CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Project Overview

Low carbon steel was used heavily in many areas, due to their high
availability and cost considerations. This has been shown by looking at the
various applications developed with the use of low carbon steels, such as in
structures, transport, and machinery. Low carbon steel which is commonly
used in boiler and pressure vessel industries due to it is a weldable material
and improves the notch toughness, i.e., the ability of the materials to absorb
energy when there is a flaw. It is used in the oil and gas fields.

With the increasing use of low-carbon steel in industry, particularly in the

oil and gas fields, encourages many researchers to conduct research to
improve it mechanical properties. However, there are still few studies on the
impact toughness of low carbon steel ASTM A36 butt welds which were
fabricated with different joint groove designs. This research study is therefore
focused on investigating the influences of the joint groove designs to the
impact toughness of the welded joint itself.

Owing to defects and loading stress, the failure of the welded structure
has a significant effect on the industrial sector. This situation prompted
scientists to establish a treatment such as post-weld aging and strain
hardening to improve welded joint strength. Faults and stress in welded
structures caused fatigue which leads to crack mechanics to develop. Thus,
welded combination is important to acquire excellent impact toughness due
to withstand from fracture when a crack is present in weldment.

1.2 Problem Statement

Welded joint failure may occur frequently, and often with significant human,
environmental and economic consequences. It will happen on large
structures like the platform for oil and gas, boiler, and oil tank, which is often
used fusion welding to join the structures.

Fusion zone (welded joint) impact toughness essentially determined by

environmental cause, bad welding procedures, and metallurgical flaws. A few
studies on the effect of joint groove design on the impact toughness of
welded joining, however, remain. Thus, the discussion on this problem
statement is still to be discussed extensively to achieve a solid justification. A
research must be conducted to give more understanding on this problem.
This are the identified problem statements are needed to solve: -

1. Does the grooving design can give an impact to the mechanical

properties?
2. Between single-V and double-V groove joint, which has the most
ability to absorbed energy during fracture?
3. Which groove joint are the best for welding joint?

Because of the impact toughness is important mechanical property of

welded joint. For the existing welding joint design, it is important for
investigate and compare which geometry of joint designs employs excellent
impact toughness without bias.

1.3 Objective of the Research

This research is focused to find out the effect joint groove design (single V
groove butt joint and double V groove butt joint) on the impact toughness of
the low carbon steel, ASTM A36. The fracture surface of the impact
specimen is also analysed through Dino-Lite Digital Microscope. Hence, to
obtain the above purposes, there are two (2) objectives that have been
identified:

1. To compare the impact toughness of ASTM A36 with the

application of single V groove butt joint and double V groove butt
joint.
 2. To identify which is the best groove joint that can absorbed
energy during fracture the most at the specified temperature.

The first objective is the activity to compare impact toughness of ASTM

A36 with the application of single-V groove butt joint a double V groove butt
joint using Charpy V-notch impact test at a specified temperature. While the
second objective is the activity to identify which is the best groove joint that
can absorbed energy during fracture the most at the specified temperature.

The expected outcome of this study is the double-V groove butt joint has
stronger impact toughness compare to single-V groove butt joint because of
full penetration is able to achieve with the double-V groove butt. More filler
material will be filled in the edge preparation of double-V butt joint.

1.4 Expected Outcome

The expected outcome of this study is the double-V groove butt joint has
stronger impact toughness compare to single-V groove butt joint because of
full penetration is able to achieve with the double-V groove butt. More filler
material will be filled in the edge preparation of double-V butt joint.

1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study

The scopes of the study are the determination of mechanical properties

which impact toughness of two joint groove butt joints ASTM A36. In addition,
it is also observed the fracture surface of the specimen after impact.

For this research study only the mild steel ASTM A36 is used for main
material, while Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) with non-certificated welder
asked for welding work. The joint design used for the groove butt welds is
single-V groove butt joint and double V-groove butt joint designs as this
research is to make comparison between the single-V and double-V groove
joint. It consists of 60° groove angles for both single-V groove butt joint and
double-V groove butt joint. The root gap and the root face for both groove
butt joints are 1.5mm and 2mm, respectively, referring to AWS D1.1. The
welding specimen for this research is 4.

The testing for this research is conducted with the strength of the
equipment supplied by Fabrication and Joining section laboratory and
welding workshop of University Kuala Lumpur Malaysia France Institute
(UniKL-MFI), Bandar Baru Bangi, Selangor. The mechanical testing used is
Charpy V-notch impact test at a temperature of -40⁰C, -20⁰C, 0⁰C and
20⁰C. The fracture surface after the impact is carried out with Dino-Lite
Digital Microscope.

1.6 Significant of the Study

The weld joint design used can result in the final product of the specimen.
Thus, it is vital to understand that the weld joint design applied will affect the
weld product and how it influences the weldment quality. The selection weld
joint design is very important as the mechanical performance of the weld
joints is governed by not only the mechanical properties of the weld metal,
but also on the welding procedure used for developing a weld joint which
includes weld joint design. To achieve this, it is important a research
pertaining of weld joint design to be done so that the engineer can choose
the correct weld joint design to produce the desired weld. Significantly, this
research study is to provide understanding to the people of welding field the
important to use outstanding joint designs of a welded joint, which is
acquiring excellent impact toughness, high quality and cost effective.

In this research, mild steel ASTM A36 is studied in two different V

grooves (single-V and double-V groove butt joint). at a specified temperature.
The effect of different V grooves on impact toughness is investigated by
Charpy V notch impact test. So, this research will improve in understanding
the influences of joint designs towards the mechanical properties of the
groove butt welds ASTM A36. On the other hand, it will be motivating people
to seek the continuous improvement of mechanical properties of the welded
joint especially on impact toughness of the butt welds. In addition, it will
become the reference of the key players of the welding industry such as a
Welding Engineer, Welding instructor and welding practitioner to choose the
best welding joint designs of low-carbon steels to apply into their design
planning and specification. With the study between single V groove butt joint
and double V groove butt joint people can understand that the joint groove
design can influence the mechanical properties metal.

1.7 Gantt Chart

The planning of this research is shown in the figure below. The research is
planned using Gantt chart. To put it simply, a Gantt chart provide a visual
description of the task that are scheduled over time. Time management is the
control of the time spent on work projects and operations, and progress
achieved. Excellent time management in project management demands that
all project activities be prepared, scheduled, tracked, and managed. The
Gantt chart is an important instrument in project management especially time
management.

The Gantt chart is two-dimensional graph, the project time is the

horizontal axis, and the project progression is the vertical axis. The content
usually contains project activities and the start closing time and duration of
worktime. This research proposal (FYP 1) is ranging in from week 1 to week
18. The fabrication and mechanical testing (FYP 2) are also ranging in from
week 1 to week 18.
Figure 1-1: Gantt chart for FYP 1.
Figure 1-2: Gantt chart for FYP 2.
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

These sections will discuss about the related information concerning the
research topic such as welding joint design, welding process which is Gas
Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Charpy V-notch impact test, impact toughness,
fracture surface etc. In addition, the previous work done by other researchers
are also discussed in this section concerning the research topic or the title of
the project.

2.2 Joining Process

Joining is the process or the act in which things are connected together to
make them continuous, or to form a structure. For manufacturing purposes,
joining is the method of connecting one component, structural element, item,
or part to form an assembly, where the assembly of component parts or
elements is required to perform some function or combination of functions
necessary or desired and cannot be performed by a single component or
element alone [1].

The purpose of the joining processes is to make various pieces of

material a unified whole. The two pieces become one, in the case of two
materials when the atoms at the edge of one piece come close enough to the
atoms at the edge of another piece to develop interatomic attraction. While
this principle is easy to describe, the effect is not simple. The joining method
is complicated by surface roughness, impurities, fitting imperfections and the
varied properties of the materials attached. Welding processes and
procedures for overcoming these difficulties were established by integrating
heat or pressure utilization or both. In most welding processes, considerable
heat is added to a base material. This heat is just a way to bring the atoms
close enough to the atoms of another piece for interatomic appeal [2].

2.3 Arc Welding

According to Blodgett, O.W. and Miller, D.K. (1999), arc welding is the
combination between two pieces of metal by an electric arc between the
joining parts, the pieces of work and the electrode, which is directed along
the joints between the pieces. The electrode is either a rod which simply
carries current between the tip and the work, or a rod or wire which melts and
supplies the joint with filler metal. The intense heat produced by the arc
rapidly melts a portion of the base metal, creating a weld. While the
workpiece is moved under the process, the arc welding processes may be
moved along the joint to produce the weld or held stationary [3].

