Example Sheet 10: Positional Astronomy

May 14, 2024

This example sheet will investigate distance and positional measurements in astronomy, involving the
celestial sphere, astronomical time, as well as the relative positions of observers and orbiting objects.
One can refer to Karttunen [1] for more. The biggest tip in answering these questions is draw diagrams,
draw diagrams, and DRAW DIAGRAMS.

1 Astronomical Coordinates
Idea 1.1
Spherical Trigonometry. In astronomy, since the distances to celestial bodies are far greater
than the radius of the Earth it doesn’t make sense to use (x, y, z) coordinates to describe
objects; instead, we as terrestrial observers can more easily describe the angular separation
between objects. This cause can be traced back to the fact that, no matter how big or how
small any geometric shape is, their relative angles remain the same. Hence by mapping the
entire sky onto a “celestial sphere”, we can measure these angles as if we were at the center
of this sphere, along arcs of great circles. These great circles are circles on the surface of a
sphere which centers coincide with that of the sphere. In contrast, small circles are circles on
the sphere which do not share a center with the sphere.

We treat celestial objects to be fixed on the celestial sphere, which we assume to have a unit
radius R = 1. To find relationships between different angles on the celestial sphere, we use
spherical trigonometry. A spherical triangle ∆ABC are three-sided shapes on a sphere
whose sides are arcs of great circles. The angles A, B and C are the intersections points of the
arcs, and the sides a, b and c are the corresponding sides opposite to the angles. The unit of
measure for the sides a, b and c are in angles, subtended by the two points from the observer
(at the center of the sphere). A diagram illustrating the geometry is attached below.

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Note that spherical trigonometry only applies to great circles. Similar to planar
trigonometry, the sides and angles of spherical triangles follow sine and cosine rules:
sin a sin b sin c
Sine Rule: = = (1.1)
sin A sin B sin C
Cosine Rule: cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A (1.2)

On the Wikipedia page for “Spherical Trigonometry”, you may find other relationships. How-
ever, they are just derived from the interplay between the sine and cosine rules.

Problem 1.1. We can derive the cosine rule using a spherical triangle on the unit sphere. For any
arbitrary point on a sphere, we can always orient our coordinate our axes such that one is exactly at
the (0, 0, 1), one has (xB , 0, zB ) and the other has arbitrary coordinates (xC , yC , zC ). Given this setup,
prove the cosine rule. You may find the dot product of the position vectors (for the three vertices
A, B and C) useful.

Problem 1.2. By rearranging the cosine rule, we can write it as

cos a − cos b cos c
cos A = (1.3)
sin b sin c
Using the identity sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1, find an expression for (sin A/ sin a)2 and prove the spherical sine
rule from symmetry in the algebra.

Problem 1.3. One can also prove the sine rule in an alternative way, by considering the dot product
−→ −−→ −−→
OA · (OB × OC) in different ways.

1. Suppose we still use the coordinate system above. Evaluate the dot product.

2. Next by keeping the original triangle, orient the axes such that point B is now on the z-axis.
Does this change the dot product? Why or why not?

3. Evaluate the dot product in this new coordinate system. Hence, prove the spherical sine rule.

Problem 1.4. Prove the cotangent four-part formula,

cos b cos C = cot a sin b − cot A sin C (1.4)

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Idea 1.2
Astronomical Coordinates. Just like how there are different ways to express the same point
in 3D space, there are different systems that map out the sky - with each system giving each
point on the celestial sphere a unique pair of numbers (θ1 , θ2 ), which we generally call the
latitude and longitude.

Each system of celestial coordinates has 3 important elements:

1. The fundamental plane, as the baseline for θ1 . The two points θ1 = ±90◦ away from the
fundamental plane are the poles.

2. The zero reference point, as the baseline for θ2 .

3. An orientation parameter η that uniquely determines the relative orientation between two
coordinate systems. We usually take the equatorial coordinate system as the reference.

Coord. System Fund. Plane Zero Ref. Pt. η

Equatorial (δ, α) Celestial Equator Vernal Equinox N/A
Horizontal (a, A) Horizon North Horizon Latitude ϕ
Ecliptic (β, λ) Ecliptic Plane Vernal Equinox Obliquity ε
Galactic (b, ℓ) Galactic Plane Galactic Plane Galactic Center (δG , αG )

Problem 1.5 (Distances on a Sphere). Given two points on the sphere, e.g. in equatorial coordinates
(ϕ1 , λ1 ) and (ϕ2 , λ2 ). What is the angular distance between these points? Suppose the points were
on the surface of the Earth of radius R, what is the shortest distance between these two points?
What is the baseline distance between these two points?
Note: the baseline distance is what’s used in baseline interferometry, where astronomers use super-
position of “double slit patterns” to create images! Here, the “sllit spacing” is the baseline distance.

Problem 1.6 (Roy & Clarke). Two places A and B on the same parallel of latitude 38◦ 33′ N are
123◦ 19′ apart in longitude. Calculate in nautical miles (i) their distance apart along the parallel, (ii)
the great circle distance AB. Note: a nautical mile is the length subtended by 1′ on Earth.
Problem 1.7 (IPhO 2013 Q1). The Maribo Meteorite - gets you thinking geospatially.

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Idea 1.3
Equatorial & Horizontal Coordinates. We live on Earth - which one can take to be
perfectly spherical, each point described by latitude ϕ and longitude λ. A planet’s Geographic
North Pole is defined by the axis of its spin - with your right hand, curl your fingers in the
direction of spin and the direction of your thumb is North (same as angular velocity vector!).
At any point on Earth, we can draw the diagram:

where NCP denotes the “North Celestial Pole” and CE denotes the “Celestial Equator”. We
can express the same celestial object in both coordinate systems like so:

(a, A) denotes the altitude and azimuth of an object in horizontal coordinates, with azimuth
being measured positive to the East (depending on the hemisphere, it is relative to N in the
Northern hemisphere and S in the Southern hemisphere. Confusing as it is, in competitions
do state the convention you follow and that should be alright). Sometimes you may see the
term “zenith distance” z - it is essentially the complementary angle to the altitude as z = 90◦ −a.

With the zenith being the point directly overhead, the nadir is the point directly be-
neath (both words come from Arabic). N, S, E, W are known as the cardinal points.
Verticals are semi-circles extending from the horizon, to the zenith, to the horizon. The
meridian is the great circle passing through the NCP, Zenith, SCP.

