EXPERIMENT – 10

SAI TEJA P 15BME0929

Study on advanced technologies (ABS, EBD, VVT, Hybrid).

Antilock Braking System (ABS):

Antilock Braking System (ABS) is a type of an active safety system of a vehicle. It is also
known as the anti-skid braking system. This system comes into action when the driver
suddenly applies the brakes during an emergency. Employing the antilock braking system on
cars and bikes is now mandatory in most parts of the world.

The need for Antilock Braking System (ABS):

Whenever the driver suddenly applies the brakes to a high-speed vehicle, there is always a
chance of the 'wheel-lock'. The wheel-lock means that the respective wheel stops suddenly
instead of coming to a halt slowly. Due to the wheel-lock, the driver loses control over the
vehicle and the vehicle skids off the road. Thus, a fatal accident takes place. In order to avoid
such situations, the manufacturers employ the ABS system.

How does the Antilock Braking System (ABS) work?

The ABS have the following components:

1. Wheel speed sensors

2. ABS control module
3. Brake control unit
4. Valves
5. Pump
Wheel speed sensors continuously monitor the speed of each wheel. As long as all the
wheels have comparable speed, the system does not interfere with their operation.
However, if the speed sensors find that the speed of any of the wheels is reducing
drastically, then it means that the particular wheel is going to lock.
However, the locked wheel hampers the vehicle stability. Thus, the vehicle stops responding
to the steering input given by the driver. At this moment, the vehicle also starts to skid;
thereby causing a fatal accident. To avoid such a mishap, the ABS comes into action.
After receiving the signal of very low speed from the wheel speed sensor, ABS module
orders the brake control unit to reduce the braking force of that wheel. Reducing the
braking force means reducing the hydraulic pressure in the brake line acting on that wheel.
The Brake Control Unit reduces the line pressure with the help of valves in the system.
When the braking force reduces, the wheel starts rotating at a higher speed; thereby
avoiding the wheel-lock. As the wheel doesn't lock, steerability of the vehicle remains intact
which means that vehicle moves according to driver's input without skidding. Once the
normal condition is restored, the Brake Control Unit restores the hydraulic pressure in the
brake line with the help of a pump.
Advantages of the Antilock Braking System (ABS):

1. ABS maintain the vehicle steerability and stability during panic braking.
2. It reduces the braking distance by up to 10% or more, especially on wet surfaces.
 Disadvantages of the Antilock Braking System (ABS):

Perhaps the only disadvantage of ABS is its higher cost. At present, purchasing an ABS installed
bike or car costs significantly to the customer. However, this higher cost is completely offset
by the improved safety this system provides. Also, the auto industry is working on developing
a low-cost version of the antilock braking system.

Classification of Antilock Braking System (ABS):

Based on the number of speed sensors and valves, Antilock Braking System is of following
types:

Sr. No. Type of ABS Description

1 Four channel-four sensor ABS Each wheel has a separate valve and sensor
(i) Separate sensor for each wheel.

(ii) Separate valves for front wheels.

2 Three channel-four sensor ABS
(iii) Rear wheels controlled by only one
valve.
(i) A valve and a sensor each for front
wheels.
3 Three channel- three sensor ABS
(ii) One valve and one sensor for rear
wheels.

Depending on the severity of the braking condition, the driver may feel pulsations in the brake
pedal when the ABS starts working. This is absolutely normal and care is to be taken not to
release the brake pedal during this phase as it will prevent the system from working properly.

Antilock Braking System (ABS) on bikes or Motorcycle ABS:

Motorcycle ABS is a small-scale version of a car ABS. The working of motorcycle ABS is exactly
similar to that of full-scale car ABS. However, it requires a smaller number of valves and wheel
speed sensors due to the presence of only two wheels.

According to Bosch, using motorcycle ABS increases the stability of the bike and improves
riding comfort. The company has also proved that the braking distance reduces considerably
when the bike uses ABS.

Electronic Brake Force Distribution:

Electronic Brake-force Distribution System: This type of brake system is actually a part of
the anti-lock brakes. It has recently been launched in a number of vehicles along with anti-
lock brakes and has proven to be much reliable in adverse braking conditions. This
automobile brake technology helps in regulating and applying the braking force needed to
each wheel according to the road condition, vehicle's load and its speed. The EBD ensures
how much braking force is needed by each wheel and then applies the same in order to
achieve the most suitable braking impact. Usually, most of the cars have the front wheels
carrying maximum load, therefore, this braking system offers minimal pressure to rear
wheels in case of deceleration so that the car does not skid at all.