Arc welding operations are implemented by conducting the welding

current through consumable electrodes composed of carbon or tungsten
rods, which come in the form of a wire or rod or non-consumable electrodes.
Metal arc processes to create the weld use consumable electrodes that
combine electrode filler metal with molten base metal. The welding can also
create a slag covering to protect against oxidation from the molten metal. By
melting the base metal only, the non-consumable arc processes will produce
a weld, resulting in what is called an autogenous weld. If filler metal is
needed in a non-consumable process it can be fed into the molten weld pool
either manually or mechanically. The non-consumable electrode, in this
situation, only helps to support the arc. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW),
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Flux
Core Arc Welding (FCAW), Underwater Arc Welding (UAW), and Plasma Arc
Welding (PAW), are examples of arc welding processes. Apart from arc
welding, there are several other forms of welding processes as shown in
figure below [4].
Figure 2-1: Master Chart of Welding and Joining Processes (American
Welding Society, 2005).
2.4 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is a welding method that combines metals
by heating them with an electrical arc that is formed between the consumable
electrode (wire) and the workpiece. The externally supplied gas or gas
mixture serves to shield the arc and the molten welding pool [5]. In recent
times, welding techniques have led with the GMAW process to the growth of
the arc welding process, which is higher productivity and high quality [6]. Due
to its high operational factor and rate of deposition, gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) has the ability to increase efficiency over that achieved through the
GTAW and SMAW processes [7]. GMAW process is used in the manufacture
of structures and welding of pressure vessel components due to certain
advantages, such as higher welding metal deposition rate, lower welding
ability requirement and good welding efficiency in flexible positions [8].

2.4.1 Principle Operation of GMAW

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is a welding method where the heat is
generated by an electrical arc incorporating a continuous-feed
consumable electrode that is shielded with an externally supplied gas.
A simplified schematic view of the GMAW process is shown in the
following figure.

Figure 2-2: Clear diagram of the process of gas metal arc welding.
 In addition to the welding gun, the actual equipment needed for
the GMAW process includes an electrical power supply, an electrode
wire feeder, and a shielding gas source. The gun directs the electrode
wire, the current wire, and the gas tube. The arc length self-regulation
is maintained by a constant voltage power supply with a constant wire-
feed speed unit. Alternatively, a constant-current voltage supply may
be used with an arc voltage to regulate the wire-feed speed [9].

In the arc heat, the electrode wire is melted, and the molten
metal (droplets) is passed through the arc into the welding pool. The
arc and the welding pool are shielded from ambient contamination by
the externally supplied shielding gas. The shielding gas may be Argon,
CO2, or Argon + CO2 gas mixture depending upon the type of base
metal welded. CO2 or Argon + CO2 gas mixture is used for welding of
ferrous metals. The method is found to provide stable arc and strong
process control by using a direct current (DC) power source with a
positive electrode (DCEP) polarity. DCEP provides a stable arc, a
higher heat input to the cathodic base metal for good penetration and
a fluid welding pool. The wire feed rate will usually range from 1 m /
min. to 20 m / min. The arc current is determined by the wire feed rate
for the specified wire material and diameter.

2.4.2 Metal Transfer Modes

One of the features of the GMAW welding process is the ability to weld
using various modes of operation or the modes of transfer. The
method of transfer is defined by a variety of factors: the magnitude
and type of the welding current, the diameter and composition of the
electrode, the mixture of the shielding gas, and the power supply [10].
Securing a particular transfer mode helps manage the rate of material
deposition and the penetration of the welding bead and therefore has
an impact on the final microstructure and the properties of the welding
joints [11]. The mode of transfer of metal needed for a particular
application can also vary depending on other factors, including the
thickness of the metal and position of welding [12].
 For this research, spray transfer modes is the most suitable for
this modes of transfer metal because its produces excellent quality
and a high rate of deposition at the welding bead, but it does requires
high welding energy (high current) and its application is suggested for
thick plates [13]. Therefore, it can be utilized for ASTM A36 mild steel
with thickness 12 mm. The advantages using this mode of transfer
are:

1. No spatter
2. Good wash
3. Good deposition rate
4. Good bead appearance

The method yields high rates of deposition with a good bead

appearance. In spite of its benefits, spray transfer could not be used
for all applications. The needed transition current for spray transfer is
approximately 220 amps, which created a penetrating arc that could
not be used for thin sheet metal. In addition, this minimum current
created a larger welded puddle, which was difficult to regulate in out-
of-position welding, limiting its use to flat and horizontal positions [14].
This spray transfer method requires three conditions: argon shielding
(or argon-rich shielding gas mixtures), DCEP polarity, and a current
level above a critical quantity called a transition current.

2.4.3 Wire Electrodes

The most critical aspects to consider before carrying out GMAW

process is choosing the right filer wire. The deposit chemistry created
by the combination of the wire and the shielding gas defined the
resulting physical and mechanical properties of the weldment.
Electrode diameter varies from 0.5 mm to 3.2 mm. It is financially
preferable to utilize the largest electrode wire wound on the largest
spool, coil or drum, which is feasible for use since the unit cost of the
electrode wire varies inverse proportion with the size of the electrode
and the weight of the spool, coil or drum acquired [4].
 The extension of the electrode, which is the distance the
electrode extends past the end of the contact tip to the job, is an
important component in any wire-fed arc welding operation. The
electrode has a high electrical resistance since it is a very small
conductor. Current is the feature of wire feed speed and the extension
of the electrode. The current varies directly with the wire feed speed,
but inversely with the extension. Thus, the current decreases
significantly since more current is being used to preheat the electrode
if the extension of the electrode extends even a fraction of an inch in a
constant voltage device. On the other side, the deposition rate is a
result of the wire feed speed alone and indicates that if the wire feed
speed is constant, the deposition rate is therefore constant [15].

2.4.4 Shielding Gas

The main objective of shielding gas is to shield the molten welding

metal and the heat-affected zone (HAZ) from oxidation and other
contamination. These air gases can lower the quality of the welding or
make the welding more problematic, depending on the material being
welded [16]. Other than this, shielding gases greatly affect the welding
shape, the welding geometry, the appearance of the seam, the
metallurgical and mechanical properties, the speed of welding, the
transfer of metal, the stability of the arc or beam and the emission of
fumes. The shielding gas is therefore a crucial factor in the
determination of joint welding properties and performance of welding
process [17].

The contamination is primarily caused by the presence of

nitrogen, oxygen, and water vapors in the atmosphere. Nitrogen in
solidified steel, for example, decreases the ductility and impact
strength of the weld and can cause cracking. And hence, the shielding
of gas is used in GMAW to overcome these issues. The three primary
gases are argon, helium, and carbon dioxide. The gas used is often
made up of carbon dioxide alone, carbon dioxide mixed with argon, or
carbon dioxide mixed with several gases. Tiny amounts of oxygen (up
to 5%) are also combined with argon. Nitrogen and hydrogen are also
often added in limited quantities since they have been shown to be
useful for certain applications. Initially, only inert gases (argon and
helium) were used for shielding, but carbon dioxide is still commonly
used, and oxygen and carbon dioxide are also combined with inert
gases

2.4.5 Argon

Argon is an inert gas used both individually and in mixture with other
gases to obtain the required arc characteristics for the welding of both
ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Mostly all welding processes use
argon or argon mixtures to obtain good weldability, mechanical
properties, arc characteristics and productivity.

Argon singularly applied on non-ferrous materials such as

aluminum, nickel-based alloys, copper alloys and reactive metals like
zirconium, titanium, and tantalum. Argon offers excellent spray arc
welding stability, penetration, and shape of the bead on the materials.

Some short circuit arc welding the thin materials also was
performed. As ferrous materials are used, argon is typically combined
with other gases such as oxygen, helium, hydrogen, carbon dioxide
and/or nitrogen. The low ionization potential of the argon provides an
exceptional current direction and excellent arc stability. Argon creates
a constricted column of arc at a high current density, which allows the
arc energy to be concentrated in a small area. The effect is a deep
penetration profile with a distinct "finger-like" shape.

2.4.6 Carbon Dioxide

Pure carbon dioxide is not an inert gas since it can break down into
carbon monoxide and free oxygen owing to the heat of the arc. This
oxygen is mixed with elements that are transported through the arc to
the form oxides that are emitted from the welding puddle in the form of
slag and scale.
 Carbon dioxide is commonly used for steel welding Its growth is
due to its common availability and high-quality welding efficiency, as
well as its low cost and ease of installation. Indeed, low cost per unit of
gas does not inherently mean lower cost per foot of welding and is
highly dependent on the application of welding. Factors such as lower
CO2 deposition efficiency due to loss of spatter can also impact final
welding costs.