Problem 1.8 (Lost Land of Peach Blossoms). As Tao Yuanming recalls his stay in the Peach Blos-
som Land, he remembers observing both Vega (δV , αV ) and Altair (δA , αA ) on the horizon (you can
get (α, δ) from Stellarium yourself). What is the equatorial coordinates of the zenith during his
observation? Help Tao find the latitude of the Peach Blossom Land. Hint: vectors may be useful!

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Problem 1.9 (Flight, Adapted IOAA 2015). An airplane was flying from Lima, capital of Peru
(12◦ 2′ S, 77◦ 1′ W) to Yogyakarta (7◦ 47′ S, 110◦ 26′ E), near the venue of the 9th IOAA. The aeroplane
chooses the shortest flight path from Lima to Yogyakarta. Find the latitude of the southernmost point
of the flight path. What fraction of the flight path lies within the Antarctic Circle?
Problem 1.10. An observer realized that the angular distance between each point of the ecliptic to
the North Celestial Pole is equal to the zenith distance of the points. Find the latitude of observation.
Problem 1.11 (Circumpolarity). Circumpolarity is the phenomenon where some celestial objects do
not set down the horizon. These objects have an upper culmination (with maximum a) and a lower
culmination (minimum a).
1. Along which vertical does culmination always occur?
2. For an observer at latitude ϕ, what range of declinations are circumpolar to the observer?
3. Determine the altitude and azimuth of Capella (Aurigae) with δ = +45◦ 58′ in its upper culmi-
nation as seen from geographic latitude of ϕ = +45◦ 58′ .
4. Suppose you only have the night sky (with no other information) and you want to measure the
declination of a circumpolar object. How can you do that just by measuring altitudes? Note:
consider what happens when the culminations happen to the North or South of the zenith.
5. Do these results above hold when one is in the Southern hemisphere?

Example 1.1

Find the conversions between horizontal and equatorial coordinates.

Solution: Every time you want to convert an object between coordinate systems, con-
sider the spherical triangle with (i) ref point of 1st system (ii) ref point of 2nd and (iii) an
arbitrary celestial object.

Note that the azimuth is a bit wonky, but just stick with whatever convention you’re familiar
with. We will talk about H, the hour angle, more in the section below. From the diagram
above, it is straightforward to apply the cosine and sine rules:

sin a = sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos H (1.5)

cos a/ sin H = cos δ/ sin(−A) (1.6)

Note that since we always have just 2 unknowns (the coords in the new system), we always just
need 2 equations to solve for them. Make sure to be familiar with drawing these diagrams!

Problem 1.12. Find the conversions between equatorial and ecliptic coordinates. Note: in equatorial
coordinates, the celestial equator coincides with Earth’s equator, but in ecliptic coordinates the plane
is tilted back to take the Earth’s orbit around the Sun to be the equator.

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Problem 1.13 (Azimuth Mount, Czech 17/18). In the Czech Republic (ϕ = 50◦ ), an observer pointed
his telescope at a star of declination of δ = −18◦ at its culmination, such that it was in the center of
field of view. He then set the alt-azimuth mount to automatically move around its vertical axis with
a period of one sidereal day T = 86164 s. After half an hour, he returned to the telescope and found
the star had left the field of view.
The observer would now be interested whether he will be able to observe the star after changing an
eyepiece, such that the telescope will have a field of view of d = 0.5◦ . If not, whether he could possibly
bring the star into view return by moving the telescope around exactly one axis (either around the
vertical or horizontal).
1. Determine the horizontal coordinates of the center of the field of view after half an hour.

2. Determine the horizontal coordinates of the star after half an hour.

3. Is it possible to observe the star after changing the eyepiece?

4. Is it possible to return the star into view by rotating in exactly one axis?
Problem 1.14 (Shadows, IOAA 2016). An observer in the northern hemisphere noticed that the
length of the shortest shadow of a 1.000 m vertical stick on a day was 1.732 m. On the same day, the
length of the longest shadow of the same vertical stick was measured to be 5.671 m. Find the latitude,
ϕ, of the observer and declination of the Sun, δ⊙ , on that day. Assume the Sun to be a point source
and ignore atmospheric refraction.
Problem 1.15 (IOAA 2013). Taking into account as many factors as possible, what is the maximum
altitude, at which the Full Moon can be observed from Thessaloniki? The geographical latitude of
Thessaloniki is ϕ = 40◦ 37′ . Note that the Moon’s orbit is inclined at 5.14◦ relative to the ecliptic.
Problem 1.16 (IOAA 2012). At Brazil’s National Observatory, located at the city of Rio de Janeiro
(22◦ 54′ S, 43◦ 12′ W), there is a sundial above the door of the dome of the 32 cm telescope, facing to
the north. The dial lies on the plane East-Zenith-West and the rod is parallel to the Earth’s axis. For
which declinations of the sun and during what period of the year (months and seasons) the clock (i)
does not work during, at least, some fraction of the day? and (ii) does not work at all during the day?
Problem 1.17. By considering an appropriate spherical triangle and assuming Earth’s orbit around
the Sun is circular, derive the following equation for the declination of the Sun throughout the year:
 
2π
sin δ⊙ = sin ε sin ∆t (1.7)
T
where ε is the obliquity of Earth (axial tilt), T the length of one solar year, and ∆t the number of
days since 21st March. Note: 21st March is when the Sun has δ⊙ = 0 and is known as the date of
“vernal equinox”.
Problem 1.18 (Sunrise, Adapted SAO 2017). Sunrise times differ throughout the year. To gauge
this phenomenon, Yong Sheng measures the hour angle of the Sun at vernal equinox to be α0 and
does the same every day for the rest of the year. He found that the hour angle of the Sun obeys

α = α0 + 2πx − tan−1 (tan(2πx) cos ε) (1.8)

where x is the fraction of the year elapsed since the vernal equinox, and ε is the Earth’s obliquity.
1. Derive the equation above.

2. What is the range of values that x can take?

3. Yong Sheng would like to know at which point in the year the Sun rises earliest, such that he
can remember to close the curtains and get a good night’s sleep. What date would that be? At
what time does it occur?

