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Space-based solar power

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NASA Integrated Symmetrical Concentrator SPS concept

Space-based solar power (SBSP) is the concept of collecting solar power in outer


space and distributing it to Earth. Potential advantages of collecting solar energy in
space include a higher collection rate and a longer collection period due to the lack of a
diffusing atmosphere, and the possibility of placing a solar collector in an orbiting
location where there is no night. A considerable fraction of incoming solar energy (55–
60%) is lost on its way through the Earth's atmosphere by the effects of reflection and
absorption. Space-based solar power systems convert sunlight to microwaves outside
the atmosphere, avoiding these losses and the downtime due to the Earth's rotation, but
at great cost due to the expense of launching material into orbit. SBSP is considered a
form of sustainable or green energy, renewable energy, and is occasionally considered
among climate engineering proposals. It is attractive to those seeking large-scale
solutions to anthropogenic climate change or fossil fuel depletion (such as peak oil).
Various SBSP proposals have been researched since the early 1970s, [1][2] but none are
economically viable with present-day space launch infrastructure. Some technologists
speculate that this may change in the distant future if an off-world industrial base were
to be developed that could manufacture solar power satellites out of asteroids or lunar
material, or if radical new space launch technologies other than rocketry should become
available in the future.
Besides the cost of implementing such a system, SBSP also introduces several
technological hurdles, including the problem of transmitting energy from orbit to Earth's
surface for use. Since wires extending from Earth's surface to an orbiting satellite are
neither practical nor feasible with current technology, SBSP designs generally include
the use of some manner of wireless power transmission with its concomitant conversion
inefficiencies, as well as land use concerns for the necessary antenna stations to
receive the energy at Earth's surface. The collecting satellite would convert solar energy
into electrical energy on board, powering a microwave transmitter or laser emitter, and
transmit this energy to a collector (or microwave rectenna) on Earth's surface. Contrary
to appearances of SBSP in popular novels and video games, most designs propose
beam energy densities that are not harmful if human beings were to be inadvertently
exposed, such as if a transmitting satellite's beam were to wander off-course. But the
vast size of the receiving antennas that would be necessary would still require large
blocks of land near the end users to be procured and dedicated to this purpose. The
service life of space-based collectors in the face of challenges from long-term exposure
to the space environment, including degradation
from radiation and micrometeoroid damage, could also become a concern for SBSP.
SBSP is being actively pursued by Japan, China,[3] Russia, the United Kingdom [4] and
the US. In 2008, Japan passed its Basic Space Law which established space solar
power as a national goal[5] and JAXA has a roadmap to commercial SBSP. In 2015,
the China Academy for Space Technology (CAST) showcased their roadmap at the
International Space Development Conference. In May 2020 the US Naval Research
Laboratory conducted its first test of solar power generation in a satellite.

Contents

 1History
o 1.1Satellite Power System Concept Development and
Evaluation Program
 1.1.1Discontinuation
o 1.2Space Solar Power Exploratory Research and
Technology program
o 1.3Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
 2Advantages and disadvantages
o 2.1Advantages
o 2.2Disadvantages
 3Design
o 3.1Microwave power transmission
o 3.2Laser power beaming
o 3.3Orbital location
o 3.4Earth-based receiver
o 3.5In space applications
 4Launch costs
 5Building from space
o 5.1From lunar materials launched in orbit
o 5.2On the Moon
o 5.3From an asteroid
o 5.4Gallery
 6Safety
 7Timeline
o 7.1In the 20th century
o 7.2In the 21st century
 8Non-typical configurations and architectural considerations
 9In fiction
 10See also
 11References
 12External links
 13Videos

History[edit]

A laser pilot beam guides the microwave power transmission to a rectenna

In 1941, science fiction writer Isaac Asimov published the science fiction short story
"Reason", in which a space station transmits energy collected from the Sun to various
planets using microwave beams. The SBSP concept, originally known as satellite solar-
power system (SSPS), was first described in November 1968. [6] In 1973 Peter
Glaser was granted U.S. patent number 3,781,647 for his method of transmitting power
over long distances (e.g. from an SPS to Earth's surface) using microwaves from a very
large antenna (up to one square kilometer) on the satellite to a much larger one, now
known as a rectenna, on the ground.[7]
Glaser then was a vice president at Arthur D. Little, Inc. NASA signed a contract with
ADL to lead four other companies in a broader study in 1974. They found that, while the
concept had several major problems – chiefly the expense of putting the required
materials in orbit and the lack of experience on projects of this scale in space – it
showed enough promise to merit further investigation and research. [8]
Satellite Power System Concept Development and Evaluation
Program[edit]
Between 1978 and 1986, the Congress authorized the Department of Energy (DoE)
and NASA to jointly investigate the concept. They organized the Satellite Power System
Concept Development and Evaluation Program.[9][10] The study remains the most
extensive performed to date (budget $50 million). [11] Several reports were published
investigating the engineering feasibility of such an engineering project. They include:
Artist's concept of a solar power satellite in place. Shown is the assembly of a microwave transmission
antenna. The solar power satellite was to be located in a geosynchronous orbit, 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi)
above the Earth's surface. NASA 1976

 Resource Requirements (Critical Materials, Energy,


and Land)[12]
 Financial/Management Scenarios[13][14]
 Public Acceptance[15]
 State and Local Regulations as Applied to Satellite
Power System Microwave Receiving Antenna
Facilities[16]
 Student Participation[17]
 Potential of Laser for SBSP Power Transmission [18]
 International Agreements[19][20]
 Centralization/Decentralization[21]
 Mapping of Exclusion Areas For Rectenna Sites[22]
 Economic and Demographic Issues Related to
Deployment[23]
 Some Questions and Answers[24]
 Meteorological Effects on Laser Beam Propagation
and Direct Solar Pumped Lasers[25]
 Public Outreach Experiment[26]
 Power Transmission and Reception Technical
Summary and Assessment[27]
 Space Transportation[28]
Discontinuation[edit]
The project was not continued with the change in administrations after the 1980 US
Federal elections. The Office of Technology Assessment concluded that "Too little is
currently known about the technical, economic, and environmental aspects of SPS to
make a sound decision whether to proceed with its development and deployment. In
addition, without further research an SPS demonstration or systems-engineering
verification program would be a high-risk venture." [29]
In 1997, NASA conducted its "Fresh Look" study to examine the modern state of SBSP
feasibility. In assessing "What has changed" since the DOE study, NASA asserted that
the "US National Space Policy now calls for NASA to make significant investments in
technology (not a particular vehicle) to drive the costs of ETO [Earth to
Orbit] transportation down dramatically. This is, of course, an absolute requirement of
space solar power."[30]
Conversely, Pete Worden of NASA claimed that space-based solar is about five orders
of magnitude more expensive than solar power from the Arizona desert, with a major
cost being the transportation of materials to orbit. Worden referred to possible solutions
as speculative, and which would not be available for decades at the earliest. [31]
On November 2, 2012, China proposed space collaboration with India that mentioned
SBSP, "may be Space-based Solar Power initiative so that both India and China can
work for long term association with proper funding along with other willing space faring
nations to bring space solar power to earth." [32]
In February 2019, China (CAST) announced long-term plans to build power satellites. [33]
Space Solar Power Exploratory Research and Technology
program[edit]
Main article: Space Solar Power Exploratory Research and Technology program

