2 EARTH AS A SPHERE

Although the earth’s shape is ellipsoidal, to some extent we can assume it to be spherical in shape and
solve problems using spherical trigonometry. This has many applications in navigation and geodetic
astronomy.

2.1 Definitions and notations

Axis – an imaginary line around which the earth rotates specifically called the polar axis.
Angular distance – length of arcs in terms of angles
great circle- a circle cut from a sphere by a plane passing through the center of the sphere.
Equator- the imaginary great circle around the earth that is equidistant from the North
and South Pole and divides the earth into the northern and southern hemisphere.It has
an angular distance of 0°. The North pole has an angular distance of 90° and the
South pole -90°.
Meridian- a great circle passing through the north and south pole
parallels – small circles cut from the earth by a plane parallel to the equatorial plane.
Latitude(φ)– angular distance of a parallel from the equator.
Longitude(λ)- the angular distance of a point of the earth reckoned from the prime meridian.
Prime meridian- a reference meridian where all meridians are reckoned from. It has a longitude
of 0°.East of the prime merdian has a range of 0° to 180°. West of the prime meridian has a
range of 0° to 180°.
Poles- endpoints of the axis of rotation.

North Pole Prime Meridian

90°
Meridians

Parallels of Latitude

0° 0° Equator

-90°

-90°
90°
South Pole
Fig. 2.1

2.2 Arc Distance on a Sphere

The arc length on a surface of a sphere can be easily computed by multiplying the angle measured at the
center of the sphere by the distance. Here the angle is measured in radians. Hence,

s
R
 
Fig. 2.2
GdE 412 Geometric Geodesy EARTH AS A SPHERE page 2

s=Rγ (2−1)

where: s = the arc length between two points on the surface of the sphere,
R = the radius of the sphere, and
= the angle measured at the center of the sphere subtending the two points on the surface.
ɣ

2.2.1 Great Circles

An arc of a great circle on the surface of a sphere such as the Earth that has a radius equal to the radius
of the sphere, and whose center is also the sphere's center. Considering the earth as a sphere, there are
three different types of great circles (arc) measurement (see figure below). They are the length of

 arc on a meridian,
 arc on a parallel,
 arc on any great circle.

Meridian arcs : sm =Rɸ(2.2)

where sm = the arc length along the meridian from the Equator to point A,
R = the radius of the earth (spherical radius), and
ϕ = the latitude of point A.
Parallel Arcs
The computation of the arc length along a parallel can be shown to be similar to that shown for the
arc length along a meridian. There are two main differences.

 First, the difference in longitude (δλ) is used as the angle.

 Second, the radius of the sphere measured along the rotational axis of the earth
changes. At the Equator, the arc distance between the two meridians (arc distance between D
and E) shown in figure 2) is found as:

s p=R cos φ δλ (2.3)

GdE 412 Geometric Geodesy EARTH AS A SPHERE page 3

Great circle in general

The length of an arc for any great circle on a spherical earth can be computed using spherical
trigonometry. The angular distance, z, between A and B is the unknown. The corresponding arc
length on the surface is 's'. Points A and B lie on meridional arcs which have a lengths of φ A and φB
which are the latitudes of points A and B respectively (figure 3).

Pole C
Meridiansa
δλ
a=90°- φB
90°- φA=b
φB, λB B
s c

R
R
ΦA, λA z A
O
Equator
Fig. 2.4
2.3 Solution of Spherical Triangles
When three parts of a spherical triangle are given, the other three parts can be computed. Accordingly, a
classification of spherical triangles is made on the basis of given parts. Six cases are referred to as
follows:
I. Given two sides and the included angle
II. Given two angles and the included side
III. Given the three sides
IV. Given the three angles
V. Given two sides and an angle opposite one of them
VI. Given two angles and a side opposite one of them.

Two great laws, called the law of cosines and the law of sines, form the basis for the solution of
spherical triangles.

2.3.1 The law of cosines

for sides. cos a=cos b cos c +sin b sin c cos A (2.4 a)
cos b=cos a cos c +sin a sin c cos B (2.4 b)
cos c=cos a cos b+sin a sin b cos C (2.4 c )

For angles cos A=sin B sinC cos a−cos B cos C(2.5 a)

cos B=sin A sinC cos b−cos A cos C (2.5 b)
cos C=sin A sin B cos c−cos A cos B (2.5 c)

2.3.2 The law of sines

sin A sin B sin C
= = ( 2.6 )
sin a sin b sin c

2.3.3 Napier’s analogies

GdE 412 Geometric Geodesy EARTH AS A SPHERE page 4

When certain sides or angles in a spherical triangle approaches 0 or 90°, calculated results would not be
accurate. Hence, a classical approach is needed to solve the triangles. Polar triangles using Napier’s
equations may be used for the solution.

A set of equations called Napier’s analogies are presented and used to solve spherical triangles.
1 1
sin ( A−B ) tan ( a−b )
2 2
= ( 2.7)
1 1
sin ( A +B ) tan c
2 2
1 1
cos ( A−B ) tan ( a+b )
2 2
= (2.8)
1 1
cos ( A+ B ) tan c
2 2

1 1
sin ( a−b ) tan ( A−B )
2 2
= (2.9)
1 1
sin ( a+b ) cot C
2 2
1 1
cos ( a−b ) tan ( A + B )
2 2
= ( 2.10)
1 1
cos ( a+ b ) cot C
2 2
2.4 Point Positioning- Basic problem in geometric geodesy
Point positioning is the determination of the location of a point at the surface of the earth. The location of
a point is described in terms of latitude, longitude and elevation from the surface of the earth.