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Problem 1.19 (Photographing Shadows, Czech 18/19). A photographer at an unknown location on

Earth placed his camera directly above a vertical pole of height H = 1 m and took photographs of the
pole and its surroundings. Once the Sun was on the southern arc of the meridian, he took the first
picture of the pole and its shadow. He took three more photos, in 6-hour intervals. Combining these
4 photos, a figure was created, represented by the schematic diagram in Fig. 1.

Figure 1: Schematic Diagram of the Pole and its Shadows

The photographer measured the length of the shortest and longest shadows to be d1 = 2 m and d3 = 5
m. Assume that the Earth orbits the Sun in a circular orbit with period T = 365.24 days, and the
vernal equinox occurs on March 21. You may neglect atmospheric refraction and the curvature of the
Earth.

1. Find the altitudes of the Sun h1 and h3 when the shadows were the shortest and longest.

2. Find the observer’s latitude ϕ, and the solar declination δ⊙ .

3. Find the lengths d2 and d4 of the two remaining shadows.

4. Determine the angles β2 and β4 .

5. Estimate the date when the photograph was taken.

6. On any day in the year, shadows of poles anywhere on Earth draw out a conic section. Briefly
present an argument explaining this.

7. What are the constraints for the latitude and solar declination, for the shadow to trace a hyper-
bola?

8. Find the criteria for the solar declination such that the tip of the shadow traces a straight line
for any latitude of observation. Find an expression for the straight line distance from the base
of the pole to the locus of its shadow.

Problem 1.20 (MOAA 2019 - A Peculiar Observation). On March 20, UT Time 0h, an object was
visible at an altitude of 89◦ at both the North Pole and the coordinate (89◦ N, 0◦ W ). Find the possible
equatorial coordinates of the object.

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2 Astronomical Timekeeping
Idea 2.1
Astronomical Time is a tricky business, largely due to its anthropogenic roots in naval navi-
gation. This also results in large definition disparities appearing in literature. The fundamental
building block of all ideas below is the hour angle H, which is the angle of a celestial object
relative to an observer’s meridian:

Notably, H < 0 for objects East of the Meridian, but H > 0 positive for those West - like a
countdown timer, counting down to upper culmination. The other core ideas of astronomical
time are then illustrated below:

Right above the observer is the local meridian. The green line is the 0 longitude meridian on
Earth, historically located in Greenwich (colonizer moment).
• Local Sidereal Time (LST): Hour Angle of the Vernal Equinox at the observation site.
• Greenwich Sidereal Time (GST): The LST at the Greenwich Meridian
• Longitude: measured relative to Greenwich
• Right Ascension: 0 on the Vernal Equinox, measured towards the East.
Drawing these angles would aid you in solving many questions, by reducing them to algebra:

LST = GST ± Long RA = LST − HA

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Note also that there are different definitions of a year. We are familiar with using solar (or
tropical, because tropikos means to “turn” in Greek) time - i.e. Ttropical = 365.2422 days per
solar year and 24 hours per solar day. In the past the concept of time was entirely based on
the Sun, but in modern day we have standardized the second with atomic physics. However,
in astronomy we prefer to use the distant stars as reference points (the vernal equinox point
specifically) instead of our Sun, otherwise observation times would change throughout the year
because of the diagram illustrated below:

The observer is at the cyan dot in the above. Timekeeping with respect to stars is known
“sidereal time” (sider- means “stars” in Latin). From the diagram, it is evident that it takes
more time for the Sun to appear directly overhead than for distant stars to do so. Because of
how rotations work, there will always be 1 more day in a sidereal year compared to a solar
year, giving Tsidereal = 366.2422 days per sidereal year and 24 × (365.2422/366.2422) = 23.9344
hours per sidereal day.

However, timekeeping terms discussed above lacks an absolute baseline, i.e. a zero ref-
erence point. This is fixed by knowing the sidereal time of any meridian on a set date. The
meridian shifts in time, as a result from two effects: (i) common time usage is calibrated with
respect to the Sun (Earth’s orbit), and (ii) local shift from diurnal rotation (Earth’s spin):

(i) If we use sidereal time, the Vernal Equinox (VE) at the same “time of sidereal day”
would remain the same throughout the year. However, human activity relies on the Sun,
and we commonly use solar time. From the diagram above, using solar time causes an
apparent shift of the meridian ∆t. Hence, the VE will shift by a full revolution after a
tropical year of Ttropical = 365.2422 days.

(ii) The second effect is because Earth rotates diurnally, and the local meridian appears to
rotate one full revolution in a sidereal day, Tsid.day = 23.9344 hours.

Hence, the total shift from a known baseline due to the two effects above is then
 
# of days from baseline date # of hours from baseline time
∆= + × 24 hours
Ttropical Tsid.day

As a footnote, you will see angles represented as angles below - just treat 24h = 360◦ to convert.
There should be a button on your calculator that can do this quickly.

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Problem 2.1. The reason for leap years is because the number of days in a solar year is not an integer,
but Ttropical = 365.2421896698 d/yr. Why do we have leap years every 4 years except every 100 years?
Why do leap years occur every 400 years? What would be the next sequence in this pattern?
Problem 2.2 (MOAA 2022, Adapted). You are planning to observe the MOAA-22 globular cluster
on the night of the IOAA exam (15 August 2022), at Kutaisi, Georgia (latitude ϕ = 42◦ N ). The
equatorial coordinates of the cluster is (α, δ) = (22h , 54◦ 30′ )
1. For good seeing, we prefer to perform observations on targets at least 30◦ above the horizon,
and at least 1 hour before/after sunrise/sunset. The operator has kindly told you that the
sunset/sunrise times would be 8:00pm and 6:00am respectively, and the Local Sidereal Time
(LST) during midnight would be 20h 30m . Determine the maximum duration of observation
available to you.
2. The conventions of galactic longitude and latitude (ℓ, b) is shown below. Note that the galactic
plane rotates clockwise in the given figure.

