SECRETS OF

ANCIENT MAGIC
THE POWER OF SPELLS,
CURSES, & OMENS
By Kate Murphy & Cynthia Susalla

In ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome, practitioners

of magic exploited symbolic words, images, and rituals to
achieve desired outcomes through supernatural means. Using
magical acts, they attempted to control supernatural powers—
gods, demons, spirits, or ghosts—to accomplish something
beyond the scope of human capabilities. The exhibition Magic
in the Ancient World, now at the Penn Museum, illuminates
how different cultures used magic as a way of managing or
understanding the present, controlling supernatural agencies,
and seeing the future. This exhibition features objects from
the Museum’s rich collections of the Near East, Babylonian,
Egyptian, and Mediterranean sections.

— Professors Robert Ousterhout and Grant Frame,

curators of Magic in the Ancient World

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 SECRETS OF ANCIENT MAGIC

T o the modern mind, the word “magic” likely conjures up im-

ages of Hogwarts and other fantastical and exclusive realms.
Yet in the ancient world, magic was not only a perceived reality,
but was also accessible to many people. Surviving literature and
archaeological remains from ancient societies surrounding the Mediterra-
nean, including those of Egypt, the Near East, Greece, and Rome, reveal
the extent to which magic pervaded most aspects of life in antiquity.

Magic, often overlapping with what today might be Male sexual imagery symbolized power and violent force,
considered science or religion, was a resource for mediat- whereas female sexual imagery symbolized reproduction
ing one’s interaction with society and the world. It was a and fertility, in accordance with ancient gender roles.
source of protection; a means for healing; a method for Additionally, the powers of demons, monsters, and gods,
ensuring success in business, love, and reproduction; and who were harmful by nature, could be harnessed through
a platform for predicting the uncertain future. It even lay their depictions on amulets, armor, and buildings. These
at the root of many funerary practices. Thus, from birth images would then provide protection against natural and
until death, magic touched all stages of human life. supernatural threats.
Apotropaic demons included the Near Eastern Pazuzu
PROTECTION and Humbaba, who fought off other malevolent forces
Ancient practitioners employed both helpful, defensive such as Lamashtu, a demon harmful to pregnant women
magic and harmful, offensive magic, which might be and children. In ancient Greece and Rome, a Gorgon’s
thought of in modern terms as “white” or “black” magic. head, placed on armor and above entryways, provided the
The former includes apotropaic, or protective, magic. user with luck and protection. The head of the Gorgon
Apotropaic magic was predicated upon a belief that cer- Medusa also adorned the shield of the Greek warrior god-
tain depictions, texts, or practices shielded the user from dess Athena. In Egyptian culture, images of the goddesses
harm. For example, thousands of phallic-shaped amulets, Sekhmet and Taweret played apotropaic roles. Both god-
which warded off evil and misfortune for the wearer, desses had violent or savage forms: Sekhmet, who protect-
survive from antiquity. ed against disease, was part lion; Taweret, who watched
over mothers and children, was part hippopotamus.
left : Protective figurine of
The Penn Museum houses a substantial collection of
Humbaba or Pazuzu. The
striations around the face
another form of ancient protective magic, the incantation
of this demon are either bowl or “demon bowl.” Decorated with a spiraling incan-
the entrails of an enemy, tation and, typically, an illustration of a chained demon,
worn by Humbaba, or the
whiskers of Pazuzu’s lion-
these bowls were buried upside down around the bound-
like face. Both demons aries of a property or the thresholds of a room. Used well
were among a number of into late antiquity (ca. 2nd to 8th or 9th century CE) and
apotropaic images that
found throughout the ancient Middle East, such bowls
warded off evil. H. 3.9",
UPM object #33-35-252. trapped evil spirits and denied them access into one’s
home, constituting an ancient magical security system.