Figure 2-3: Comparison of Ar-5% O2 and CO2 Shielding Gas

The output of the arc is limited to short circuit and globular

transfer. The benefit of CO2 is its quick welding speed and deep
penetration. The main disadvantages of CO2 are a rough globular
transfer and a high degree of weld spatter. The welding surface
resulting from pure CO2 shielding is normally heavily oxidized. A
welding wire with higher concentrations of deoxidizing elements is
often required to compensate for the reactive nature of the gas.
Overall, excellent mechanical properties with CO2 can be achieved.
Argon is often mixed with CO2 to produce pure CO2 results. If the
impact properties have to be maximized, a mixture of CO2 + argon is
suggested.

2.4.7 Helium

Helium is an inert gas used for welding applications requiring higher

heat input for better bead wetting, deeper penetration, and higher
travel speed. It does not yield as stable an arc as an argon in GMAW.
 Contrasted to argon, helium has a higher thermal conductivity and
voltage gradient and a wider and more shallow penetration pattern.
Aluminum welding with pure helium does not give the purifying effect
of pure argon but is advantageous and sometimes suggested for
welding thick aluminum. The column of the helium arc is wider than
the argon, which reduces current density.

Higher voltage gradient leads to increased heat input over

argon, consequently promoting higher puddle fluidity and subsequent
bead wetting. This is advantageous when welding aluminum,
magnesium, and copper alloys. Helium is often mixed with different
percentages of argon to take advantage of the good characteristics of
both gases. The argon improves arc stability and cleaning action in the
case of aluminium and magnesium, while the helium improves the
wetting and welding of metal coalescence.

2.5 Joint Design

The selection of welded joint design takes into account the weld quality and
productivity. The aim of joint design is to get maximum strength for a given
bond area. Design selection is influenced by limitations in manufacturing
facilities, cost of production, and the desired end appearance of the
component [18]. The welded joint design is an essential feature of any
Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) for components needed prior to
welding process. The details of the welding procedure used to design weld
joint are including both geometry and dimensions. Commonly, in welding
technology, there are five basic types of welding joints, such as butt, corner,
tee, lap and edge, as shown in the following figure [19].
 Figure 2-4: Five basic types of joint design

The aim of joint design is to get maximum strength for a given bond area.
In welding there are a few types of joints, for example butt joint. This is the
easiest joint configuration for process welding. The joined interface is
perpendicular to the device direction of force. It should be noted that mostly
the joints with the V-groove shape are investigated in the most publicized
studies. Depending on the service conditions, weld joints can be subjected to
a variety of loads ranging from simple tensile loads to the complex
combination of torsion, bending and shearing load. The ability of weld joints
to accept a given load stems from metallic continuity across the joined
members. The weld metal's mechanical properties and the weld cross
section area resistant to load are two of the most important parameters that
need to be defined for the design of a weld joint [20].

Different approaches are required in the development of weld joint design

for static and dynamic loading, since in the case of static loads the direction
and magnitude either become constant or change very slowly while in the
case of dynamic loads such as impact and fatigue conditions, the loading
rate is typically high. The magnitude and direction of load may fluctuate in the
event of fatigue loading. Under the static loading condition, the low loading
rate increases the time available for localized yield in the area of high stress
concentration, which in turn causes stress relaxation by redistribution of
stress throughout the cross section while under dynamic loading conditions,
due to lack of time, yielding across the weld section does not occur and only
localized excessive deformation occurs near the site of high concentration
stress, which essentially provides an convenient place for nucleation and
crack development as in the case of fatigue load [20].

The weld joints' mechanical performance is governed not only by the

weld metal's mechanical properties and its load-resistant cross-sectional
area, but also by the welding procedure used to develop a weld joint design
that includes the edge preparation and joint design types. As most of the
above steps of welding procedure affect metallurgical properties and residual
stresses in weld joint which would in turn affect the mechanical performance
(tensile and fatigue) of the weld joint [20]. According to Haynes International,
even the best welding conditions can be negated by bad joint design. In weld
joint design, the main consideration is to provide sufficient accessibility and
space for the welding electrode or filler metal to move. Bit distinct weld joint
geometries are needed in comparison to those for carbon or stainless steel;
in particular, a wider included welding angle, wider root opening (gap) and
reduced ground thickness (root face) are normally required [21].

2.5.1 Butt Joint

A butt joined is formed when two pieces to be welded are laid side by
side. This is the commonest type of joint among five basic type of joint
listed previously in Figure 2-4 [22]. Butt joints are used for piping and
connecting plate materials that are positioned in the same direction.
When loaded axially, butt joints provide an improved stress condition
as compared to a lap point in minimizing the bending moment induced
by the offset in the plates [23].

Beveling of the edges before welding can create full penetration

butt welds in thick plates. This joint can be classified into nine types of
butt joints, as shown in Figure 2-5. Preparation of this joint is simple,
as it only requires the edges of the plates to match together. It is very
important to fit it right over the whole length of the joint due to obtain
good alignment and satisfactory root penetration.
 Figure 2-5: Basic edge joint preparation for butt joints.

Two different stainless-steel grades 310 and 304 are welded by

using both the GTAW and SMAW technique were tested [24]. Single-V
and double-V edge preparation is carried to make the weld joint more
prominent by reducing the bead width. A study on the two joints
variation in which is single V and double V on the metallurgical,
sensitization and pitting corrosion performance of AISI 304L shows
that single V joint welds exhibited superior sensitization and pitting
corrosion behaviour as compared to double V joint welds.
Microstructural tests showed that, relative to single V joint welds, the
degree of carbide precipitation was greater for welds produced using a
double-V joint design [25].

A comparative study done by Balakrishnan et al. to investigate

the ballistic performance between single V and double V joint wherein
double-V promised greater resistance to bullet penetration at weld
metal location with result type shot lodge without rear side bulge [26].
As per the American Welding Society (AWS), double V or U groove
welds should be used on the thick plates instead of single V or U
groove welds to reduce the amount of welded metal deposited and the
resulting distortion [27].

Groove design also played a vital role in controlling the

characteristics of weld heat dissipation, as an investigation has been
carried out by Sharma & Shahi, to investigate the influence of three
different groove designs (double V, double U groove and C-groove) on
mechanical and metallurgical propertiesiofi15 mm Q & T (quenched
and tempered) steel welded joints, due to which the microstructure
and mechanical properties of these welded joints were significantly
changed was observed [28].

Groove weld metal (WM) types are the two important factors
that need strong control. In conclusion, the measured minimum and
peak microhardness values show the significant differences in
different groove configurations between similar zones of these welded
joints, which firmly imply that groove configuration is an important
parameter for affecting the mechanical properties [29].

2.5.2 Groove Angle

Generally speaking, a good choice of the geometry and welding

groove dimensions assists the welding process, provides a better
additional material penetration, and makes welding material cooling
during welding process controllable [30]. An attempt by Mahendramani
and Lakshmana Swamy n.d. has been made to study the influence of
included angle in V-Groove butt joints on transverse and longitudinal
shrinkages. Experiments were carried out on different specimens by
varying included angle for different root openings in a single-V groove
and double-V groove butt welded joints. The results show that both
transverse and longitudinal shrinkage are increased with increase in
the included angle in case of single-V and double-V groove butt joints
[31]. Recently, the effects on the mechanical properties of the Al plate
of butt-welded V type geometry design were studied at different angles
by Li et al. It is concluded that yield strength, elongation and dilution of
the butt joint are conscientious to collaborative angle design [32].
Since it is influenced the mechanical properties of butt weld. Thus, it is
important to use the joint designs that recommended by the scholar,
when involved welding activity.

For welding thick plates, to obtain high-quality welding seams,

grooving is necessary and this increases the preparation time before
welding [33]. The research done by Pezeshkian et al. to study of
 influence on the mechanical properties has been carried out. It shows
that weld metal impact energy of the specimens is increasing with the
increase of groove angle in both at weld metal and HAZ regions. The
cause of this increase can be intermetallic compounds formed by high
heat energy generated in these regions by welding conditions [34].
The results of the research are shown in the table below.

Table 2-1: Energy impact test of welded specimens welded metal at 25°

Table 2-2: Energy impact test of welded specimens welded HAZ at 25°C
 A research carried out by Mahendramani & Lakshmana
Swamy, n.d. on the influences of the included angle on shrinkage in
the V-groove butt joints shows an increasing in transverse and
longitudinal shrinkage with increase in the included angle in case of
single and double V-groove butt joints [31]. A research conducted by
Chen et al. concluded the larger the groove angle, it will evoke much
more coarse grain structure to appear in overheat area and reduce
weld metal's mechanical properties. The explanation for this
phenomenon is that if the welding parameters remain the same, the
arc and melting metal can directly contact a wider area when the angle
is larger, then more energy can be easily conducted in the solid phase
to enlarge the overheated zone. This result means that the narrower
the better the groove angle will meet the welding requirements (for
example, maximum penetration) [35]. The results of the research are
seen in the measured transient variation of the temperature profiles
from the top view.

