TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II

CASE STUDY 1
TRAFFIC CONGESTION

Jheremae D. Deypalubos

Department of Civil Engineering, Mindanao State University

Travel demand is expressed as the number of persons or vehicles per unit time that

can be expected to travel on a given segment of a transportation system under a

set of given land-use, socioeconomic, and environmental conditions. Forecasts of

travel demand are used to establish the vehicular volume on future or modified trans-

portation system alternatives. The methods for forecasting travel demand can range

from a simple extrapolation of observed trends to a sophisticated computerized

process involving extensive data gathering and mathematical modeling. The travel
demand forecasting process is as much an art as it is a science. Judgments are required

concerning the various parameters—that is, population, car ownership, and so forth—

that provide the basis for a travel forecast. The methods used in forecasting demand

will depend on the availability of data and on specific constraints on the project, such

as availability of funds and project schedules.

There are two basic demand forecasting situations in transportation planning. The

first involves travel demand studies for urban areas, and the second deals with inter-

city travel demand. Urban travel demand forecasts, when first developed in the 1950s

and 1960s, required that extensive databases be prepared using home interview

and/or roadside interview surveys. The information gathered provided useful insight

concerning the characteristics of the trip maker, such as age, sex, income, auto own-

ership, and so forth; the land use at each end of the trip; and the mode of travel. Travel

data then could be aggregated by zone and/or be used at a more disaggregated level—

that is, household or individual—to formulate relationships between variables and to

calibrate models.

In the intercity case, data are generally aggregated to a greater extent than for

urban travel forecasting, such as city population, average city income, and travel timeor travel
cost between city pairs.

The three factors that influence the demand for urban travel are: (1) the location and

intensity of land use; (2) the socioeconomic characteristics of people living in the area;

and (3) the extent, cost, and quality of available transportation services. These factors

are incorporated in most travel forecasting procedures.

Land-use characteristics are a primary determinant of travel demand. The

amount of traffic generated by a parcel of land depends on how the land is used. For

example, shopping centers, residential complexes, and office buildings produce dif-

ferent traffic generation patterns.

Socioeconomic characteristics of the people living within the city also influence
the demand for transportation. Lifestyles and values affect how people decide to use

their resources for transportation. For example, a residential area consisting primar-

ily of high-income workers will generate more trips by automobile per person than a

residential area populated primarily by retirees.

The availability of transportation facilities and services, referred to as the supply,

also affects the demand for travel. Travelers are sensitive to the level of service pro-

vided by alternative transportation modes. When deciding whether to travel at all or

which mode to use, they consider attributes such as travel time, cost, convenience,

comfort, and safety.

Sequential Steps for Travel Forecasting

Prior to the technical task of travel forecasting, the study area must be delineated into

a set of traffic analysis zones (TAZ) that form the basis for analysis of travel move-

ments within, into, and out of the urban area as discussed in Chapter 11. The set of

zones can be aggregated into larger units, called districts, for certain analytical tech-

niques or analyses that work at such levels. Land use estimates are also developed.

Travel forecasting is solely within the domain of the transportation planner and

is an integral part of site development and traffic engineering studies as well as area-

wide transportation planning. Techniques that represent the state-of-the-practice of

each task are described in this chapter to introduce the topic and to illustrate how

demand forecast can be determined. Variations of each forecasting technique is

described in the literature.

Land Use and Travel Characteristics, Trip Generation, Transit and HighwaySystem: Trip
Distribution, Mode Choice, Assign Trips to Network

The approach most commonly used to forecast travel demand is based on land

use and travel characteristics that provide the basis for the “four-step process” of trip

generation, trip distribution, modal choice, and traffic assignment. Simultaneous model
structures have also been used in practice, particularly to forecast intercity travel.

TRIP GENERATION
Trip generation is the process of determining the number of trips that will begin or

end in each traffic analysis zone within a study area. Since the trips are determined

without regard to destination, they are referred to as trip ends. Each trip has two ends,

and these are described in terms of trip purpose, or whether the trips are either pro-

duced by a traffic zone or attracted to a traffic zone. For example, a home-to-work trip

would be considered to have a trip end produced in the home zone and attracted to

the work zone. Trip generation analysis has two functions: (1) to develop a relation-

ship between trip end production or attraction and land use and (2) to use the rela-

tionship to estimate the number of trips generated at some future date under a new

set of land use conditions. To illustrate the process, two methods are considered:

cross-classification and rates based on activity units. Another commonly used method

is regression analysis, which has been applied to estimate both productions and attrac-

tions. This method is used infrequently because it relies on zonal aggregated data.

