SIT/ECE/2018-2019/L5/15UEC408

SETHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
(An ISO 9001:2000 Certified Institution) FS 70973
ISO 9001: 2000
FS 70973
ISO 9001: 2000
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

[ACCREDITED BY NBA, NEW DELHI]

15UEC408- COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LABORATORY

LAB MANUAL

IV SEMSETER ECE

Prepared by

Dr. C.S.KARTHIKEYAN
Mrs .P.DEEPA
Mrs. M.PANDIMADEVI

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SETHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

KARIAPATTI -626 115
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
FS 70973
[ACCREDITED BY NBA, NEW DELHI] ISO 9001: 2000

15UEC408- COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LABORATORY

LABORATORY MANUAL

IV SEMSETER ECE

Name of the student :

Roll number :

Class and section :

Dr. C.S.Karthikeyan
Asso. Prof/ECE
Mrs. P.Deepa
Prepared by
AP(SG)/ECE
Mrs. M.Pandimadevi
AP(SG)/ECE
Dr. M.Sheik Dawood
Reviewed by
Prof/ECE
Mrs.Helina Rajini Suresh
Approved by
HOD-ECE

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Institute Vision:
To promote excellence in technical education and scientific research for the
benefit of the society

Institute Mission
 To provide quality technical education to fulfill the aspiration of the
student and to meet the needs of the Industry.
 To provide holistic learning ambience.
 To impart skills leading to employability and entrepreneurship. To
establish effective linkage with industries.
 To promote Research and Development activities.
 To offer services for the development of society through education
and technology.
Department Vision
To produce competent Electronics and Communication Engineers,
to address the challenges of modern industries and promote research
with virtues contributing to social responsibility.

Department Mission
 Imparting quality technical education through the state of the art
infrastructure.
 Promoting research by both Faculty and Students
 Infusing the skills needed for employability and entrepreneurship
 Establishing linkages with industries and higher learning Institutions
 Providing services to the society

Programme Educational Objectives

 Possess strong technical knowledge to solve real world problems
 Demonstrate continual interest to learn new technologies to succeed in
core and related fields
 Exhibit leadership skills, work in teams and effectively employ
communication skills in their profession

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Programme Outcomes (Pos) :

a. Apply knowledge of Mathematics, Science, Engineering fundamentals to solve

complex Electronics and Communication Engineering problems. (Engineering
knowledge)
b. Identify, formulate and analyze complex Electronics and Communication
Engineering problems to achieve demonstrated conclusions using mathematical
principles and engineering sciences. (Problem Analysis)
c. Design solutions for complex engineering problems in the areas of VLSI and
Communication systems. (Design and Development of Solutions)
d. Conduct investigation of complex problems in the areas of VLSI and
Communication systems and provide valid conclusions. (Investigation of
Complex Problems)
e. Select and apply appropriate techniques and modern engineering tools for the
design of VLSI and communication systems. (Modern Engineering Tools)
f. Apply reasoning with appropriate knowledge to assess societal, health, safety,
legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
Electronics and Communication engineering practice. (Engineer and Society)
g. Examine the impact of Electronics and Communication engineering solutions in
societal and environmental contexts and utilize the knowledge for sustained
development. (Environment and Sustainability)
h. Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
as professionals in the field of engineering (Ethics)
i. Perform effectively as an individual and as a member or leader in
multidisciplinary teams. (Individual and Team Work)
j. Communicate on engineering activities with the engineering community and with
society at large through effective documentation, presentation and give and
receive clear instructions.(Communication)
k. Apply project management techniques and financial management concepts to
manage multidisciplinary projects. (Project Management and Finance)
l. Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and lifelong learning to follow developments in Electronics and
Communication Engineering. (Lifelong learning)

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15UEC408 COMMUNICATION SYSTEM LABORATORY L T P C

0 0 2 1

OBJECTIVES:
 To provide an overview of discrete time signals using simulation software
 To implement the various modulation and demodulation techniques.
 To demonstrate line coding

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Generation of standard and Continuous time and Discrete time signals

2. Verification of Sampling Theorem
3. Modulation and Demodulation of AM.
4. Modulation and Demodulation of FM.
5. Pulse Modulation
6. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
7. Pulse Code Modulation(Sampling and Quantization)
8. Delta Modulation/Adaptive Delta Modulation
9. Digital Modulation and Demodulation techniques-ASK,PSK and FSK(Hardware
and simulation)
10. Design of Quadrature Modulation techniques-QPSK and QAM using simulation
software
11. BER analysis of digital modulation schemes using simulation software
12. Line coding
TOTAL: 30 PERIODS

COURSE OUTCOMES:
After successful completion of this course the students will be able to:
 Choose and implement suitable digital modulation technique for given constraints
on data rate, bandwidth, power, fidelity, and complexity
 Analyze the performance of a digital communication link when additive noise is
present in terms of the signal to noise ratio and bit error rate
 Calculate the power and bandwidth requirements of modern communication
systems, including those employing ASK, PSK, FSK, and QAM modulation
formats
 Design and implement error control codes

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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

CYCLE-I

Generate the following Experiments using Hardware components

1. Modulation of AM and FM
2. Pulse Modulation
3. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
4. Modulation and Demodulation of ASK
5. Quadrature Modulation technique-QPSK & Line Coding

CYCLE-II

Generate the following Experiments using Simulation software

6. Generation of standard and Continuous time and Discrete time signals

7. Verification of Sampling Theorem
8. Phase Shift Keying and Frequency Shift Keying
9. BER analysis of digital modulation schemes
10. Delta Modulation/Adaptive Delta Modulation.