The coarse grain zone (GCZ) and the heat-affected zone (HAZ)
have been reported to be very important during welding of low carbon
steel, as the concentration of embrittlement in these areas results in
low toughness [35],[36]. Low carbon steels mainly consist of ferrite, a
solid carbon dissolved phase solution in alpha iron, a cubic crystal
based in the core. Ferrite is the softest steel phase mainly responsible
for the improved machinability of low carbon steel relative to other
carbon and alloy steels. As the carbon content of the steel increases,
an increasing amount of perlite is produced in the metal
microstructure. Pearlite is a micro-constituent composed of alternate
layers of ferrite and iron carbide (cementite). Forties reason, the
usability of medium carbon steels would be lower than that of low
carbon steels. High carbon steels with more than 0.8% carbon have a
pearlitic matrix within the cement network. Due to the high perlite
content and the hard and brittle cementite network, the machinability
of high carbon steels is mainly low [37].
 Figure 2-6: Transient variation of the temperature profile.

2.7 Material ASTM A36

Carbon steel is an iron-carbon alloy with a carbon content of up to 2.1 wt. %.

Other alloy elements do not have a minimum specified content for carbon
steels, but they also contain manganese. The overall content of manganese,
silicone and copper should be less than 1.65%, 0.6% and 0.6% each [36].

Carbon steel can be grouped by carbon content into three categories:

low-carbon steel (or mild-carbon steel), medium-carbon steel and high-
carbon steel [37]. For low carbon steel, the carbon content (wt. %) is less
than 0.25, while for medium carbon steel, the carbon content (wt. %) is about
0.25 to 0.60, while for high carbon steel, the carbon content (wt. %) is
between 0.60 and 1.25. Generally, carbon steels are considerably soft and
also have a low strength. They do have high ductility, which indeed making
them good for machining, welding and low cost. Low carbon steels with less
than 0.25% carbon are extremely weldable, rendering them practically
weldable using most of the available processes without any precautionary
steps.

This can be evidenced by looking at the wide range of applications

developed using low-carbon steel, such as buildings, transport and
machinery [38]. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) A36
steel has been the most commonly available hot rolled steel as per the Steel
Construction Manual 8th Edition (American Institute of Steel Construction). It
is used in areas such as bridge, ship, machine frame, and railway
engineering [39].

2.8 Charpy Impact Test

The Charpy impact test, commonly recognised as the Charpy V-notch test, is
a standardised high strain-rate test that measures the amount of energy
absorbed by the specimen during fracture. The energy absorbed is an
indicator of the given notch toughness of the material and serves as a
method to research the temperature-dependent ductile-brittle transition [40].
It is not a highly reliable test but may provide a basic indicator of the
capability of a material to withstand a brittle fracture at its minimum material
temperature design. For each defined temperature, three specimens are
tested and the final outcome shall be taken as the average of three. Testing
can be performed at different temperatures and reported in a graph to form
the Charpy curve then to establish the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature.
The ductile-to-brittle transition temperature is the temperature at which the
test specimen starts to being more brittle than the ductile [41].
Figure 2-7: Typical Charpy curve
The test involves in striking an appropriate sample with a hammer on the pendulum arm
while the sample is held secure manner at each end. The hammer strikes the other side
of the notch. The energy absorbed by the sample is precisely determined by measuring
the decrease in the movement of the pendulum arm. Significant factors affecting the
strength of a material include low temperatures, high strain rates (by impact or
pressurisation) and stress concentrations such as notches, cracks and voids [42]. The
pendulum impacts on the sample and the beginning and finishing heights of the
pendulum are calculated. The difference in height is equivalent to the energy absorbed
by the specimen prior to the fracture. The energy absorbed is generally measured in
joules on a machine-mounted scale [41].

Figure 2-8: Charpy V-notch impact test principle.

Charpy V-notch impact testing indicates whether the metal can either be
categorized as brittle or ductile. That is especially useful for ferritic steels with
decreasing temperature, which show a ductile to brittle transition. When a brittle metal is
tested for impact, a small amount of energy is absorbed while a tough ductile metal will
absorb a huge amount of energy. The appearance of a fracture surface also delivers
information about the type of fracture that has occurred; bright and crystalline fracture
is a brittle fracture and dull and fibrous is a ductile fracture. The percentage of
crystallinity is measured by the amount of crystalline or brittle fracture on the broken
specimen surface and is a measure of brittle fracture. When recording the results of a
Charpy test the absorbed energy (in J) is always recorded, while the percentage of
crystallinity and lateral expansion are optional on the test report. It should be stressed
that the Charpy V-notch tests are qualitative, the results can only be compared with
each other or with a requirement for specification-they cannot be used to calculate the
fracture

2.9 Fracture Surface

Generally, the results of the Charpy test are presented as the energy absorbed by the
fracture of the test piece as a function of temperature. An indication of the strength of
the material can be obtained by analysing the fracture surface. Ductile materials have a
fibrous appearance, whereas brittle materials show a flat fracture (kirshnan). Once a
specimen is examined, the energy transmitted to the impact specimen can be absorbed
in a number of forms: by elastic deformation, plastic deformation, hysteresis, friction, or
inertia. Principally, in Charpy tests, the most important of these are elastic and plastic
deformations, with plastic deformation typically contributing for the majority of the energy
absorbed (Carmichael).

The amount of energy needed to cause a fracture depends on the ductility of the
material, which varies significantly with the temperature. Fracture surface observation
examination may offer details regarding the percentage of the region was ductile during
impact and what percentage of the area was brittle; this is demonstrated by the fracture
patterns shown in the broken surfaces as shown in Figure 2-9 below (ASTM E37).

Figure 2-9: Fracture appearance chart and percent shear fracture comparator.
 A test carried out by Cubides-Herrera indicates that the percentage of cleavage
fracture under zero temperature is 100%, so it is fragile under the transition temperature
and recorded a high shear-fracture percentage at a higher temperature. That means that
the fracture surface could reach or exceeds transition temperature if the test were made
at a higher temperature [4].

Figure 2-10: Example outlines for the brittle and total fracture areas for a test
specimen.
 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews the research method and its appropriateness used throughout
the study. Research methodology is a set of procedures or methods used to conduct
research. It can be defined also as the study or the description of method. A
methodology can be considered to include multiple methods, each as applied to
various facets of the whole scope of the methodology. The purpose of this research
is to compare the impact toughness between single-V and double-V groove butt joint
under specified temperature and to observe fracture surface after the impact test.

Each groove joints are welded on ASTM A36 steel using Gas Metal Arc
Welding (GMAW) process with the dimension prepared according to AWS D1.1.
Liquid Penetration Testing (LPI) also are carried in part of the Non-Destructive Test
(NDT) and are follow the acceptance criteria provided by the codes and standards
from AWS D1.1. The specimens are tested using Charpy V-notch impact test in
accordance with ASTM E23 to identify their impact toughness and then these
specimens are observed under Dino-Lite Digital Microscope to collect data of the
fracture surface.

3.2 Flow Chart

In this research, the objective is to see how much a weld able to permanently deform
while absorbing energy before fracturing, specifically when stress is applied rapidly
between two joint groove designs (single-V groove butt joint and double-V groove
butt joint). Basically, to start the project, all the data need to be prepared. The
sequence of this study is shown in the flowchart below.
 START

Study about the

material, welding
process and testing

Preparing the specimen

 Marking
 Cutting
 Cleaning

Welding Process
FAILED
(GMAW)

Non-Destructive Testing

(Dye Penetrant Test)

ACCEPTED

Mechanical Testing FAILED

(Charpy V-Notch Impact Test)

ACCEPTED

Fracture Surface Observation

(Dino-Lite)

Collect Data and Analysis

END

Figure 3-1: The flow chart of the research.

3.3 Location

Most of the material preparation and testing were carried out with a strength of tool
and equipment prepared at The Fabrication and Joining section, welding workshop
of University Kuala Lumpur Malaysia France Institute (UniKL MFI), Bandar Baru
Bangi, Selangor. Facilities such as material, lab and workshop are readily available.

Figure 3-2: The fabrication workshop.