The Anti-lock Braking System with Electronic Brake-force Distribution System is implemented
in the car to obtain the best braking impact without causing any damage to the passengers.
While ABS is the overall automotive braking technology, EBD is just a part of the overall
system. However, both these elements are equally important in reinforcing the safety
department of the vehicles. A number of vehicles, such as Honda, Volkswagen and Nissan cars
have both these features as standard. The same can be enquired through the Honda or Nissan
car dealers while purchasing the particular models.

In recent times, these automotive braking technologies have deeply marked their effect on
the overall performance of the vehicles. Other features, such as Electronic Stability Program
(ESP), Traction Control System (TCS), Electronic Differential Lock (EDL) and Dynamic Stability
Program (DSP) have also been featured in a number of cars along with the other braking
systems. All of these features ensure maximum safety of passengers and allow the driver to
enjoy a worry-free ride in the car.
Most of the cars today come fitted with ABS or Anti-lock Braking system. Coupled
along with ABS, there is another electronic marvel called the EBD or electronic brake
force distribution. Simply put, EBD is a system wherein the amount of braking force
on each wheel of the car can be varied taking factors such as load bearing on each
wheel, condition of the road, speed of the vehicle and so on.

How does it work?

The simple idea behind an EBD system is that it need not be necessary to apply the
same amount of braking force on each wheel so as to reduce the speed of the car or
bring it to a complete stop. An EBD system makes use of three components which
make it tick. The speed sensors, brake force modulators and electronic control unit
(ECU).

1. Speed Sensor: The speed sensor not only calculates the speed of the car, but the speed of
the engine also (RPM). One of the scenarios can be that the speed of the wheel might not be
the same as the speed of the car. Such a situation can lead to the wheel(s) skidding. The
speed sensors calculate the slip ratio and relay it to ECU.

2. Electronic Control Unit: It is a small chip which collects the data from the speed sensors in
each wheel and uses the data to calculate the slip ratio (difference between the speed of
the car and the rotation of the tyre). Once the slip ratio is determined, it makes use of the
brake force modulators to keep the slip ratio within limits.
3. Brake Force Modulators: It is the job of these modulators to pump brake fluid into the
brake lines and activate the brake cylinders. The brake force applied on each wheel can be
modulated.

All these three components work in tandem and make the EBD work and save your day,
every time you brake hard.

Variable Valve Timing (VVT)

After multi-valve technology became standard in engine design, Variable Valve Timing
becomes the next step to enhance engine output, no matter power or torque.
As you know, valves activate the breathing of engine. The timing of breathing, that is, the
timing of air intake and exhaust, is controlled by the shape and phase angle of cams.
To optimise the breathing, engine requires different valve timing at different speed. When
the rev increases, the duration of intake and exhaust stroke decreases so that fresh air
becomes not fast enough to enter the combustion chamber, while the exhaust becomes not
fast enough to leave the combustion chamber. Therefore, the best solution is to open the
inlet valves earlier and close the exhaust valves later. In other words,
the Overlapping between intake period and exhaust period should be increased as rev
increases.
Without Variable Valve Timing technology, engineers used to choose the best compromise
timing. For example, a van may adopt less overlapping for the benefits of low speed output.
A racing engine may adopt considerable overlapping for high speed power. An ordinary
sedan may adopt valve timing optimise for mid-rev so that both the low speed drivability
and high-speed output will not be sacrificed too much. No matter which one, the result is
just optimised for a particular speed.
With Variable Valve Timing, power and torque can be optimised across a wide rpm band.
The most noticeable results are:

The engine can rev higher, thus raises peak power. For example, Nissan's 2-
litre Neo VVL engine output 25% more peak power than its non-VVT version.
Low-speed torque increases, thus improves drivability. For example,
Fiat Borchetta’s 1.8 VVT engine provides 90% peak torque between 2,000
and 6,000 rpm.
Moreover, all these benefits come without any drawback.

Variable Lift
In some designs, valve lift can also be varied according to engine speed. At high speed,
higher lift quickens air intake and exhaust, thus further optimise the breathing. Of course, at
lower speed such lift will generate counter effects like deteriorating the mixing process of
fuel and air, thus decrease output or even leads to misfire. Therefore, the lift should be
variable according to engine speed.