SERT Integrated Symmetrical Concentrator SPS concept.NASA

In 1999, NASA's Space Solar Power Exploratory Research and Technology program
(SERT) was initiated for the following purposes:

 Perform design studies of selected flight


demonstration concepts.
 Evaluate studies of the general feasibility, design,
and requirements.
 Create conceptual designs of subsystems that make
use of advanced SSP technologies to benefit future
space or terrestrial applications.
 Formulate a preliminary plan of action for the U.S.
(working with international partners) to undertake an
aggressive technology initiative.
 Construct technology development and
demonstration roadmaps for critical space solar
power (SSP) elements.
SERT went about developing a solar power satellite (SPS) concept for a
future gigawatt space power system, to provide electrical power by converting the Sun's
energy and beaming it to Earth's surface, and provided a conceptual development path
that would utilize current technologies. SERT proposed
an inflatable photovoltaic gossamer structure with concentrator lenses or solar heat
engines to convert sunlight into electricity. The program looked both at systems in sun-
synchronous orbit and geosynchronous orbit. Some of SERT's conclusions:

 The increasing global energy demand is likely to


continue for many decades resulting in new power
plants of all sizes being built.
 The environmental impact of those plants and their
impact on world energy supplies and geopolitical
relationships can be problematic.
 Renewable energy is a compelling approach, both
philosophically and in engineering terms.
 Many renewable energy sources are limited in their
ability to affordably provide the base load power
required for global industrial development and
prosperity, because of inherent land and water
requirements.
 Based on their Concept Definition Study, space
solar power concepts may be ready to reenter the
discussion.
 Solar power satellites should no longer be
envisioned as requiring unimaginably large initial
investments in fixed infrastructure before the
emplacement of productive power plants can begin.
 Space solar power systems appear to possess
many significant environmental advantages when
compared to alternative approaches.
 The economic viability of space solar power systems
depends on many factors and the successful
development of various new technologies (not least
of which is the availability of much lower cost access
to space than has been available); however, the
same can be said of many other advanced power
technologies options.
 Space solar power may well emerge as a serious
candidate among the options for meeting the energy
demands of the 21st century.[34]
 Launch costs in the range of $100–$200 per
kilogram of payload from low Earth
orbit to Geosynchronous orbit are needed if SPS is
to be economically viable.[11]
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency[edit]
The May 2014 IEEE Spectrum magazine carried a lengthy article "It's Always Sunny in
Space" by Susumu Sasaki.[35] The article stated, "It's been the subject of many previous
studies and the stuff of sci-fi for decades, but space-based solar power could at last
become a reality—and within 25 years, according to a proposal from researchers at
the Tokyo-based Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)."
JAXA announced on 12 March 2015 that they wirelessly beamed 1.8 kilowatts 50
meters to a small receiver by converting electricity to microwaves and then back to
electricity. This is the standard plan for this type of power. [36][37] On 12 March 2015
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries demonstrated transmission of 10 kilowatts (kW) of power to
a receiver unit located at a distance of 500 meters (m) away. [38]

Advantages and disadvantages[edit]


Advantages[edit]
The SBSP concept is attractive because space has several major advantages over the
Earth's surface for the collection of solar power:

 It is always solar noon in space and full sun.


 Collecting surfaces could receive much more
intense sunlight, owing to the lack of obstructions
such as atmospheric gasses, clouds, dust and other
weather events. Consequently, the intensity in orbit
is approximately 144% of the maximum attainable
intensity on Earth's surface.[citation needed]
 A satellite could be illuminated over 99% of the time,
and be in Earth's shadow a maximum of only 72
minutes per night at the spring and fall equinoxes at
local midnight.[39] Orbiting satellites can be exposed
to a consistently high degree of solar radiation,
generally for 24 hours per day, whereas earth
surface solar panels currently collect power for an
average of 29% of the day.[40]
 Power could be relatively quickly redirected directly
to areas that need it most. A collecting satellite could
possibly direct power on demand to different surface
locations based on geographical baseload or peak
load power needs.
 Reduced plant and wildlife interference.
Disadvantages[edit]
The SBSP concept also has a number of problems:

 The large cost of launching a satellite into space.


For 6.5 kg/kW, the cost to place a power satellite in
GEO cannot exceed $200/kg if the power cost is to
be competitive.
 Microwave optic requires GW scale due to Airy
disk beam spreading. Typically a 1 km transmitting
disk at 2.45 GHz spreads out to 10 km at Earth
distance.
 Inability to constrain power transmission inside tiny
beam angles. For example, a beam of 0.002
degrees (7.2 arc seconds) is required to stay within
a one kilometer receiving antenna target from
geostationary altitude. The most advanced
directional wireless power transfer systems as of
2019 spread their half power beam width across at
least 0.9 arc degrees.[41][42][43][44]
 Inaccessibility: Maintenance of an earth-based solar
panel is relatively simple, but construction and
maintenance on a solar panel in space would
typically be done telerobotically. In addition to cost,
astronauts working in GEO (geosynchronous Earth
orbit) are exposed to unacceptably high radiation
dangers and risk and cost about one thousand times
more than the same task done telerobotically.
 The space environment is hostile; PV panels (if
used) suffer about 8 times the degradation they
would on Earth (except at orbits that are protected
by the magnetosphere).[45]
 Space debris is a major hazard to large objects in
space, particularly for large structures such as SBSP
systems in transit through the debris below 2000 km.
Collision risk is much reduced in GEO since all the
satellites are moving in the same direction at very
close to the same speed.[46]
 The broadcast frequency of the microwave downlink
(if used) would require isolating the SBSP systems
away from other satellites. GEO space is already
well used and it is considered unlikely the ITU would
allow an SPS to be launched.[47][irrelevant citation]
 The large size and corresponding cost of the
receiving station on the ground. The cost has been
estimated at a billion dollars for 5 GW by SBSP
researcher Keith Henson.
 Energy losses during several phases of conversion
from photons to electrons to photons back to
electrons.[48]
 Waste heat disposal in space power systems is
difficult to begin with, but becomes intractable when
the entire spacecraft is designed to absorb as much
solar radiation as possible. Traditional spacecraft
thermal control systems such as radiative vanes
may interfere with solar panel occlusion or power
transmitters.

Design[edit]

Artist's concept of a solar disk on top of a LEO to GEO electrically powered space tug.