3.4 Design of the Study

The main purpose of this research is to measure and compare the impact toughness
of two different groove butt joint (single-V and double-V groove butt joint). The
welding process used for this research is Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) with five
weld passes and two cappings. Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI) are carried out to
determine whether the welding specimen passed the acceptance criteria required by
codes and standards. The joint specimens are mechanical tested using Charpy V-
notch impact test at a temperature of -40⁰C, -20⁰C, 0⁰C, and 20⁰C. The fracture
surface of the impact specimen is also observed using Dino-Lite Digital Microscope.
Mild steel ASTM A36 plates with 16 mm thickness are welded with straight weld
bead design. For this experiment, 8 plates will be joined form into 4 weld specimens
(2 single-V groove butt joint and 3 double-V groove butt joint).
3.5 Procedure for Preparing Specimen of the Butt Welds for ASTM A36

In order to produce the Butt welds (with single-V and double-V groove) on ASTM
A36, it is necessary to consider the method of preparation of the plate, the
preparation of the edges, the welding method, and the size of the specimen to
ensure that the butt welds ASTM A36 are suitable for any mechanical testing. Figure
below displays the flow chart of the preparation of the specimen.

specimen.

START

Selection of the
Material

Plate Preparation
According to the
Dimension Required

Edge Preparation

Tack Weld

END

Figure 3-3: The flow chart of preparation of the specimens.

 3.5.1 Selection of the Material

Mild steel ASTM A36 with 16 mm thickness plate is the material to be used for
this research. ASTM A36 is a strong, flexible and easily machined for hot-
rolled and low carbon steel, making it one of the most widely used types of
steel. This steel is prominent in many different industries because of its
relatively low cost for a wide range of uses. ASTM A36 with yield strength of
36300 psi and a tensile strength of between 58000 and 79800 psi. The
characteristics of ASTM A36 steel cause it to deform steadily as the stress
increases beyond its yield power.

Due to the relatively good strength, the formability of ASTM A36 steel
can be efficiently joined. This steel is available in a range of shapes, including
sheets, rectangular bars, circular rods, beams, and angled cross-sections.
The following table describes the properties and composition of ASTM A36.

Table 3-1: Chemical Composition of ASTM A36.

Chemical Composition %
Material
C Si Mn S P Fe Cu
ASTM
A36 0.25 – 0.29 0.28 1.03 0.050 0.040 98.0 0.20

Material Yield Strength Ultimate Elongation Hardness

(MPa) Tensile (%) (HV)
Strength (MPa)
ASTM A36 250 MPa 400 – 550 MPa 20% 120

Table 3-2: Mechanical Properties of ASTM A36.

 Figure 3-4: Mild steel ASTM A36.

3.5.2 Plate Preparation According to the Dimension Required

The materials are available at the warehouse of University Kuala Lumpur-

Malaysia France Institute (UniKL-MFI). The plates come in a very long size. It
must therefore be cut to the desired size and the geometry shall be prepared
in compliance with the codes and specifications of AWS D1.1. The dimension
of the plates ASTM A36 in this study is 300 mm x 100 mm x 16 mm as shown
in the figure below and need eight pieces. The bend saw machine is used to
cut the plate to the desired dimensions. The bend saw machine is aided
coolant liquid to avoid heat treatment to the plates. However, its size and
geometry depend on the mechanical tests used the important thing is that it
should be long enough to meet with any mechanical tests.

Figure 3-5: The dimension of the plate ASTM A36.

As the plates come in a very long size, the plate is cut into the desired
length which 300 mm using bend saw machine aided with coolant liquid to
avoid heat treatment with 8 pieces required. The procedure to cut the
specimen into the desired length is:

1. Firstly, the plate is chosen from the warehouse in UniKL-MFI. The

thickness and width required for the specimen is 16 mm and
100mm respectively, already available at the warehouse.
2. The plate chosen is marked with permanent marker and L square
ruler according to the specified length to ensure the cutting process
in accurate dimension.
3. The plate is placed tightly to the bend saw machine prior cutting to
avoid any movement during the cutting process.
4. The bend saw machine is switch on with the descending movement
of the bend saw is set at slow speed to avoid stuck as the plate is
thick.
5. The bend saw machine is aided with coolant liquid to avoid any heat
treatment.
6. After the cutting process is done, the plate is filed for finishing touch
and remove any unwanted cutting edge.

Figure 3-6: Cutting process with bend saw machine.

 Figure 3-7: Marking the plate into the desired length.

3.5.3 Edge Preparation

For this section, the edge preparation of plates ASTM A36, from the Figure 3-
7 single-V and double-V groove joint is chosen for welding design as this
research study and comparison about the groove design. The geometry and
dimension for this research is accordance to AWS D1.1.
 Figure 3-7: Grooving design (single-V and double-V groove).

Figure 3-8:

Figure 3-9:

As the plates come in a very long size, the plate is cut into the desired
length which 300 mm using bend saw machine aided with coolant liquid to
avoid heat treatment with 8 pieces required. Next, the semi-automatic oxy
acetylene cutting machine is the method for edge preparation. Since this
method produces a smooth and uniform cutting of the plates rather than a
hand grinder machine. This method also to ensure a stable cutting with
precise angle can be achieved. Gas use for this cutting is oxygen and
acetylene gas. For the finishing, the hand grinder is used to eliminate all sharp
edges and burr.
Basic procedure for the grooving process:

1. Remove the impurities on the surface of steel, such as rust or dusty

particles, to ensure smooth operation of the cutting process.
2. Prior starting to ignite the torch, make sure that the pressure
regulator adjustment screws are backed out, the torch valves are
closed and stand away from the front of the regulator.
3. At the starting point, the cutting torch must pre-heat the plate to the
ignition temperature.
4. Release the fuel gas valve for 1/2 switch, then begin the
oxyacetylene cutting process at a uniform travel speed of about
3m/s.
5. Close the oxygen torch valve when the cutting process is finished,
followed by the fuel gas torch valve.
6. The steel is then proceed with finishing process to smoothen the
surface and to create root face for 2 mm.

Figure 3-10: Oxy acetylene cutting process of the steel

 Figure 3-11: Grinding process for finishing and create root face.

3.5.4 Tack Weld

Tack first welds the specimen using GMAW to avoid misalignment and
distortion. Until continuing to GMAW welding, make sure all the specimens
have been tack welded. To help in tack welding purpose, the plates are hold
together with multipurpose magnetic holder to ensure the plate stay in grip.
Tack weld also to allow that the root gap is about 1.5 to 2 mm between the
plates and stay in stationary.

Figure 3-11: Tack weld the specimen before welding process.

3.6 Welding Process

START

Setup the Power

Supply and the
Machine

Adjust the Shielding Gas

Pressure (10-15 psi)

Set the Amperage and

Voltage on the Welding
Machine

Run the Welding Process

END

Figure $%: The flow chart for the welding process

Figure 3-12: The flow chart for the welding process.

For this study, the welding method used for joining the plates (single-V and double-V
groove butt joint) ASTM A36 is Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW). The welding
technique followed is accordance to AWS 01.1 :2000. The filler metal utilized in this
method is 1.2 mm ER70S-6; the wire electrode is plain and contains no coating or
core. The shielding, which prevents the molten metal from reacting with atmospheric
elements, is provided by the external gas and by the shielding gas used by Argon.
EWM Phoenix 355 is the GMAW welding device used.

Figure 3-13: EWM Phoenix 355-Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Machine.

Figure 3-14: Run the GMAW process.

Figure 3-15: EWM Phoenix 355-Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Machine
specification.
 3.6.1 Selection of the Wire Electrode

For this research, the electrode wire SAW process will follow the American
Welding Society (AWS) D1.1 requirement code and standard. The type of
electrode wire that applied in this study is electrode Er70s-6, copper coated
mild steel. 3.2 mm is the diameter for this electrode. The table below shows
the properties and composition of electrode.

Figure 3-3: Chemical Composition of Er70s-6.

Chemical Composition %
Material
C Si Mn S P Cr Cu
Electrode
wire 0.08 0.05 0.5 0.018 0.018 - 0.25

These electrodes are available for welding mild steels, high carbon
steels, low and special alloy steels, stainless steel and some of the copper
and nickel nonferrous ones. Generally, these electrodes are coated with
copper to prevent rusting and to increase their electrical conductivity.

Figure 3-16: ER70s-6 for GMAW process

3.6.2 Set the Parameter on the Welding Machine

The welding parameter that are set for the used for the Gas Metal Arc
Welding (GMAW) process is s:

1. Current
2. Voltage
3. Travel Speed

These parameters influence the weld quality for this research as previous
study has mentioned. These parameters can be varying over a wide range,
which is regarded to be the primary setting for any welding process. In order
to allow reproducibility, their quantities should be documented for each
different type of weld. Centred also on these parameters as the key variables
to be monitored. Whereas the gas flow rate, the filler wire diameter, the arc
gap (mm), the flow rate (l/min) and the wire feed angle are constant
parameters. The table below shows the parameter and range value for the
parameter (current, voltage and travel speed). The procedure is followed
based on AWS D1.1.