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HEALING above : Known as “the one
who keeps enemies at a
Another form of defensive magic in the ancient Medi-
distance,” Tutu was a sphinx-
terranean pertains to healing. In the realm of ancient like protective god with a
medicine, magic was difficult to distinguish from human head, lion body, bird
wings, and a snake for a
religion and science. Because diseases, particularly those
tail. He appears surrounded
that were long-lasting or difficult to cure, were frequently by knives and scorpions,
attributed to divine origin or causation, medical practi- possibly as protection for a
tioners often employed magical rituals to appease angry tomb or temple. Egypt, ca. 30
BCE–624 CE. H. 10", UPM
gods, expel demons, and produce a cure. For example, object #65-34-1.
Mesopotamian clay tablets dating from ca. 1800 BCE
list prescriptions and omen texts for use in diagnosis right : Terracotta rider with
gorgon shield. This votive was
and prognosis. An āšipu, or incantation priest, would found at a Sanctuary of Apol-
have consulted these omens after examining his patient lo on Cyprus (late 4th century
in order to prescribe a magical remedy. These measures BCE). A gorgon’s head was
an apotropaic symbol thought
would have been taken in conjunction with the use of
to ward off other evils by
herbs, potions, poultices, and bandages. Moreover, many terrifying them. H. 6.7",
medical papyri from ancient Egypt include spells and UPM object #54-28-69.

incantations to cure diseases caused by angry deities.

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 SECRETS OF ANCIENT MAGIC

Magic was often employed for healing diseases and

other internal injuries whose causes were not understood.
One way of harnessing the power of the Egyptian heal-
ing god Horus was with a Horus Cippus, a small stone
slab that could imbue water with healing powers. Even
in the case of external wounds treated with poultices and
bandages, a physician-priest might recite a spell over the
bandage to promote healing. Similarly, he might use the
fractions or proportions contained in the wedjat (eye of
Horus), a magical symbol for healing, to determine what
quantities of herbs should be used in a poultice.
In ancient Greece, the close relationship between
medicine and ritual is evident in the popular cult of
Asklepios, the great healing god, who cured patients
by appearing to them in their dreams. Sick and ailing
supplicants would see visions of Asklepios while spend-
ing the night in his temple and awake to find themselves
magically healed. To ensure the contin-
uation of their good health, patients
above : Aramaic incantation bowl from Nippur
cured by Asklepios dedicated vo-
dating to before the 7th century CE. A similar
bowl (B2963A) contains a charm against a tive statues of their healed body
murderous spirit. Part of the inscription reads: parts in his temples, the most fa-
“Designated is this spell…for the sealing of mous of which was in Epidauros
the household of this Ardôi bar Hormizdûch,
that from him may depart and remove the evil
on the Greek Peloponnese. These
Demon and the evil Satan.” Diam. approx. 6.9", votives were often produced en
UPM object #B2965A. masse and, subsequently, each
was inscribed with the name of
the person dedicating it, before
being given to the temple.

above : Horus Cippus. Decorated

with the image of the Egyptian
healing god Horus and inscribed
with healing spells, this stone
instilled curative powers in water
that was poured over it. H. 4.5",
UPM object #E15270.

right :
Terracotta foot votive.
above :Wedjat eye amulet. The wedjat, or Anatomical votives or offerings,
Eye of Horus, was a popular amulet worn for such as this foot from Italy, were
health and protection. It encompassed ratios dedicated to Asklepios from the
that dictated drug measurement and from its 5th century BCE well into the
form we derive our modern symbol for pre- Roman period to ensure the
scription, “Rx.” W. 1.7", UPM object #E5078. good health of the depicted
body part. H. 5.4", UPM
object #MS5753.

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above : Boundary stone from Nippur, Iraq. From the Nebuchadnez- above :Door socket. By depicting the enemies of Egypt at the
zar I period (1146–1123 BCE), this stone contains a drawing of base of the threshold where they would be repeatedly trampled,
the field that was marked, along with curses that forbid anyone this door socket would have magically ensured their continued
from interfering with the land owner, appropriating the land, or submission to Egypt. W. 21", UPM object #E3959.
removing the boundary stone. H. 18.8", UPM object #29-20-1.