Space-based solar power essentially consists of three elements: [2]

1. collecting solar energy in space with reflectors or


inflatable mirrors onto solar cells or heaters for
thermal systems
2. wireless power transmission to Earth
via microwave or laser
3. receiving power on Earth via a rectenna, a
microwave antenna
The space-based portion will not need to support itself against gravity (other than
relatively weak tidal stresses). It needs no protection from terrestrial wind or weather,
but will have to cope with space hazards such as micrometeors and solar flares. Two
basic methods of conversion have been studied: photovoltaic (PV) and solar
dynamic (SD). Most analyses of SBSP have focused on photovoltaic conversion using
solar cells that directly convert sunlight into electricity. Solar dynamic uses mirrors to
concentrate light on a boiler. The use of solar dynamic could reduce mass per
watt. Wireless power transmission was proposed early on as a means to transfer
energy from collection to the Earth's surface, using either microwave or laser radiation
at a variety of frequencies.
Microwave power transmission[edit]
William C. Brown demonstrated in 1964, during Walter Cronkite's CBS News program, a
microwave-powered model helicopter that received all the power it needed for flight
from a microwave beam. Between 1969 and 1975, Bill Brown was technical director of
a JPL Raytheon program that beamed 30 kW of power over a distance of 1 mile
(1.6 km) at 9.6% efficiency.[49][50]
Microwave power transmission of tens of kilowatts has been well proven by existing
tests at Goldstone in California (1975)[50][51][52] and Grand Bassin on Reunion Island (1997).
[53]

Comparison of laser and microwave power transmission. NASA diagram

More recently, microwave power transmission has been demonstrated, in conjunction


with solar energy capture, between a mountain top in Maui and the island of Hawaii (92
miles away), by a team under John C. Mankins.[54][55] Technological challenges in terms of
array layout, single radiation element design, and overall efficiency, as well as the
associated theoretical limits are presently a subject of research, as it was demonstrated
by the Special Session on "Analysis of Electromagnetic Wireless Systems for Solar
Power Transmission" held during the 2010 IEEE Symposium on Antennas and
Propagation.[56] In 2013, a useful overview was published, covering technologies and
issues associated with microwave power transmission from space to ground. It includes
an introduction to SPS, current research and future prospects. [57] Moreover, a review of
current methodologies and technologies for the design of antenna arrays for microwave
power transmission appeared in the Proceedings of the IEEE. [58]
Laser power beaming[edit]
Laser power beaming was envisioned by some at NASA as a stepping stone to further
industrialization of space. In the 1980s, researchers at NASA worked on the potential
use of lasers for space-to-space power beaming, focusing primarily on the development
of a solar-powered laser. In 1989, it was suggested that power could also be usefully
beamed by laser from Earth to space. In 1991, the SELENE project (SpacE Laser
ENErgy) had begun, which included the study of laser power beaming for supplying
power to a lunar base. The SELENE program was a two-year research effort, but the
cost of taking the concept to operational status was too high, and the official project
ended in 1993 before reaching a space-based demonstration. [59]
In 1988, the use of an Earth-based laser to power an electric thruster for space
propulsion was proposed by Grant Logan, with technical details worked out in 1989. He
proposed using diamond solar cells operating at 600 degrees [clarification needed] to
convert ultraviolet laser light.
Orbital location[edit]
The main advantage of locating a space power station in geostationary orbit is that the
antenna geometry stays constant, and so keeping the antennas lined up is simpler.
Another advantage is that nearly continuous power transmission is immediately
available as soon as the first space power station is placed in orbit, LEO requires
several satellites before they are producing nearly continuous power.
Power beaming from geostationary orbit by microwaves carries the difficulty that the
required 'optical aperture' sizes are very large. For example, the 1978 NASA SPS study
required a 1-km diameter transmitting antenna, and a 10 km diameter receiving
rectenna, for a microwave beam at 2.45 GHz. These sizes can be somewhat decreased
by using shorter wavelengths, although they have increased atmospheric
absorption and even potential beam blockage by rain or water droplets. Because of
the thinned array curse, it is not possible to make a narrower beam by combining the
beams of several smaller satellites. The large size of the transmitting and receiving
antennas means that the minimum practical power level for an SPS will necessarily be
high; small SPS systems will be possible, but uneconomic. [original research?]
A collection of LEO (Low Earth Orbit) space power stations has been proposed as a
precursor to GEO (Geostationary Orbit) space-based solar power.[60]
Earth-based receiver[edit]
The Earth-based rectenna would likely consist of many short dipole antennas connected
via diodes. Microwave broadcasts from the satellite would be received in the dipoles
with about 85% efficiency.[61] With a conventional microwave antenna, the reception
efficiency is better, but its cost and complexity are also considerably greater. Rectennas
would likely be several kilometers across.
In space applications[edit]
A laser SBSP could also power a base or vehicles on the surface of the Moon or Mars,
saving on mass costs to land the power source. A spacecraft or another satellite could
also be powered by the same means. In a 2012 report presented to NASA on space
solar power, the author mentions another potential use for the technology behind space
solar power could be for solar electric propulsion systems that could be used for
interplanetary human exploration missions.[62][63][64]

Launch costs[edit]
One problem for the SBSP concept is the cost of space launches and the amount of
material that would need to be launched.
Much of the material launched need not be delivered to its eventual orbit immediately,
which raises the possibility that high efficiency (but slower) engines could move SPS
material from LEO to GEO at an acceptable cost. Examples include ion
thrusters or nuclear propulsion.
To give an idea of the scale of the problem, assuming a solar panel mass of 20 kg per
kilowatt (without considering the mass of the supporting structure, antenna, or any
significant mass reduction of any focusing mirrors) a 4 GW power station would weigh
about 80,000 metric tons,[65] all of which would, in current circumstances, be launched
from the Earth. This is, however, far from the state of the art for flown spacecraft, which
as of 2015 was 150W/kg (6.7 kg/kW), and improving rapidly.[66] Very lightweight designs
could likely achieve 1 kg/kW,[67] meaning 4,000 metric tons for the solar panels for the
same 4 GW capacity station. Beyond the mass of the panels, overhead (including
boosting to the desired orbit and stationkeeping) must be added.

Launch costs for 4GW to LEO

1 kg/k 5 kg/k
20 kg/kW
W W

$1/kg (Minimum cost at ~$0.13/kWh power, 100%


$4M $20M $80M
efficiency)

$2000/kg (ex: Falcon Heavy) $8B $40B $160B

$10000/kg (ex: Ariane V) $40B $200B $800B

To these costs must be added the environmental impact of heavy space launch
missions, if such costs are to be used in comparison to earth-based energy production.
For comparison, the direct cost of a new coal [68] or nuclear power plant ranges from $3
billion to $6 billion per GW (not including the full cost to the environment from CO2
emissions or storage of spent nuclear fuel, respectively).