TRIP DISTRIBUTION

Trip distribution is a process by which the trips generated in one zone are allocated

to other zones in the study area. These trips may be within the study area (internal-

internal) or between the study area and areas outside the study area (internal-

external).

For example, if the trip generation analysis results in an estimate of 200 HBW

trips in zone 10, then the trip distribution analysis would determine how many of

these trips would be made between zone 10 and all the other internal zones.

In addition, the trip distribution process considers internal-external trips (or vice

versa) where one end of the trip is within the study area and the other end is outside

the study area. For example, in Chapter 11, Figure 11.11, external stations for a study

area boundary are depicted. If, for example, a trip begins somewhere south of the

study area and ends in the center of the study area using Route 29, then an external-

internal trip is defined that begins at external station 103 and ends in a zone located

in the center of the study area.

model, growth factor models, and intervening opportunities. The gravity model is

preferred because it uses the attributes of the transportation system and land-use char-

acteristics and has been calibrated extensively for many urban areas.The gravity model

has achieved virtually universal use because of its simplicity, its accuracy, and its sup-

port from the U.S. Department of Transportation. Growth factor models, which were

used more widely in the 1950s and 1960s, require that the origin-destination matrix be

known for the base (or current) year, as well as an estimate of the number of future trip

endsin each zone.The intervening opportunities model and other models are available

but not widely used in practice.

MODE CHOICE

Mode choice is that aspect of the demand analysis process that determines the number

(or percentage) of trips between zones that are made by automobile and by transit.

The selection of one mode or another is a complex process that depends on factors

such as the traveler’s income, the availability of transit service or auto ownership, and

the relative advantages of each mode in terms of travel time, cost, comfort, conven-

ience, and safety. Mode choice models attempt to replicate the relevant characteris-

tics of the traveler, the transportation system, and the trip itself, such that a realistic

estimate of the number of trips by each mode for each zonal pair is obtained.

TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT

The final step in the transportation forecasting process is to determine the actual

street and highway routes that will be used and the number of automobiles and buses

that can be expected on each highway segment. The procedure used to determine the

expected traffic volumes is known as traffic assignment. Since the numbers of trips by

transit and auto that will travel between zones are known from the previous steps in

the process, each trip O-D can be assigned to a highway or transit route. The sum of

the results for each segment of the system results in a forecast of the average daily or

peak hour traffic volumes that will occur on the urban transportation system that
serves the study area.

To carry out a trip assignment, the following data are required: (1) number of

trips that will be made from one zone to another (this information was determined

in the trip distribution phase), (2) available highway or transit routes between zones,

(3) how long it will take to travel on each route, (4) a decision rule (or algorithm) that

explains how motorists or transit users select a route, and (5) external trips that were

not considered in the previous trip generation and distribution steps.

General Santos City as a fast growing and developed city had increased it's demand for
transportation and it leads to a traffic congestion in every intersection within the city. This
congestion causes a big impact in the economy during it peak hours economic loss is evident.
Implementing a mitigation will bring big reduction in economic loss in the city during peak
hours.

Transit capacity or service enhancements to attract new riders including new fixed-

guideway service, express/premium bus, new routes, higher frequencies, transit priority

operations (bus-only lanes, signal priority, queue jumping), reduced fares, flex service,

expanded park-and-ride, and traveler information. Along with this mitigation is a law that will
implement penalties and cases to those who will not abide the new routes and transit priority
that the transportation engineers will provide.

November 2020
Traffic congestion refers to the way the movement of vehicles is delayed by one
another because of limited road capacity (Rahane & Saharkar, 2014). Multiple studies show
that traffic congestion has hostile impacts in the economy and on the society. Throughout the
year’s traffic congestion has been the universal problem of most urbanized cities.

In the Philippines along with its development in every city, the tendencies of drastic
acceleration of traffic flow have been evident. In recent years, the rapid growth of private
vehicles and public vehicles result in enlargement of loads in an urban transportation road and a
lot of road intersections reach its saturated limits on rush hours.

