irrigation does not take place from these canals

Or Very little irrigation is done from branch canals
 Secondary canals:
 These are canals branching either from the primary

canals or branch canals.

 Secondary canals convey water for the secondary

units in the command area.

 Tertiary canals
 Water can directly be taken from these canals for

irrigation
 Field canals: These are small canals located at the head of
each farm plot or field.
 Field canals supply directly the irrigated fields (furrows,
basins and borders).
 GEOMETRIC ELEMENTS OF OPEN CHANNEL
SECTION

Geometric elements of open channel section

 The most used geometric properties of channel include:
1. Depth of flow(y): it the vertical distance from the lowest point of the channel
to the free surface.
2. Top width (T): it is the width of channel section at free surface.
3. Stage (h): is the elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above a
datum.
4. Wetted perimeter (p): it is the length of the channel boundary which is in
contact with water.
5. Wetted area (A): is the cross-sectional area of the flow normal to the direction
of flow.
6. Hydraulic radius(R) : it is the ratio of wetted area to its wetted perimeter
A
R= 191
P
 Freeboard: Vertical distance between the highest water
level anticipated in the design and the top of the retaining
banks.
It is a safety factor to prevent the overtopping of structures.

 Side Slope (Z): The ratio of the horizontal to vertical

distance of the sides of the channel.
m = horizontal distance per unit vertical distance

192
 Maximum Canal Side Slopes (m)

Sand, Soft Clay 3: 1 (Horizontal: Vertical)

Sandy Clay, Silt Loam, 2:1
Sandy Loam
Fine Clay, Clay Loam 1.5:1
Heavy Clay 1:1
Stiff Clay with Concrete 0.5 to 1:1
Lining
Lined Canals 1.5:1
 Design of Irrigation Canals
The design and operated irrigation and drainage network is
based on
 The required discharge flows are passed at design

water levels;
 No erosion of canal bottoms and banks will occur, and

 Sediment should not settle in the network

 Design of open channels can be sub-divided into 2:

 For Non-Erodible Channels (lined)

 Erodible Channels carrying clean water

 Design of Stable Irrigation Canals

Design of Non-Erodible Channels

 When a channel conveying clear water is lined with concrete

or asphalt material the canal is known as Non erodible canal

 The Manning's equation is used in the design of such canals

1 2 3 12
Q  A* R S
n
 In design maximum velocity is not our interested

 A minimum permissible velocity which will not start

sedimentation in the canal
 determined by the sediment transport capacity of the flow

196
 Design Procedure for Lined (Non-Erodible) Canal

 Determining Design discharge which also called canal

capacity
The design discharge of a canal can be determined
 Determine the total area irrigated from the canal
 Determine the water demand for each Based on the CWAT
 For a known permissible minimum permissible velocity V,
Manning’s n, and longitudinal slope S of the canal,
determine the hydraulic radius from Manning’s or
Chezy equation;
 Form two equations with two unknowns, bottom width b
and depth of flow y, (economical section channel)
197
 The best hydraulic section is the one with minimum wetted
perimeter for a given discharge
 The best hydraulic section for a trapezoidal canal is one
when R= y/2
 The values of the Manning’s n for different linings.
 Concrete lining………………..…………0.013 to 0.018
 Masonry lining with random stone……0.017 to 0.020
 Brick lining…………………………………0.014 to 0.017
 Asphalt lining……………………………..0.013 to 0.016
Suggested Freeboard
 Example

1. Design a rectangular irrigation canal channel to carry a

discharge of 10 m3/s. The channel will be excavated through
rock by blasting. The topography in the area is such that a
bottom slope of 1 in 1000 will be suitable. For the blasted
rock surface, n=0.016

2. Design a trapezoidal Non-Erodible Channel to convey 10

m3/s flow, the slope is 0.00015 and. The side slope is 2:1
manning coefficient n = 0.016
 Exercise

 Design a masonry lined irrigation canal for a discharge of 20

m3/s, running with a longitudinal slope of 1 in 2000. The side
slope of the canal to be designed is 1V: 1.5H. Manning’s n
for the lining of masonry may be taken as 0.019
 Design of Erodible Channels

Design of unlined canals on Permissible velocity

approach
 The problem in erodible is to find the velocity at which scour

of bed is initiated and to keep safely below it

 Maximum Permissible Velocities: The maximum

permissible velocities for different earth materials can be

found in different irrigation engineering books and tables

202
203
Recommended Side slopes

204
 Design Procedure For Unlined Canal
I. Determine the maximum permissible velocity from tables.

II. With the permissible velocity equal to Q/A, determine A.

III.With permissible velocity = 1/n S1/2 R2/3 ,Slope, s and n are

normally given.
IV. R = A/P , so determine P as A/R

V. Then A = (b + my)y and

P = b+ 2y (m2 + 1)1/2 ,
VI.

Solving simultaneously and obtain values of b and y 205

 Example

 Design an earthen trapezoidal Channel to convey 10 m3/s

flow, the topography allows slope of 0.00015 and the soil in
the area is Black cotton Soil
design the channel using the maximum permissible velocity
method and take n = 0.016
Solution
For Black cotton Soil
 Side slope 2:1 ( m =2 )
 The maximum permissible velocity 0.6 – 0.9m/sec take 0.75 m/sec

206
 Design steps

1. From permissible velocity for black cotton soil Velocity

=0.75m/se
2. Area = Q/V  10/0.75  13.33m 2
3/ 2
 Vn   0.75x0.016 
3/ 2

3. Hydraulic Radius R   1/ 2  R  0.97 m

S   0.00015 
1/ 2

4. Perimeter P = A/P = 13.33m 2 /0.97m  13.74m

5. Area =(b + my)y = by + my2 by + 2y2 = 13.33m2

6. Perimeter  b  2 y m2  1 = b + 2y 5 b + 4.5y = 13.74m

7. Solving Simultaneously both questions

8. So we will get 2.5y2 + 13.74y +13.33 =0 (Quadratic Equation)
Solving the Quadratic Equation
We obtains y= 1.26m and y = 10.16m
y = 1.26 m is more practicable
From b = 13.74 - 4.5y b = 13.74 - (4.5 x 1.26) = 8 m
Adding 20% freeboard, free board = 0.2 x 1.26 = 0.252
 Final Dimensions are

 Total Depth = Depth1.26 + free board 0.24 = 1.5 m

 Width = 8m

208
 Final Design Diagram

Free board

y = 1.26m d= 1.5m
2

b = 8.m m

Top width = b + 2 m y = 8.05 + 2 x 2 x 1.5 = 14 m

 Design an earthen trapezoidal main irrigation canal for
Tendaho sugar factory irrigation project which carries
78m3/sec. the canal is to be filled with a soil with firm clay
soil and the topography of the area allows a slope of 0.0001
Thank you!