Table 3-3: The Parameter of the GMAW Process.

Welding Process Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Current type DC(DCEN)

Welding position 1G
Number of passes 5

Capping 2

Current (A) 150-190 A

Voltage (V) 25-30 V

Wire speed 6 m/min

Travel speed 150-160mm/min

3.7 Non-Destructive Test (NDT)

3.7.1 Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI)

Once welding work has been completed, a non-destructive test needs to be

conducted. The method used for non-destructive testing is Liquid Penetrant
Testing. Liquid penetration inspection is a commonly used and low-cost
inspection method used to verify surface-breaking defects in non-porous
materials. Any discontinuity on the surfaces and defect such as porosity,
undercut, cracks and others can be identified using this method. Three
fundamental items are necessary for this method, including cleaner, dye
penetrant and developer.

netrant and developer.

START

Pre-cleaning

Apply Dye Penetrant

Clean the Excess Dye

Penetrant

Apply Developer

Inspect for Any

Discontinuities and
Defects

Post-cleaning

END

Figure #$: The flow chart for the liquid penetrant testing

Figure 3-17: The flow chart for the liquid penetrant testing.
3.7.2 Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI) Procedure

Liquid penetrant testing step-by-step are defined as below:

1. Pre-Cleaning
The pre-cleaning is one of the most important step of a liquid penetrant
inspection. The surface must be free of oil, grease, water, or other pollutants
that may prevent the penetrant from entering the defects. This can be done by
rubbing the surface with a rag moistened with a cleaner/remover.

Figure 3-18: The cleaner.

2. Apply Dye Penetrant

When the surface has been properly cleaned and dried, the dye penetrant
solution is applied to all parts of the weldment surface by spraying. The
penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient period to allow as much
penetrant as possible to be drawn from or to seep into a defect. A dwelling
period is usually 10 to 15 minutes but should never be long enough to dry the
penetrant.
 Figure 3-19: The liquid penetrant.

3. Clean the Excess Dye Penetrant

The excess penetrant must be cleaned from the surface of the weldment
while removing the penetrant from the defect as little penetrant as possible.
This step involves in cleaning by wiping a rag moisten with cleaner.

4. Apply Developer
A thin layer of the developer is then applied to the surface of the weldment by
spraying to draw the penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where it
will be observable. The developer is allowed for dwell time for 10 to 15
minutes.

Figure 3-20: The developer

5. Inspect for Any Discontinuities and Defects

The inspection shall then be carried out under proper lighting to identify signs
of any defects that may be present. The potential defect can be found is
porosity, undercut, cracks and others.

6. Post-cleaning
The last step in the method is to thoroughly clean the surface to remove the
developer from the parts that have been found to be suitable.
 3.7.3 Acceptance criteria for liquid penetrant inspection

These acceptance standards shall apply unless other more restrictive

standards are specified for specific materials or applications accordance to
AWS D1.1. All surfaces to be examined shall be free of:

1. Relevant linear indications.

2. Relevant rounded indications greater than 3 /16 inches which is 5 mm.
3. Four or more relevant rounded indications in a line separated by 1 /16
inches which is 1.5 mm or less from edge to edge.

3.8 Mechanical Inspection by Mechanical Test

Mechanical testing reveals the properties of material under static or dynamic force.
Mechanical testing is designed to ensure materials are suitable for the intended
applications, and includes methods such as tensile strength, compression strength,
impact resistance, toughness of fracture and fatigue. For this research, Charpy V-
notch impact test are applied to determine the impact toughness of the joint.

3.8.1 Charpy V-Notch Impact Test

In this study, the Charpy V-Notch Impact Test will be applied to measure the
amount of energy absorbed by the specimen during fracture. The geometry
and dimensions of the Charpy V-notch specimens shall be in accordance with
ASTM E 23, Standard Methods for Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic
Materials and comply with Type A Charpy Impact Specimen as shown in the
Figure 3-21 below, the specimens taken from the weldments of the butt weld
(single-V and double-V bevel) is three specimens as suggested AWS D1.1 at
for four different specified temperatures. So, the total twenty-four pieces of
specimen (twelve specimens for single-V and twelve specimens for double-V).
The result of an impact test at each designated location shall be the average
(arithmetic mean) of the results of the specimens.
Figure 3-21: The geometry and dimension of the Charpy V-Notch specimen
accordance to ASTM E 23.
3.8.2 Charpy V-Notch Impact Test Procedure

START

Prepare the Specimens

According to Codes and
Standards

Immerse the Specimens with

Dry Ice-Acetone Bath Solutions

Adjust the Pendulum into

the Appropriate Starting
Angle

Insert the Specimens

REPEAT

Release the Pendulum

Record the Angle After

the Impact

Calculation

END

Figure #$: The flow chart for the Charpy V-notch Impact Test

Figure 3-23: The flow chart for the Charpy V-notch Impact Test.
Charpy V-notch impact testing step-by-step are defined as below:

1. Prepare the Specimens According to Codes and Standards

The specimens need to be prepared into the desired dimension
accordance to codes and standards. The specimens are marked into the
designated dimension and carried out the cutting process with bend saw
machine. After the cutting process, the specimen is undergone milling
process to remove the weldment surface so it will be flat surface and to
follow the required thickness according to codes and standards. Both
cutting and milling process aided with coolant solution to avoid the heat
treatment to the specimens.

Figure 3-24: Specimen being cut using bend saw machine.

Figure 3-25: Specimen being milled using milling machine.

After the specimens has been fabricate into the desired dimension, the
specimen undergone polishing process by using polishing machine. Then, the
specimens will be filed with triangular-shaped file to create V-notch according
to the dimension required from the codes and standards.

Figure 3-26: The Charpy V-notch specimen.

2. Immerse the Specimens with Dry Ice-Acetone Bath Solutions.

The mixture of dry ice and acetone solution is used to ensure the
specimens is cooled into the specified temperature for an appropriate
period of time. Firstly, acetone liquid is poured into a beaker for 100 ml.
Then, small cube of dry ice is added to the acetone liquid until it reaches
the specified temperature. The temperature is recorded using
thermometer. After the mixture of dry ice and acetone solution reach the
specified temperature, immerse three specimens into the solution for 10-
15 minutes. The temperature specified for this study is −40°C, −20°C,
0°C and the room temperature (20-37°C). Below are the table used for
the specified temperature for both single-V and double-V bevel butt joint
specimens. The total specimens for this study are 24 specimens.

Table 3-4: Specimens and temperatures

 Specified −40°C −20°C 0°C 20°C
Temperature

Single-V 3 specimens 3 specimens 3 specimens 3 specimens

bevel

Double-V 3 specimens 3 specimens 3 specimens 3 specimens

bevel

Figure 3-29: Dry Ice-Acetone Bath Solution

3. Adjust the Pendulum into the Appropriate Starting Angle.

While waiting for the specimens are immersed for a specified period of
time, adjust the pendulum of the Charpy impact testing machine to a
specified starting angle. The starting angle is set at 90°. The pendulum is
then clamped to be grip at the starting angle.

Figure 3-30: Charpy Impact Test Machine.

4. Insert the Specimens.
After the specimens is finished immersed in the dry ice-acetone bath
solution. The specimens are quickly put into the platform of the testing
machine. V-notch are placed opposite to the pendulum strike as shown in
the figure below.

Figure 3-31: The pendulum strike position

5. Release the Pendulum
The clamp that held the pendulum are quickly released to strike the
specimens. Make sure no people nearby the testing machine while
releasing the pendulum for safety measure.

6. Record the Angle After the Impact

The angle after the pendulum strike the specimens is recorded. Repeat
steps 2 until 6 with other prepared specimens.

7. Calculation
The energy absorbed or Charpy impact value is generally measured in
joules. The energy is then calculated with the formula given below:
  Angle of fall: α
 Angle at the end of the swing: β
 Length: R
 Mass of hammer: W (m)
 Energy loss: L
 Gravitational acceleration: g

a1
i. cos α :
R1
a 1 :cos α × R1…. 1

a2
ii. cos β :
R2
2
a 2 : cos β × R2….