The transportation planning process comprises seven basic elements, which are
interrelated and not necessarily carried out sequentially. The information acquired in one phase
of the process may be helpful in some earlier or later phase, so there is a continuity of effort that
should eventually result in a decision. (Garber & Hoel, 2009)
The elements in the process are:

Situation Definition
The first step in the planning process is situation definition, which involves all of the
activities required to understand the situation that gave rise to the perceived need for a
transportation improvement. In this phase, the basic factors that created the present situation are
described, and the scope of the system to be studied is delineated. The present system is
analyzed and its characteristics are described. Information about the surrounding area, its
people, and their travel habits may be obtained. Previous reports and studies that may be
relevant to the present situation are reviewed and summarized. Both the scope of the study and
the domain of the system to be investigated are delineated.
Problem Definition
The purpose of this step is to describe the problem in terms of the objectives to be
accomplished by the project and to translate those objectives into criteria that can be quantified.
Objectives are statements of purpose, such as to reduce traffic congestion; to improve safety; to
maximize net highway-user benefits; and to reduce noise. Criteria are the measures of
effectiveness that can be used to quantify the extent to which a proposed transportation project
will achieve the stated objectives. For example, the objective “to reduce traffic congestion”
might use “travel time” as the measure of effectiveness. The characteristics of an acceptable
system should be identified, and specific limitations and requirements should be noted. Also,
any pertinent standards and restrictions that the proposed transportation project must conform to
should be understood.
Analysis of Performance
The purpose of performance analysis is to estimate how each of the proposed
alternatives would perform under present and future conditions. The criteria identified in the
previous steps are calculated for each transportation option. Included in this step is a
determination of the investment cost of building the transportation project, as well as annual
costs for maintenance and operation. This element also involves the use of mathematical models
for estimating travel demand. The number of persons or vehicles that will use the system is
determined, and these results, expressed in vehicles or persons/hour, serve as the basis for
project design. Other information about the use of the system (such as trip length, travel by time
of day, and vehicle occupancy) are also determined and used in calculating user benefits for
various criteria or measures of effectiveness. Environmental effects of the transportation project
(such as noise and air pollution levels and acres of land required) are estimated. These nonuser
impacts are calculated in situations where the transportation project could have significant
impacts on the community or as required by law.
Evaluation of Alternatives
The purpose of the evaluation phase is to determine how well each alternative will
achieve the objectives of the project as defined by the criteria. The performance data produced
in the analysis phase are used to compute the benefits and costs that will result if the project is
selected. In cases where the results cannot be reduced to a single monetary value, a weighted
ranking for each alternative might be produced and compared with other proposed projects.
Choice of Project
Project selection is made after considering all the factors involved. In a simple situation,
for example, where the project has been authorized and is in the design phase, a single criterion
(such as cost) might be used and the chosen project would be the one with the lowest cost. With
a more complex project, however, many factors have to be considered, and selection is based on
how the results are perceived by those involved in decision-making. If the project involves the
community, it may be necessary to hold additional public hearings. A bond issue or referendum
may be required. It is possible that none of the alternatives will meet the criteria or standards,
and additional investigations will be necessary. The transportation engineer, who participates in
the planning process, may have developed a strong opinion as to which alternative to select.
Such bias could result in the early elimination of promising alternatives or the presentation to
decision-makers of inferior projects. If the engineer is acting professionally and ethically, he or
she will perform the task such that the appropriate information is provided to make an informed
choice and that every feasible alternative has been considered.
Through the year’s mitigation had been imparting an important role in every
transportation planning to control and lessen the traffic congestion on intersections or on an
urban road during its peak hours.
Mitigation measures are the steps that can be taken to lessen the adverse environmental
impacts of an action. In order for an impact to be successfully mitigated, the mitigation measure
must be economically and practically viable and the agency has to be capable of and committed
to implementing it. Under CEQ regulations, mitigation can be achieved by avoiding the adverse
impact, minimizing the adverse effect by reducing the scope of the project, rectifying (repairing)
the damage caused by the action, implementing a program to reduce the impact over time, or
compensating for the impact by replacing or providing substitute resources. (Brockenbrough &
Boedecker, 2003)
Transportation Engineers indeed have a big role to make the economy grow. Planning
and proposing mitigation measures always been a big help to reduce the economic loss in every
congestion that been happening throughout the years. The following are the proposed mitigation
measures to improve and mitigate the traffic congestion at the successive intersections of Digos-
Makar Road (or more commonly known locally as National Highway) with Mabuhay Road and
Eusebio-Bulaong Avenue.Also, included in the proposed plan is the discussion of the possible
hindrances/problems that the proposed plan might encounter.
I. USING EXISTING CAPACITY MORE EFFICIENTLY/OPERATIONAL
IMPROVEMENTS
Roadside Electronic Screening/Clearance Programs for Commercial Vehicles
Electronic screening and clearance systems to support selection of commercial vehicles
for roadside inspections. These systems enable safe and properly credentialed motor carriers to
bypass weigh station facilities, thereby reducing congestion around weigh stations. In addition
to time savings for motor carriers, they can eliminate queues upstream of weigh stations that
create a congestion and safety hazard.
Implementation Issues:
a.) Preclearance programs have different business models and may not meet the needs
of all states; 
b.) The motor carrier industry is not always receptive to the pay-per-pass concept;
c.) Safety benefits are not easy to quantify, reducing the ability to justify the program;
and
d.) Many states do not have adequate staff resources to keep weigh stations open –
prescreening is only a benefit at weigh stations when they are in use. Potential