Building from space[edit]


From lunar materials launched in orbit[edit]
Gerard O'Neill, noting the problem of high launch costs in the early 1970s, proposed
building the SPS's in orbit with materials from the Moon.[69] Launch costs from the Moon
are potentially much lower than from Earth, due to the lower gravity and lack
of atmospheric drag. This 1970s proposal assumed the then-advertised future launch
costing of NASA's space shuttle. This approach would require substantial up front
capital investment to establish mass drivers on the Moon.[70] Nevertheless, on 30 April
1979, the Final Report ("Lunar Resources Utilization for Space Construction") by
General Dynamics' Convair Division, under NASA contract NAS9-15560, concluded that
use of lunar resources would be cheaper than Earth-based materials for a system of as
few as thirty solar power satellites of 10 GW capacity each.[71]
In 1980, when it became obvious NASA's launch cost estimates for the space shuttle
were grossly optimistic, O'Neill et al. published another route to manufacturing using
lunar materials with much lower startup costs.[72] This 1980s SPS concept relied less on
human presence in space and more on partially self-replicating systems on the lunar
surface under remote control of workers stationed on Earth. The high net energy gain of
this proposal derives from the Moon's much shallower gravitational well.
Having a relatively cheap per pound source of raw materials from space would lessen
the concern for low mass designs and result in a different sort of SPS being built. The
low cost per pound of lunar materials in O'Neill's vision would be supported by using
lunar material to manufacture more facilities in orbit than just solar power satellites.
Advanced techniques for launching from the Moon may reduce the cost of building a
solar power satellite from lunar materials. Some proposed techniques include the lunar
mass driver and the lunar space elevator, first described by Jerome Pearson.[73] It would
require establishing silicon mining and solar cell manufacturing facilities on the Moon.
[citation needed]

On the Moon[edit]
Physicist Dr David Criswell suggests the Moon is the optimum location for solar power
stations, and promotes lunar-based solar power.[74][75][76] The main advantage he
envisions is construction largely from locally available lunar materials, using in-situ
resource utilization, with a teleoperated mobile factory and crane to assemble the
microwave reflectors, and rovers to assemble and pave solar cells, [77] which would
significantly reduce launch costs compared to SBSP designs. Power relay satellites
orbiting around earth and the Moon reflecting the microwave beam are also part of the
project. A demo project of 1 GW starts at $50 billion. [78] The Shimizu Corporation use
combination of lasers and microwave for the Luna Ring concept, along with power relay
satellites.[79][80]
From an asteroid[edit]
Asteroid mining has also been seriously considered. A NASA design study [81] evaluated
a 10,000-ton mining vehicle (to be assembled in orbit) that would return a 500,000-ton
asteroid fragment to geostationary orbit. Only about 3,000 tons of the mining ship would
be traditional aerospace-grade payload. The rest would be reaction mass for the mass-
driver engine, which could be arranged to be the spent rocket stages used to launch the
payload. Assuming that 100% of the returned asteroid was useful, and that the asteroid
miner itself couldn't be reused, that represents nearly a 95% reduction in launch costs.
However, the true merits of such a method would depend on a thorough mineral survey
of the candidate asteroids; thus far, we have only estimates of their composition. [82] One
proposal is to capture the asteroid Apophis into earth orbit and convert it into 150 solar
power satellites of 5 GW each or the larger asteroid 1999 AN10 which is 50x the size of
Apophis and large enough to build 7,500 5-gigawatt solar power satellites [83]
Gallery[edit]

A Lunar base with a mass driver (the long structure that goes
toward the horizon). NASA conceptual illustration
 

An artist's conception of a "self-growing" robotic lunar factory.


 

Microwave reflectors on the moon and teleoperated robotic


paving rover and crane.
 

"Crawler" traverses Lunar surface, smoothing, melting a top


layer of regolith, then depositing elements of silicon PV cells
directly on surface
 

Sketch of the Lunar Crawler to be used for fabrication of lunar


solar cells on the surface of the Moon.
 

Shown here is an array of solar collectors that convert power


into microwave beams directed toward Earth.
 

A solar power satellite built from a mined asteroid.

Safety[edit]
The use of microwave transmission of power has been the most controversial issue in
considering any SPS design. At the Earth's surface, a suggested microwave beam
would have a maximum intensity at its center, of 23 mW/cm2 (less than 1/4 the solar
irradiation constant), and an intensity of less than 1 mW/cm2 outside the rectenna
fenceline (the receiver's perimeter).[84] These compare with current United
States Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) workplace exposure limits for
microwaves, which are 10 mW/cm2,[85][original research?] - the limit itself being expressed in
voluntary terms and ruled unenforceable for Federal OSHA enforcement purposes. [citation
needed]
 A beam of this intensity is therefore at its center, of a similar magnitude to current
safe workplace levels, even for long term or indefinite exposure. [original research?] Outside the
receiver, it is far less than the OSHA long-term levels [86] Over 95% of the beam energy
will fall on the rectenna. The remaining microwave energy will be absorbed and
dispersed well within standards currently imposed upon microwave emissions around
the world.[87] It is important for system efficiency that as much of the microwave radiation
as possible be focused on the rectenna. Outside the rectenna, microwave intensities
rapidly decrease, so nearby towns or other human activity should be completely
unaffected.[88]
Exposure to the beam is able to be minimized in other ways. On the ground, physical
access is controllable (e.g., via fencing), and typical aircraft flying through the beam
provide passengers with a protective metal shell (i.e., a Faraday Cage), which will
intercept the microwaves. Other aircraft (balloons, ultralight, etc.) can avoid exposure by
observing airflight control spaces, as is currently done for military and other controlled
airspace. The microwave beam intensity at ground level in the center of the beam would
be designed and physically built into the system; simply, the transmitter would be too far
away and too small to be able to increase the intensity to unsafe levels, even in
principle.
In addition, a design constraint is that the microwave beam must not be so intense as to
injure wildlife, particularly birds. Experiments with deliberate microwave irradiation at
reasonable levels have failed to show negative effects even over multiple generations.
[89]
 Suggestions have been made to locate rectennas offshore, [90][91] but this presents
serious problems, including corrosion, mechanical stresses, and biological
contamination.
A commonly proposed approach to ensuring fail-safe beam targeting is to use a
retrodirective phased array antenna/rectenna. A "pilot" microwave beam emitted from
the center of the rectenna on the ground establishes a phase front at the transmitting
antenna. There, circuits in each of the antenna's subarrays compare the pilot beam's
phase front with an internal clock phase to control the phase of the outgoing signal. This
forces the transmitted beam to be centered precisely on the rectenna and to have a
high degree of phase uniformity; if the pilot beam is lost for any reason (if the
transmitting antenna is turned away from the rectenna, for example) the phase control
value fails and the microwave power beam is automatically defocused. [88] Such a system
would be physically incapable of focusing its power beam anywhere that did not have a
pilot beam transmitter. The long-term effects of beaming power through the ionosphere
in the form of microwaves has yet to be studied, but nothing has been suggested which
might lead to any significant effect.