Contents beyond Syllabi:

 Direct Sequence Spread spectrum

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INDEX

EX. PAGE
DATE NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT MARK SIGN
No No

Average marks obtained:

FACULTY INCHARGE

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

AMPLITUDE MODULATION

FREQUENCY MODULATION

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AMPLITUDE AND FREQUENCY MODULATION

AIM:
1. To generate amplitude and frequency modulated wave and determine
percentage modulation and its spectrum.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.no Equipments Range Quantity

1. Resistor
2. Capacitor
3. NPN Transistor
4. Diode
6. Function generator
5. DC power supply
6. Bread board and
connecting wires

THEORY:
Modulation is the process by which some characteristic of a carrier is varied in
accordance with the modulating wave. A common form of carrier is a sinusoidal wave, in
which case we speak of a continuous wave modulation process. The base band signal is
referred to as modulating wave, and the result of modulation process is referred to as the
modulated wave. Modulation is performed at the transmitting end of the communication
system.
Here amplitude modulation is described in detail with an AM transmitter. In
amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the sinusoidal carrier wave is changed in
accordance with the message signal.
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Amplitude Modulation is defined as the process in which the amplitude of the
carrier wave c(t) is varied about a mean value, linearly with the base band signal m(t).
Consider a sinusoidal carrier wave c(t) defined by,
c(t) = Ac cos (2 *pi * Fc * t)

where Ac - Carrier Amplitude

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Fc - Carrier frequency

Design:
Amplitude Modulation:

Given data: VCC = 10V; IC=1mA; Stability factor = [10];

Assume hfe = 200; AVS = 50dB; IE = 1.2mA

Gain formula is given by,

AV = -hfeRLeff/Zi
(i) To calculate VCE:

Assuming,
VCE= VCC/2 (transistor active)
VCE =

(ii) To calculate VE:

Emitter resistance is given by re = 26mV/IE

hie = hfe re & VE = VCC/10 =

VE =
(iii) To calculate RC:

On applying KVL to output loop we get VCC = IC RC + VCE + IE RE ------- 1

W.K.T VE = IE RE = 1V; VCC=10 V; VCE=5V ; IC = 10mA

10 = (10*10-3*RC)+5+1
10-5-1 = (10*10-3*RC)
RC =
(iv) To calculate RE:

Since IB is very small when compared with IC

hence IC = IE RE = VE/IE =
RE =
(v) To calculate VB & RB:

VB = VBE + VE = VB =
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VB = VCC (R2/R1 + R2) ------2

Stability factor S = 1+(RB/RE)------ 3

W.K.T S =10 RE = 100Ω

Substitute the above value in equation -3 we get

10 = 1+ (RB/100)

(RB/100) = 9 => RB = RB =

(vi) To calculate R1 & R2 :

RB = R 1 ║ R 2

Using eq 2 we can find R1 & R2 value

VB = VCC (R2/R1 + R2)

Let m(t) denote the base band signal that carries the specification of the message. The
source of the carrier wave c(t) is physically independent of the message signal m(t). An
amplitude modulated signal can be represented, in its most general form, as a function of
time as follows:
S(t) = Ac [ 1 + Ka * m(t) ] * cos ( 2 * pi * Fc *t)
Where,Ka - constant called amplitude sensitivity
W.K.T VCC = 10V; VB = 1.7V;
We get 1.7 = 10 (R2/R1 + R2)

=> 1.7(R1 + R2) = 10R2

=> 1.7R1 + 1.7 R2 = 10R2
=> 1.7R1 = 10R2-1.7R2
=> R1 = (8.3R2/1.7)
Assume R2 = 10KΩ R2 =
Then R1 = R1 =

(vii) To select coupling capacitor CC:

The coupling capacitor CC is used to eliminate the dc
component present in the input and output signal.

Select CC1 = 0.1μF CC2 = 0.01μF

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DESIGN:
FM Modulator:
Frequency modulation is done by using VCO, The frequency of oscillation is
determined by an external resistor R1 and capacitor C1 and voltage VC applied to the control
terminal 5 as shown in figure 3.1. In this arrangement, the R1C1 combination determines the
free –running frequency and the control voltage VC at terminal 5 is set by the voltage divider
formed with R2 and R3. The initial voltage VC must be in the range

¾ (+V) ≤ VC ≤ +V
Where +V is the total supply voltage. The modulating signal is ac coupled with the capacitor
C and must be <3VPP. The frequency of the output waveform is approximated by

fO = 2(+V – VC)/ R1C1(+V)

Where R1 should be in the range of 2KΩ < R1 < 20KΩ.

Choose +V = 12V, R2 = 1.5KΩ, R1 = R3 = 10KΩ, C1 = 0.001μF

(i) To calculate VC:

VC = R2 R3/( R2+ R3) *(+V)

VC =

(ii) To calculate fo:

fo = 2(+V – VC)/ R1C1(+V)

fo ==

(iii) To select C2:

A small capacitor of C2 = 0.001μF should be connected between pins 5 and 6 to

eliminate possible oscillations in the control current source.