1) Cam-Changing VVT

Honda pioneered road car-used VVT in the late 80s by launching its famous VTEC system
(Valve Timing Electronic Control). First appeared in Civic, CRX and NS-X, then became
standard in most models.
You can see it as 2 sets of cams having different shapes to enable different timing and lift.
One set operates during normal speed, say, below 4,500 rpm. Other substitutes at higher
speed. Obviously, such layout does not allow continuous change of timing, therefore the
engine performs modestly below 4,500 rpm but above that it will suddenly transform into a
wild animal.
This system does improve peak power - it can raise red line to nearly 8,000 rpm (even 9,000
rpm in S2000), just like an engine with racing camshafts, and increase top end power by as
much as 30 hp for a 1.6-litre engine!! However, to exploit such power gain, you need to
keep the engine boiling at above the threshold rpm, therefore frequent gear change is
required. As low-speed torque gains too little (remember, the cams of a normal engine
usually serve across 0-6,000 rpm, while the "slow cams" of VTEC engine still need to serve
across 0-4,500 rpm), drivability won't be too impressive. In short, cam-changing system is
best suited to sports cars.
Honda has already improved its 2-stage VTEC into 3 stages for some models. Of course, the
more stage it has, the more refined it becomes. It still offers less broad spread of torque as
other continuously variable systems. However, cam-changing system remains to be the
most powerful VVT, since no other system can vary the Lift of valve as it does.
 Advantage: Powerful at top end
Disadvantage: 2 or 3 stages only, non-continuous; no much improvement to
torque; complex
Who use it? Honda VTEC, Mitsubishi MIVEC, Nissan Neo VVL.

Example - Honda's 3-stage VTEC

Honda's latest 3-stage VTEC has been applied in Civic sohc engine in Japan. The mechanism
has 3 cams with different timing and lift profile. Note that their dimensions are also
different - the middle cam (fast timing, high lift), as shown in the above diagram, is the
largest; the right-hand side cam (slow timing, medium lift) is medium sized; the left-hand
side cam (slow timing, low lift) is the smallest.

This mechanism operates like this:

Stage 1 (low speed): the 3 pieces of rocker arms moves independently.
Therefore, the left rocker arm, which actuates the left inlet valve, is driven by the
low-lift left cam. The right rocker arm, which actuates the right inlet valve, is driven
by the medium-lift right cam. Both cams' timing is relatively slow compare with the
middle cam, which actuates no valve now.
Stage 2 (medium speed): hydraulic pressure (painted orange in the
picture) connects the left and right rocker arms together, leaving the middle rocker
arm and cam to run on their own. Since the right cam is larger than the left cam,
those connected rocker arms are actually driven by the right cam. As a result, both
inlet valves obtain slow timing but medium lift.
Stage 3 (high speed): hydraulic pressure connects all 3 rocker arms
together. Since the middle cam is the largest, both inlet valves are actually driven by
that fast cam. Therefore, fast timing and high lift are obtained in both valves.
2) Cam-Phasing VVT
Cam-phasing VVT is the simplest, cheapest and most commonly used mechanism at this
moment. However, its performance gain is also the least, very fair indeed.
Basically, it varies the valve timing by shifting the phase angle of camshafts. For example, at
high speed, the inlet camshaft will be rotated in advance by 30° so to enable earlier intake.
This movement is controlled by engine management system according to need, and
actuated by hydraulic valve gears.

Note that cam-phasing VVT cannot vary the duration of valve opening. It just allows earlier
or later valve opening. Earlier open results in earlier close, of course. It also cannot vary the
valve lift, unlike cam-changing VVT. However, cam-phasing VVT is the simplest and cheapest
form of VVT because each camshaft needs only one hydraulic phasing actuator, unlike other
systems that employ individual mechanism for every cylinder.

Continuous or Discrete
Simpler cam-phasing VVT has just 2 or 3 fixed shift angle settings to choose from, such as
either 0° or 30°. Better system has continuous variable shifting, say, any arbitrary value
between 0° and 30°, depends on rpm. Obviously, this provide the most suitable valve timing
at any speed, thus greatly enhance engine flexibility. Moreover, the transition is so smooth
that hardly noticeable.