The galactic coordinates of MOAA-22 is (99.67◦ , −0.43◦ ). Calculate the line-of-sight velocity of
MOAA-22, assuming it moves with the general galactic rotation. By how much is MOAA-22
redshifted or blueshifted from the galactic motion?
Hint: the galactic rotation curve remains flat at 220km/s beyond 5kpc from the Galactic Centre,
and the distance from the Sun to the galactic center is 8kpc.
3. Find the ecliptic longitude and latitude (λ, β) of MOAA-22.
4. Make a sketch of Earth’s orbit as seen from the North Ecliptic Pole. Clearly indicate the vernal
equinox, Earth’s position during the observation, and the position of MOAA-22. In ecliptic
coordinates, what direction (λ⊕ , β⊕ ) is the Earth moving during the observation? Draw an
arrow indicating the direction on your sketch.
5. The Earth’s orbital velocity is about 30km/s. What is the additional redshift/blueshift of the
cluster due to the Earth’s motion around the Sun?
6. In addition, the Sun has a peculiar motion relative to the local standard of rest, which adds onto
its mean motion around the Galactic Centre. The direction of this motion, known as the solar
apex, points at equatorial coordinates (18h 30m , 30◦ N ) near Hercules. What is the additional
redshift/blueshift of the cluster due to the solar apex?
7. Compare your answers in the parts above - are these calculations relevant, if we want to calculate
the peculiar velocity of MOAA-22? What about the redshifts/blueshifts due to the rotation of
the Earth? Give a brief explanation.

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Problem 2.3 (The LMC in Phuket, IOAA 2017). The coordinates of the Large Magellanic Cloud
(LMC) are RA = 5h 24min and Dec = −70◦ 00′ . The coordinates of Phuket is (7◦ 53′ N, 98◦ 24′ E).
What is the date when the LMC culminates at 9pm as seen from Phuket in the same year? You may
note that the GST at 00h UT January 1 is about 6h 43min, and Phuket follows UT+7 time zone.

Problem 2.4 (Sidereal Time, IOAA 2018). It is very interesting to observe that on one particular
calendar day each year, the mean sidereal time will twice be 00:00:00. Estimate the exact date in 2018
for this event. You may assume that at the Royal Greenwich Observatory, the mean sidereal time
(GMST0 ) was 6.706h at 0h, 1st January, 2018 (JD2458119.5).

Problem 2.5 (Shipwreck, IOAA 2017). You are shipwrecked on an island. Fortunately, you are still
wearing a watch that is set to Bangkok time. You also have a compass, an atlas and a calculator. You
are initially unconscious, but wake up to find it has recently become dark. Unfortunately it is cloudy.
An hour or so later you see Orion through a gap in the clouds. You estimate that Rigel is 52.5◦ above
the horizon and with your compass you find that it has an azimuth of 109◦ . Your watch says 01:00
on November 21 2017. You happen to remember that the GST at 00h UT January 1 2017 is about
6h 43min and Rigel has equatorial coordinates (−8◦ 11′ , 5h 15min).

1. Find the HA of Rigel.

2. Find the current GST.

3. Find the island’s longitude.

4. Find, accurately to the nearest arcminute, the island’s latitude.

Problem 2.6 (Sunset, USAAAO 2021). An astronomer who lives in Chicago (41.88◦ N,
87.63◦ W) was very bored during the day of the winter solstice, so he started thinking about the
sunset. The astronomer could not wait to see the sunset on that day. Considering that the true solar
time at his location was 2:30 pm, how long did he have to wait to see the sunset? The declination of
the sun on winter solstice is δ = −23.44◦ .

Problem 2.7 (Unknown Place, Czech CD 20/21). An observer at an unknown location on Earth saw
a star exactly on the zenith at 23:00 local time. The following day, again at 23:00, he noticed that the
zenith angle of this star had changed to z = 0.8◦ . Determine the latitude ϕ of the location.

Problem 2.8 (SAO 2023 - Sunsets & Aliens). To celebrate the summer solstice, an observer decides to
watch the sunset from the 6300m summit of Chimborazo (ϕ, λ) = (1.47◦ S, 78.8◦ W ). At this particular
moment, she sees Venus on the meridian (α, δ) = (9h 5m 33.34s , 18◦ 6′ 9′′ ).

1. Calculate the following, considering all relevant effects and taking the effect of atmospheric
refraction to be θatm = 34′ :

(a) How long more she must wait before sunset (i.e. the entire solar disk goes below the
horizon).
(b) The time elapsed between the solar disk first touching the horizon and sunset.

Unfortunately, her watch and all time-keeping devices have coincidentally stopped. Fortunately, she re-
members receiving a warning of an alien invasion from a friend in Casablanca (ϕ, λ) = (33.57◦ N, 7.59◦ W )
earlier that day. Provided as proof was a photo of a supposed UFO seen directly above cardinal South,
timestamped 4:40pm (GMT+1). The UFO was, in fact, Venus.

2. What time is sunset, according to her watch (following GMT-5)?

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Problem 2.9 (IOAA 2022 - Georgia to Georgia). Astronomer Keto was flying west overnight along
the shortest possible route from Tbilisi (the capital of Georgia) to Atlanta (the capital of the US state
of Georgia). She noticed that she is able to observe the star Furud (ζ CMa) throughout the entire
flight from one of the jet’s windows (although it did touch the horizon at one point, when it also
happened to be exactly due South).
Given that the journey had a duration of 11 hours 25 minutes, and the jet travelled at an average
speed of 875 km/h, calculate the latitude ϕB and longitude λB , of Atlanta where she landed.
Furud has a declination of δF = −30◦ 4, and the coordinates of Tbilisi are ϕA = 41◦ 43′ N and λA =
41◦ 48′ E. You should ignore the effect of the rotation of the Earth during the flight, the altitude of the
jet, atmospheric refraction, and any wind.

Problem 2.10 (USAAAO 2023 - Sundial, Adapted). A sundial is just a straight stick on flat ground.

1. Prove that during the equinoxes, (i) the shadow of the stick draws out a straight line over the
course of a day, and (ii) that it can only happen during the equinoxes.

2. Prove that generally, the shape traced out by the shadow of a stick is a conic section. In terms
of the latitude ϕ and the declination of the Sun at the time δ⊕ , when is the conic section (i) a
circle, (ii) an ellipse, (iii) a parabola and (iv) a hyperbola?

3. At 6am on March 20th, as the Sun is rising, Leo, who is at (40◦ N, 75◦ W ), plants a straight stick
vertically on the ground. He marks out a finite line on the ground in the direction of the shadow
of the stick at that moment, labeling it with the current time and repeats the procedure every
hour onwards. At 6pm, Leo measures the angles between pairs of lines on the ground and gets
the values:

Notably, he finds that they deviate from the values he expects! He suspects the stick is slightly
tilted. Find the tilt of the stick with respect to the vertical, and the direction of tilt.