In all position computation, the following problems arise:

2.4.1 Direct Position Computations. In the figure below given the position of a point (A) wherein
distance (s) and direction (α) observation are made to another distant station (B), determine the position
of the observed station.

P
Δλ
 

b a

β1 B
2
11
s
A

Direct Problem
GdE 412 Geometric Geodesy EARTH AS A SPHERE page 5

To calculate the position of the observed station (φ, λ) of B. following parameters must be observed:
a. azimuth of the line must be observed. Azimuth is the horizontal angle between a point of reference
usually the North or South to an observed point clockwise. There are two kinds of azimuths:
 forward azimuth is the azimuth from the initial station(occupied) to the second
station(observed)
 back azimuth is the azimuth from the second to the initial station.

b. distance between the two points must be measured. The distance is also known as geodesic. In this
case an arc of great circle passing through between two points. In spherical trigonometry, the arc
must be converted into angular distance (z=s/R)

To compute the geodetic coordinates 2 , 2 of P2 as well as the azimuth 2 given the coordinates of
1, 1 , 1, and the distance s. This procedure employs the direct method of geodetic position
calculations.

Procedure:
1. Calculate φ2 using cosine formula for sides (2.4). In terms of latitudes

sin φ 2=sin φ1 cos z+ cos φ1 sin z cos α 1 (2.11)

2. Calculate λ2 using sine law using (2.5)

sin α 1
sin ∆ λ=sin z (2.12)
cos φ2
and
λ 2=λ1 +∆ λ
3. Calculate the back azimuth α2 using (2.4)
cos ( 90° −φ1 ) =cos z cos ( 90−φ2 ) +sin z sin ( 90−φ2 ) cos β

sin φ1 =cos z sin φ2+ sin z cos φ 2 cos β (2.13)

and
α 2=360 °−β (2.14)

2.4.2 Inverse Position Computations. Given the positions of two points, calculate the distance and
azimuths of the two points. In this case there is no field work involved but just computations.To compute
the azimuths 1 , 2 and the distance s, the given the coordinates 1 ,1 ,2 ,2 of the points P1,P2. This
employs the inverse method of geodetic position calculations.

P
Δλ
a
b β B
α2
α1
z
A

Inverse Problem

1. To calculate for the arc length z:

GdE 412 Geometric Geodesy EARTH AS A SPHERE page 6

cos z=cos ( 90−φ B ) cos ( 90−φ A ) +sin ( 90−φ B ) sin ( 90−φ A ) cos δλ
or
cos z=sin φ A sin φ B +cos φ A cos φ B cos δλ(2.15)

and the arc length AB is calculated according to (2-1)

s=Rz ∙ π /180
2. Calculate the forward azimuth α1 using (2.12)

3. Calculate the forward azimuth α2 using (2.13) to solve for β and then solving for α2 (2.14)

In computing sides opposite a very small angle close to 0, an alternative equation may be used:

1/ 2
φ −φ A λ −λ
sin
z
2() [ (
= sin2 B
2 )
+ cos φ A cos φB sin 2 B A
2 ( )] (2.16)

2.4.3 Point Positioning Using Right Spherical Triangles

In situations wherein one of the points lies along the equator and the second point lies above or
below the equator, then the problem becomes a right spherical triangle. The problem is an
example case VI (given two angles and a side opposite one of them) . The law of cosines and sines could
be used letting one of the angles equal to 90°.

By letting C=90° equations of the law of cosines becomes:

cos c=cos a cos b(2.17)

cos A=sin B cos a(2.18)
cos B=sin A cos b(2.19)
cot B=tan A cos c (2.20)

Similarly the law of sines becomes:

sin a=sin A sin c (2.21)
sin b=sin B sin c (2.21)

Direct Problem- given φA ,λA , α1,and s, calculate φB, λB and α2.

B
α2
c
a
α1
b
A Equator C

1. Let c=(s/R)*180/π
2. Find a and b
sin a=sin A sin c
cosb=sec a cosc
3 a=φ2
GdE 412 Geometric Geodesy EARTH AS A SPHERE page 7

4. λ 1+b=λ 2
5. Calculate B
cos B=sin A cos b
Or
sin b
sin B=
sin c
6. Back azimuth is then
α 2=180+ B

Algorithm for Inverse solution

Using the same figure above.
1.
a=ϕ2
2.
b=λ2 −λ1
3. cos c=cosa cosb
4. sin A=sin a cscc
5. sin B=sin b csc c

2.5 Azimuths and Convergence of Meridian

The difference between forward and back azimuth between two stations will not exactly be 180
due to the convergence of meridian, which is given by the formula:

1
2
sin φm
∆ α =∆ λ (2.16)
1
cos ∆ φ
2

To compute the back azimuth ':

A
α ' =α + 180° ± ∆ α
' 
B
+ for line on eastward direction
- for  line on westward direction