Principles of Electronic

Communication Systems
 Chapter 4

Amplitude Modulator
and Demodulator Circuits
 Topics Covered

4-1: Basic Principles of Amplitude
Modulation

4-2: Amplitude Modulators

4-3: Amplitude Demodulators

4-4: Balanced Modulators

4-5: SSB Circuits
 4-1: Basic Principles
of Amplitude Modulation

Modulator circuits cause carrier amplitude to be
varied in accordance with modulating signals.
Circuits produce AM, DSB, and SSB transmission
methods.


The basic equation for an AM signal is
νAM = Vcsin 2πfct + (Vmsin 2πfmt)(sin 2πfct)


The first term is the sine wave carrier

The second term is the product of the sine wave
carrier and modulating signals.
 4-1: Basic Principles
of Amplitude Modulation
AM in the Time Domain

Amplitude modulation voltage is produced by a
circuit that can multiply the carrier by the
modulating signal and then add the carrier.

 If a circuit’s gain is a function of 1+ m sin 2πfmt,

the expression for the AM signal is
νAM = A(νc)
Where A is the gain or attenuation factor.
 4-1: Basic Principles
of Amplitude Modulation

Figure 4-1 Block diagram of a circuit to produce AM.

 4-1: Basic Principles
of Amplitude Modulation
AM in the Frequency Domain

The product of the carrier and modulating signal
can be generated by applying both signals to a
nonlinear component such as a diode.

A square-law function is one that varies in
proportion to the square of the input signals. A
diode gives a good approximation of a square-
law response. Bipolar and field-effect transistors
(FETs) can also be biased to give a square-law
response.
 4-1: Basic Principles
of Amplitude Modulation
AM in the Frequency Domain

Diodes and transistors whose function is not a
pure square-law function produce third-, fourth-,
and higher-order harmonics, which are
sometimes referred to as intermodulation
products.

Intermodulation products are easy to filter out.

Tuned circuits filter out the modulating signal
and carrier harmonics, leaving only carrier and
sidebands.
 4-1: Basic Principles
of Amplitude Modulation

Figure 4-4 A square-law circuit for producing AM.

 4-1: Basic Principles
of Amplitude Modulation

Figure 4-5 AM signal containing not only the carrier and sidebands but also the
modulating signal.
 4-1: Basic Principles
of Amplitude Modulation

Figure 4-6 The tuned circuit filters out the modulating signal and carrier
harmonics,leaving only the carrier and sidebands.
 4-2: Amplitude Modulators

There are two types of amplitude modulators.
They are low-level and high-level modulators.


Low-level modulators generate AM with small
signals and must be amplified before
transmission.


High-level modulators produce AM at high
power levels, usually in the final amplifier stage
of a transmitter.
 4-2: Amplitude Modulators
Low-Level AM: Diode Modulator

Diode modulation consists of a resistive mixing
network, a diode rectifier, and an LC tuned
circuit.

The carrier is applied to one input resistor and
the modulating signal to another input resistor.

This resistive network causes the two signals to
be linearly mixed (i.e. algebraically added).

A diode passes half cycles when forward biased.

The coil and capacitor repeatedly exchange
energy, causing an oscillation or ringing at the
resonant frequency.
 DIODE
MODULATOR

Diode provides Envelope matches

Information multiplication information signal

Carrier
AM signal
 HOW THE
DIODE MODULATOR WORKS
 The resistive network
adds the carrier and
modulating signals.
 The diode rectifies the
result producing non-
linear mixing.
 The parallel tuned
circuit selects the
carrier and sidebands
and rejects the
modulating signal.
 4-2: Amplitude Modulators
Low-Level AM: Transistor Modulator

Transistor modulation consists of a resistive
mixing network, a transistor, and an LC tuned
circuit.

The emitter-base junction of the transistor
serves as a diode and nonlinear device.

Modulation and amplification occur as base
current controls a larger collector current.

The LC tuned circuit oscillates (rings) to
generate the missing half cycle.
4-2: Amplitude Modulators

Figure 4-9 Simple transistor modulator.

 4-2: Amplitude Modulators
Low-Level AM: PIN Diode Modulator

Variable attenuator circuits using PIN diodes
produce AM at VHF, UHF, and microwave
frequencies.