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3 Orbital Movements
Idea 3.1
The apparent movements of planets in the sky can sometimes be misleading - causing people to
believe in the geocentric model for so long. Stars are point in the sky that are fixed, while planets
are points in the sky that keep changing positions (planetes meant “wanderer” in Greek) on
the order of days. Objects orbit the Sun, not the Earth; hence the period of objects appearing
back at the same place in the sky is not necessarily the period of their orbit! The former is
called the synodic period (synod meaning “meet” in Greek) because when objects appear at
the same place as seen from Earth, their configurations with respect to the Sun align - they
“meet” up! If two objects have sidereal periods T1 and T2 > T1 , then their synodic period is:
1 1 1
= − (3.1)
Tsyn T1 T2

with the reasoning being that the “relative angular velocity” ωsyn = 2π/ωsyn is merely the
difference in their orbital speeds (hence if they orbit in opposite directions use + instead). In
what follows below you may also need this diagram of planetary configurations:

Additionally, one has to keep in mind orbits may change over time - for Earth the spin axis
changes over time due to torque from the Sun and the Moon, hence the North Celestial Pole
goes around in a circle at a rate of 50.3′′ /yr.

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Problem 3.1 (IOAA 2023 Theory - Neptune). Given that Neptune will be at opposition on 21
September 2024, calculate in which year Neptune was last at opposition near the time of the northern-
hemisphere spring equinox? Assume that the orbits of Earth and Neptune are circular.
Problem 3.2 (IOAA 2023 Planetarium - Retrograde Mars, Adapted). Mars’ movement relative to
the background stars over one season of visibility (1.5 years) was projected in the planetarium, starting
from the heliacal rising, chosen so that Mars will be at maximum ecliptic latitude at opposition. The
following information is given:
synodic period of Mars 780 days
the dates of quadrature (when the elongation of Mars is 90◦ ) 8 Nov 1915, 15 May 1916
the start and end dates of retrograde motion 1 Jan 1916, 21 Mar 1916
the date of opposition 20 Feb 1916
the ecliptic latitude at opposition 4.5◦
the width in ecliptic longitude of the retrograde loop made 19◦
Based on the data and assuming the orbits of Earth and Mars are circular,
1. Sketch the positions of the Sun, Earth and Mars at the moments of opposition and quadrature
in the heliocentric system.
2. Determine the radius of the orbit of Mars in a.u. geometrically, without using Kepler’s Laws.
Show your method in the answer sheet.
3. Derive the inclination of the orbit of Mars to the ecliptic.
Problem 3.3 (SAO 2023 Rocky Bodies). A socially anxious guitarist goes to her local astronomy
club to observe the recent opposition of Mars on 8 December 2022. She noted that the moon occulted
(passed in front of) Mars this night. What will be the phase of the moon during the next opposition
of Mars? Assume all orbits are circular, and take the synodic period of the moon to be 29.53 days.
Problem 3.4 (IOAA 2017 - Star of Bethlehem). A great conjunction is a conjunction of Jupiter and
Saturn for observers on Earth. Assume that all orbits are circular in the ecliptic plane. The time
between successive conjunctions may vary slightly as viewed from the Earth. However, the average
time period of the great conjunctions is the same as that of an observer at the centre of the Solar
system. The periods of Jupiter and Saturn are 4332.589 solar days and 10759.22 solar days respectively.
1. Find the average great conjunction period (in years) and average heliocentric angle between two
successive great conjunctions (in degrees).
2. A next great conjunction was on 21st December 2020 with an elongation of 30.3◦ East of the
Sun. Estimate in which constellation the conjunction occured.
3. Predict the date (to the nearest day) of the next great conjunction.
4. Some astronomers have suggested that the “Star of Bethlehem” seen by the magi (‘wise men’)
on their way to Jesus’ birth was in fact a great conjunction. Use your average synodic period
to find the date of the great conjunction in the first decade BC and give your answer to the
nearest month. [Note: be careful with BC years as year 0 in your calculation is equivalent to 1
BC, since 31st December 1 BC is followed by 1st January 1 AD]
In 1606, Johannes Kepler determined that in some years the great conjunction can be happen thrice
in the year due to the retrograde motions of the planets. He also determined that such an event
happened in the year 6/7 BC, which could have been the event commonly known as “The Star of
Bethlehem”. For the calculations below you may ignore the precession of the axis of the Earth.
5. Estimate in which constellation did the great conjunctions in 6/7 BC occur?
6. At the second conjunction of the series of three conjunctions in 6/7 BC, for the observer on
Earth, estimate in which constellation was the Sun?

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Idea 3.2
The definition of “months” is based on the Moon, but there are different ways of defining it:

1. Synodic Month - the time between successive new moons as seen from Earth. This is
the one that we use in our Lunar calendars, being 29.530589 solar days long.

2. Sidereal Month - the time taken for Moon to complete one orbit, with respect to distant
stars. This can be shown to be 27.321661 solar days long.

3. Tropical Month - the “apparent sidereal month” as seen from Earth, only ∼ 7 seconds
shorter than the sidereal month. This is because the tropical month is the Moon’s apparent
period relative to the vernal equinox, corrected for Earth’s axial precession. This is
27.321582 solar days long.

4. Anomalistic Month - the time between two successive passages of the apsides (periap-
sis/apoapsis), coined from the term “true anomaly” θ that appears in r = p/(1 + e cos θ).
This is 27.554550 solar days long. The Moon has mean orbital eccentricity of e = 0.0549.

5. Draconic Month - the period of the moon passing through the same node (where its
orbit intersects with the ecliptic plane). This is nontrivial as the Moon’s orbit is inclined
by 5◦ 8′ 43′′ to the ecliptic plane. This is 27.212221 solar days long.

These distinctions are important - in popular media you may have encountered lunar phenomena
such as “blood moons” (lunar eclipses), “supermoons”, “blue moons”, the list goes on and on.