Timeline[edit]
In the 20th century[edit]

 1941: Isaac Asimov published the science fiction


short story "Reason," in which a space station
transmits energy collected from the sun to various
planets using microwave beams.
 1968: Peter Glaser introduces the concept of a
"solar power satellite" system with square miles of
solar collectors in high geosynchronous orbit for
collection and conversion of sun's energy into
a microwave beam to transmit usable energy to
large receiving antennas (rectennas) on Earth for
distribution.
 1973: Peter Glaser is granted United States
patent number 3,781,647 for his method of
transmitting power over long distances using
microwaves from a large (one square kilometer)
antenna on the satellite to a much larger one on the
ground, now known as a rectenna.[7]
 1978–81: The United States Department of
Energy and NASA examine the solar power satellite
(SPS) concept extensively, publishing design and
feasibility studies.
 1987: Stationary High Altitude Relay Platform a
Canadian experiment
 1995–97: NASA conducts a "Fresh Look" study of
space solar power (SSP) concepts and
technologies.
 1998: The Space Solar Power Concept Definition
Study (CDS) identifies credible, commercially viable
SSP concepts, while pointing out technical and
programmatic risks.
 1998: Japan's space agency begins developing a
space solar power system (SSPS), a program that
continues to the present day.[citation needed]
 1999: NASA's Space Solar Power Exploratory
Research and Technology program (SERT, see
below) begins.
 2000: John Mankins of NASA testifies in the U.S.
House of Representatives, saying "Large-scale SSP
is a very complex integrated system of systems that
requires numerous significant advances in current
technology and capabilities. A technology roadmap
has been developed that lays out potential paths for
achieving all needed advances — albeit over several
decades.[11]
In the 21st century[edit]

 2001: NASDA (One of Japan's national space


agencies before it became part of JAXA) announces
plans to perform additional research and prototyping
by launching an experimental satellite with 10
kilowatts and 1 megawatt of power.[92][93]
 2003: ESA studies[94]
 2007: The US Pentagon's National Security Space
Office (NSSO) issues a report[95] on October 10, 2007
stating they intend to collect solar energy from space
for use on Earth to help the United States' ongoing
relationship with the Middle East and the battle for
oil. A demo plant could cost $10 billion, produce 10
megawatts, and become operational in 10 years.[96]
 2007: In May 2007, a workshop is held at the
US Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to
review the current state of the SBSP market and
technology.[97]
 2010: Professors Andrea Massa and Giorgio
Franceschetti announce a special session on the
"Analysis of Electromagnetic Wireless Systems for
Solar Power Transmission" at the 2010 Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers International
Symposium on Antennas and Propagation.[98]
 2010: The Indian Space Research Organisation and
US' National Space Society launched a joint forum
to enhance partnership in harnessing solar energy
through space-based solar collectors. Called the
Kalam-NSS Initiative after the former Indian
President Dr APJ Abdul Kalam, the forum will lay the
groundwork for the space-based solar power
program which could see other countries joining in
as well.[99]
 2010: Sky's No Limit: Space-Based solar power, the
next major step in the Indo-US strategic
partnership?] written by USAF Lt Col Peter
Garretson was published at the Institute for Defence
Studies and Analysis.[100]
 2012: China proposed joint development between
India and China towards developing a solar power
satellite, during a visit by former Indian President Dr
APJ Abdul Kalam.[101]
 2015: The Space Solar Power Initiative (SSPI) is
established between Caltech and Northrop
Grumman Corporation. An estimated $17.5 million is
to be provided over a three-year project for
development of a space-based solar power system.
 2015: JAXA announced on 12 March 2015 that they
wirelessly beamed 1.8 kilowatts 50 meters to a small
receiver by converting electricity to microwaves and
then back to electricity.[36][37]
 2016: Lt Gen. Zhang Yulin, deputy chief of the [PLA]
armament development department of the Central
Military Commission, suggested that China would
next begin to exploit Earth-Moon space for industrial
development. The goal would be the construction of
space-based solar power satellites that would beam
energy back to Earth.[102][103]
 2016: A team with membership from the Naval
Research Laboratory (NRL), Defense Advanced
Projects Agency (DARPA), Air Force Air University,
Joint Staff Logistics (J-4), Department of State,
Makins Aerospace and Northrop Grumman won the
Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) / Secretary of State
(SECSTATE) / USAID Director's agency-wide D3
(Diplomacy, Development, Defense) Innovation
Challenge with a proposal that the US must lead in
space solar power. The proposal was followed by
a vision video
 2016: Citizens for Space-Based Solar Power has
transformed the D3 proposal into active petitions on
the White House Website "America Must Lead the
Transition to Space-Based Energy"and Change.org
"USA Must Lead the Transition to Space-Based
Energy" along with the following video.
 2016: Erik Larson and others from NOAA produce a
paper "Global atmospheric response to emissions
from a proposed reusable space launch
system"[104] The paper makes a case that up to 2
TW/year of power satellites could be constructed
without intolerable damage to the atmosphere.
Before this paper, there was concern that the NOx
produced by reentry would destroy too much ozone.
 2016: Ian Cash of SICA Design proposes
CASSIOPeiA (Constant Aperture, Solid State,
Integrated, Orbital Phased Array) a new concept
SPS [1]
 2017: NASA selects five new research
proposals focused on investments in space. The
Colorado School of Mines focuses on "21st Century
Trends in Space-Based Solar Power Generation and
Storage."
 2019: Aditya Baraskar and Prof Toshiya Hanada
from Space System Dynamic Laboratory, Kyushu
University proposed Energy Orbit (E-Orbit),[105] a
small Space Solar Power Satellite constellation for
power beaming between satellites in low earth orbit.
A total of 1600 satellite to transmit 10 kilowatts of
electricity in a 500 km radius at an altitude of 900
km. " [106]
 2020: US Naval Research Laboratory launches test
satellite.[107]

Non-typical configurations and architectural


considerations[edit]
The typical reference system-of-systems involves a significant number (several
thousand multi-gigawatt systems to service all or a significant portion of Earth's energy
requirements) of individual satellites in GEO. The typical reference design for the
individual satellite is in the 1-10 GW range and usually involves planar or concentrated
solar photovoltaics (PV) as the energy collector / conversion. The most typical
transmission designs are in the 1–10 GHz (2.45 or 5.8 GHz) RF band where there are
minimum losses in the atmosphere. Materials for the satellites are sourced from, and
manufactured on Earth and expected to be transported to LEO via re-usable rocket
launch, and transported between LEO and GEO via chemical or electrical propulsion. In
summary, the architecture choices are:

 Location = GEO
 Energy Collection = PV
 Satellite = Monolithic Structure
 Transmission = RF
 Materials & Manufacturing = Earth
 Installation = RLVs to LEO, Chemical to GEO
There are several interesting design variants from the reference system:
Alternate energy collection location: While GEO is most typical because of its
advantages of nearness to Earth, simplified pointing and tracking, very small time in
occultation, and scalability to meet all global demand several times over, other locations
have been proposed:

 Sun Earth L1: Robert Kennedy III, Ken Roy & David


Fields have proposed a variant of the L1 sunshade
called "Dyson Dots"[108] where a multi-terawatt
primary collector would beam energy back to a
series of LEO sun-synchronous receiver satellites.
The much farther distance to Earth requires a
correspondingly larger transmission aperture.
 Lunar surface: David Criswell has proposed using
the Lunar surface itself as the collection medium,
beaming power to the ground via a series of
microwave reflectors in Earth Orbit. The chief
advantage of this approach would be the ability to
manufacture the solar collectors in-situ without the
energy cost and complexity of launch.
Disadvantages include the much longer distance,
requiring larger transmission systems, the required
"overbuild" to deal with the lunar night, and the
difficulty of sufficient manufacturing and pointing of
reflector satellites.[109]
 MEO: MEO systems have been proposed for in-
space utilities and beam-power propulsion
infrastructures. For example, see Royce Jones'
paper.[110]
 Highly elliptical orbits: Molniya, Tundra, or Quazi
Zenith orbits have been proposed as early locations
for niche markets, requiring less energy to access
and providing good persistence.[111]
 Sun-sync LEO: In this near Polar Orbit, the
satellites precess at a rate that allows them to
always face the Sun as they rotate around Earth.
This is an easy to access orbit requiring far less
energy, and its proximity to Earth requires smaller
(and therefore less massive) transmitting apertures.
However disadvantages to this approach include
having to constantly shift receiving stations, or
storing energy for a burst transmission. This orbit is
already crowded and has significant space debris.
 Equatorial LEO: Japan's SPS 2000 proposed an
early demonstrator in equatorial LEO in which
multiple equatorial participating nations could
receive some power.[112]
 Earth's surface: Narayan Komerath has proposed a
space power grid where excess energy from an
existing grid or power plant on one side of the planet
can be passed up to orbit, across to another satellite
and down to receivers.[113]
Energy collection: The most typical designs for solar power satellites include
photovoltaics. These may be planar (and usually passively cooled), concentrated (and
perhaps actively cooled). However, there are multiple interesting variants.

 Solar thermal: Proponents of solar thermal have


proposed using concentrated heating to cause a
state change in a fluid to extract energy via rotating
machinery followed by cooling in radiators.
Advantages of this method might include overall
system mass (disputed), non-degradation due to
solar-wind damage, and radiation tolerance. One
recent thermal solar power satellite design by Keith
Henson and others has been visualized here. [2] A
related concept is here: [3] The proposed radiators
are thin wall platic tube filled with low pressure (2.4
kPa) and temperature (20 deg C) steam.
 Solar pumped laser: Japan has pursued a solar-
pumped laser, where sunlight directly excites the
lasing medium used to create the coherent beam to
Earth.
 Fusion decay: This version of a power-satellite is
not "solar". Rather, the vacuum of space is seen as
a "feature not a bug" for traditional fusion. Per Paul
Werbos, after fusion even neutral particles decay to
charged particles which in a sufficiently large volume
would allow direct conversion to current. [citation needed]
 Solar wind loop: Also called a Dyson–Harrop
satellite. Here the satellite makes use not of the
photons from the Sun but rather the charged
particles in the solar wind which via electro-magnetic
coupling generate a current in a large loop.
 Direct mirrors: Early concepts for direct mirror re-
direction of light to planet Earth suffered from the
problem that rays coming from the sun are not
parallel but are expanding from a disk and so the
size of the spot on the Earth is quite large. Lewis
Fraas has explored an array of parabolic mirrors to
augment existing solar arrays.[114]
Alternate satellite architecture: The typical satellite is a monolithic structure
composed of a structural truss, one or more collectors, one or more transmitters, and
occasionally primary and secondary reflectors. The entire structure may be gravity
gradient stabilized. Alternative designs include:

 Swarms of smaller satellites: Some designs


propose swarms of free-flying smaller satellites. This
is the case with several laser designs, and appears
to be the case with CALTECH's Flying Carpets.
[115]
 For RF designs, an engineering constraint is
the sparse array problem.
 Free floating components: Solaren has proposed
an alternative to the monolithic structure where the
primary reflector and transmission reflector are free-
flying.[116]
 Spin stabilization: NASA explored a spin-stabilized
thin film concept.
 Photonic laser thruster (PLT) stabilized
structure: Young Bae has proposed that photon
pressure may substitute for compressive members
in large structures.[citation needed]
Transmission: The most typical design for energy transmission is via an RF antenna at
below 10 GHz to a rectenna on the ground. Controversy exists between the benefits of
Klystrons, Gyrotrons, Magnetrons and solid state. Alternate transmission approaches
include:

 Laser: Lasers offer the advantage of much lower


cost and mass to first power, however there is
controversy regarding benefits of efficiency. Lasers
allow for much smaller transmitting and receiving
apertures. However, a highly concentrated beam
has eye-safety, fire safety, and weaponization
concerns. Proponents believe they have answers to
all these concerns. A laser-based approach must
also find alternate ways of coping with clouds and
precipitation.
 Atmospheric waveguide: Some have proposed it
may be possible to use a short pulse laser to create
an atmospheric waveguide through which
concentrated microwaves could flow.[117][118][119]
 Nuclear synthesis: Particle accelerators based in
the inner solar system (whether in orbit or on a
planet such as Mercury) could use solar energy to
synthesize nuclear fuel from naturally occurring
materials. While this would be highly inefficient using
current technology (in terms of the amount of energy
needed to manufacture the fuel compared to the
amount of energy contained in the fuel) and would
raise obvious nuclear safety issues, the basic
technology upon which such an approach would rely
on has been in use for decades, making this
possibly the most reliable means of sending energy
especially over very long distances - in particular,
from the inner solar system to the outer solar
system.
Materials and manufacturing: Typical designs make use of the developed industrial
manufacturing system extant on Earth, and use Earth based materials both for the
satellite and propellant. Variants include:

 Lunar materials: Designs exist for Solar Power


Satellites that source >99% of materials from lunar
regolith with very small inputs of "vitamins" from
other locations. Using materials from the Moon is
attractive because launch from the Moon is in theory
far less complicated than from Earth. There is no
atmosphere, and so components do not need to be
packed tightly in an aeroshell and survive vibration,
pressure and temperature loads. Launch may be via
a magnetic mass driver and bypass the requirement
to use propellant for launch entirely. Launch from the
Moon the GEO also requires far less energy than
from Earth's much deeper gravity well. Building all
the solar power satellites to fully supply all the
required energy for the entire planet requires less
than one millionth of the mass of the Moon.
 Self-replication on the Moon: NASA explored a
self-replicating factory on the Moon in 1980. [120] More
recently, Justin Lewis-Webber proposed a method of
speciated manufacture of core elements[121] based
upon John Mankins SPS-Alpha design. [122][123]
 Asteroidal materials: Some asteroids are thought
to have even lower Delta-V to recover materials than
the Moon, and some particular materials of interest
such as metals may be more concentrated or easier
to access.
 In-space/in-situ manufacturing: With the advent of
in-space additive manufacturing, concepts such as
SpiderFab might allow mass launch of raw materials
for local extrusion.[124]
Method of installation / Transportation of Material to Energy Collection Location:
In the reference designs, component material is launched via well-understood chemical
rockets (usually fully reusable launch systems) to LEO, after which either chemical or
electrical propulsion is used to carry them to GEO. The desired characteristics for this
system is very high mass-flow at low total cost. Alternate concepts include:

 Lunar chemical launch: ULA has recently


showcased a concept for a fully re-usable chemical
lander XEUS to move materials from the Lunar
surface to LLO or GEO.[125]
 Lunar mass driver: Launch of materials from the
lunar surface using a system similar to an aircraft
carrier electromagnetic catapult. An unexplored
compact alternative would be the slingatron.
 Lunar space elevator: An equatorial or near-
equatorial cable extends to and through the
lagrange point. This is claimed by proponents to be
lower in mass than a traditional mass driver.
 Space elevator: A ribbon of pure carbon nanotubes
extends from its center of gravity in Geostationary
orbit, allowing climbers to climb up to GEO.
Problems with this include the material challenge of
creating a ribbon of such length with adequate
strength, management of collisions with satellites
and space debris, and lightning.
 MEO Skyhook: As part of an AFRL study, Roger
Lenard proposed a MEO Skyhook. It appears that a
gravity gradient-stabilized tether with its center of
mass in MEO can be constructed of available
materials. The bottom of the skyhook is close to the
atmosphere in a "non-keplerian orbit". A re-usable
rocket can launch to match altitude and speed with
the bottom of the tether which is in a non-keplerian
orbit (travelling much slower than typical orbital
speed). The payload is transferred and it climbs the
cable. The cable itself is kept from de-orbiting via
electric propulsion and/or electromagnetic effects.
 MAGLEV launch / StarTram: John Powell has a
concept for a very high mass-flow system. In a first-
gen system, built into a mountain, accelerates a
payload through an evacuated MAGLEV track. A
small on-board rocket circularizes the payload.[126]
 Beamed energy launch: Kevin Parkin and Escape
Dynamics both have concepts[127] for ground-based
irradiation of a mono-propellant launch vehicle using
RF energy. The RF energy is absorbed and directly
heats the propellant not unlike in NERVA-style
nuclear-thermal. LaserMotive has a concept for a
laser-based approach.

In fiction[edit]
Space stations transmitting solar power have appeared in science-fiction works
like Isaac Asimov's "Reason" (1941), that centers around the troubles caused by the
robots operating the station. Asimov's short story "The Last Question" also features the
use of SBSP to provide limitless energy for use on Earth.
In Ben Bova's novel PowerSat (2005), an entrepreneur strives to prove that his
company's nearly completed power satellite and spaceplane (a means of getting
maintenance crews to the satellite efficiently) are both safe and economically viable,
while terrorists with ties to oil producing nations attempt to derail these attempts through
subterfuge and sabotage.[128]
Various aerospace companies have also showcased imaginative future solar power
satellites in their corporate vision videos, including Boeing, [129] Lockheed Martin,[130] and
United Launch Alliance.[131]
The solar satellite is one of three means of producing energy in the browser-based
game OGame.

See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Space-
based solar power.

 Renewable energy portal


 Attitude control
 Climate engineering
 Future energy development
 Friis transmission equation
 Orbital station-keeping in GEO
 Project Earth
 Solar panels on spacecraft
 Space fountain
 Space mirror
 Znamya
 Sun gun

References[edit]
The National Space Society maintains an extensive space solar power library of all
major historical documents and studies associated with space solar power, and major
news articles.

1. ^ "Space-based solar power". ESA–Advanced Concepts


Team. 15 April 2013. Retrieved  August 23,  2015.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b "Space-Based Solar Power".  United States
Department of Energy (DOE). 6 March 2014.
3. ^ Eric Rosenbaum and Donovan Russo (March 17,
2019). "China plans a solar power play in space that NASA
abandoned decades ago". CNBC.com. Retrieved 19
March  2019.
4. ^ UK Space Agency (14 November 2020).  "UK government
commissions space solar power stations research". gov.uk.
Retrieved 30 November 2020.
5. ^ "Basic Plan for Space Policy"  (PDF). June 2, 2009.
Retrieved May 21,  2016.
6. ^ Glaser, P. E. (1968). "Power from the Sun: Its
Future".  Science.  162  (3856): 857–
61.  Bibcode:1968Sci...162..857G. doi:10.1126/science.162.3
856.857.  PMID  17769070.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Glaser, Peter E. (December 25, 1973). "Method
And Apparatus For Converting Solar Radiation To Electrical
Power". United States Patent 3,781,647.
8. ^ Glaser, P. E., Maynard, O. E., Mackovciak, J., and Ralph,
E. L, Arthur D. Little, Inc., "Feasibility study of a satellite solar
power station", NASA CR-2357, NTIS N74-17784, February
1974
9. ^ Satellite Power System Concept Development and
Evaluation Program July 1977 - August 1980. DOE/ET-0034,
February 1978. 62 pages
10. ^ "Satellite Power System Concept Development and
Evaluation Program Reference System Report. DOE/ER-
0023, October 1978. 322"  (PDF).
11. ^ Jump up to:      Statement of John C. Mankins U.S. House
a b c

Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics Committee on


Science, Sep 7, 2000
12. ^ "Satellite Power System (SPS) Resource Requirements
(Critical Materials, Energy, and Land). HCP/R-4024-02,
October 1978"  (PDF).
13. ^ Satellite Power System (SPS) Financial/Management
Scenarios. Prepared by J. Peter Vajk. HCP/R-4024-03,
October 1978. 69 pages
14. ^ Satellite Power System (SPS) Financial/Management
Scenarios. Prepared by Herbert E. Kierulff. HCP/R-4024-13,
October 1978. 66 pages.
15. ^ Satellite Power System (SPS) Public Acceptance. HCP/R-
4024-04, October 1978. 85 pages.
16. ^ Satellite Power System (SPS) State and Local Regulations
as Applied to Satellite Power System Microwave Receiving
Antenna Facilities. HCP/R-4024-05, October 1978. 92 pages.
17. ^ Satellite Power System (SPS) Student Participation.
HCP/R-4024-06, October 1978. 97 pages.
18. ^ Potential of Laser for SPS Power Transmission. HCP/R-
4024-07, October 1978. 112 pages.
19. ^ Satellite Power System (SPS) International Agreements.
Prepared by Carl Q. Christol. HCP-R-4024-08, October 1978.
283 pages.
20. ^ Satellite Power System (SPS) International Agreements.
Prepared by Stephen Grove. HCP/R-4024-12, October 1978.
86 pages.
21. ^ Satellite Power System (SPS)
Centralization/Decentralization. HCP/R-4024-09, October
1978. 67 pages.
22. ^ "Satellite Power System (SPS) Mapping of Exclusion Areas
For Rectenna Sites. HCP-R-4024-10, October 1978. 117
pages"  (PDF).
23. ^ Economic and Demographic Issues Related to Deployment
of the Satellite Power System (SPS). ANL/EES-TM-23,
October 1978. 71 pages.
24. ^ Some Questions and Answers About the Satellite Power
System (SPS). DOE/ER-0049/1, January 1980. 47 pages.
25. ^ Satellite Power Systems (SPS) Laser Studies:
Meteorological Effects on Laser Beam Propagation and Direct
Solar Pumped Lasers for the SPS. NASA Contractor Report
3347, November 1980. 143 pages.
26. ^ Satellite Power System (SPS) Public Outreach Experiment.
DOE/ER-10041-T11, December 1980. 67 pages.
27. ^ http://www.nss.org/settlement/ssp/library/1981NASASPS-
PowerTransmissionAndReception.pdf "Satellite Power
System Concept Development and Evaluation Program:
Power Transmission and Reception Technical Summary and
Assessment" NASA Reference Publication 1076, July 1981.
281 pages.
28. ^ "Satellite Power System Concept Development and
Evaluation Program: Space Transportation. NASA Technical
Memorandum 58238, November 1981. 260 pages" (PDF).
29. ^ Solar Power Satellites. Office of Technology Assessment,
August 1981. 297 pages.
30. ^ A Fresh Look at Space Solar Power: New Architectures,
Concepts, and Technologies. John C. Mankins. International
Astronautical Federation IAF-97-R.2.03. 12 pages.
31. ^ "Dr. Pete Worden on thespaceshow". thespaceshow.com.
23 March 2009. Archived from  the original on 7 July 2012.
32. ^ "China proposes space collaboration with India - The Times
of India".  The Times Of India.
33. ^ "Plans for first Chinese solar power station in space
revealed". The Sydney Morning Herald.
34. ^ Space Solar Power Satellite Technology Development at
the Glenn Research Center—An Overview. James E.
Dudenhoefer and Patrick J. George, NASA Glenn Research
Center, Cleveland, Ohio.
35. ^ "How Japan Plans to Build an Orbital Solar Farm".
36. ^ Jump up to:    Tarantola, Andrew (12 March 2015). "Scientists
a b