=  / fm

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The sidebands are separated from carrier by fm, 2fm,. etc. and their amplitude
keep on decreasing progressively.

PROCEDURE:
AM MODULATION:
1. + 10 volts d.c is given to the apparatus.
2. Connections are given as shown in the circuit diagram
3. Observe the output of the RF generator using the CRO
4. The waveform appears at the output is a sine wave
5. Set the carrier frequency to 3.2V,10KHz using function generator. Note the
period, frequency and amplitude of the sine wave.
6. Set the modulating signal frequency ie. 1KHz sine wave from audio
oscillator to input of modulator.
7. Connect oscilloscope to the modulator output and note down the maximum
and minimum voltages from the CRO.
8. Calculate the modulation index using the formula, modulation index.
%modulation = [E(max) – E(min)/E(max)+E(min)] *100
9. Keep changing the modulation index from 0.5 to 1.5 and observe the
waveform.

10. Set the carrier frequency to 3.2V,10KHz using function generator. Note the
period, frequency and amplitude of the sine wave.
11. Set the modulating signal frequency ie. 1KHz sine wave from audio
oscillator to input of modulator.
12. Connect oscilloscope to the modulator output and note down the maximum
and minimum voltages from the CRO.
13. Calculate the modulation index using the formula, modulation index.
%modulation = [E(max) – E(min)/E(max)+E(min)] *100
14. Keep changing the modulation index from 0.5 to 1.5 and observe the
waveform.

FM MODULATION:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Without signal applied, measure carrier signal at pin no.4 or 5 of IC 566.
4. Apply modulating AF signal at pin no.4 or 5 of IC566.
5. Calculate the modulation index, mf = δ/fm. Where δ = maximum
frequency deviation. fm = modulating frequency.

6. Calculate the bandwidth, BW = 2(fm + δ).

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MODEL GRAPH:

Amplitude Modulated waveform:

TABULATION:
MODULATION

TABULATION -AM
Message Signal Carrier Signal E Emin M=(Emax-Emin)/
Amplitude Frequency Amplitude Frequency max (V) (Emax+Emin)
(V) (Hz) (V) (Hz) (V)

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MODEL GRAPH-FM

TABULATION-FM
SIGNAL AMPLITUDE(V) TIME(ms)
Message Signal
Carrier Signal
Modulated Signal

Result:

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Define Modulation.
2. What is modulation index?
3. Differentiate under modulation & over modulation.
4. List the advantages of AM modulation.
5. What are the different AM modulations Techniques?

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
MODULATION:

DEMODULATION OF PAM:

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PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

AIM:
To generate the Pulse amplitude modulated and demodulated signals.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.no Equipments Range Quantity

1. CRO (0-20)MHz
Function Generator (0-1)
2.
MHz
4. Transistor BC107/2N2222
5 Resistor
7 Capacitor

THEORY:
Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) is a scheme, which alters the amplitude of
regularly spaced rectangular pulses in accordance with the instantaneous values of a
continuous message signal.
Then amplitude of the modulated pulses represents the amplitude of the intelligence.
A train of very short pulses of constant amplitude and fast repetition rate is chosen
the amplitude of these pulse is made to vary in accordance with that of a slower
modulating signal the result is that of multiplying the train by the modulating signal the
envelope of the pulse height corresponds to the modulating wave .the Pam wave contain
upper and lower side band frequencies .besides the modulating and pulse signals.
The demodulated PAM waves, the signal is passed through a low pass filter
having a cut –off frequencies equal to the highest frequency in the modulating signal. At
the output of the filter is available the modulating signal along with the DC component
PAM has the same signal to noise ratio as AM and so it is not employed in
practical circuits.

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MODEL GRAPH:
Message Signal

Carrier Signal

Modulated Signal

TABULATION
Carrier Signal Modulated Signal
Message Signal
/Sampling signal PAM
Amplitude Frequnecy Amplitude Frequnecy Amplitude Frequnecy
(Em in V) (fm in Hz) (Ec in V) (fc in Hz) (Ec in V) (fc in Hz)

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the given circuit diagram

2. Feed the modulating signal using AFO.
3. Observe the input and output waveforms using CRO.
4. The PAM modulator output will be a product of input analog signal and regularly
spaced pulse train.
5. Note the pulse width of PAM and by varying the pulse width potentiometer; record
the pulse width of PAM.

RESULT:

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant by Pulse Modulation?

2. Mention the types of Pulse modulation.
3. What do you mean by PAM?
4. Compare the types of PM.
5. Give some applications of PAM.
6. What is the frequency of the PAM waveform and check whether it is same as that
of message and carrier signal?

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PRE-EMPHASIS

DE-EMPHASIS

DESIGN:

Take fc = 3.386 KHz.

w.k.t fc = 1/(2πRC)

take R = 1 KΩ

C=

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PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS

AIM:
i) To observe the effects of pre-emphasis on given input signal.
ii) To observe the effects of De-emphasis on given input signal.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

SL.NO EQUIPMENT RANGE NOs.