Problem 3.5. One can derive the tropical period of the Moon by considering the following diagram:

The diagram above illustrates successive New Moons as observed from Earth. Notably, the tropical
period of the Moon is related to (i) the orbital period of Earth and (ii) the synodic period (“apparent
time between New Moons”) of the Moon. With the information given, show that the tropical period
of the Moon is 27.321582 days long.
Problem 3.6 (Saros Cycle). Even though it might seem like every New Moon a solar eclipse should
happen, it is very rare because the Moon’s orbit is tilted with respect to Earth. This makes it so
that the shadow of the Moon is rarely aligns with the Earth since the Moon is so small. What makes
eclipses rare is that, for them to seem the same every time, the Moon has to also be at the same
distance away from Earth. Interestingly, the ancients since the Babylons have known how to predict
these eclipses by careful observation!

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1. From the descriptions above, which of the three definitions of months above are relevant in
predicting eclipses?

2. Find the period between successive solar eclipses, which has to be an approximately integer
amount of the months involved. This result is known as the “Saros cycle”.

Problem 3.7 (BAAO 2016 - Supermoon). The term “supermoon” was coined by astrologer Richard
Nolle in 1979. He defined a supermoon as a new or full moon that occurs with the Moon at or
near (within 90% of) its closest approach to Earth in a given orbit (perigee). The value of 90% was
arbitrarily chosen, and other definitions are often used.

The media commonly associates supermoons with extreme brightness and size, sometimes implying
that the Moon itself will become larger and have an impact on human behaviour, but just how
different is a supermoon compared to the ‘normal’ Moon we see each month? In this question, we
will only consider a full moon that is at perigee to be a supermoon. Relevant data: Synodic Period
= 29.530589 days (time between same phases), Anomalistic Period = 27.554550 days (time between
perigees), Semimajor axis a = 3.844 × 105 km, Orbital eccentricity e = 0.0549, Radius of the Moon
RM = 1738.1km, Mass of the Moon MM = 7.342 × 1022 kg

1. Calculate how many days separate a supermoon.

2. Show that the mean difference in the distance between the apogee and perigee is 4.22 × 104 km.

3. Determine the difference in the angular diameter of a supermoon and a full moon observed at
apogee. Thus, determine the percentage difference in the brightness of a supermoon and a full
moon observed at apogee. (Ignore the effects of the Moon’s orbital tilt).

4. What change in magnitude does this brightness difference correspond to?

5. Suggest why it can be difficult to detect any differences in the brightness a supermoon when
observing with the naked eye?

6. Calculate the gravitational force of the supermoon on the Earth. What mass increase would a
Moon at apogee need, to create the same gravitational force?

Note: The data given allows the mean orbital parameters to be calculated. In reality, perturbations
in the lunar orbit mean that the perigee and apogee continually change over the course of the year.

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Problem 3.8 (IOAA 2023 - Libration). As a result of libration, studied among others by Johannes
Hevelius, more than half of the Moon’s surface can be seen from Earth. Assume the observer is
geocentric.

1. Estimate ϕB , the maximum angle of libration in latitude. The axial tile (obliquity) of the Moon
with respect to its orbital plane is α = 6◦ 41′ .

2. Estimate ϕL , the maximum angle of libration in longitude. Assume that the Moon is always
aligned with the same side facing towards the second focus F 2 of its elliptical orbit, and that
the eccentricity of the Moon’s orbit e changes between 0.044 and 0.064 on a timescale of several
months.

3. Estimate the fraction of the Moon’s surface which can be seen from Earth.

4. Calculate how many months (lunations) are needed for an observer to see the Moon’s surface
determine in the previous part.

Problem 3.9 (IOAA 2023 - Aldebaran). On 9 March 1497, Nicolaus Copernicus observed the oc-
cultation of Aldebaran by the Moon from Bologna. In his work De revolutionibus orbium celestium,
Book VI, Chapter 27 Copernicus described the event: “I saw the star touching the dark edge of the
Moon and disappearing at the end of the 5th hour of the night between the horns of the Moon, closer
to the south horn by a third of the Moon’s diameter.”

Assuming that the occultation was observed on the local meridian, that at maximum occultation
Aldebaran was 0.32′ above the southern edge of the Moon, and that the apparent angular diameter
of the Moon as seen from Bologna was 31.5′ , solve the following tasks:

1. Find the latitude φ1 of a place with the same longitude as Bologna, from which Aldebaran would
have appeared to pass behind the centre of the Moon.

2. Find the duration of the occultation as seen from latitude φ1 if Aldebaran appeared to pass along
the diameter of the lunar disk. For simplicity, also assume that the Moon and the observer are
moving linearly at constant speed, that the Moon’s orbit is circular and that the declination of
the Moon does not change during the occultation.

3. Find the topocentric angular velocity of the Moon against the background stars during the
occultation for an observer at latitude φ1 , in arcmin/hour, applying the same assumptions as in
part (2).

4. Estimate the range of the Moon’s topocentric angular velocities (against the background stars)
in arcmin/hour at latitude φ1 , assuming a circular orbit. Show how this result can be justified
by expressing the relative velocity of the Moon and observer in terms of their velocity vectors.

The declination of Aldebaran was δA = 15.37◦ in 1497 (due to precession), and the latitude of Bologna
is φB = 44.44◦ N.

Remark
In the above we’ve explored how celestial objects move with respect ot each other in their
orbits, but to find where these objects are along in their orbits as a function of time is a bit
more complicated - check out this handout to learn more about Kepler’s Equation!

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4 Practical Astronomy
Idea 4.1
In practical astronomy rounds, you will have to estimate the month of observation from the
night sky. This is done through the Sun - by looking at which constellation it is in.

Unfortunately, you have to memorize this. Fortunately there are great mnemonics out there
- just remember that the Sun is in Pisces during the vernal equinox (21st March) and the
constellations follow a fixed sequence after it. Additionally the Earth is at perihelion and
aphelion (closest and farthest approach to Sun) in January and July respectively.

Some questions might involve the Moon - remember that the Moon is tidally locked to
Earth, and only one side is visible to Earth. It is advised that you learn the main features
of the moon as well. Some questions also test on the 110 Messier Objects, but mostly they’ll
only ask about the well-known ones (nobody gets them all right anyways). Try not to be
intimidated by questions below - familiarize yourself with some “landmark” constellations, and
try to spot any familiar patterns in among the dots.