make strides in beaming solar power from


space"  (PDF). 162 (3856): 857–861.
37. ^ Jump up to:a b "Japan space scientists make wireless energy
breakthrough".
38. ^ "MHI Successfully Completes Ground Demonstration
Testing of Wireless Power Transmission Technology for
SSPS". 12 March 2015.
39. ^ Solar Power Satellites. Washington, D.C.: Congress of the
U.S., Office of Technology Assessment. August 1981.
p. 66.  LCCN  81600129.
40. ^ Collection at Earth's poles can take place for 24 hours per
day, but there are very small loads demanded at the poles.
41. ^ Shen, G.; Liu, Y.; Sun, G.; Zheng, T.; Zhou, X.; Wang, A.
(2019).  "Suppressing Sidelobe Level of the Planar Antenna
Array in Wireless Power Transmission".  IEEE Access.  7:
6958–6970.  doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2890436.  ISSN  216
9-3536.
42. ^ Wang, Wen-Qin (2019). "Retrodirective Frequency Diverse
Array Focusing for Wireless Information and Power
Transfer".  IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in
Communications.  37(1): 61–
73.  doi:10.1109/JSAC.2018.2872360.  ISSN  0733-8716. S2C
ID  56594774.
43. ^ Shinohara, Naoki (June 2013). "Beam Control
Technologies With a High-Efficiency Phased Array for
Microwave Power Transmission in Japan".  Proceedings of
the IEEE. 101 (6): 1448–
1463.  doi:10.1109/JPROC.2013.2253062. S2CID  9091936.
Retrieved 28 April  2019.
44. ^ Fartookzadeh, Mahdi (7 March 2019). "On the Time-Range
Dependency of the Beampatterns Produced by Arbitrary
Antenna Arrays: Discussions on the Misplaced Expectations
from Frequency Diverse
Arrays". arXiv:1903.03508. Bibcode:2019arXiv190303508F.
45. ^ In space, panels suffer rapid erosion due to high energy
particles,"Solar Panel Degradation" Archived 2011-09-29 at
the Wayback Machine whereas on Earth, commercial panels
degrade at a rate around 0.25% a year."Testing a Thirty-Year-
Old Photovoltaic Module"
46. ^ "Some of the most environmentally dangerous activities in
space include [...] large structures such as those considered
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External links[edit]
 European Space Agency (ESA) – Advanced
Concepts Team, Space-based solar power
 William Maness on why alternative energy and
power grids aren't good playmates and his plans for
beaming solar power from space. in Seed
(magazine)
 The World Needs Energy from Space Space-based
solar technology is the key to the world's energy and
environmental future, writes Peter E. Glaser, a
pioneer of the technology.
 Reinventing the Solar Power Satellite" , NASA 2004-
212743, report by Geoffrey A. Landis of NASA
Glenn Research Center
 Japan's plans for a solar power station in space  - the
Japanese government hopes to assemble a space-
based solar array by 2040.
 Space Energy, Inc. - Space Energy, Inc.
 Whatever happened to solar power satellites?  An
article that covers the hurdles in the way of
deploying a solar power satellite.
 Solar Power Satellite from Lunar and Asteroidal
Materials Provides an overview of the technological
and political developments needed to construct and
utilize a multi-gigawatt power satellite. Also provides
some perspective on the cost savings achieved by
using extraterrestrial materials in the construction of
the satellite.
 A renaissance for space solar power? by Jeff Foust,
Monday, August 13, 2007 Reports on renewed
institutional interest in SSP, and a lack of such
interest in past decades.
 "Conceptual Study of A Solar Power Satellite, SPS
2000" Makoto Nagatomo, Susumu Sasaki and
Yoshihiro Naruo
 Researchers Beam 'Space' Solar Power in
Hawaii (Wired Science)
 http://www.nss.org/settlement/ssp/library/index.htm 
— The National Space Society's Space Solar Power
Library
 The future of Energy is on demand? Special Session
at the 2010 Festival delle Città Impresa featuring
John Mankins (Artemis Innovation Management
Solutions LLC, USA), Nobuyuki Kaya (Kobe
University, Japan), Sergio Garribba (Ministry of
Economic Development, Italy), Lorenzo Fiori
(Finmeccanica Group, Italy), Andrea Massa
(University of Trento, Italy) and Vincenzo Gervasio
(Consiglio Nazionale dell'Economia ed del Lavoro,
Italy). White Paper- History of SPS
Developpements International Union of Radio
Science 2007
 International SunSat design competition
 A simulation of AM reception from an aerial
powering two inductive loads and recharging a
battery.

Videos[edit]
 Solar power from space 5-minute video about
space-based solar power plants by the European
Space Agency
 Powering the Planet 20-minute streaming video from
The Futures Channel that provides a "101" on
space-based solar power
 Space Solar Power NewSpace 2010 Panel, 72
minutes
 Space Solar Power and Space Energy
Systems SSI – Space Manufacturing 14 Panel –
2010 – 27 min
 NASA DVD in 16 Parts Exploring New Frontiers for
Tomorrow's Energy Needs
 Space Solar Power Press Conference September
12, 2008 (71 minutes)[clarification needed][who?] National Space
Society
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