Intake and Exhaust

Some design, such as BMW's Double Vanos system, has cam-phasing VVT at both intake and
exhaust camshafts, this enable more overlapping, hence higher efficiency. This explain why
BMW M3 3.2 (100hp/litre) is more efficient than its predecessor, M3 3.0 (95hp/litre) whose
VVT is bounded at the inlet valves.
In the E46 3-series, the Double Vanos shift the intake camshaft within a maximum range of
40°. The exhaust camshaft is 25°.
Advantage: Cheap and simple, continuous VVT improves torque delivery
across the whole rev range.
Disadvantage: Lack of variable lift and variable valve opening duration, thus less
top end power than cam-changing VVT.
Who use it? Most car makers, such as:
➢ Audi V8 - inlet, 2-stage discrete
➢ BMW Double Vanos - inlet and exhaust, continuous
➢ Ferrari 360 Modena - exhaust, 2-stage discrete
➢ Fiat (Alfa) SUPER FIRE - inlet, 2-stage discrete
➢ Ford Puma 1.7 Zetec SE - inlet, 2-stage discrete
➢ Jaguar AJ-V6 and updated AJ-V8 - inlet, continuous
➢ Lamborghini Diablo SV engine - inlet, 2-stage discrete
➢ Porsche Variocam - inlet, 3-stage discrete
➢ Renault 2.0-litre - inlet, 2-stage discrete
➢ Toyota VVT-i - inlet, continuous
➢ Volvo 4 / 5 / 6-cylinder modular engines - inlet,
continuous
Example: Toyota VVT-i

Macro illustration of the phasing actuator

Toyota's VVT-i (Variable Valve Timing - Intelligent) has been spreading to more and
more of its models, from the tiny Yaris (Vitz) to the Supra. Its mechanism is more or
less the same as BMW’s Vanos, it is also a continuously variable design.
However, the word "Integillent" emphasis the clever control program. Not only
varies timing according to engine speed, it also considers other conditions such as
acceleration, going uphill or downhill.

3) Cam-Changing + Cam-Phasing VVT

Combining cam-changing VVT and cam-phasing VVT could satisfy the requirement of
both top-end power and flexibility throughout the whole rev range, but it is
inevitably more complex. At the time of writing, only Toyota and Porsche have such
designs. However, I believe in the future more and more sports cars will adopt this
kind of VVT.

Example: Toyota VTL-i

Toyota’s VVTL-i is the most

sophisticated VVT design yet. Its powerful functions include:
 ➢ Continuous cam-phasing variable valve timing
➢ 2-stage variable valve lift plus valve-opening duration
➢ Applied to both intake and exhaust valves
The system could be seen as a combination of the existing VVT-i and Honda’s VTEC,
although the mechanism for the variable lift is different from Honda.
Like VVT-i, the variable valve timing is implemented by shifting the phase angle of the whole
camshaft forward or reverse by means of a hydraulic actuator attached to the end of the
camshaft. The timing is calculated by the engine management system with engine speed,
acceleration, going uphill or downhill etc. taking into consideration. Moreover, the variation
is continuous across a wide range of up to 60°, therefore the variable timing alone is
perhaps the most perfect design up to now.
What makes the VVTL-i superior to the ordinary VVT-i is the "L", which stands for Lift (valve
lift) as everybody knows. Let’s see the following illustration:

Like VTEC, Toyota’s system uses a single rocker arm follower to actuate both intake valves
(or exhaust valves). It also has 2 cam lobes acting on that rocker arm follower, the lobes
have different profile - one with longer valve-opening duration profile (for high speed),
another with shorter valve-opening duration profile (for low speed). At low speed, the slow
cam actuates the rocker arm follower via a roller bearing (to reduce friction). The high-
speed cam does not have any effect to the rocker follower because there is sufficient
spacing underneath its hydraulic tappet.

A flat torque output (blue curve)

When speed has increased to the threshold point, the sliding pin is pushed by
hydraulic pressure to fill the spacing. The high-speed cam becomes effective. Note
that the fast cam provides a longer valve-opening duration while the sliding pin adds
valve lift. (for Honda VTEC, both the duration and lift are implemented by the cam
lobes)
Obviously, the variable valve-opening duration is a 2-stage design, unlike
Rover VVC’s continuous design. However, VVTL-i offers variable lift, which lifts its
high-speed power output a lot. Compare with Honda VTEC and similar designs for
Mitsubishi and Nissan, Toyota’s system has continuously variable valve timing which
helps it to achieve far better low to medium speed flexibility. Therefore, it is
undoubtedly the best VVT today. However, it is also more complex and probably
more expensive to build.
 Advantage: Continuous VVT improves torque delivery across the whole rev
range; Variable lift and duration lift high rev power.
Disadvantage: More complex and expensive
Who use it? Toyota Celica GT-S