Problem 4.1 (MOAA 2024 Planetarium Round, Adapted). At some time in the past 20 years, a
planetary conjunction of several planets could be seen at the same time just an hour before sunrise!
Below are two projected sky maps (which were shown in the planetarium). The specific date and
location are unbeknownst to you. You do know, however, that the dates are less than 6 months apart,
and both skies are at the same local time (∼ 1 hour before sunrise).
1. Estimate the latitude of the observation site.
2. In the duration between Sky 1 and 2, Saturn has been undergoing retrograde motion. How many
planets are visible, and what constellations they are located at in Sky 1 and Sky 2?
3. Determine the months of Sky 1 and Sky 2.
4. Rigel (β Ori) has an apparent magnitude of 0.13. Name all the stars visible in Sky 2 that are
brighter than Rigel. In Sky 2, determine the azimuth of Rigel.
5. The planet of highest altitude in Sky 2 is Jupiter. Determine the constellation in which the next
retrograde event would occur in. You may assume all planetary orbits are circular.

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Problem 4.2 (IOAA 2022 - Daylight Observation). Calculate the time interval between the two
figures given below if the first figure occurs earlier than the second one, and the time interval is less
than one sidereal day.

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Problem 4.3 (SAO 2023 - All Sky). The following is a snapshot of the night sky.

1. Trace the constellation Ursa Major. Circle ONE deep-sky object in this constellation and label
it.

2. Mark the North Celestial Pole with an ‘X’ and indicate the cardinal directions (N, S, E, W) on
the borders of the chart.

3. Trace the ecliptic plane on the chart above and label it “Ecliptic”.

4. Jupiter is the only solar system object visible on the chart. Given that its elongation is currently
150◦ W, estimate the month this picture was taken in.

5. Estimate the local sidereal time this photo was taken at.

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Problem 4.4 (SAO 2022 - All Sky). You are lost at sea, adrift on a raft with no land in sight. Whilst
your situation is bleak and hope for rescue is minimal, you realise that there is no light pollution or
clouds, and you are finally able to do some proper night sky observation.

1. You first attempt to get your bearings straight. Mark on the star chart the cardinal directions
North and South right outside the boundaries of the star chart with ‘N’ and ‘S’ respectively.
2. Trace and label the local meridian on the starchart.
3. SIX zodiac constellations are visible on this night.
(a) Trace out and label THREE of the zodiac constellations.
(b) Hence, trace and label the ecliptic.
(c) Cross out with an ’X’ the point at which the sun would rise.
4. Now that you have a good sense of direction, you begin admiring the night sky.
(a) You notice that the Summer Triangle is visible. Label its three constituent stars on the
starchart, and trace out the asterism by connecting them.

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(b) Strangely, TWO prominent stars are not visible in the night sky. Identify the missing stars,
and mark their original locations with a ‘X’.
(c) Trace out and label any other THREE non-zodiac constellations (they must be fully visible).
(d) Cross out with an ‘X’ and label any THREE deep sky objects.

5. Lost in wonder at the beauty of the night sky, you only now realise that you still have your
phone on you. It is currently 12am in Singapore (UTC+8) on the 11th of March. You also recall
that the star Arcturus has the celestial coordinates of (α, δ) = (14h 16m , +19◦ 10′ )

(a) Cross out with an ’X’ and label the star Arcturus on the star chart.
(b) Hence, calculate the latitude and longitude of your current location.

Problem 4.5 (IOAA 2017 Team Competition - Analemma on Another Planet). A generated analemma
(position of a Star taken from the surface of a planet with interval separated by mean solar day of
the planet over an orbital period around a Star) of a fictitious planet orbiting around a Star is shown
below, graphed on a paper with each major grid representing 5◦ . North points upwards in the diagram.
What is the obliquity (axial tilt) of the planet?

Problem 4.6 (IOAA 2019 Planetarium Round). 3 nice problems, one of which involves observations
on the Moon.

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5 Near-Earth Phenomena
Idea 5.1
Although observing Solar System objects or objects in low-altitude orbits are not much different
than observing faraway stars, some effects are more evident. These include

i) Peculiar velocities. Although faraway objects can have high velocities, their angular ve-
locities are sufficiently small such that their motions are only visible over large timescales
or at high precision. This is most evident for low-altitude orbits, as angular velocities
depends on the separation.

ii) Finite size. The finite size of nearby objects allow interesting phenomena to occur fre-
quently, e.g. eclipses, transits and occultations. They also suffer more heavily from
horizon dips and atmospheric refraction.

iii) Parallax. Different observers may find a nearby object at different positions on the celestial
sphere due to parallax. This means that celestial events like eclipses will last for different
duration for different observers.

Problem 5.1 (Horizon Dip). For most of this example sheet, in horizontal coordinates, we tend to
draw our view of the sky as a hemisphere. However, when we are elevated, we see the horizon to be
further away. The horizon is the point where our line of sight ‘touches’ the Earth’s surface. Find the
dipping angle (angle between the horizontal and the line of sight towards the horizon) for an elevation
H above the Earth’s surface. Near the horizon, the atmospheric refraction is about half a degree,
determine the effective dipping angle on Mt. Everest (H = 8850 m).

Problem 5.2 (Geocentric Parallax, IOAA 2009). A satellite is orbiting around the Earth in a circular
orbit along the celestial equator. An observer in Tehran at the latitude of ϕ = 35◦ .6 observes that the
satellite has a zenith angle of z = 46◦ .0 when it transits the local meridian. Calculate the distance of
the satellite from the center of the Earth (in Earth radii).

Problem 5.3 (Synchronous Satellite, IOAA 2017). A synchronous satellite is a satellite which orbits
the Earth with its period exactly equal to the period of rotation of the Earth. The height of these
satellites is 35,786 km above the surface of the Earth. A satellite is put at a synchronous orbit, inclined
at 6◦ .69 to the equatorial plane. Calculate the precise value of the possible maximum altitude of the
satellite for an observer at latitude of ϕ = 51◦ .49.

Problem 5.4 (Moon-Bathing). It is said that bathing in moonlight (which is just sunlight tbh...) can
help relieve anxiety and stress, as you drink in the lunar energy.