Then, the energy is conserved by using

this formula:
i. h1=R−a1 , sub in 1
E=mgh, therefore: ∆ E=Ei−E f
= R−(cos α . R 1)
3
∆ E=mgh i−mgh f

ii. h2=R−a 2 , sub in

2
¿ R−(cos β . R 2)
4
Then, sub in 3 and 4 to the conservation of energy formula:

∆ E=mgh i−mgh f

= mg (h1 −h2 ¿

= mg (R−( cos α . R 1 )− (R−( cos β . R2 )¿

= mg (R−cos α . R 1− R+cos β . R2 ¿

= mg. R (1-cos α - 1+cos β ¿

Then,

= mgR (-cos α + cos β ¿

= mgR (cos β−cos α ¿

Hence the Formula for Absorbed Energy is:

E ( J )=WgR ( cos β−cos α )−L

3.9 Fracture Surface Observation

Mechanical testing reveals the properties of material under static or dynamic force.
The Charpy impact specimen undergone fracture surface observation after the
specimen received strike from the pendulum. Fracture surface analysis is a powerful
tool for fracture cause investigation. Fracture surface observation offers information
into the cause of a material fracture and can be utilized to assess if a material defect
has led to the fracture. It can be achieved with an eye or an optical microscope. For
this research, Dino-Lite Digital Microscope are employed to observe the Charpy
fracture surface.
3.9.1 Fracture Surface Observation Procedure

Figure 3-32: The flow chart for the Fracture Surface Observation.

Fracture surface observation step-by-step are defined as below:

1. Point the Dino-Lite Digital Microscope at fracture surface of the

specimen.
2. Slowly turn the adjustment knob using until the image comes into focus
on the screen.
3. Continue turning the knob to adjust to a greater magnification. The
standard range is 10x-220x.
4. When the image is at the desired focus, click on the "picture" button to
snap a photo.
5. The photo of the fracture surface is analysed by referring to ASTM E23-
12C code and standard. It can determine the fracture surface percentage
according to Figure 3-33 below.

Figure 3-33: Fracture surface percentage ASTM E23-12C.

Figure 3-34: Dino-Lite Digital Microscope set-up.

 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Overview

This chapter is intended to explain the analysed results from the methodology that
has been carried out. This chapter also involves the interpretation and analysis of
data. The results of the study will be summarised and further discussed to provide a
clearer view and understanding of the study purpose.

4.2 Liquid Penetrant Testing

4.2.1 Results of Liquid Penetrant Testing

The figure below proves that the four specimens were tested by a liquid
penetrant inspection method. No major defect occurs on all samples of the
liquid penetrant test result that can be categorized as failed.

These acceptance standards shall apply unless other more restrictive

standards are specified for specific materials or applications accordance to
AWS D1.1. All surfaces to be examined shall be free of:

1. Relevant linear indications.

2. Relevant rounded indications greater than 3 /16 inches which is 5 mm.
3. Four or more relevant rounded indications in a line separated by 1 /16
inches which is 1.5 mm or less from edge to edge.
 Figure 4-1: Single-V Groove Butt Joint 1

Table 4-1: LPI Result for Single-V Groove Butt Joint 1

Specimen Acceptance Criteria Satisfaction

Single-V  Relevant linear indications. Pass

Bevel Butt  Relevant rounded indications greater Pass
Joint 1 than 3 /16 inches which is 5 mm.
 Four or more relevant rounded Pass
indications in a line separated by 1
/16 inches which is 1.5 mm or less
from edge to edge.
 Figure 4-2: Single-V Groove Butt Joint 2

Table 4-2: LPI Result for Single-V Groove Butt Joint 2

Specimen Acceptance Criteria Satisfaction

Single-V  Relevant linear indications. Pass

Bevel Butt  Relevant rounded indications greater Pass
Joint 2 than 3 /16 inches which is 5 mm.
 Four or more relevant rounded Pass
indications in a line separated by 1
/16 inches which is 1.5 mm or less
from edge to edge.
 Front Back

Figure 4-3: Double-V Groove

Table 4-3: LPI Result for Double-V Groove Butt Joint 1

Specimen Acceptance Criteria Satisfaction

Double-V  Relevant linear indications. Pass

Bevel Butt  Relevant rounded indications greater Pass
Joint 1 than 3 /16 inches which is 5 mm.
 Four or more relevant rounded Pass
indications in a line separated by 1
/16 inches which is 1.5 mm or less
from edge to edge.
 Front Back

Figure 4-4: Double-V

Table 4-4: LPI Result for Double-V Groove Butt Joint 2

Specimen Acceptance Criteria Satisfaction

Double-V  Relevant linear indications. Pass

Bevel Butt  Relevant rounded indications greater Pass
Joint 1 than 3 /16 inches which is 5 mm.
 Four or more relevant rounded Pass
indications in a line separated by 1
/16 inches which is 1.5 mm or less
from edge to edge.

From the figure shown and according to the codes and standards of AWS D1.1,
there is no significant defect that could cause the specimen to fail. In terms of liquid
penetrant inspection, all specimens are deemed to have passed. Result of the liquid
penetrant testing on the specimen that had been welded by the SAW process are
shown in the table above.
4.3 Charpy V-Notch Impact Test

4.3.1 Results of Charpy V-Notch Impact Test

The study consisted of comparing amount of energy absorbed of ASTM A36

low carbon steel in single-V and double-V bevels as a function of temperature.
The Charpy impact specimens of each material are immersed in a bath for 10 to
15 minutes to achieve thermal equilibrium at four separate temperatures ranging
from -40⁰C to 20⁰C. Each specified temperature is tested with three specimens
and the final result from the test will be averaged of three. The specimens are
quickly transferred to the Charpy test machine, fractured, and the energy of
impact is measured. After the impact energy has been recorded, using
calculation as explained in the Chapter 3 the result of each of the specimen can
be generated.

Below is the result of the Charpy impact test for both single-V and double-V
bevel. The result procedure each specified temperature is tested with three
specimens and the final result from the test will be averaged of three.

A. Results of Double-V Groove Joint at 20⁰C.

Table 4-5: Temperature, impact energy values and condition for double-V groove at
20⁰C.

Temperature Specimen α β Energy

Absorbed, (J)
20⁰C 1 90⁰ 47.5⁰ 132.37
2 90⁰ 45⁰ 138.54
3 90⁰ 47⁰ 133.63
Average 134.85

Specimen Condition
Specimen 1 Broken
Specimen 2 Broken
Specimen 3 Broken

Figure 4-5: Double-V groove Charpy specimen after test at 20⁰C.

B. Results of Double-V Groove Joint at 0⁰C

Table 4-6: Temperature, impact energy values and condition for double-V groove at
0⁰C.

Temperature Specimen α β Energy

 Absorbed, (J)
0⁰C 1 90⁰ 54.5⁰ 113.79
2 90⁰ 52⁰ 120.63
3 90⁰ 53⁰ 117.91
Average 117.44

Specimen Condition
Specimen 1 Broken
Specimen 2 Broken
Specimen 3 Broken

Figure 4-6: Double-V groove Charpy specimen after test at 0⁰C.

C. Results of Double-V Groove Joint at -20⁰C

Table 4-7: Temperature, impact energy values and condition for double-V groove
at----20⁰C.

Temperature Specimen α β Energy

Absorbed, (J)
-20⁰C 1 90⁰ 58.5⁰ 102.37
2 90⁰ 57.5⁰ 105.27
 3 90⁰ 59.5⁰ 99.44
Average 102.35

Specimen Condition
Specimen 1 Broken
Specimen 2 Broken
Specimen 3 Broken

Figure 4-7: Double-V groove Charpy specimen after test at -20⁰C.

D. Results of Double-V Groove Joint at -40⁰C

Table 4-8: Temperature, impact energy values and condition for double-V groove
at---40⁰C.

Temperature Specimen α β Energy

Absorbed, (J)
-40⁰C 1 90⁰ 65.5⁰ 81.25
2 90⁰ 66.5⁰ 78.13
3 90⁰ 67.5⁰ 74.98
Average 78.12

Specimen Condition
 Specimen 1 Broken
Specimen 2 Broken
Specimen 3 Broken

Figure 4-8: Double-V groove Charpy specimen after test at -40⁰C.

E. Results of Single-V Groove Joint at -20⁰C

Table 4-9: Temperature, impact energy values and condition for single-V groove at
20⁰C.

Temperature Specimen α β Energy

Absorbed, (J)
20⁰C 1 90⁰ 48.5⁰ 129.83
2 90⁰ 51.4⁰ 121.97
3 90⁰ 50.5⁰ 124.63
Average 125.48

Specimen Condition
Specimen 1 Broken
Specimen 2 Broken
Specimen 3 Broken
 Figure 4-9: Single-V groove Charpy specimen after test at 20⁰C

F. Results of Single-V Groove Joint at 0⁰C

Table 4-10: Temperature, impact energy values and condition for single-V groove at
0⁰C.

Temperature Specimen α β Energy

Absorbed, (J)
0⁰C 1 90⁰ 55.5⁰ 110.98
2 90⁰ 56⁰ 109.56
3 90⁰ 55.5⁰ 110.98
Average 110.51

Specimen Condition
Specimen 1 Broken
Specimen 2 Broken
Specimen 3 Broken
 Figure 4-10: Single-V groove Charpy specimen after test at 0⁰C.