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

THEORY:
Frequency modulation is much immune to noise than amplitude modulation and
significantly more immune than phase modulation. A single noise frequency will affect
the output of the receiver only if it falls with in its pass band.
The noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies than on lower
ones. Thus, if the higher frequencies were artificially boosted at the transmitter and
correspondingly cut at the receiver, improvement in noise immunity could be expected.
This booting of the higher frequencies, in accordance with a pre-arranged curve, is
termed pre-emphasis, and the compensation at the receiver is called de-emphasis.
If the two modulating signals have the same initial amplitude, and one of them is
pre-emphasized to (say) twice this amplitude, whereas the other is unaffected (being at a
much lower frequency) then the receiver will naturally have to de-emphasize the first
signal by a factor of 2, to ensure that both signals have the same amplitude in the output
of the receiver. Before demodulation, I.e. while susceptible to noise interference the
emphasized signal had twice the deviation it would have had without pre-emphasis, and
was thus more immune to noise. Alternatively, it is seen that when this signal is de-
emphasized any noise sideband voltages are de-emphasized with it, and therefore have
a correspondingly lower amplitude than they would have had without emphasis again
their effect on the output is reduced.

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TABULATION:
Pre-emphasis Vi =
Frequency V0 Gain (dB)

De-emphasis Vi =
Frequency V0 Gain (dB)

MODEL GRAPH:
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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram as shown in Fig.1.

2. Apply the sinusoidal signal of amplitude 20mV as input signal to pre emphasis
circuit.
3. Then by increasing the input signal frequency from 500Hz to 20KHz, observe
the output voltage (vo) and calculate gain (20 log (vo/vi).
4. Plot the graph between gain Vs frequency.
5. Repeat above steps 2 to 4 for de-emphasis circuit (shown in Fig.2). by
applying the Sinusoidal signal of 5V as input signal.

Result:

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1.What is the need for pre-emphasis?
2. Explain the operation of pre-emphasis circuit?
3. Pre emphasis operation is similar to high pass filter explain how?
4. De emphasis operation is similar to low pass filter justify?
5. What is de-emphasis?
6. Give the formula for the cutoff frequency of the pre-emphasis circuit?

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING

AIM:
To generate ASK modulated and demodulated signal.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO COMPONENT/EQUIPMENT RANGE QUANTITY

THEORY:
ASK or ON-OFF key is the simplest digital modulation technique. In this method there is
only one unit energy carrier it is switched ON/OFF depending upon the input binary
sequence to transmit symbol 0 & 1. No pulse is transmitted output contains some
complete no of cycle of carrier frequency. The disadvantage of ASK is the modulated
carrier signal is not continuously transmitted. The peak power requirement is also high.
The bit error probability rate is also not required in this technique.

PROCEDURE:
1. Make connections as shown in the diagram.
2. Set the message signal 500Hz and carrier signal 1KHz.
3. Obtain ASK signal
4. Measure the amplitude and frequency
5. Obtain the demodulated output.

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MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN

SIGNAL AMPLITUDE TIME PERIOD FREQUENCY

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Difference between Analog Modulation and Digital Modulation Techniques.
2. Define ASK ?
3. Why is ASK called as ON-OFF keying?
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of ASK?
5. Mention the applications of ASK?

RESULT:

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QPSK MODULATOR

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QPSK MODULATOR AND DEMODULATOR

AIM:
The objective of this experiment is to study the QPSK Modulator and demodulator using
clock ( binary) data.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED
1. VCT -29.
2. Two Channel 20MHz Oscilloscope.
3. Patch chords.
THEORY:
QPSK MODULATOR
Quaternary phase shift keying (QPSK), or quadrature PSK as it is sometimes
called, is another form of angle-modulated, constant-amplitude digital
modulation. QPSK is an M-ary encoding technique where M = 4 (hence, the
name “quaternary,” meaning “4" ). With QPSK four output phases are possible for a
single carrier frequency. Because there are four different output phases, there must be
four different input conditions. Because the digital input to a QPSK modulator is a binary
(base 2) signal, to produce four different input conditions, it takes more than a single
input bit. With two bits, there are four possible conditions: 00, 01, 10 and 11. Therefore,
with QPSK, the binary input data are combined into groups of two bits called dibits. Each
dibit code generates one of the four possible output phases. Therefore, for each two - bit
dibit clocked into the modulator, a single output change occurs. Therefore, the rate of
change at the output (baud rate ) is onehalf of the input bit rate.
A block diagram of QPSK modulator is shown in above Figure. Two bits (a
dibit) are clocked into the bit splitter. After both bits have been serially inputted, they are
simultaneously parallel outputted. One bit is directed to the I channel and the other to the
Q channel. The 1- bit modulates a carrier that is in phase with the reference oscillator
(hence, the name “I” for “in phase” channel), and the Q bit modulates a carrier that is 90°
out of phase or in quadrature with the reference carrier (hence, the name “Q” for
“quadrature” channel).

QPSK DEMODULATOR
The block diagram of a QPSK receiver is shown in Figure. The input QPSK
signal given to the I and Q product detectors and the carrier recovery circuit. The carrier
recovery circuit reproduces the original transmit carrier oscillator signal. The recovered
carrier must be frequency and phase coherent with the transmit reference carrier. The
QPSK signal is demodulated in the I and Q

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POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Mention the types of PSK techniques?
2. What is QPSK?
3. What is signal space constellation diagram?
4. Compare QPSK with BPSK.
5. Mention the applications of QPSK?