PIN diodes are special type silicon junction
diodes designed for use at frequencies above
100 MHz.

When PIN diodes are forward-biased, they
operate as variable resistors.

Attenuation caused by PIN diode circuits varies
with the amplitude of the modulating signal.
4-2: Amplitude Modulators

Figure 4-10 High-frequency amplitude modulators using PIN diodes.

 4-2: Amplitude Modulators
Low-Level AM: PIN Diode Modulator

2 PIN diodes are connected back to back and
are forward-biased by a fixed negative dc
voltage.

The modulating signal is applied to the diodes
through the capacitor C1.

This ac modulating signal rides on the dc bias,
adding to and subtracting from it. Thus varying
the resistance of the PIN diodes.

These diodes appear in series with the carrier
oscillator and the load.
 4-2: Amplitude Modulators
Low-Level AM: PIN Diode Modulator

A positive-going modulating signal reduces the
bias on PIN diodes, causing their resistance to go
up. This cause a reduction in amplitude of the
carrier across the load.

A negative-going modulating signal adds to the
forward bias, causing the resistance of the diodes
to go down, thereby increasing the carrier
amplitude.

Fig. 4-10(b) shows the variation of PIN diodes
modulator circuit, arranged in a pi network.

Used to maintain a constant circuit impedance
even under modulation.
 4-2: Amplitude Modulators
Low-Level AM: Differential Amplifier

Differential amplifier modulators make excellent
amplitude modulators because they have a high
gain, good linearity and can be 100 percent
modulated.

The output voltage can be taken between two
collectors, producing a balanced, or
differential, output.

The output can also be taken from the output of
either collector to ground, producing a single-
ended output.
 4-2: Amplitude Modulators
Low-Level AM: Differential Amplifier

The modulating signal is applied to the base of a
constant-current source transistor.

The modulating signal varies the emitter current
and therefore the gain of the circuit.

The result is AM in the output.
 4-2: Amplitude Modulators

Q1 and Q2 from the diff
pair, Q3 is a constant
current source.

Q3 supplies a fixed emitter
current IE to Q1 and Q2;
one-half of which flows in
each transistor.

The output is developed
across the collector
resistor R1 and R2.

VOUT=A(V2-V1); A is the
crcuit gain
 4-2: Amplitude Modulators

Differential amplifier can also be operate with the
single input.

When this is done, the other input is grounded or
set to zero.

If V1 is zero, the output is VOUT=A(V2).

If V2 is zero, the output is VOUT=A(-V1). This
means the circuits inverts V1.

An approximation of the gain is given by the
expression A=RCIE/50. this is the single-ended
gain, where the output is taken from one of the
collector respected to ground.
4-2: Amplitude Modulators

Carrier is applied to the
base of Q1 and base of Q2
is grounded.

The output taken from the
collector of Q2, is single-
ended.

The modulating signal is
applied to the base of the
constant-current source
Q3.

As the intelligence signal
varies, it varies the emitter
current.
 4-2: Amplitude Modulators

This change the gain of the circuit,
amplifying the carrier by an amount
determined by the modulating signal
amplitude.

The results is AM in the output.

The modulating signal can be removed by
using a simple filter.
 4-2: Amplitude Modulators
High-Level AM

In high-level modulation, the modulator varies
the voltage and power in the final RF amplifier
stage of the transmitter.

The result is high efficiency in the RF amplifier
and overall high-quality performance.
4-2: Amplitude Modulators
High-Level AM: Collector Modulator

The collector modulator
is a linear power amplifier
that takes the low-level
modulating signals and
amplifies them to a high-
power level.

A modulating output signal
is coupled through a
modulation transformer to
a class C amplifier.

The secondary winding of
the modulation transformer
is connected in series with
the collector supply voltage
of the class C amplifier.
 4-2: Amplitude Modulators

When zero-modulation
input signal:

There is zero-modulation
voltage across the
secondary of T1

The collector supply
voltage is applied directly
to the class C amplifier,
and the output carrier is a
steady sine wave.

Figure 4-13 A high-level collector modulator.

 4-2: Amplitude Modulators

When the modulating input signal occurs:

The AC voltage of the modulating signal
across the secondary of the modulation
transformer is added to and subtracted from
the dc collector supply voltage.