CURSES
Just as magic supplemented ancient medicinal practices, Curses were used to ensure one’s success in business
it also provided an alternative means of enacting justice. to the detriment of someone else, as demonstrated in
Curses—a form of offensive magic—enabled individu- this excerpt of a 4th-century BCE curse from Attica
als to harness superhuman powers against their enemies, (DTA, no. 87a): “I bind Cittos, my neighbour, the
rivals, or lovers. More than 1,600 curse tablets have been hemp-worker, the Craft of Cittos, his work, his soul,
recovered from all around the ancient Mediterranean, his mind, and the tongue of Cittos.” Other curses
dated from ca. 500 BCE onwards. These tablets vary in bound one’s lover or the object of one’s desire, such as
content and intent, from bewitching a lover to avenging the following example from a 5th-century CE Egyptian
a debt to quashing a social rival. Curses, inscribed on papyrus (Suppl. Mag. 45): “Awaken, demons who lie
thin sheets of lead called lamellae, were rolled, pierced here, and seek Euphemia…through the whole night,
with a nail, and deposited in the ground. Typical features may she not be able to get sleep, but lead her on, until
of these curses included nonsense language, known as she comes to his feet, lusting after him with mad lust,
voces magicae, and magical symbols, called charakteres. affection and sex. For I have bound her brain, her
Curses were thought to “bind” various body parts of hands, her abdomen, her genitals, and her heart to lov-
their victims, preventing them from being able to func- ing me, Theon.” This attraction curse was found sealed
tion properly. Those placing the curse would list body in a clay pot accompanied by two dolls, perpetually
parts, personality traits, and even skills of the victim that locked in an embrace.
he or she wanted to impede, from hands and tongues Some of the earliest known curses hailed from
to minds and business acumen. ancient Egypt and consisted of broken pottery sherds.

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 Detail of jackal-headed canopic jar. UPM object #29-87-510.

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 Chapter 180 from the Egyptian Book of the Dead. A vignette shows the way to my soul, set me on your pedestals; grant that I may rest
a man, Pashed, supplicating Osiris and two other gods. The text con- in the good Amenta (Land of the Dead), show me my dwelling in the
tains spells and instructions for the reanimation of the soul: “Open midst of you, open for me your ways, unfasten the bolts.”

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H. 13.8", UPM object #E2775E. Courtesy Dorling Kindersley: University
of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.

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 left and below : Canopic Jars for

the preservation of organs during

mummification. Each of the four
sons of Horus was associated with
a specific organ: Hapy (baboon-
headed) with the lungs; Duamutef
(jackal-headed) with the stomach;
Imsety (human-headed) with the
liver; Qebehsenuef (falcon-headed)
with the intestines. H. approx. 10.8",
UPM object #29-87-(509-512).

These so-called execration texts were clay figurines or as a crime. However, the legality of various divinatory
bowls inscribed with the names of threatening persons, practices changed according to time and culture.
then broken into pieces and buried. The destruction of The stars were not the only elements of nature that
the names of one’s enemies resulted in the destruction of possessed divinatory power, however. Another form of
the threat they posed. This is an example of “sympathetic divination involved the reading of animal entrails, called
magic,” a term that refers to a wide variety of magical extispicy or haruspicy. The Babylonians (as early as the
practices, offensive and defensive, that imitate the effect 19th century BCE), the Etruscans (ca. 8th to 3rd century
one wishes to produce. Other forms of sympathetic BCE) and the Romans (who inherited the practice from
magic found in Egypt include the representation of the Etruscans) performed these examinations. Accord-
enemies on sandals and door sockets. The repeated action ing to this practice, spots and deformities on the organs,
of stepping on one’s enemy or hitting an enemy with a particularly those found on the liver, portended either
door was efficacious in ensuring his defeat and subjuga- fortune or misfortune.
tion. By means of such curses and sympathetic magic, Augury, a form of divination based upon the behavior
individuals gained a degree of control over their enemies of birds, was yet another ancient tool for predicting
and their future. the future and determining the best course of action.
We find many examples of bird omens across ancient
DIVINATION cultures. In ancient Mesopotamia, as explained in Tablet
Just as today, the future was a source of concern in antiq- 79 of the series Šumma Ālu (a collection of texts detailing
uity. This anxiety was mitigated by the use of a number thousands of omens), if a falcon flapped its wings in front
of divinatory practices, including consultation with seers, of the king and screeched twice, this meant that the
oracles, and other specialists in predicting the future and king would attain his desire, but if the falcon screeched
interpreting signs and omens. In ancient Rome, astrolo- five times instead, this meant that the king would be
gers, who read the movements of stars and constellations approached by a messenger bearing bad news. In Ro-
to determine the destiny of individuals, were commonly man mythology, a famous use of augury by Romulus
grouped with magicians as magical practitioners. Their and Remus decided the location and name for Rome.
power, derived from knowledge of the future, rendered According to Livy, Remus wanted to found their city
them dangerous, with the result that they were frequent- on the Aventine Hill and Romulus on the Palatine Hill.
ly expelled from Rome throughout antiquity. In most Looking to the skies from their respective hills, Remus
societies from the ancient Mediterranean whose laws sur- claimed the kingship on the basis of having seen vul-
vive, offensive magic such as placing a curse was regarded tures fly overhead first, while Romulus claimed kingship