4) Rover's unique VVC system

Rover introduced its own system calls VVC (Variable Valve Control) in MGF in 1995. Many
experts regard it as the best VVT considering its all-round ability - unlike cam-changing VVT,
it provides continuously variable timing, thus improve low to medium rev torque delivery;
and unlike cam-phasing VVT, it can lengthen the duration of valves opening (and
continuously), thus boost power.
Basically, VVC employs an eccentric rotating disc to drive the inlet valves of every two
cylinder. Since eccentric shape creates non-linear rotation, valves opening period can be
varied. Still don't understand? well, any clever mechanism must be difficult to understand.
Otherwise, Rover won't be the only car maker using it.
VVC has one drawback: since every individual mechanism serves 2 adjacent cylinders, a V6
engine needs 4 such mechanisms, and that's not cheap. V8 also needs 4 such mechanism.
V12 is impossible to be fitted, since there is insufficient space to fit the eccentric disc and
drive gears between cylinders.

Advantage: Continuously variable timing and duration of opening achieve both

drivability and high-speed power.

Disadvantage: Not ultimately as powerful as cam-changing VVT, because of the lack of

variable lift; Expensive for V6 and V8; impossible for V12.

Who use it? Rover 1.8 VVC engine serving MGF, Caterham and Lotus Elise 111S.

VVT's benefit to fuel consumption and emission

EGR (Exhaust gas recirculation) is a commonly adopted technique to reduce emission and
improve fuel efficiency. However, it is VVT that really exploit the full potential of EGR.
In theory, maximum overlap is needed between intake valves and exhaust valves’ opening
whenever the engine is running at high speed. However, when the car is running at medium
speed in highway, in other words, the engine is running at light load, maximum overlapping
may be useful as a mean to reduce fuel consumption and emission. Since the exhaust valves
do not close until the intake valves have been open for a while, some of the exhaust gases
are recirculated back into the cylinder at the same time as the new fuel / air mix is injected.
As part of the fuel / air mix is replaced by exhaust gases, less fuel is needed. Because the
exhaust gas comprises of mostly non-combustible gas, such as CO2, the engine runs
properly at the leaner fuel / air mixture without failing to combust.

HYBRID vehicle:

A hybrid vehicle uses two or more distinct types of power, such as internal combustion
engine to drive an electric generator that powers an electric motor,[1] e.g. in diesel-electric
trains using diesel engines to drive an electric generator that powers an electric motor, and
submarines that use diesels when surfaced and batteries when submerged. Other means to
store energy include pressurized fluid in hydraulic hybrids.
The basic principle with hybrid vehicles is that the different motors work better at different
speeds; the electric motor is more efficient at producing torque, or turning power, and the
combustion engine is better for maintaining high speed (better than typical electric motor).
Switching from one to the other at the proper time while speeding up yields a win-win in
terms of energy efficiency, as such that translates into greater fuel efficiency, for example.
 1. How does a Hybrid car work when pulling away from a stop?

This is one of the main reasons why Hybrid cars are more efficient for city driving. The
electric motor powers the car, drawing on the battery for the power. Up to 15mph, the
vehicle uses only the electrical motor for power.

2. How does a Hybrid engine work during normal cruising?

This is when the normal petrol engine is used as it is most efficient. The engine can also
power the generator while cruising, which produces electricity and stores it in the batteries
for later use.
3. How do hybrid cars work during heavy acceleration?

Both the conventional engine and electric motors work together to increase power to the
wheels. At the same time the petrol engine also powers the generator and the electric
motor uses electricity from the battery and generator as needed.

4. How do hybrid cars work during braking and cruising?

When you brake or you take your foot off the gas, Toyota Hybrid cars use a clever system
called ‘regenerative braking’. As the car no longer needs to apply power to the wheels it
allows the spinning wheels to power the vehicle’s generator, which produces electricity and
stores it in the battery for later use.
5. How do hybrid cars work when reaching a complete stop?

Both the conventional engine and electric motor turn off and the car switches to battery
power to run everything it needs to – radio, air conditioning, lights etc.

**THE END**