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product detectors, which generate the original I and Q data bits. The output of the
product detectors are fed to the bit combining circuit, where they are converted from
parallel I and Q data channels to a single binary output data stream.

PROCEDURE
MODULATOR:
1. Switch ON the power supply.
2. Check binary data I (P5), II (P6), sine wave, and cosine waveform’s.
3. Connect the binary input point P5 to the I - Channel input point of P9.
4. Connect the binary input point P6 to the Q - Channel input point of P10.
5. Connect the sine wave input (P3 point) to the P11 points of balanced Modulator
as a carrier signal (I - Channel) and to cosine wave input (P4 point) to the P13 point of
balanced modulator as a carrier signal (Q - Channel).
6. Display binary input data on CRO (P12 point) and adjust potentiometers POT1 to
convert the unipolar data into bipolar.Similarly adjust the potentiometer POT -3 to
convert the unipolar binary data into bipolar data for Q - Channel at the test point P14.
7. Display the test point P15 and P16 on channel 1 and Channel 2 of CRO respectively.
Now adjust the gain control potentiometers (POT- 5 & pp POT- 6) to set equal amplitude
(2V ) in I- Channel and Q - Channel.
8. Connect the test point P15 to P17 and P16 to P18 with the help of patch chords.
pp 9. Finally view the QPSK output waveform at test point (P19) [5V set the amplitude
level of QPSK using gain control potentiometer (POT-7)]

DEMODULATOR:
1. Connect the QPSK output to the input of QPSK demodulator.
2. Check I and Q channel filter output.
3. Now, properly adjust POT - 8 comparing with I - Channel input (P9)
and I - Channel output (P25).
4. Now, properly adjust POT - 9 comparing with Q - Channel input (P10)
and Q - Channel output (P27).
5. Once again compare I & Q Channel input and output.
6. If there is any change once again fine tune POT-7 and POT-8.
7. If the final output we will get 1-bit delay in compare with input.

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RESULT:

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ENCODING FORMATS:

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LINE CODING AND DECODING TECHNIQUES
AIM :
To study different line coding techniques.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
a. VCT - 37.
b. 20MHz oscilloscope.
c. Patch chords.
THEORY:
We need to represent PCM binary digits by electrical pulses in order to transmit
them through a base band channel.
The most commonly used PCM popular data formats are being realized here.
Line coding refers to the process of representing the bit stream (1‟s and 0‟s) in the
form of voltage or current variations optimally tuned for the specific properties of the
physical channel being used. The selection of a proper line code can help in so many
ways: One possibility is to aid in clock recovery at the receiver. A clock signal is
recovered by observing transitions in the received bit sequence, and if enough
transitions exist, a good recovery of the clock is guaranteed, and the signal is said to be
self-clocking.

Another advantage is to get rid of DC shifts. The DC component in a line code is

called the bias or the DC coefficient. Unfortunately, most long-distance communication
channels cannot transport a DC component. This is why most line codes try to eliminate
the DC component before being transmitted on the channel.Such codes are called DC
balanced, zero-DC, zero-bias.

Unipolar RZ
In this line code, a binary ‘ 1' is represented by a non-zero voltage level during a portion
of the bit duration, usually for half of the bit period, and a zero voltage level for rest of the
bit duration.
A binary ‘0' is represented by a zero voltage level during the entire bit duration.
The main advantage of unipolar RZ are case of generation requires single power supply
and which allows simple timing recovery. A number of disadvantages exists for this line
code. It has a non-zero DC component and non-zero DC content, which can load to DC
wander. A long string of ‘0's will back pulse transition and could load to loss of
synchronization. There is no error detection capability. The bandwidth requirement is
also higher than non-return to zero signal.

Polar RZ
In this scheme, a binary ‘1' is represented by alternating positive voltage levels,
which return to zero for a portion of the bit duration, generally half the bit period. A binary
‘0's is represented by a negative voltage levels and return to zero for half bit duration.

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This code has no DC component and zero DC content, completely avoiding +ve
DC wander problem. Timing recovery is rather easy by squaring, or full-wave rectifying. It
requires low bandwidth. The obvious disadvantage is that the error rate performance is
worst. A long string of 0's or 1's could not appear and so improves in synchronization,
and two power supplies are required for this code.

Polar NRZ
In this line code, a binary 1 is represented by a positive voltage +v and a binary 0
is represented by a negative voltage -v over the full bit period. This code is also referred
to as NRZ(L), since a bit is represented by maintaining a level during its entire period.
This code can also be represented by assigning negative voltage for logic 1 and positive
voltage for logic 0.
The advantage of polar NRZ includes a low-bandwidth requirements, very good
error probability, and great reduced DC because the waveform has a zero DC
component. A major disadvantage of this code that there is no error detection capability
and that a long string of 1's or 0's could result in loss of synchronization and power
supplies are required to generate this code.

Bipolar NRZ:
In this scheme, a binary ‘1' is represented by positive and negative voltage levels
in alternating mark level in full bit period. A binary ‘0' is represented by a zero voltage
levels during entire bit duration. This code also called as alternate mark inversion (AMI)
since 1's are represented by alternating positive and negative pulses.
This code has no DC component and zero DC content, completely avoiding the
DC wander problem. Because of the alternative polarity pulses for binary 1's, this code
has error detection and hence correction also possible. A long string of 0's could result in
loss of synchronization, and two power supplies are required for this code.