This varying supply voltage is then applied to
class C amplifier, causing the amplitude of the
current pulse through transistor Q1 to vary.

The amplitude of the carrier sine wave in
accordance with the modulated signal.
 4-2: Amplitude Modulators

When the modulation signal goes positive, it
adds to the collector supply voltage.

Thereby increasing its value and causing higher
current pulses and a higher-amplitude carrier.

When the modulation signal goes negative, it
subtracts from the collector supply voltage,
decreasing it.

The class C amplifier current pulses are
smaller, resulting in a low-amplitude carrier
output.
 4-2: Amplitude Modulators

High-level modulation produces the best
type of AM, but it requires an extremely high-
power modulator circuit.

In fact, for 100% modulation, the power
supplied by the modulator must be equal to
one-half the total class C amplifier input
power.

If the class C amplifier has an input power of
1000W, the modulator must be able to
deliver one-half this amount, or 500W
 4-2: Amplitude Modulators
High-Level AM: Series Modulator

A series modulator produces high-level
modulation without a large and expensive
modulation transformer used in collector
modulators.

It improves frequency response.

It is, however, very inefficient.
 4-2: Amplitude Modulators
High-Level AM: Series Modulator

A series modulator replaces the modulation
transformer with an emitter follower.

The modulating signal is applied to the emitter
follower.

The emitter follower is in series with the collector
supply voltage.

The collector voltage changes with variations in the
amplified audio modulating signal.
 4-2: Amplitude Modulators

Figure 4-15 Series modulation. Transistors may also be MOSFETs with appropriate
biasing.
 4-3: Amplitude Demodulators

Demodulators, or detectors, are circuits that
accept modulated signals and recover the
original modulating information.
4-3: Amplitude Demodulators

Figure 4-16 A diode detector AM demodulator.

 4-3: Amplitude Demodulators
Diode Detector

On positive alternations of the AM signal, the
capacitor charges quickly to the peak value of
pulses passed by the diode.

When the pulse voltage drops to zero, the capacitor
discharges into the resistor.

The time constant of the capacitor and resistor is
long compared to the period of the carrier.

The capacitor discharges only slightly when the
diode is not conducting.

The resulting waveform across the capacitor is a
close approximation to the original modulating
signal.
 4-3: Amplitude Demodulators
Diode Detector
 Because the diode detector recovers the
envelope of the AM (modulating) signal, the
circuit is sometimes called an envelope detector.
 If the RC time constant in a diode detector is too
long, the capacitor discharge will be too slow to
follow the faster changes in the modulating signal.
 This is referred to as diagonal distortion.
 4-3: Amplitude Demodulators
Synchronous Detection

Synchronous detectors use an internal clock
signal at the carrier frequency in the receiver to
switch the AM signal off and on, producing
rectification similar to that in a standard diode
detector.

Synchronous detectors or coherent detectors
have less distortion and a better signal-to-noise
ratio than standard diode detectors.
 4-3: Amplitude Demodulators
Synchronous Detection

The key to making the synchronous detector
work is to ensure that the signal producing the
switching action is perfectly in phase with the
received AM carrier.

An internally generated carrier signal from an
oscillator will not work.
4-3: Amplitude Demodulators

Figure 4-22 A practical synchronous detector.

 4-4: Balanced Modulator

A balanced modulator is a circuit that
generates a DSB signal, suppressing the
carrier and leaving only the sum and
difference frequencies at the output.

The output of a balanced modulator can be
further processed by filters or phase-shifting
circuitry to eliminate one of the sidebands,
resulting in a SSB signal.

Types of balanced modulators include
lattice, 1496/1596 IC, and the analog
multiplier.
 4-4: Balanced Modulator
Lattice Modulator

A popular and widely used balanced modulator
is the diode ring or lattice modulator.

The lattice modulator consists of an input
transformer, an output transformer and four
diodes connected in a bridge circuit.

The carrier signal is applied to the center taps of
the input and output transformers.

The modulating signal is applied to the input
transformer.

The output appears across the output
transformer.
 4-4: Balanced Modulator
Figure 4-24: Lattice-type
balanced modulator.
 4-4: Balanced Modulator
Lattice Modulators

The carrier sine wave is considerably higher in
frequency and amplitude than the modulating
signal.