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 SECRETS OF ANCIENT MAGIC

having seen more vultures. In the ensuing disagreement, numerous Greek and Latin literary sources. Gold tablets
Romulus killed Remus, founded Rome, and became recovered by archaeologists indicate that Greco-Roman
its ruler. As this Roman foundation myth makes clear, mystery cults provided their own special instructions
ancient omens were subject to interpretation. Later in for the deceased, as did the Egyptian Book of the Dead.
Roman history, priests kept sacred chickens and would Associated with the Orphic cult (named for the mythic
observe the manner in which they approached their feed: musician Orpheus) and buried with initiates of the cult,
if they ate with gusto, the omen was favorable, but if
such tablets provided incantations and directions to the
they refused to eat, the omen was ill-favored.
dead for navigating their way through the underworld
Moreover, divination could serve private interests as
to a privileged afterlife.
well as public and political ones. In ancient Greece, the
From birth to death, magic permeated the lives of
use of oracles was a popular means of communing with
the divine to access predictions of future events. The those who lived in the ancient Mediterranean. As such,
most important oracle was the Pythia, the priestess of ancient magic remains difficult for scholars to isolate
Apollo at Delphi, through whom the god spoke mysti- and define. We know that magic included a plethora
cal and puzzling responses to questions concerning the of diverse practices and was perceived variously within
future. It was common practice to consult the oracle different cultures. In ancient Greece and Rome, for
before embarking on a political expedition. Collections example, religious practices other than one’s own were
of oracular responses, such as the Sibylline Books of Rome, liable to be considered superstitious and magical; Egypt,
were also consulted during political crisis. in particular, possessed a magical aura in the minds of
the Greeks and Romans. In the same way, today, scholars
AF TERLIFE
who study Greece and Rome often construct narrower
Magic was a resource frequently used not just during life,
definitions of what might be considered magic than do
but also after death. Many funerary practices incorpo-
those who study ancient Egypt and the Near East. If
rated magical elements. This was particularly the case
we look closely, however, we see a common belief across
in Egypt, where the intricate rituals of mummification
ensured preservation of the body and soul for the after- these ancient cultures that superhuman powers could
life. The placement of amulets over certain body parts affect one’s daily life for the better or for the worse. Ä
during mummification and the preservation of organs
kate murphy and cynthia susalla are Ph.D. students in
in canopic jars protected the body for
the Department of Classical Studies, University of Pennsyl-
new life after death. The Egyptian
Book of the Dead details these vania. In the spring of 2015, they participated in a course
rituals, compiling spells that co-taught by Dr. Robert Ousterhout and Dr. Grant Frame,
were painted or inscribed in the in which they collaborated on the upcoming exhibition
tomb and aided in achieving Magic in the Ancient World.
the ultimate restoration of life
to the soul of the deceased. for further reading

Similarly, mystery cults Abusch, I. Mesopotamian Witchcraft. Leiden: Brill, 2002.

in ancient Greece and Rome Farber, W. “Witchcraft, Magic, and Divination in Ancient
Mesopotamia.” In Civilizations of the Ancient Near East,
had their own secret rituals
edited by J. Sasson, pp. 1895-1909. New York: Scribner, 1995.
that ensured an afterlife for
Graf, F. Magic in the Ancient World. Cambridge: Harvard
their practitioners. Because University Press, 1997.
of the mandated secrecy of Ogden, D. Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and
these cults, few details of their Roman Worlds. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
practices are known, although Pinch, G. Magic in Ancient Egypt. London and Austin: British
their existence is attested in Museum Press/University of Texas Press, 1994.

EXPEDITION  Spring 2016 15

 The site of Kani Shaie during
excavation. In the distance are the
Bazyan Mountains that separate
this part of the Zagros region from
the Mesopotamian plains behind it.

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