Incident Management
Identifying incidents more quickly, improving response times, and managing incident
scenes more effectively.
Implementation Issues:
a.) The primary barriers to broader deployment of incident management systems are
institutional and fiscal. Incident management programs that do not involve heavy
investment in infrastructure (e.g., roving tow trucks, cell phone detection) can be
implemented at relatively low capital expense. However, effective programs
 require coordination between transportation agencies operating the highway system;
state and local emergency response units; and other entities such as private-sector
providers of traffic information. Some incident detection strategies, such as closed-
circuit TV, require costlier investments in infrastructure. However, traffic
monitoring systems using cell phones or probe vehicles are reducing the need for
these types of investments. Innovative methods also have been found of using
existing traffic monitoring infrastructure (e.g., loop detectors) to identify the
locations of incidents.
Traveler Information
Providing travelers with real-time information on roadway conditions, where incidents
have occurred and congestion has formed, how bad it is, and advice on alternative routes.
Implementation Issues:
a.) The cost of deploying and maintaining roadside detection equipment is significant. Many
agencies are finding the level maintenance of detectors required to provide quality data is
difficult to fund and staff. For this reason, large numbers of agencies are contracting out
ITS equipment maintenance.
b.) The proliferation of navigation devices, both in-vehicle and portable, that are connected to
real-time traffic data sources is increasing the public’s demand for real-time traveler
information. Despite the high cost of implementation and maintenance of detection devices
and the cost of purchasing private data, operating agencies will face increasing demand to
provide real-time traveler information.
II. REDUCING DEMAND FOR VEHICLE-TRAVEL
Transit Enhancements
Transit capacity or service enhancements to attract new riders including new fixed-
guideway service, express/premium bus, new routes, higher frequencies, transit priority
operations (bus-only lanes, signal priority, queue jumping), reduced fares, flex service,
expanded park-and-ride, and traveler information.
Implementation Issues:
a.) Funding is the primary barrier to expansion of traditional transit service. Major
capital investments (i.e., rail and busway), while expensive, often enjoy public
support although they may face local opposition over traffic, noise, or other
impacts.
III. REDUCING CONGESTION ON TRANSIT VEHICLES
Transit Capacity Expansion
Capacity expansion may come in a number of forms. One is to increase the frequency
of service on existing bus or rail lines. Capacity also can be expanded by using larger buses,
expanding physical capacity of a rail line through platform extensions or additional track age,
adding limited-stop service to bus routes, or constructing and operating entirely new bus or rail
lines. The capacity of existing vehicles also may be increased by removing and/or
reconfiguring seating, to allow more room for standees.
Implementation Issues:
a.) Cost is the single biggest constraint to service expansion in most cases. Nearly all
transit agencies depend on state and Federal operating and capital assistance, and
these funds are scarce. If ridership elasticity with respect to service expansion is
less than 1.0, then unless fare changes are implemented at the same time, this would
result in a decline in fare box recovery.
b.) There also may be political hurdles if expansion in one area is proposed at the
expense of contracting or eliminating service in another.
c.) Removing seating to allow more room for standees may not be well received as
fewer customers will be able to sit. This is especially a concern on longer trips.
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Brockenbrough, R., & Jr., B. (2003). Highway engineering handbook, 2e. McGraw Hill
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Fesler, D. H. (2013). Evaluating traffic congestion mitigation strategies.
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Learning.
Mannering, F. L., & Washburn, S. S. (2012). Principles of highway engineering and
traffic analysis. Wiley.
O'Flaherty, C. A. (2018). Transport planning and traffic engineering. CRC Press.

Cambridge Systematics, Inc. Cambridge, MA. (2008). Effective Practices for