The carrier sine wave is used as a source of
forward and reverse bias for the diodes.

The carrier turns the diodes off and on at a high
rate of speed.

The diodes act like switches that connect the
modulating signal at the secondary of T1 to the
primary of T2.
 4-4: Balanced Modulator

Low frequency sine wave
is applied to the primary of +
+ +
+
T1, so the modulating + --
signal appears across the
secondary of T1. -
- -
-

When the carrier polarity is
positive, D1 and D2
conduct and act as closed + -
switches.

D3 and D4 are reverse
biased and act as open
switches.
 4-4: Balanced Modulator

When the carrier polarity
+
+ -
-
reverses, D1 and D2 cut
- +- off and D3 and D4
conduct.
- +
- + 
Modulating signal at the
secondary of T1 is applied
to the primary of T2, but
- + this time the leads have
been effectively reversed
because of the connection
of D3 and D4.

The result is a 180 deg
phase reversal.
 4-4: Balanced Modulator
IC Balanced Modulators

The 1496/1596 IC is a versatile circuit available
for communication applications.

It can work at carrier frequencies up to 100 MHz.

It can achieve a carrier suppression of 50 to 65
dB.

The 1496/1596 IC can operate as a balanced
modulator or configured to perform as an
amplitude modulator, a product detector, or a
synchronous detector.
 4-4: Balanced Modulator
IC Balanced Modulators: Analog Multiplier

An analog multiplier is a type of integrated
circuit that can be used as a balanced modulator.

Analog multipliers are often used to generate
DSB signals.

The analog multiplier is not a switching circuit like
the balanced modulator.

The analog multiplier uses differential amplifiers
operating in the linear mode.

The carrier must be a sine wave and the multiplier
produces the true product of two analog inputs.
 4-5: SSB Circuits
Generating SSB Signals: The Filter Method

The filter method is the simplest and most
widely used method of generating SSB signals.

The modulating signal is applied to the audio
amplifier.

The amplifier’s output is fed to one input of a
balanced modulator.

A crystal oscillator provides the carrier signal
which is also applied to the balanced modulator.
 4-5: SSB Circuits
Generating SSB Signals: The Filter Method
 The output of the balanced modulator is a double-
sideband (DSB) signal.
 An SSB signal is produced by passing the DSB
signal through a highly selective bandpass filter.
 With the filter method, it is necessary to select
either the upper or the lower sideband.
 4-5: SSB Circuits

Figure 4-31 An SSB transmitter using the filter method.

 4-5: SSB Circuits
Generating SSB Signals: Phasing Method

The phasing method of SSB generation uses a
phase-shift technique that causes one of the
sidebands to be canceled out.

The phasing method uses two balanced modulators
which eliminate the carrier.

The carrier oscillator is applied to the upper
balanced modulator along with the modulating
signal.
 4-5: SSB Circuits
Generating SSB Signals: Phasing Method

The carrier and modulating signals are both
shifted in phase by 90 degrees and applied to
another balanced modulator.

Phase-shifting causes one sideband to be
canceled out when the two modulator outputs
are added together.
 4-5: SSB Circuits

Figure 4-33 An SSB generator using the phasing method.

 4-5: SSB Circuits
DSB and SSB Demodulation

To recover the intelligence in a DSB or SSB
signal, the carrier that was suppressed at the
receiver must be reinserted.

A product detector is a balanced modulator
used in a receiver to recover the modulating
signal.

Any balanced modulator can be used as a
product detector to demodulate SSB signals.
 4-5: SSB Circuits

Figure 4-38 A balanced modulator used as a product detector to demodulate an SSB

signal.
At this stage you should be able to:

Explain the relationship of the basic equation for an
Am signal to production of amplitude modulation,
mixing and frequency conversion by a diode or
other nonlinear frequency component or circuit.

Describe the operation of diode modulator circuits
and diode detector circuits.

Compare the advantages and disadvantages of
low and high level modulation.

Explain how the performance of a basic diode
detector is enhanced by using full-wave rectifier
circuit.
At this stage you should be able to:


Define synchronous detection and explain
the role of clippers in synchronous detector
circuits.

***State the function of balanced modulators
and describe the differences between lattice
and IC modulator circuits.***