Bipolar RZ
In this scheme, a binary ‘1' is represented by alternating positive and negative
voltage a levels for a half bit period duration and maintaining zero for other of period. A
binary ‘0' is represented by a zero voltage levels during entire bit duration. This code
also called as AMI. This code has no DC component and zero DC Conant, completely
avoiding the DC wander problem. Because of alternative polarity pulses for binary 1's,
this code has error detection and hence correction also possible. A long string of 0's
could result in loss of synchronization, and two process supplier and required for this
code.

Manchester Coding
In this scheme, a binary 1 is represented by a pulse that has positive voltage
during the first-half of the bit duration and negative voltage during second-half of the bit
duration. A binary ‘0' is represented by a pulse that has negative voltage during first-half
of the bit duration and positive voltage during second-half of the bit duration.
The advantage of this code includes a zero DC content and so avoiding DC-
wandering problems. The code having alternation positive and negative pulses and so

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timing recovery is simple and it has good error rate performance. The main disadvantage
of this scheme is larger bandwidth. It has no error detection possibility.

PROCEDURE:
UNIPOLAR RZ ENCODING & DECODING
1. Connect the PRBS (test point P5) to test point P7.
2. Connect test point P8 to P18.
3. Set the SW1 in Rz position.
4. Set the potentiometer P1 in minimum position.
5. Switch ON the power supply.
6. Press switch SW2 once.
7. Display the encoded signal at test point P8 on one channel of CRO and decoded
signal at test point P20 on second channel of CRO.

UNIPOLAR NRZ ENCODING & DECODING.

1. Connect the PRBS (P3) to P7 point.
2. Connect test point P8 to P18.
3. Set switch SW1 in NRZ position.
4. Set the potentiometer P1 in minimum position.
5. Switch ON the power supply.
6. Press switch SW2 once.
7. Display the encoded signal at test point P8 on channel 1 and decoded signal at test
point P20 on second channel of CRO.

POLAR RZ ENCODING & DECODING.

1. Connect the PRBS (P8) to P9 point and PRBS (P6) points to test point P10..
2. Connect the test point P11 to P21.
3. Set the switch SW1 in RZ position.
4. Set the potentiometer P1 in minimum position.
5. Switch ON the power supply.
6. Press the switch SW2 once.
7. Display the encoded signal at test point P11 on channel 1 and decoded signal at test
point P22 on channel 2 of CRO.

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KIT DIAGRAM

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POLAR NRZ ENCODING & DECODING.

1. Connect the PRBS (test point P8) to P9 point and PRBS to P10.
2. Connect point P11 to P23.
3. Set the switch SW1 in NRZ position.
4. Set the potentiometer P2 in minimum position.
5. Switch ON the power supply.
6. Press the switch SW2 once.
7. Display the encoded signal at test point P11 on channel 1 and decoded signal at test
point P24 on channel 2 of CRO.

BIPOLAR RZ ENCODING & DECODING.

1. Connect the PRBS to P12 point and CLK (test point P3) to P13 point.
2. Connect point P14 to P25.
3. Set the switch SW1 in RZ position.
4. Set the potentiometer P1 in minimum position.
5. Switch ON the power supply.
6. Press the switch SW2 once.
7. Display the encoded signal at test point P14 on channel 1 and decoded signal at test
point
P27 on channel 2 of CRO.

BIOPOLAR NRZ ENCODING & DECODING.

i. Connect the PRBS to P12 point and CLK (P3) to P13 point.
ii. Connect the test point P14 to P28.
iii. Set the switch SW1 in NRZ position.
iv. Set the potentiometer P1 in minimum position.
v. Switch ON the power supply.
vi. Press the switch SW2 once.
vii. Display the encoded signal at test point P14 on channel 1 and decoded signal at test
point P29 on channel 2 of CRO.

MANCHESTER ENCODING AND DECODING.

i. Connect the PRBs to P15 point and CLK (P3) to P16 point.
ii. Connect the test point P17 to P30.
iii. Set the potentiometer P1 in minimum position.
iv. Switch ON the power supply.
v. Press the switch SW2 once.
vi. Display the encoded signal at test point P17 on channel 1 and decodes signal at test
point P31 on channel 2 of CRO.

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POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. What is line coding?
2. What is NRZ Coding?
3. What is URZ?
4. What are the drawbacks of NRZ Coding? And Which one is best? NRZ or URZ?
5. What is Manchester Coding?

RESULT

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PROGRAM:

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GENERATION OF STANDARD AND CONTINUOUS TIME

SIGNALS

OBJECTIVE:

To simulate Continuous time signals using MATLAB.

a) Plot the following Continuous time signal using MATLAB

Unit Impulse, Unit Step, Unit Ramp, Exponential. Sinusoid, cosine.
b) A continous time sequence is given below x (t )  r (t )
t
Sketch x(t ) , x(t  2) , x(t  2) , x(2  t ) , x (2t ) , x ( )
2

EQUIPMENTS AND ACCESSORIES REQUIRED:

Pentium 4 Processor, MATLAB R2009A (Version 7.8)

Theory:
Unit impulse signal. 1 t 0
 (t )  
 0
t 0
Unit step signal. 1 t0
u (t )  
 0
t0
Unit ramp signal. t t0
r (t )  
 0
t0

Sinusoidal signal x(t )  A sin(t   ) .