1. A strong believer of moon-bathing wants to get as much moonlight as possible, and decides to
moon-bathe on Mt. Everest (ϕ = 28◦ N, H = 8850 m) in the Full Moon on June 14, 2022. The
Moon’s orbit is inclined 5◦ .14 to the ecliptic. What is the maximum duration of moonlight could
he receive? Assume that the Moon’s orbital radius is much larger than Earth’s radius.

2. The Curiosity rover on Mars has encountered a virus and has decided to moon-bathe too, on
the Martian equator. Phobos and Deimos, orbiting at 2.76 and 6.92 Mars radii respectively,
has orbits near the Martian equatorial plane. Mars has a sidereal day of 1 Earth day, a mass
of 6.4 × 1023 kg, and a maximum equatorial elevation of 8700 m around Pavonis Mons. What
is the maximum possible duration of moonlight could Curiosity receive from both Phobos and
Deimos simultaneously?

Problem 5.5 (Flat-Earther). A Flat-Earther flew a drone high into the sky, wishing to take a photo
of a flat Earth. To his bewilderment, his photo shown the curvature of the Earth, with the angular
dimensions as in the figure below. Find the height of the drone, where the photo was taken.

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Problem 5.6 (Distance to a Near Earth Asteroid, IOAA 2019). Assume that a Near-Earth Asteroid
is observed by two astronomers, one from Nagykanizsa, Hungary and one from Windhoek, Namibia.
The longitudes of the two cities are exactly 17◦ east of Greenwich. They observe the asteroid when it
crosses their respective meridians. The Nagykanizsa-observer sees the asteroid 25◦ south of his zenith
at this instant, while the Windhoek-observer sees it 45◦ north of his zenith at the same instant. The
latitudes of the two cities are 46◦ 27′ N and 22◦ 34′ S, respectively. The sites of both astronomers are
at sea level.
1. Draw a diagram of the geometric configuration.
2. What is the distance of this asteroid from the centre of the Earth, expressed in units of Earth-
radii and the average Earth-Moon distance? Provide a solution which makes use of all available
information. Neglect the effect of the atmospheric refraction.
Problem 5.7 (Bolide, Czech CD R17/18). A camera in Ondrejov (ϕO = 49◦ 54′ 37′′ ) captured a
bolide. The bolide flared up at zenith, and disappeared 2.3 s later, 24◦ above the southern horizon.
The angular speed was identical at the beginning and the end of the bolide’s track. Another camera
at Hvezdov (ϕH = 50◦ 38′ 19′′ ), with the same longitude as the first, witnessed the bolide flared up at
altitude 59◦ above the horizon.
Neglecting atmospheric refraction, Earth’s curvature, and deviations of bolide’s straight line trajectory
due to gravity, find
1. altitude H1 where the bolide flared up;
2. length L of bolide’s track in the atmosphere;
3. velocity v upon the bolide’s entry assuming that it has constant velocity along its track;
4. altitude H2 , where the bolide disappeared.
Problem 5.8 (Eagles on the Caraiman Cross, IOAA 2014). The tallest cross built on a mountain
peak is located on a plateau situated on the top of the peak called Caraiman in Romania at altitude
H = 2300 m from sea level. Its height, including the base-support is h = 39.3 m. The horizontal arms
of the cross are oriented in the N-S direction. The latitude at which the Cross is located is ϕ = 45◦ .
Assume atmospheric refraction is negligible.
1. On the evening of March 21 2014, two eagles stop from their flight, first near the monument,
and the second, on the top of the Cross as seen in Fig.2. The two eagles are in the same vertical
direction. The sky was very clear, so the eagles could see the horizon and observe the sunset.
Each eagle began to fly right at the moment it observed that the Sun disappeared completely.
At the same time, an astronomer is located on sea level, at the base of the Bucegi Mountains.
Assume that he is in the same vertical direction as the two eagles.

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Figure 2: Eagles on the Caraiman Cross

(a) Calculate the duration of the sunset, measured by the astronomer.

(b) Calculate the duration of sunsets measured by each of the two eagles and indicate which
of the eagles leaves the Cross first. What is the time interval between the moments of the
flights of the two eagles.

2. At a certain moment the next day, March 22 2014, the two eagles come back to the Heroes
Cross. One of the eagles lands on the top of the vertical pillar of the Cross and the other one
land on the horizontal plateau, just at the tip of the shadow of the vertical pillar of the Cross,
at that moment of the day when the shadow length is minimum.

(a) Calculate the distance between the two eagles and the second eagle’s distance from the
cross.
(b) Calculate the length of the horizontal arms of the Cross ℓb , if the shadow of one of the arm
of the cross at this moment has the length ub = 7 m.

3. At midnight, the astronomer visits the cross and, from its top, he identifies a bright star at
the limit of the circumpolarity. He named this star “Eagles Star”. Knowing that due to the
atmospheric refraction the horizon lowering is ξ = 34′ , calculate:

(a) The “Eagles star” declination; and (b) its maximum height above the horizon.

Problem 5.9 (Under the Sea, Czech CD 17/18). Consider a rocky planet of radius R = 5000 km with
an “atmosphere” of liquid water (refractive index n = 1.33) that extends to a height of h = 1500 km.
Consider an astronomer standing at the planet’s North pole on its solid surface, at what minimum
height hmin above the horizon can an astronomer observe a star? What declination δ would this star
have? Neglect light absorption in water.

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Problem 5.10 (Solar Eclipses, IOAA 2010). On average, the visual diameter of the Moon is slightly
less than that of the Sun, so the frequency of annular solar eclipses is slightly higher than total solar
eclipses. For an observer on the Earth, the longest total solar eclipse duration is about 7.5 minutes,
and the longest annular eclipse duration is about 12.5 minutes. Here, the longest duration is the time
interval from the second contact to the third contact. Suppose we count the occurrences of both types
of solar eclipses for a very long time, estimate the ratio of the occurrences of annular solar eclipses and
total solar eclipses. Assume the orbit of the Earth to be circular and the eccentricity of the Moon’s
orbit is 0.0549. Count all hybrid eclipses as annular eclipses.

Problem 5.11 (Lunar Sunrise, Czech CD N16/17). Find the duration ∆t of the sunrise at the
selenographic latitude ϕ − 50◦ on the Moon. Assume the Moon orbits in the ecliptic plane, with
rotation axis perpendicular to the orbital plane.

References
[1] H. Karttunen, Fundamental Astronomy

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