G. Results of Single-V Groove Joint at -20⁰C

Table 4-11: Temperature, impact energy values and condition for single-V groove
at----20⁰C.

Temperature Specimen α β Energy

Absorbed, (J)
-20⁰C 1 90⁰ 64.5⁰ 84.35
2 90⁰ 66.5⁰ 78.13
3 90⁰ 67.5⁰ 74.98
Average 79.15

Specimen Condition
Specimen 1 Broken
Specimen 2 Broken
Specimen 3 Broken
 Figure 4-11: Single-V groove Charpy specimen after test at -20⁰C.

H. Results of Single-V Groove Joint at -40⁰C

Table 4-12: Temperature, impact energy values and condition for single-V groove
at----40⁰C.

Temperature Specimen α β Energy

Absorbed, (J)
-40⁰C 1 90⁰ 71.5⁰ 63.79
2 90⁰ 68.5⁰ 71.81
3 90⁰ 67.5⁰ 73.4
Average 69.67

Specimen Condition
Specimen 1 Broken
Specimen 2 Broken
Specimen 3 Broken
 Figure 4-12: Single-V groove Charpy specimen after test at -40⁰C.

All the data of different temperature are collected had been specified
by their group and it applied on the graph below. The calculated are submitted
into Microsoft Excel and then the graph is generated to compare the impact
toughness between the single-V and double-V groove joint.

Figure 4-13: Charpy impact value of both single-V and double-V groove at 20⁰C.
Figure 4-14: Charpy impact value of both single-V and double-V groove at 0⁰C.

Figure 4-15: Charpy impact value of both single-V and double-V groove at -20⁰C.
Figure 4-16: Charpy impact value of both single-V and double-V groove at -40⁰C.

4.3.2 Discussion Results of Charpy V-Notch Impact Test

Impact tests are utilised for evaluate the toughness of the material or the
weldment. The toughness of a material is a factor in its abilities to absorb
energy during plastic deformation. Brittle materials have poor toughness due
to the limited amount of plastic deformation they can tolerate. From the result
taken from the Charpy impact value for both single-V and double-V bevel butt
joint, the impact value of a specimen can be influenced by the bevelling
design. Generally, the impact energy of the specimen is reduced as the
temperatures decreased. Charpy impact test was carried out at different
temperature (-40⁰C, -20⁰C, 0⁰C and 20⁰C). From the table given, the Charpy
impact value are increasing as the temperature increases. This proves
temperature can change the impact value of a specimen and low
temperatures can embrittle steels.

Firstly, by comparing both single-V and double-V at a different

temperature, which is at -40⁰C, -20⁰C, 0⁰C and at 20⁰C, from the graph the
Charpy impact value at double-V specimen are higher compared to single-V
at all temperature tested. The difference of Charpy impact value brought a
 suggestion that the difference in bevelling design do affect in result of the
amount of energy absorbed by the specimen during fracture. This can be
expected as the volume of welded metal deposited at the single-V bevel joint
was higher than the double-V bevel joint. High volume of the welding metal
increases the width of the welding and hence the width of the heat-affected
zone (HAZ) and therefore increases the risk of welding defects. This is shown
by the study performed by Singh et al [43] on the effects of joint geometries
on the welding of mild steel. The welding was done on various butt-joint
styles, such as a square butt-joint, a single V-joint, a double V-joint and a
single J-joint. The results of the test showed that the double-V was superior to
all the other joints, had stronger mechanical properties and one of them was
impact strength due to the high width of the HAZ, which contributed to an
increase in the possibility of welding defects. It would also suggest that the
double-V bevel joint have higher plastic deformation capability compared to
the single-V bevel joint. Also, double-V bevel butt joint has stronger impact
toughness compare to single-V bevel butt joint due to full penetration are able
to achieve with the single-V bevel butt. Hence, more filler material will be filled
in the edge preparation of double-V bevel joint.

4.4 Fracture Surface

4.4.1 Results of Fracture Surface

The fracture surfaces are captured using Dino-Lite Electronic Digital

Microscope after the specimen has been carried out Charpy Impact Test. The
fracture surfaces of the single-v and double-v bevel resulting from the
experiments at the lowest temperatures are shown in the figure below. In this
test collection, carried out at a temperature below zero.

Single-V bevel at -40⁰C Double-V bevel at -40⁰C

 Single-V bevel at -20⁰C Double-V bevel at -20⁰C

Figure 4-17: Fracture surface at under zero

temperature

The fracture surfaces of the single-v and double-v bevel resulting from the
experiments at the highest temperature of the experiment are shown in the
figure below. In this test collection, carried out at a temperature of 0⁰C and
20⁰C,

Single-V bevel at 0⁰C Double-V bevel at 0⁰C

Single-V bevel at 20⁰C Double-V bevel at 20⁰C

 Figure 4-18: Fracture surface at 0 and 20⁰C,

4.4.2 Discussion Results of Fracture Surface

The fracture surfaces resulting from the experiments at the lowest

temperatures are shown in Figure 4-17. In this test collection, carried out at a
temperature below zero, it is obvious that the percentage of cleavage fracture
at -40⁰C is 100%, so that it is a fully fragile or brittle fracture under the
transition temperature of the material. That is why it is hard to notice a major
difference between the surfaces. For the case of -20⁰C, an increasing in the
shear-fracture percentage was observed with estimated of 5% to 10%.

Fracture surfaces obtained by higher temperature tests are showed in

Fig. 4-18. In the case of 0⁰C, a substantial increase in the shear-fracture
percentage can be identified (between 30% and almost 40%), which indicates
that the test started to approach a little the transition temperature, where the
shear lips could also be recognised. Based on the findings of the maximum
temperature tests which is 20⁰C, a high shear-fracture percentage is
detected. With a highly precise perspective, it could be argued that these
fracture surfaces were over transition temperature tests, as the percentage of
these surfaces is almost 60% or 70%. This indicates that the transition
temperature could be in range 20⁰C.
 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

In this section, the major findings of the study are summarized, and their implications
are discussed. Evidence that the results of the data analysis support the conclusions
of the study is discussed here. Reasonable explanations are provided for findings
with conclusions supported by the results. Possible recommendations of the
research are also discussed here for future works to build on the current study a
presented.

5.2 Conclusions

This study has explained and make comparison between the single-V and double-V
bevel butt joint in terms of the amount of energy absorbed during fracture by using
Charpy V-notch impact test. Based on the results and discussions from the Chapter
4, by using double-V bevel as the best choice to go for. From this study, the result
revealed that double-V bevel butt joint has higher ability to absorbed energy during
fracture compared to single-V bevel butt joint. This make double-V bevel butt joint is
superior to single-V bevel butt joint. Based on the past research, this because higher
volume of weld metal was deposited in the single-V bevel butt joint compared to
double-V bevel butt joint. This difference in weld metal volume is because of the
variation in groove design of the joints. High volume of the weld metal increases the
weld width and so HAZ width, and thus increases the chance of weld defects.
Besides that, the Charpy V-notch impact specimen are also tested at a specified
temperature range from -40⁰C to 20⁰C to study. The results from the experiment
taken shows that the Charpy impact value of the specimen for both single-V and
double-V bevel butt joint increasing as the temperature increasing. This indicates
that the temperature is one of the factors that influence the impact value of the
specimen and that low temperatures can embrittle the steels. Brittle materials have
poor toughness due to the limited amount of plastic deformation they can tolerate. As
the temperatures is increasing the material will be more ductile and therefore the
impact toughness will be increasing.

5.3 Recommendations

There was a list of recommendation for future work in improving the research
regarding the welding joint geometry. Gas Metal Arc Welding is the most used
welding process in the world and carbon steel is the most commonly used material in
structural buildings and other metal industries. First recommendation is using a
qualified welder because it guarantees the most quality weld can be achieved. In this
research a non-certificate welder is used for this project. Secondly, Use scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) to analysis the fracture surface. This can give a more
detail information about the fracture surface observation. And then, utilise more
variations of temperature so that ductile to brittle transition can be identified. In this
research not enough variable provided to determine the ductile to brittle transition in
form of graph. Use another grade of steel. Steel can be suggested is using ASTM
A516 grade because the steel is mostly use in pressure vessel.

And then, add more bevelling butt joint variations. This recommendation is useful
as the result produce will be not bias and more understanding can be achieved
about mechanical properties of weld joint geometry. Next, use another mechanical
test such as tensile test, bend test, hardness test, etc. This will also give the
researcher more data hence improve in understanding the research of bevelling
design in term of mechanical properties. And lastly, apply more mechanised and
automated method. This will encourage a more accurate and precise data to be
produced. The weakness for this project is it mostly done in manual method.