Cosine signal x(t )  A cos(t   )

Exponential signal x(t )  Ae at where A and a are constant


ALGORITHM:

1. Generate the desired continuous signal using suitable Library functions.

2. Plot the signal
3. Specify the label to the axes.
4. Give titles to all the signals.

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Result:

Thus the given Continuous time signals are generated using simulation software.

Review Questions
1. Generate the signal x t   u  t   u  t  10 using MATLAB.
2. Simulate cosine signal for 50Hz.
3. Try to sketch the signal x(t 2  2) .
4. Write a MATLAB program to generate x t   10 cos 2t   cos 2t  .
5. Generate square wave and sawtooth wave using MATLAB.

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PROGRAM:

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GENERATION OF STANDARD AND DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS

OBJECTIVE:

To simulate discrete time signals using MATLAB.

a) Plot the following discrete time sequences using MATLAB

Unit Impulse, Unit Step, Unit Ramp, Exponential,
b) Simulate a sinusoid comprising of 10 sample with discrete frequency 0.1. Observe
the number of samples. Change the number of samples to 50 and observe the
number of cycle.
 1 1
c) A discrete time sequence is given below x (n)  2,2,2,2,1,1, , 
 2 2
n
Sketch x (n) , x (n  2) , x(n  2) , x (2  n) , x ( 2n) , x( )
2

EQUIPMENTS AND ACCESSORIES REQUIRED:

MATLAB R2009A (Version 7.8)

Theory:
Unit impulse sequence.   n    1 n0

 0
n0
Unit step sequence. u  n    1 n0

 0
n0
Unit ramp sequence. r  n    n n0

 0
n0
Sinusoidal sequence. x n  A sin(n   ) .

Cosine sequence. x n  A cos(n   ) .

Exponential sequence. x(n)  Ae an , where A and a are constant


ALGORITHM:

1. Generate the desired discrete time signal using suitable Library functions.
2. Plot the signal.
3. Specify the label to the axes.
4. Give titles to all the signals.

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PROGRAM:

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GENERATION OF PSK USING MATLAB

AIM:
To write a program in MATLAB for design of PSK.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Software MATLAB7.0.

ALGORITHM:

 The binary sequence is taken as input into a variable.

 The carrier signal with required frequency is selected.
 The required carrier wave is generated.
 The analog signal is combined with the generated carrier signal.
 The required PSK signal is generated.

RESULT:

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant by PSK ?
2. Differentiate PSK and ASK.?
3. What are the types of PSK?
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of PSK?
5. Mention the applications of PSK?

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PROGRAM:

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GENERATION OF FSK USING MATLAB

AIM:
To write a program in MATLAB for design of FSK.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Software MATLAB7.0.

ALGORITHM:
 The binary sequence is taken as input into a variable.
 The carrier signal with required frequency is selected.
 The required carrier wave is generated.
 The analog signal is combined with the generated carrier signal.
 The required FSK signal is generated.

RESULT:

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant by FSK ?
2. Compare ASK, PSK and FSK.?
3. What are the variations in the waveforms of PSK with FSK?
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of FSK?
5. Mention the applications of FSK?

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PROGRAM:

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DELTA MODULATION USING MATLAB

AIM:
To write a program in MATLAB for design of DELTA MODULATION.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Software MATLAB7.0.

THEORY:
Delta Modulation is a technique used to convert analog to digital and vice versa.
This is used for voice transmission. It is a modulation technique which is used for
transmission of voice information where quality is not of much importance. It is one of the
simplest form of differential Pulse Code Modulation.

Characteristic of Delta Modulation:

     1.  Series of segments is used to approximate the analog signal.
     2.  Segment of the approximated signal is compared to the original analog signal to
determine the change  in relative amplitude.
     3.  The above process help us in establishing the state of successive bits(0 or 1).

ALGORITHM:
 The input signal is generated.
 Give the length of the input signal.
 The approximated or quantized signal is generated.
 Find the difference between original signal and approximated signal
 If error is greater than 0, equate to +delta-min. else equate to -delta-min
 if two previous outputs are equal, scale step size. otherwise equate output to min
step size. calculate approximation signal
 encode the output as a binary signal

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POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant by Delta Modulation?

2. What are the advantages of Delta Modulation compared to Pulse Code Modulation?
3. What is Slope Overload?
4. What is Granular Noise?
5. What are the drawbacks of Delta Modulation?

RESULT:

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BER ANALYSIS of BPSK modulation USING MATLAB

AIM:
To simulate bit error rate performance of BPSK modulation using Matlab.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Software MATLAB7.0.

Theory :

BER -Bit Error Rate

In digital transmission, the number of bit errors is the number of received bits of a
data stream over a communication channel that have been altered due to noise,
interference, distortion or bit synchronization errors.The bit error rate or bit error ratio
(BER) is the number of bit errors divided by the total number of transferred bits during a
studied time interval. BER is a unitless performance measure, often expressed as a
percentage.In a communication system, the receiver side BER may be affected by
transmission channel noise, interference, distortion, bit synchronization problems,
attenuation, wireless multipath fading, etc.
The BER may be analyzed using stochastic computer simulations. If a simple
transmission channel model and data source model is assumed, the BER may also be
calculated using Binary symmetric channel (used in analysis of decoding error probability
in case of non-bursty bit errors on the transmission channel) and Additive white gaussian
noise (AWGN) channel without fading.

Algorithm
Initialization commands
1. Generate the input data randomly
2. Implement differential encoding
3. Do BPSK modulation
4. Add AWGN noise
5. Calculate the no of bits in error
6. Plot the BER graph

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PROGRAM:

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POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant by Bit error Rate?

2. How BER is analyzed?
3. What do you mean by BPSK?
4. Why AWG Noise added to the BER analysis?
5. What is meant by AWGN ?

RESULT:

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DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM

AIM: To implement Direct sequence spread spectrum in MATLAB

APARATUS: PC loaded with MATLAB

Theory:
Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is a modulation technique. As
with other spread spectrum technologies, the transmitted signal takes up more
bandwidth than the information signal that is being modulated. The name 'spread
spectrum' comes from the fact that the carrier signals occur over the full bandwidth
(spectrum) of a device's transmitting frequency.
Direct-sequence spread-spectrum transmissions multiply the data being transmitted by a
"noise" signal. This noise signal is a pseudorandom sequence of 1 and −1values, at a
frequency much higher than that of the original signal, thereby spreading the energy of
the original signal into a much wider band.
The resulting signal resembles white noise, like an audio recording of "static". However,
this noise-like signal can be used to exactly reconstruct the original data at the receiving
end, by multiplying it by the same pseudorandom sequence (because 1 × 1 = 1, and −1
× −1 = 1). This process, known as "de-spreading", mathematically constitutes a
correlation of the transmitted PN sequence with the PN sequence that the receiver
believes the transmitter is using.

Procedure:
1. Run MATLAB
2. Open a new script file
3. Write the code for Direct sequence spread spectrum technique.
4. Run the code for execution and obtain the necessary results

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PROGRAM:

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POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. What do meant by Spread Spectrum techniques?

2. How spread spectrum is classified?
3. What do you mean by Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum?
4. Compare DSSS and FHSS?
5. Mention the advantages of DSSS ?

RESULT:

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MATLAB® INTRODUCTION

MATLAB® is a programming language and numerical computing

environment.
The name MATLAB® is an acronym for “Matrix Laboratory”. As it name suggests it
allows easy manipulation of matrix and vectors. Plotting functions and data is made easy
with MATLAB®. It has a good Graphic User Interface and conversion of matlab files to
C/C++ is possible. It has several toolboxes that possess specific functions for specific
applications. For example Image Processing, Neural Networks, CDMA toolboxes are
name a few. An additional package, Simulink, adds graphical multidomain simulation and
Model-Based Design for dynamic and embedded systems. Simulink contains Blocksets
that is analogous to Toolboxes.It was created by Mathworks Incorporation, USA.
MATLAB® has become a defacto programming language for Engineers.
Writing MATLAB programs for modulation applications require knowledge on very few
functions and operators. The operators mostly used are arithmetic operators and matrix
operators. To know more type in the command prompt ‘help ops’. MATLAB will give a list
in that to know on specific operator say addition type in the command prompt ‘help plus’.
MATLAB will give how to use and other relevant information. Commonly used graphical
functions are plot, figure, subplot, title, and mathematical functions are sin and cos only.
The mathematical functions sin and cos are self explanatory. The graphical function
figure will create a new window and then subsequent graphical commands can be
applied. The plot function usually takes two vectors and plot data points according to
given vector data. In this case it will time Vs signal. Subplot function is used when two or
more plots are drawn on the same figure. As title function suggests it helps to write title
of the graph in the figure. For further details type ‘help plot’ or ‘help subplot’ in the
command prompt and learn the syntax.

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ANNEXURE
MATLAB-LIBRARY FUNCTIONS
Clc Clear command window.
clc clears the command window and homes the cursor.

Clear Clear variables and functions from memory.

clear removes all variables from the workspace.

Close Close figure.

close(H) closes the window with handle H. close, by itself, closes the current figure
window.

ONES ONES(N) is an N-by-N matrix of ones.

ONES(M,N) or ONES([M,N]) is an M-by-N matrix of ones.

ZEROS ZEROS (N) is an N-by-N matrix of Zeros.

ZEROS (M,N) or ZEROS([M,N]) is an M-by-N matrix of zeros

SIN Sine of argument in radians. sin(X) is the sine of the elements of X.

COS Cosine of argument in radians. cos(X) is the cosine of the elements of X.

plot Linear plot.

plot(X,Y) plots vector Y versus vector X. If X or Y is a matrix, then the vector is plotted
versus the rows or columns of the matrix, whichever line up.

Subplot Create axes in tiled positions.

H = subplot(m,n,p), or subplot(mnp), breaks the Figure window into an m-by-n matrix
of small axes, selects the p-th axes for the current plot, and returns the axes handle.

stem Discrete sequence or "stem" plot.

stem(X,Y) plots the data sequence Y at the values specified in X.

xlabel X-axis label. xlabel('text') adds text beside the X-axis on the current axis.

ylabel Y-axis label. ylabel('text') adds text beside the Y-axis on the current axis.

title Graph title. title('text') adds text at the top of the current axis.

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